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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Islamophobia_in_the_United_States] | [TOKENS: 9341] |
Contents Islamophobia in the United States American Muslims often face Islamophobia and racialization due to stereotypes and generalizations ascribed to them. Due to this, Islamophobia is both a product of and a contributor to the United States' racial ideology, which is founded on socially constructed categories of profiled features, or how people seem. Advocacy groups like the Center for American Progress explain that this social phenomenon is not new; rather, it has increased its presence in American social and political discourse over the last ten to fifteen years. They cite the fact that several organizations donate large amounts of money to create the "Islamophobia megaphone". CAP defines the megaphone analogy as "a tight network of anti-Muslim, anti-Islam foundations, misinformation experts, validators, grass root organizations, religious rights groups and their allies in the media and in politics" who work together to misrepresent Islam and Muslims in the United States. As a result of this network, Islam is now one of the most stigmatized religions, with only 42 percent of Americans having a favorable opinion of Islam, according to a 2021 Associated Press/Norc Center for Public Affairs Research poll. Similarly, Muslims are one of the most negatively viewed religious groups in the United States, with atheists being the only other group seen in a comparable negative light. This biased perception of Islam and Muslims manifests itself into the discrimination of racially perceived Muslims in the law and media, and is conceptually reinforced by the Islamophobia network. A report by the University of California Berkeley and the Council on AmericanโIslamic Relations estimated that $206 million was funded to 33 groups whose primary purpose was "to promote prejudice against, or hatred of, Islam and Muslims" in the United States between 2008 and 2013, with a total of 74 groups contributing to Islamophobia in the United States during that period. This has been referred to as the "Islamophobia industry" by scholars Nathan Lean and John Esposito. NBC News reported that "the Council on AmericanโIslamic Relations (CAIR) said that reports of Islamophobia incidents from October 7 to October 24, 2023, a 182% jump from any given 16-day stretch last year." On November 9, CAIR reported that it had received 1,283 complaints in the months time between October 7 and November 7. On February 16, CAIR reported that it had received 3,578 hate crime complaints in the last three months of 2023. On November 1, 2023, the Biden Administration said it was trying to combat the increase in Islamophobia. In March 2024, the U.S. president condemned "the ugly resurgence of Islamophobia in the wake of the devastating war in Gaza". A 2025 CAIR report says the 8,658 complaints about anti-Islam and anti-Arab incidents in 2024 โ representing a 7.4 percent year-over-year increase โ was the highest number since the group began collecting data in 1996. At places of worship There were 221 publicly reported hate incidents targeting mosques during the April 2013-June 2017 period, according to a ProPublica review. ProPublica notes, "Most of the incidents are threats to worshipper's lives or acts of vandalism." A Council on American-Islamic Relations staffer who collected the data that ProPublica verified noted that the organization saw spike both "during election years and after news coverage of major terrorist attacks." It is not known with certainty if the spikes were related to a greater number of incidents, or that more people were taking the time to report the incidents. One high-profile example features the Islamic Center of Murfreesboro, which faced a years long campaign opposing its construction and expansion. While a local Muslim community maintained space in an office park to pray since 1997, when plans for a 52,000-sq. ft. facility became public there was immediate backlash. Subsequently, the site was "vandalized multiple times" including an arson attack and a bomb threat. An attempt to stop the mosque from opening ended in 2014 when the U.S. Supreme Court declined to hear the case. Lawyers had asserted in the case that Islam is not a religion and thus not protected by the First Amendment. The new building opened in 2012. A second high-profile example was Park 51, originally known as Cordoba House and branded by opponents as the Ground Zero Mosque. Park 51 was a proposed Islamic prayer space in lower Manhattan, two blocks from the site of the World Trade Center. It became a national controversy during the 2010 mid-term election, with some public figures defending the project as religious freedom and other insisting its proximity to the site of the 9/11 World Trade Center attack was a provocation. At the time, the New York Times reported, "Polling shows that a majority of Americans oppose building it near ground zero." Academic analysis has argued that media coverage of the Park 51 controversy relied heavily on imbalanced sourcing and the repeated use of "terrorism" and "Sharia," which reinforced Islamophobic narratives and undermined the inclusivity of American religious pluralism. Religious freedom According to 2020 AP/NORC Poll, slightly more than half of Americans (52%) believed that the religious freedoms of Muslims are being threatened. However, one-third of respondents perceived the claims of religious freedoms by Muslims to be a threat to others, higher than the other religions in the survey. The government has disproportionately engaged in surveillance and infiltration of Muslim religious spaces and programs. These issues have led some Muslims to distrust those around them and their motives. A notable example of governmental surveillance include the Mosque crawlers, where informants dispatched by the New York Police Department monitored and spied on Muslims. The program lasted from 2001 to 2011, until it was exposed by the media. Recent surveys have shown that significant amounts of respondents are comfortable with some restrictions on Islamic practices like the governmental surveillance of Muslims. Americans Muslims face disproportionate issues in regards to their religious activities and liberties. Muslim Americans' religious liberties have been increasingly excluded and even ignored in discussions surrounding religious freedoms. Once considered a fringe belief, numerous anti-Muslim entities that advocate for the denial of religious freedoms for Muslims have witnessed growing public and political influence, especially among the political right and conservative Christians. Claiming that Islam is not a religion but a dangerous political ideology, these figures than contend that Islam does not qualify to be protected. These arguments and other ones like it have been used to justify anti-Muslim rhetoric among politicians or commentators and efforts by local communities to block the construction or expansion of Muslim religious spaces. According to religious scholar Asma Uddin, the mentality of disqualifying Islam as a religion can be used to justify anti-Muslim violence and prejudice. In the political sphere, religious lawmakers (typically Republicans) that advocate for religious freedoms frequently omit the religious liberties of American Muslims and some even call for restrictions or discriminatory practices towards Muslim religious activities. The first Trump administration included many anti-Muslim politicians, activists, and religious figures that held the view that Islam is a dangerous political ideology that doesn't deserve religious liberty protections. Writing for Religion News Service, children's author Hena Khan wrote that books written by Muslim writers or books containing Muslim stories are targets for recent book bans and censorship throughout the country. Such a title, "Under My Hijab" written by Khan was banned in school or public libraries in a few Republican states under laws barring the teaching of or promotion of topics surrounding diversity or equity. Khan also wrote that such censorship harms not just Muslim children but all children, along with stifling discussions around race and identity. In employment A 2013 Carnegie Mellon University study found that, nationally, Muslims had "13% fewer callbacks" than Christians after submitting identical job applications to the same establishments. The study also concluded that discrepancies between callbacks for Muslims and Christians were larger "in counties with a high fraction of Republican voters," with Christians getting almost four times as many return calls in these constituencies. On the other hand, there was no discernible hiring discrimination against Muslims in Democratic counties. Biases were larger on the state level, with Christians getting more than seven times as many callbacks than Muslims in Republican states. Democratic states, once again, showed "no significant callback biases." The study added that "employers in older counties are significantly less likely to call back the Muslim candidate compared to the Christian candidate" Protection against religious discrimination in the workplace is found in the context of the Civil Rights Act of 1964. Employees claim religious discrimination when it involves any of the following: disparate treatment, religious harassment, failure to reasonably accommodate religious beliefs, and retaliation against an applicant or employee who alleges religious discrimination. Disparate treatment can be defined as someone receiving different treatment regarding recruitment, hiring, promotion, discipline, compensation because of their religion. Religious harassment involves employees who are forced to participate in or abstain from religious practices if they want to stay employed. Accommodation claims involve the employer's failure to reasonably accommodate any change to the work environment that would enable the employee to remain compliant with their religion. Retaliation happens when an employer resorts to punitive action against an employee for seeking out religious accommodations, threatening or filing a claim, assisting in someone else filing for discrimination, or testifying in discrimination proceedings. After the terrorist attacks that occurred on September 11, 2001, the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission or EEOC reported that religion-based discrimination against Muslims had increased by nearly 250%. Moreover, the number of discrimination claims made by Muslims over a four-year period, from 2001 to 2005, nearly doubled when compared with another 4-year period. In regards to religious harassment, studies show that, in general, these types of suits are increasing. In the case of Zayed v. Apple Computers, an Arab Muslim woman sued Apple Inc. on the grounds of harassment, retaliation, defamation, and infliction of emotional distress based on religion, national origin, and gender. Zayed had been employed as an at-will engineer since 1994, and stated that she had experienced dramatic changes in her work environment after the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001. Zayed claimed that fellow employees began inquiring as to whether or not her religion encouraged Muslims to engage in suicide bombings. Additionally, she stated that these same employees gave her malicious expressions, slammed her door, and expressed visible discontent and anger with Zayed after she expressed her disapproval with the war in Iraq. Moreover, she also felt isolated when Apple put up red, white and blue ribbons on many employees' doors, but not on hers. Soon after Zayed claimed that she felt marginalized and believed that she was wrongfully excluded from projects and career opportunities that were mostly given to white, non-Arab, colleagues. Finally in 2004, Zayed chose to go on disability leave, stating that it was partly due to the stress she had been experiencing in response to the harsh treatment from her supervisors and coworkers. But while on sick leave, Apple terminated Zayed. After her termination, Zayed decided to sue. A former Muslim chaplain faced many years of anti-Muslim harassment because she was a Muslim and wore a hijab. When she worked at the New York state prison, her supervisor wanted her to leave her job. The supervisor told the former chaplain that it's hard to respect women who cover their hair. She was hired as a part-time Muslim chaplain at the Albion Correctional Facility in 2013 and resigned last year due to workplace conditions. While she was working there, she was denied a change to her work schedule that would've allowed her to attend the Jumah prayers by coming to work early. She was also refused to remove her shoes before entering the Muslim prayer area and denied access to prayer rugs. While the former chaplain was being faced with harassment, she went to counselling services and was placed on anti-depressant medication to help her cope with stress. In the case Al-Aqrabawi v. Pierce County, a Muslim man from Jordan had been educated as a physician abroad, but was only hired as a nursing assistant at a county mental health facility, to which the county originally stated that it was due to licensing issues. In addition to this, the plaintiff also experienced discriminatory comments by an LPN alluding to their suspicion that the plaintiff was a terrorist. The plaintiff also claimed that a coworker said that "we have to send in our Phantoms and bomb their Mecca". These comments, in conjunction with discriminatory licensing practices, led to the plaintiff suing on behalf of claims of failure to promote, discrimination, and hostile environment. In regards to religious accommodation, a Muslim woman named Halla Banafa filed a discrimination claim after she didn't receive a job stocking merchandise at an Abercrombie Kids store in Milpitas, California because she wore the hijab. According to EEOC, the manager decided against hiring the woman because she didn't fit the Abercrombie look, which would violate the company's "Look Policy". This policy functions as an internal dress code that explicitly prohibits head coverings. However, this is not the first time that Abercrombie has run into issues with their strict "Look Policy". In 2005, the company paid $40 million in a class- action suit involving African Americans, Asian Americans, Latinos and women because Abercrombie "refused to recruit, hire, promote, and retain minorities because they didn't fit Abercrombie's 'All- American look'". In 2017, the government of New York City charged Pax Assist with discrimination after refusing requests by Muslims employees to change the times of their breaks to coincide with iftar. The company responded by saying "we don't care about Ramadan. We'll give you a break on our time, not your time." In the case Ibraheem v. Wackenhut Services, the black male Muslim claimed religious retaliation when he was fired after submitting an EEOC charge of discrimination and filing for a lawsuit involving claims about hostile work environments and religious discrimination. Muslim women The existing discourse that positions Islam and Western values against each other also underpins how the Americans perceive Muslim women in society. Scholars assert that media, Islamophobic organizations, and politicians have played a tremendous role in depicting Muslim women as consistently endangered and subjugated by the alleged patriarchal nature of Islam. In support of this presumption, many scholars conclude that women's status in Islam has a complex history, one that implies instances of male privilege and the relegation of women to a second class citizenry. Although the First Amendment of the United States Constitution guarantees freedom of religion, the modern social and political climate surrounding the use of the hijab has caused "various restrictions on hijab, the headscarf worn by Muslim women" according to a study by Aliah Abdo. Instances of restrictions on Muslim women wearing the hijab extends to jobs, schools, social or public places, and at courts. One of these issues includes the rising controversy and questioning of the meaning behind veiling. First and foremost, those who adhere to a feminist interpretation of the Qu'ran say that the conception of veiling is not monolithic in nature. Rather, what constitutes veiling varies across regions. Some choose to wear a Niqab which refers to various materials that are used to cover a woman's face. Others choose to wear long conservative skirts and dresses that cover most skin. The hijab, which is usually worn around a woman's head, is also prevalent among various regions. Furthermore, just as the definition of what constitutes veiling varies, so do the attitudes of those who choose to veil. A 2020 survey conducted by the Othering & Belonging Institute at UC Berkeley revealed that Muslim women were more likely to encounter Islamophobia, with nearly 77% of Muslim women reporting experiencing Islamophobia. The majority of the respondents (almost 75%) also believed that Muslim women were at higher risk of facing Islamophobia. As the Pew Research Center reported in 2011, the number of Muslims in America is about 1 million, and "43% of them wear headscarves all the time, about 48% โ or half a million women โ don't cover their hair". In health Although empirical research on Muslim women's health in the United States is limited, sample studies provide insight into the experiences and health behaviours of American Muslim women. Recent studies on depression and experiences of stigma measured through heightened vigilance, risk for non-communicable diseases (e.g. cardiovascular disease, diabetes, etc.), and contraception utilization provide a scientific foundation for future research studies with Muslim women. Islamophobia is a significant issue in the United States with significant impacts on the public health of Muslims. According to a 2016 study, anti-Muslim rhetoric in the media and politics contributes to the marginalization and stigmatization of Muslim communities, which in turn can lead to negative health outcomes such as depression, anxiety, and reduced access to healthcare services. To address these issues, the author of the study recommended a multi-faceted approach that includes raising awareness, challenging stereotypes, and promoting cultural sensitivity among healthcare professionals. According to a 2021 study published by JAMA Psychiatry, nearly 8% of American Muslims surveyed reported a suicide attempt in their lifetimes. Suicide attempts reported among American Muslims was higher than among other religious groups surveyed in the study. Researchers have attributed the relatively high suicide attempts among American Muslims to discrimination, Islamophobia, and stigma surrounding mental health in American Muslim communities. Social and religious discrimination in particular was associated with depression, anxiety, and paranoia. Despite growing research into mental health among the American Muslim community, little research has been conducted to fully explore the links between Islamophobia and suicide. A 2020 survey conducted by the Othering & Belonging Institute at UC Berkeley showed that almost all Muslim respondents (nearly 94%) said that Islamophobia affects their mental and emotional well-being. In travel & immigration Since the terrorist attacks that occurred on 9/11, American airports have considered it their duty to act as the "front line of defense". Polls conducted in the United States also show that more than half of Americans support the policy of more extensive security checks for Arab and Muslim Americans in airports. At the San Francisco International airport, a 12-year-old U.S. Squash Team player was forced to remove her hijab while boarding the plane. The San Francisco Bay Area office said that the federal and state laws were violated when an Air Canada gate agent forced Fatima Abdelrahman to remove her hijab. Abdelrahman was refused when she requested a private area and the presence of a female agent, so she can remove her hijab. Some publishers have noted the presence of Islamophobia during immigration proceedings. Nonetheless, such forms of xenophobia have been said to primarily affect the male members of the Muslim population. There have also been claims stating that such forms of xenophobia have enveloped the Arab community in the U.S., often resulting in deportations, revocations of visa, and dispiriting interrogations at American airports. This purportedly occurs because Muslim women are seen as less of a threat than Muslim men. In 2020, it was reported that Muslim detainees at a federal immigration facility in Miami, Florida were repeatedly served pork or pork-based products against their religious beliefs, according to claims made by civil rights lawyers and immigrant advocates. The Muslim detainees at the Krome detention facility in Miami were forced to eat pork because halal meals that ICE served had been consistently rotten and expired. The Chaplain at Krome allegedly dismissed pleas from Muslim detainees for help, saying, "It is what it is." Civil rights groups said many had suffered illness, like stomach pains, vomiting, and diarrhea, as a result. Previously in 2019, a Pakistani-born man with a valid US work permit was reportedly given nothing but pork sandwiches for six consecutive days. In politics After the September 11 attacks, President George W. Bush's administration passed sweeping, unprecedented legislation in response to the American public's demand for action. After three days, Congress passed the law called the Authorization for the Use of Military Force, giving President Bush the power to use the military in any way that seemed "appropriate or necessary towards unspecified states and non-state actors." Six weeks after 9/11, the PATRIOT ACT was passed, greatly expanding several government agencies' abilities to acquire information via searches, electronic surveillance, and wiretapping. This same act also introduced searches that did not require the government to notify the private owner of a residence that they had been searched for up to 90 days. Some scholars argue that the passage of laws like the Patriot Act was the government's way of capitalizing on a fearful American public by legalizing racially targeted policies. A poll conducted shortly after the 9/11 terrorist attacks, echoes this line of argument when it found that about one-third of Americans thought it was acceptable to detain Arab Americans in camps reminiscent of the internment of Japanese Americans during World War II. A 2004 poll by Pew Research Center found that almost half of Americans were willing to exchange certain civil liberties for the cause of national security. The enforcement of the Patriot Act had far-reaching repercussions. It was widely believed to target Muslims, Middle Eastern and Arab-looking men. According to the ACLU, the New York City Police Department has been spying on Muslim-American communities since 2002. In this same report, the ACLU asserts that the NYPD has singled out Islamic associations, mosques, and businesses while not subjecting non-Islamic groups to this type of surveillance or scrutiny. Enabled by the Patriot Act, the NYPD essentially mapped out the communities, introduced spies into the community to identify or collect evidence, and tracked individuals who Americanized their names. The legalization of dismantlement of civil liberties for a group deemed inherently suspect has caused a cultural rift in the United States. As a supplement to the Patriot Act, the U.S. government instituted immigration policies such as the National Security Entry-Exit Registration System in 2002. This policy targeted immigrants from 26 countries (25 of which are known as Muslim countries) and had them fingerprinted and registered upon entering the country. People in the Justice Department who support this policy explain that it is based on intelligence data already collected to monitor terrorist organizations. Even though the Justice Department claimed that the system is highly sensitive in its targets, it also stated that the system will track "all nationals of Iran, Iraq, Libya, Sudan, and Syria," even though none of the terrorists involved in the 9/11 attacks were from these countries. In spite of the money dedicated to the new homeland security paradigm after 9/11, some have argued that these stricter immigration policies and expanded executive powers have not helped apprehend terrorists. Of over 83,000 men who were registered, only about 13,000 of them were deemed dangerous enough to enter deportation proceedings, and President Bush's Immigration and Naturalization Service commissioner James Ziglar stated that no one in the registry was ever charged and convicted of crimes associated with terrorism. The U.S. government also devoted resources to create the Transportation Security Administration (TSA) in 2001. Airport screening, once performed by private security firms chosen by the airlines, was now assigned to TSA. The TSA was empowered to conduct random canine-assisted searches, implement more checkpoints, and place air marshals on thousands of international flights. The TSA holds the No-Fly List and the Automatic Selectee list, two controversial terrorism watch lists. The No-Fly List contains names of individuals who have been labelled as a threat to aviation across the United States. Listed individuals are not allowed on commercial flights that will fly over or are destined to land in the United States or are managed by a U.S. airline. Although the No-Fly List and the Automatic Selectee List predate the 9/11 attacks, they were little used; there were only 16 names on the No-Fly list before 9/11. The combined total of names on both lists rose to more than 20,000 by the end of 2004, and 44,000 on the No-Fly List alone in 2006. Scholars argue that these lists target millions of innocent people with characteristics that appear Middle Eastern, like ethnicity, skin colour, language and clothing. These government policies institutionalize racism against Muslims, especially those who are foreign-born. The foreign-born Muslims seeking air travel to the United States are depicted as potentially violent and religiously extremist. U.S. citizen Muslims who fit the American caricature of a Muslim are also affected by these policies. A 2010 USA Today/Gallup poll revealed the prevalence of similar public sentiment, showing that about 60 percent of the American public favoured ethnic profiling of Arabs regardless of U.S. citizenship. The administration of Donald Trump is often considered to be the most or first openly Islamophobic administration in recent American political history by several scholars. During Donald Trump's candidacy, he and his campaign made numerous Islamophobic remarks which continued during his presidency along with passing or suggesting policies negatively affecting Muslims. This included calling for "a total and complete shutdown of Muslims entering the United States" and supporting the idea of closing down mosques. During his campaign and into his presidency, Trump expressed interest in creating a national database of all American Muslims and creating a surveillance program aimed at spying on Muslims. In a 2016 interview, Trump stated that "Islam hates us" and has repeatedly stated that there is a "Muslim problem" in the United States and around the world. The Trump administration also contained multiple figures that made and spread anti-Muslim remarks, notably Steve Bannon, Michael Flynn, Sebastion Gorka and many others. These figures have claimed that Islam is a dangerous ideology, that fear of Muslims is rational or that Islam and the Quran promotes terrorism, among other claims. The travel ban enacted by the Trump administration that limited refugees from entering the United States from several counties with significant or majority Muslim populations was seen as being rooted in Islamophobia by several researchers. The ban also favoured non-Muslim refugees over Muslim ones. Although the reason for the ban was claimed for national security reasons, the impact of the ban negatively affected regular Muslims who were citizens, teachers, foreign students, nationals and others who had connections abroad in the affected nations. The ban also exacerbated the demonization of Muslims and surveillance of the community by law enforcement. In November 2017, Trump shared anti-Muslim posts from the far-right group Britain First via Twitter. Despite facing backlash, a spokesperson for the Trump administration defended the retweet. Trump has also attacked Muslim politicians like Ilhan Omar, telling her to "go back to her country" and posting tweets insinuating that she is an extremist. Trump has also praised anti-Muslim figures and politicians from around the world and once claimed that Muslim migrants were raising the crime level in Europe and that they have "strongly and violently changed" the cultures of European countries. A 2018 analysis found that Islamophobic propaganda in the United States and Europe have become focal in far-right groups and that Trump helped mainstream anti-Muslim views within some sectors of the United States by amplifying said propaganda. During the 2016 presidential election, a rise of anti-Muslim sentiment and the propagation of right-wing fake news articles demonizing Muslims and Islam was prominent. Since 2016 and particularly during the 2018 midterm elections, anti-Muslim sentiment was common as Muslim candidates ran for office throughout the country. Anti-Muslim rhetoric was almost exclusively produced by Republican candidates and campaigns. According to a 2020 study, bots and a few influential pundits amplified Islamophobic rhetoric during the 2018 elections. While surveyed Muslim candidates reported facing little Islamophobia when face to face with constituents, most did report high levels of Islamophobia during their campaigns. The study concluded that online narratives surrounding Muslim candidates was disproportionately Islamophobic due to the exaggerated influence of a few anti-Muslim accounts on the online attitudes of some netizens. While Islamophobia is commonplace in American politics and exists throughout the political spectrum, it is most commonly exhibited by right-wing political figures, which include conservatives and Republicans. Prejudice towards Islam and Muslims have increasingly become more partisan, with Republicans holding far more negative views towards Muslims and Islam than Democrats. In recent surveys, a majority of Republicans have associated Islam with violence, with majorities (72%) claiming Islam encourages violence more than other religions. Similarly, a 2017 Pew Research Centre report showed that 68% of Republicans said Islam was not part of mainstream American society while 65% said Islam and democracy aren't compatible. Additionally, 56% of Republicans also said there is a great or fair deal amount of extremism among American Muslims. Many Republicans downplay or deny the existence of discrimination against Muslim Americans. In a 2015 ABC News/Washington Post poll, more than one-third of Republicans believed that Muslims face no discrimination while a third that did believe Muslims face discrimination stated that the discrimination is justified. A BuzzFeed News analysis found that since 2015, local and state Republican officials in virtually every state have engaged in anti-Muslim rhetoric, attacking Islam, or proposing laws targeting or disproportionately affecting Muslims. The mainstreaming of Islamophobia among Republicans is at least partially due to growing anti-Muslim rhetoric and beliefs becoming more readily expressed and at times even supported by influential Republican politicians. As a consequence, hostility towards Muslims and Islam from some Republicans have gotten little to no pushback from fellow conservatives. In regards to public opinion on the travel ban enacted by the Trump administration that limited refugees from several Muslim-majority countries from entering the US, a 2015 poll showed that most Republicans supported the ban while the majority of the public did not. A 2018 survey by the New America Foundation and the American Muslim Institute found that 56 percent of Americans believe Islam is compatible with American values and 42 percent said it is not, while 71 percent of Republicans say Islam is incompatible with American values. In the media In the immediate months following the terrorist attacks on September 11, 2001, an expected surge of media attention was devoted to American Muslims and Arabs. Frequent news stories and discussions involved the issue of civil liberties that American Muslims were facing due to the increase in reports involving physical violence and assaults on Arabs and Muslims. Despite the notable prejudice towards Arabs and Muslims after the terrorist attack, outlets like the New York Times printed opinion pieces discouraging the indiscriminate attribution of blame to one or more groups by the way of curtailing civil liberties and social freedoms. Other researchers like Brigitte Nacos and Oscar Torres-Reyna coded media dispositions on Islam and Muslims before and after 9/11. Their studies concluded that before 9/11, about 25 percent of the pertinent articles taken from four different newspapers connoted positive sentiment towards Muslims. Likewise, approximately 40 percent of the articles taken from the same newspapers expressed empathetic attitudes towards Muslims and Arabs alike. These same researchers argue that 9/11 terrorist attacks changed the way news media outlets (print or television) reported on Muslim Americans and Arabs. They cite that because news media outlets selected Muslims and Arabs for interviews and discussions instead of their traditional authoritative sources, these minority groups became more visible to the American public. This increased visibility, in conjunction with news items reporting public figures advocacy for increased understanding between Muslims and non-Muslims, echoed the heterogeneous nature of the religion. Additionally, these pleas and visibility helped dispel the idea that Islam was a violent and hateful religion, temporarily debunking the myth that terrorism is intertwined with the Islamic faith. In totality, several opinion surveys reflected the impact of the shift in media coverage towards Muslim Americans and Arabs. The surveys showed that the American public viewed American Muslims more favourably than they did prior to the 9/11 attacks. As time passed the immediate months post-9/11, the news media outlets reflected a notable shift away from positive, supportive, and empathetic sentiments towards Muslim Americans and Arabs. The next six months and the years after the attacks showed that, in addition to Westernized media, American media outlets became increasingly critical of Muslim Americans. Some attribute this notable shift to the silencing of voices that once advocated for Muslim Americans as peaceful individuals. According to Media Tenor International, between 2007 and 2013, media outlets like NBC, Fox News, and CBS characterized Islam and the Muslim identity as one linked with violence and extremism. Other studies conducted by LexisNexis Academic and CNN found that media outlets devoted more coverage to terrorist attacks involving Muslims, especially Muslims who were not born in the United States. Author and researcher Nahid Afrose Kabir examined similar reporting on violent events. One event he studied was the Fort Hood shooting that occurred on November 5, 2009. Major Nidal Malik Hasan, who was identified as American born but held a Muslim background, shot and killed thirteen soldiers and wounded thirty more. Some of the interviewees commented on how the news reporting of this event emphasized Hasan's Muslim background. The same interviewees in this study compared the Virginia Tech shooting with the Fort Hood shooting in which a non-Muslim individual, Seung-Hui Cho, killed thirty-two people, but following news reports did not make a point to emphasize his religious or cultural ties. Similarly, in various print media outlets, headlines alluded to the idea that the Fort Hood Shooting had ties to terrorist acts or other terrorist organizations. Another incident that occurred in Times Square on May 2, 2010, provoked more anti-Muslim sentiment. Faisal Shahzad made a bombing attempt that failed. The Times subsequent reporting indicated that Pakistan's Tehrik-i-Taliban took credit for the failed attempt. In the same report over the incident, Kabir noted that the Times report used this incident to further legitimize the wars in the Middle East, emphasizing the need to take out potential terrorists. Kabir echoed Reem Bakker's sentiments, an interviewee in Kabir's study, that the failed attempt further ostracized the Muslim community. In other areas In a 2018 study conducted by the Institute for Social Policy and Understanding, the report found that Muslim or Muslim-perceived defendants were given longer and harsher sentences compared to non-Muslim defendants for comparable crimes. In October 2019, a 16 year old Muslim girl athlete from Ohio was disqualified from a cross country race because she was wearing a hijab. Since 2016, Noor Alexandria Abukaram has played three high school sports while wearing a hijab. However, she was told that she needed special permission to run in the race with a head covering. Most gyms, fitness clubs, and other workout facilities in the United States are mixed-sex, so the performance of exercises without a hijab or a burqa can be difficult for some religiously observant Muslim girls and women. Maria Omar, director of media relations for the Islamic Food and Nutrition Council of America (IFANCA), has advised Muslim women to entirely avoid these complexes. Some girls and women decide to wear something which is colloquially known as the "sports hijab". Similarly, religiously observant Muslim girls and women may feel uncomfortable around girls and women who wear traditionally revealing American outfits, especially during the summer "bikini season". An outfit which is colloquially known as the burqini allows Muslim women to swim without displaying any significant amount of skin. Hate crimes By 2014, Islamophobic hate crimes remained five times higher than before the 9/11 attacks. In 2015, this spiked to levels not seen since 2001. There is evidence which proves that the 2015 spike was linked to the then candidate and later President Donald Trump, "researchers found strong statistical correlations between the number of Islam-related tweets made by Trump in a single week and the number of anti-Muslim hate crimes that took place in the days and weeks that followed." Generally, a hate crime involves two elements that distinguish it from other illegal acts. Namely, the crime must be a criminal offense that is backed by a biased motivation. This biased motivation is usually revealed when an individual commits an attack against another individual because of some immutable personal characteristicโsuch as โthat is protected by law. Hate crimes vary from assault, murder, damage to property, work place discrimination and housing discrimination. Hates crimes often go unreported, resulting in government reports that underrepresent the extent of the problem. The 2015 Chapel Hill shooting is an example of a high-profile Islamophobic hate crime. Craig Stephen Hicks murdered three Muslim college students in North Carolina. Hicks pleaded guilty to shooting Deah Barakat, as well as sisters Yusor Mohammad Abu-Salha and Razan Mohammad Abu-Salha. He also confessed to shooting both of the women in the head after they were initially wounded. Hicks was sentenced to three consecutive life terms without parole. Chapel Hill Police chief Chris Blue, after initially calling the murders a "parking dispute" later acknowledged, "The man who committed these murders undoubtedly did so with a hateful heart, and the murders represented the taking of three promising lives by someone who clearly chose not to see the humanity and the goodness in them." The Chapel Hill case also illustrates the difficulty in hate crimes data. At the time "...under North Carolina law, hate crime statutes only apply to misdemeanour charges, making it inapplicable to Hicks's felony case." The Islamic Center of Murfreesboro in Tennessee was reportedly shot at and construction equipment was also set on fire while lawsuits which challenged Islam's status as a religion were being filed. Islamophobic hate crimes impact people who are perceived as Muslim by attackers. For example, on September 15, 2001, the first victim of a 9/11 backlash murder was Balbir Singh Sodhi, an adherent of the Sikh faith. As the FBI reports, "Hate crimes against Muslims rose 1617% from 2000 to 2001". Also, the Pew Research Center reports that despite the passage of time and despite the growing size of the Muslim population of the United States, "discrimination against this community has not waned". The congressional testimony which was delivered by the Southern Poverty Law Centre in 2011 illustrated that "Mosques were burned or destroyed and death threats and harassment followed many Muslims in the weeks following the attacks". In the first half of 2024, anti-Muslim incidents rose about 70% amid the Gaza attack. According to Hatem Bazian, a lecturer at the University of California, Berkeley, and leader of the college's Islamophobia Research and Documentation Project, the result of asking questions related to the insecurity of Muslims was that "almost 80% said they feel at least somewhat worried about the safety of their family in the U.S." In February 2008, the Islamic Center of Columbia was firebombed with Molotov cocktails by adherents of the right-wing extremist Christian Identity religion. The Quba Islamic Institute in Houston, Texas, was set alight at 5am on February 13, 2015. Some media reports described it as an Islamophobic attack. In September 2016, a man set a mosque on fire in Ft. Pierce, Florida out of fear of "another Manhattan World Trade Centre attack or Boston Bombing." In January 2017, Burglary and attempted arson were committed at a restaurant. Racist and derogatory comments, including the word "terrorist," were written on the walls of the restaurant and directed at the restaurant's owners, who are Sikhs. Police called the incident a hate crime. In March 2019, A man set fire to a mosque in Escondido, causing minor damage to the building. Police discovered graffiti on the mosque's driveway which referenced the Christchurch mosque shootings shooter, leading them to consider the fire a terrorist attack. Zohreh Assemi, an Iranian American Muslim owner of a nail salon in Locust Valley, New York, was robbed, beaten, and called a "terrorist" in September 2007 in what authorities call a bias crime. Assemi was kicked, sliced with a boxcutter, and one of her hands was smashed with a hammer. The perpetrators, who forcibly removed $2,000 from the salon and scrawled anti-Muslim slurs on the mirrors, also told Assemi to "get out of town" and they also stated that her kind was not "welcome" in the area. The attack followed two weeks of phone calls in which she was called a "terrorist" and told to "get out of town," according to statements which were made by her friends and family members. A Muslim school in the Northeastern U.S. state of Rhode Island was vandalised with graffiti which read "Now this is a Hate crime", indicating that the perpetrators were aware of the graffiti's hateful nature. The incident was described by some media outlets as "Islamophobic". Individuals and organizations In 2011, the Center for American Progress published a report titled Fear, Inc.: The Roots of the Islamophobic Network in America, which asserted that an elite, wealthy group of conservative foundations and donors were the engine behind the continuation of Islamophobia in law, private spheres, and general public sentiment. In this same report, they analysed seven specific organizations that contributed almost $42.6 million in funding towards various organizations and think tanks that promoted Islamophobia. Much of this money goes to what the report called "misinformation experts": people who spread the message that Islam is an inherently sinister and hostile religion that seeks to convert or destroy all non-Muslims, especially those residing in the United States. CAIR and the Center for American Progress list ACT for America as an anti-Islam hate group run by Brigitte Gabriel. According to ACT's website, the organization views itself as the gatekeeper of national security for American borders, with over 750,000 members and 12,000 volunteer activists. They state that their activities are geared towards educating citizens and elected officials to impact public policy and guard America against terrorism. Additionally, CAIR asserts that ACT has ties with white national supremacy groups such as Vanguard America and Identity Europa. CAIR also lists the "Center for the Study of Political Islam"(CSPI) as Islamophobic, listing it as part of the "U.S.-based Islamophobia network's inner core". The CSPI is run by a former physics professor named Bill French. French now calls himself Bill Warner. In 2011 the Southern Poverty Law Center in 2011 described him as one of a core group of ten anti-Islam hardliners in the United States. Robert Spencer is listed as a misinformation expert. He contributes content to 'Jihad Watch', a blog which is heavily funded by the David Horowitz Freedom Center Initiative and the extremist Stop Islamization of America hate group. Smearcasting, an organization which is dedicated to accurate reporting, accused Spencer of demonizing Muslims by claiming that he only focuses on the violent verses and texts which are contained within the Islamic scriptures in order to deem them representative of the faith as a whole. Scholars and academicians like Dr. Carl Kenan and William Kenan at UNC-Chapel Hill have stated that Spencer's beliefs regarding Islam have no foundation in any reputable academic work nor do they have any foundation in the religion itself. The Center for American Progress's report also cites the importance of political players in contributing to the spread of Islamophobia. Congressman Peter King held congressional hearings titled "Extent of Radicalization in the American Muslim Community and that Community's Response". Despite the fact that most terrorist plots in the United States since 9/11 have been initiated by non-Muslims, King has been cited as stating that 80-85 percent of mosques in the United States are controlled by Islamic fundamentalists. King attributed this statistic to Steven Emerson, from the Investigative Project on Terrorism, also known for viewing Islam as an inherently violent religion that is hostile to non-Muslims. Other political players like Sue Myrick, a congresswoman from North Carolina, rely on the network of the experts who view Islam as inherently violent. Myrick wrote a foreword to a book titled Muslim Mafia: Inside the Secret Underworld That's Conspiring to Islamize America. David Gaubatz, the author of the book, served on David Yerushalmi's Society of Americans for National Existence, which advocated for a 20-year jail sentence for those who practiced Sharia law. The Center for American Progress asserts that Myrick relies on Gaubatz's book for information regarding the Islamic faith. In 2011, she chaired the House Intelligence Subcommittee on Terrorism, Human Intelligence, Analysis and Counterintelligence. Some commentators have criticized individual American New Atheists such as Sam Harris and Christopher Hitchens for making Islamophobic statements. Commenting on Greenwald's response to Harris, Jerome Taylor, writing in The Independent, has stated, "Like Chomsky, who has also been a vocal critic of New Atheism, he [Greenwald] blames writers like Harris for using their particularly anti-Islamic brand of rational non-belief to justify American foreign policies over the last decade." Two educators at universities in Utah have claimed that these American atheist activists invoke Samuel Huntington's 'clash of civilizations' theory to explain the current political contestation, and that this forms part of a trend toward "Islamophobia [...] in the study of Muslim societies".[verification needed] Commentary The study of Islamophobia involves historians, scholars and educators who are writing about institutional violence against American Muslims and the incitement of violence against foreign Muslims. In his book Orientalism, Edward Said stated that the West is taught about the East through a Westernized lens and he also stated that most of the East's history is written in Europe by European historians, instead of specialized scholars of Eastern history. When it is applied, Orientalism serves as a vehicle in which demeaning representations of the East are used in order to assert the cultural and political superiority of the West over the inferior culture of the Muslims. References Sources |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืจื_ืืืจืื] | [TOKENS: 2166] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืจื ืืืจืื ืืจื ืืืจืื ืืื ืฆืืจ ืชื ืืขื ืจืืฉื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืจืืืื ืืจืืืืืช ืืขืืจ, ืืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืจืื ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืื ืืืจืืืืืช. ืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืจ ืฆืืื, ืืืื ืืืฆื ืืฉื ืืจืืื ืขื ืืืฆืืื ืืืจืืืืช ืื ืืขืืจ ืืงืฆื ืฉืืื ืช ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืช ืืื, ืื ืืืฆื ืืจืืื ืืฉืื ืืขืืจ ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืชื ืฉื, ืืืืืื ืืืจืื. ืืจืืื ืกืืื ืขื ืชืืืื ืืืจื ืืขืชืืงื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืจื ืืฉืจ ืืฆืื ืืฉืขืจ ืืคื (ืืขืจืืืช "ืืื ืื-ื'ืืื" - ืฉืขืจ ืืืจืื) ืืจืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืขืจืืืื ืฉื ืืจ ืฆืืื, ืืฆืชื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืขืจืืืช, ืืืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืจืืื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืืจื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืืจืืื ืขืชืืงืืช ืืฉืจ ื ืกืืื ืืกืืฃ ืืืื ื-19 ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืขืจืื ืืืจืืช. ืืฉื "ืืจื ืืืจืื" ื ืืชื ืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืจืืช ืฉืืฆืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืื ืงืจืื ืขื ืฉื ืืืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืง ืืืืจื ืจืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืฉื: ืืจื ืฉืื, ืจืืื ืืคื, ืืจื ืขืื, ืืจื ืืืช ืืื ืืืจื ืืจืืื. ืืจื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ 60 ืฉืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืจื ืืจืฆื ืืืชืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืข ืืืกืชืืื ืื ืฆืจืช. ืชืืืื ืืืืืฉ ืขืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืจื ืืืจ ืืงืืืื, ืฉืืฆืชื ืืช ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืจืื ืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืืกืืก ืชืืืื ืงื ืคืจืฉืช ืืืื ืืืจืฆื. ืืืืืฉ ืืฉืืืืช ืืกืืจืกืืืืช ืจืื ืืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืขืืจืง ืชืืืืจื ืจืืฉื ืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืืืืฉ ืืฉืจ ืคืืชื ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืืืจืฅ, ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืจื ืืืืืจ ืงืืจ ืจืื, ืืืช ืืื, ืืืฉ ืขืฆืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืฆืืื ืฉื ืืืืืฉ ื ืื ื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืื ืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืงืขื, ืชืืคืืืช ืืืงืืจ ืืืื, ืืื ืชืื ืช ืืจืืืช ืืขืืง ืจืคืืื. ืืืืืืช ืืขืฆืืืืช (1948) ืืขื ืืืืืืช ืฉืฉืช ืืืืื (1967) ื ืืฆื ืืืืืฉ ืขื ืืื ืืงื ืืขืืจืื ื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืงื ืืฆืคืื-ืืืจืื (ืืกืืื ืืฉืขืจ ืืคื, ืืจืืืช ืืกืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืฉืื ื ืื) ืขืืจ ืืฉืื ืืืคืงืจ ืืืื ืกืืืจ ืืชื ืืขื. ืขื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืฉืืื, ืืืจ ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืช ืขืืจืง ืชื ืืขื ืจืืฉื ืืจืืื ืืืจืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืื ืชืืจ, ืืงืขื, ืชืืคืืืช, ืืืื, ืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืฉ ืขืฆืืื. ืืงืืข ืืฆืคืื-ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืจื, ืืื ืืจืืืช ืืกืืืืื ืืฉืขืจ ืืคื, ื ืืชื ืืฉื "ืจืืื ืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื", ืืขืื ืืชืจ ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืงืจื "ืืจื ืืืจืื". ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืจ-ืื ืืจืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืื, ืืื ืืืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉ 60 - ืขืืจืง ืชื ืืขื ืจืืฉื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืชืืืืช ืืขืฉืืจ ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืืื ื-21 ืืืจืื ืืืืืฉ ืื ืืกืฃ ืื ื ืชืื ืชืืืืจื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืฉืืขืชืื ืืืืจ ืืขืืืจ ืืืจืืื ืืงื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืช ืืงืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2022 ืืืื ืืขืืืืืช ืขื ืืงืืข ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืจื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืจืืื ืขืื ืืืืืืกื 2024. ืืชืจืื ืืืืจื ืืจืืื ืฉืืื ืืช: ืืืื ืืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืฉืื ื ืื, ืืื ืชืืจ, ืืืขืช ืื ื ืื, ืืงืขื, ืชืืคืืืช, ืืจื ืื ื, ืืจืืื ืื ืฆืื, ืจืืช ืจืื, ืืืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืขืช ืืืืืก. ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Affirmative_action_in_the_United_States] | [TOKENS: 14636] |
Contents Affirmative action in the United States In the United States, affirmative action consists of government-mandated, government-approved, and voluntary private programs granting special consideration to groups considered or classified as historically excluded, specifically racial minorities and women. These programs tend to focus on access to education and employment in order to redress the disadvantages associated with past and present discrimination. Another goal of affirmative action policies is to ensure that public institutions, such as universities, hospitals, and police forces, are more representative of the populations they serve. As of 2024, affirmative action rhetoric has been increasingly replaced by emphasis on diversity, equity, and inclusion and nine states explicitly ban its use in the employment process. The Supreme Court in 2023 explicitly rejected race-based affirmative action in college admissions in Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard. History In 1961, President John F. Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925 which required government contractors to take "affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin." Affirmative action then evolved into a complex system of group preferences which would face many legal challenges. Affirmative action included the use of racial quotas until the Supreme Court ruled that quotas were unconstitutional in 1978. Affirmative action currently tends to emphasize not specific quotas but rather "targeted goals" to address past discrimination in a particular institution or in broader society through "good-faith efforts ... to identify, select, and train potentially qualified minorities and women." For example, many higher education institutions have voluntarily adopted policies which seek to increase recruitment of racial minorities.[page needed] Outreach campaigns, targeted recruitment, employee and management development, and employee support programs are examples of affirmative action in employment. Nine states in the United States have banned race-based affirmative action: California (1996), Washington (1998, rescinded 2022), Florida (1999), Michigan (2006), Nebraska (2008), Arizona (2010), New Hampshire (2012), Oklahoma (2012), and Idaho (2020). Florida's ban was via an executive order and New Hampshire and Idaho's bans were passed by the legislature. The other six bans were approved at the ballot. The 1996 Hopwood v. Texas decision effectively barred affirmative action in the three states within the United States Court of Appeals for the Fifth CircuitโLouisiana, Mississippi, and Texasโuntil Grutter v. Bollinger abrogated it in 2003. Affirmative action policies were developed to address long histories of discrimination faced by minorities and women, which reports suggest produced corresponding unfair advantages for whites and males. They first emerged from debates over non-discrimination policies in the 1940s and during the civil rights movement. These debates led to federal executive orders requiring non-discrimination in the employment policies of some government agencies and contractors in the 1940s and onward, and to Title VII of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 which prohibited racial discrimination in firms with over 25 employees. The first federal policy of race-conscious affirmative action was the Revised Philadelphia Plan, implemented in 1969, which required certain government contractors to set "goals and timetables" for integrating and diversifying their workforce. Similar policies emerged through a mix of voluntary practices and federal and state policies in employment and education. Affirmative action as a practice was partially upheld by the Supreme Court in Grutter v. Bollinger (2003), while the use of racial quotas for college admissions was ruled unconstitutional in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke (1978).[a] In Students for Fair Admissions v. Harvard (2023), the Supreme Court majority ruled that race-based affirmative action in college admissions violated the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment, with concurrences highlighting race-based affirmative action's violation of Title VI of the Civil Rights Act. Affirmative action remains controversial in American politics. Supporters claim that it promotes equality and representation for groups which are socioeconomically disadvantaged or have faced historical discrimination or oppression and counteracts continuing bias and prejudice against women and minorities. Supporters also point to contemporary examples of conscious and unconscious biases, such as the finding that job-seekers with African American sounding names may be less likely to get a callback than those with white-sounding names, as proof that affirmative action is not obsolete. Coversely, opponents argue that these policies constitute racism and/or amount to discrimination against other racial and ethnic groups, such as Asian Americans and White Americans, which entails favoring one group over another based upon racial preference rather than achievement, and many believe that the diversity of current American society suggests that affirmative action policies succeeded and are no longer required. Opponents also argue that it tends to benefit the most privileged within minority groups at the expense of the least fortunate within majority groups,[page needed] or that when applied to universities it can hinder minority students by placing them in courses too difficult for them. The policy now called affirmative action was talked about as early as the Reconstruction Era (1863โ1877) in which a former slave population lacked the skills and resources for independent living. In 1865, General William Tecumseh Sherman proposed dividing the land and goods from Confederates in Georgia and granting those items to freed black slaves. The idea was called the "Forty acres and a mule" policy. The proposal was controversial because it would reverse the policy of peaceful reunion between North and South. Congress never approved. Sherman's military orders were soon revoked by President Andrew Johnson, who was a consistent opponent of any such remedies. For example, when Johnson vetoed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, his stated rationale was that it established "for the security of the colored race safeguards which go infinitely beyond any that the general government has ever provided for the white race. In fact, the distinction of race and color is by the bill made to operate in favor of the colored and against the white race." He similarly opposed the 14th Amendment's Equal Protection Clause, a provision which Johnson saw as "a wrongful venture in racial favoritism aimed at assisting the undeserving Negro." Requiring private construction firms to hire Blacks on public housing projects funded by the Public Works Administration (PWA) was an innovative New Deal policy in the 1930s. About 13% of these new hires were Black, but the policy was not publicized and ended by 1941. In the 1950s and 1960s, the discussion of policies to assist classes of individuals reemerged during the Civil Rights Movement. Civil rights guarantees that came through the interpretation of the Equal Protection Clause of the 14th Amendment affirmed the civil rights of people of color. The first appearance of the term 'affirmative action' was in the National Labor Relations Act, better known as the Wagner Act, of 1935.: 15 Proposed and championed by U.S. Senator Robert F. Wagner, Democrat of New York, the Wagner Act was in line with President Franklin D. Roosevelt's goal of providing economic security to workers and other low-income groups. During this time period it was not uncommon for employers to blacklist or fire employees associated with unions. The Wagner Act allowed workers to unionize without fear of being discriminated against, and empowered a National Labor Relations Board to review potential cases of worker discrimination. In the event of discrimination, employees were to be restored to an appropriate status in the company through 'affirmative action'. While the Wagner Act protected workers and unions it did not protect minorities, who, exempting the Congress of Industrial Organizations, were often barred from union ranks.: 11 This original coining of the term therefore has little to do with affirmative action policy as it is seen today, but helped set the stage for all policy meant to compensate or address an individual's unjust treatment. FDR's New Deal programs often contained equal opportunity clauses stating "no discrimination shall be made on account of race, color or creed".: 11 No enforcement was attempted outside the PWA housing projects. FDR's largest contribution to affirmative action, however, lay in his Executive Order 8802 of 1941 which prohibited discrimination in the defense industry or government.: 22 The executive order promoted the idea that if taxpayer funds were accepted through a government contract, then all taxpayers should have an equal opportunity to work through the contractor.: 23โ4 To enforce this idea, Roosevelt created the Fair Employment Practices Committee (FEPC) with the power to investigate hiring practices by government contractors.: 22 Following the Sergeant Isaac Woodard incident, President Harry S. Truman, himself a combat veteran of World War I, issued Executive Order 9808 establishing the President's Committee on Civil Rights to examine the violence and recommend appropriate federal legislation. Hearing of the incident, Truman turned to NAACP leader Walter Francis White and declared, "My God! I had no idea it was as terrible as that. We've got to do something." In 1947 the committee published its findings, To Secure These Rights. The book was widely read, influential, and considered utopian for the times: "In our land men are equal, but they are free to be different. From these very differences among our people has come the great human and national strength of America." The report discussed and demonstrated racial discrimination in basic freedoms, education, public facilities, personal safety, and employment opportunities. The committee was disturbed by the state of race relations, and included the evacuation of Americans of Japanese descent during the war "made without a trial or any sort of hearing...Fundamental to our whole system of law is the belief that guilt is personal and not a matter of heredity or association." The recommendations were radical, calling for federal policies and laws to end racial discrimination and bring about equality: "We can tolerate no restrictions upon the individual which depend upon irrelevant factors such as his race, his color, his religion, or the social position to which he is born." To Secure These Rights set the liberal legislative agenda for the next generation that eventually would be signed into law by Lyndon B. Johnson.: 35โ36 To Secure These Rights also called for desegregation of the Armed Forces. "Prejudice in any area is an ugly, undemocratic phenomenon, but in the armed services, where all men run the risk of death, it is especially repugnant." The rationale was fairness: "When an individual enters the service of the country, he necessarily surrenders some of the rights and privileges which are inherent in American citizenship." In return, the government "undertakes to protect his integrity as an individual." Yet that was not possible in the segregated Army, since "any discrimination which...prevents members of the minority groups from rendering full military service in defense of their country is for them a humiliating badge of inferiority." The report called for an end to "all discrimination and segregation based on race, color, creed, or national origins in...all branches of the Armed Services.": 38โ39 In 1947 Truman and his advisors came up with a plan for a large standing military, called Universal Military Training, and presented it to Congress. The plan opposed all segregation in the new post-war Armed Forces: "Nothing could be more tragic for the future attitude of our people, and for the unity of our nation" than a citizens' military that emphasized "class or racial difference.": 39โ40 On February 2, 1948, President Truman delivered a special message to Congress. It consisted of ten objectives that Congress should focus on when enacting legislation. Truman concluded by saying, "If we wish to inspire the peoples of the world whose freedom is in jeopardy, if we wish to restore hope to those who have already lost their civil liberties, if we wish to fulfill the promise that is ours, we must correct the remaining imperfections in our practice of democracy." In June, Truman became the first president to address the NAACP. His speech was a significant departure from traditional race relations in the United States. In front of 10,000 people at the Lincoln Memorial, the president left no doubt where he stood on civil rights. According to his speech, America had "reached a turning point in the long history of our country's efforts to guarantee freedom and equality to all our citizens...Each man must be guaranteed equality of opportunity." He proposed what black citizens had been calling for โ an enhanced role of federal authority through the states. "We must make the Federal government a friendly, vigilant defender of the rights and equalities of all Americans. And again I mean all Americans.": 40 On July 26, Truman mandated the end of hiring and employment discrimination in the federal government, reaffirming FDR's order of 1941.: 40 He issued two executive orders on July 26, 1948: Executive Order 9980 and Executive Order 9981. Executive Order 9980, named Regulations Governing for Employment Practices within the Federal Establishment, instituted fair employment practices in the civilian agencies of the federal government. The order created the position of Fair Employment Officer. The order "established in the Civil Service Commission a Fair Employment Board of not less than seven persons." Executive Order 9981, named Establishing the President's Committee on Equality of Treatment and Opportunity in the Armed Services, called for the integration of the Armed Forces and the creation of the National Military Establishment to carry out the executive order. On December 3, 1951, Truman issued Executive Order 10308, named Improving the Means for Obtaining Compliance with the Nondiscrimination Provisions of Federal Contracts, which established an anti-discrimination committee on government contract compliance responsible for ensuring that employers doing business with the federal government comply with all laws and regulations enacted by Congress and the committee on the grounds of discriminatory practices. When Eisenhower was elected president in 1952 after defeating Democratic candidate Adlai Stevenson, he believed hiring practices and anti-discrimination laws should be decided by the states, although the administration gradually continued to desegregate the Armed Forces and the federal government.: 50 The President also established the Government Contract Committee in 1953, which "conducted surveys of the racial composition of federal employees and tax-supported contractors".: 50โ51 The committee, chaired by Vice President Richard Nixon, had minimal outcomes in that they imposed the contractors with the primary responsibility of desegregation within their own companies and corporations.: 51 In the 1960 presidential election, Democratic candidate and eventual winner John F. Kennedy "criticized President Eisenhower for not ending discrimination in federally supported housing" and "advocated a permanent Fair Employment Practices Commission".: 59 Shortly after taking office, Kennedy issued Executive Order 10925 in March 1961, requiring government contractors to "consider and recommend additional affirmative steps which should be taken by executive departments and agencies to realize more fully the national policy of nondiscrimination.... The contractor will take affirmative action to ensure that applicants are employed, and that employees are treated during employment, without regard to their race, creed, color, or national origin".: 60 The order also established the President's Committee on Equal Employment Opportunity (PCEEO), chaired by Vice President Lyndon B. Johnson. Federal contractors who failed to comply or violated the executive order were punished by contract cancellation and the possible debarment from future government contracts. The administration was "not demanding any special preference or treatment or quotas for minorities" but was rather "advocating racially neutral hiring to end job discrimination".: 61 Turning to issues of women's rights, Kennedy initiated a Commission on the Status of Women in December 1961. The commission was charged with "examining employment policies and practices of the government and of contractors" with regard to sex.: 66 In June 1963, President Kennedy continued his policy of affirmative action by issuing another mandate, Executive Order 11114. The order supplemented to his previous 1961 executive order declaring it was the "policy of the United States to encourage by affirmative action the elimination of discrimination in employment".: 72 Through this order, all federal funds, such as "grants, loans, unions and employers who accepted taxpayer funds, and other forms of financial assistance to state and local governments," were forced to comply to the government's policies on affirmative action in employment practices.: 72 Lyndon B. Johnson, the Texas Democrat and Senate Majority Leader from 1955 to 1961, began to consider running for high office, and in doing so showed how his racial views differed from those held by many White Americans in the traditional South. In 1957, Johnson brokered a civil rights act through Congress. The bill established a Civil Rights Division and Commission in the Justice Department. The commission was empowered to investigate allegations of minority deprivation of rights.: 57 The first time "affirmative action" is used by the federal government concerning race is in President John F. Kennedy's Executive Order 10925, which was chaired by Vice President Johnson. At Johnson's inaugural ball in Texas, he met with a young black lawyer, Hobart Taylor, Jr., and gave him the task to co-author the executive order. "Affirmative action" was chosen due to its alliterative quality. The term "active recruitment" started to be used as well. This order, albeit heavily worked up as a significant piece of legislation, in reality carried little actual power. The scope was limited to a couple hundred defense contractors, leaving nearly $7.5 billion in federal grants and loans unsupervised.: 60 The NAACP had many problems with JFK's "token" proposal. They wanted jobs. One day after the order took effect, NAACP labor secretary Herbert Hill filed complaints against the hiring and promoting practices of Lockheed Aircraft Corporation. Lockheed was doing business with the Defense Department on the first billion-dollar contract. Due to taxpayer-funding being 90% of Lockheed's business, along with disproportionate hiring practices, black workers charged Lockheed with "overt discrimination." Lockheed signed an agreement with Vice President Johnson that pledged an "aggressive seeking out for more qualified minority candidates for technical and skill positions.: 63โ64 This agreement was the administration's model for a "plan of progress." Johnson and his assistants soon pressured other defense contractors, including Boeing and General Electric, to sign similar voluntary agreements indicating plans for progress. However, these plans were just that, voluntary. Many corporations in the South, still afflicted with Jim Crow laws, largely ignored the federal recommendations.: 63โ64 This eventually led to LBJ's Civil Rights Act, which came shortly after President Kennedy's assassination. This document was more holistic than any President Kennedy had offered, and therefore more controversial. It aimed not only to integrate public facilities, but also private businesses that sold to the public, such as motels, restaurants, theaters, and gas stations. Public schools, hospitals, libraries, parks, among other things, were included in the bill as well. It also worked with JFK's executive order 11114 by prohibiting discrimination in the awarding of federal contracts and holding the authority of the government to deny contracts to businesses who discriminate. Maybe most significant of all, Title VII of the Civil Rights Act aimed to end discrimination in all firms with 25 or more employees. Another provision established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission as the agency charged with ending discrimination in the nation's workplace.: 74 Conservatives said that Title VII of the bill advocated a de facto quota system, and asserted unconstitutionality as it attempts to regulate the workplace. Minnesota Senator Hubert Humphrey corrected this notion: "there is nothing in [Title VII] that will give power to the Commission to require hiring, firing, and promotion to meet a racial 'quota.' [. . .] Title VII is designed to encourage the hiring on basis of ability and qualifications, not race or religion." Title VII prohibits discrimination. Humphrey was the silent hero of the bill's passing through Congress. He pledged that the bill required no quotas, just nondiscrimination. Doing so, he convinced many pro-business Republicans, including Senate Minority Leader Everett Dirksen (IL) to support Title VII.: 78โ80 On July 2, 1964, the Act was signed into law by President Johnson. A Harris poll that spring showed 70% citizen approval of the Act.: 82 The strides that the Johnson presidency made in ensuring equal opportunity in the workforce were built upon by his successor Richard Nixon. In 1969, the Nixon administration initiated the "Philadelphia Order". It was regarded as the most forceful plan thus far to guarantee fair hiring practices in construction jobs. Philadelphia was selected as the test case because, as Assistant Secretary of Labor Arthur Fletcher explained, "The craft unions and the construction industry are among the most egregious offenders against equal opportunity laws . . . openly hostile toward letting blacks into their closed circle." The order included definite "goals and timetables." As President Nixon asserted, "We would not impose quotas, but would require federal contractors to show 'affirmative action' to meet the goals of increasing minority employment." It was through the Philadelphia Plan that the Nixon administration formed their adapted definition of affirmative action and became the official policy of the US government. The plan was defined as "racial goals and timetables, not quotas".: 124 Congressional "guidelines" were promulgated for government agencies, and government contractors, to reach 30+ % minority employees within three years; and greater than 40% within five years. It became the "era of the 'three-banger'" (the darker-complected, 'MS', latin surname); wherein with one individual hire, the agency received three AA credits. <Per employment interview with a Gen. Elec. recruiter; Philadelphia, PA; autumn 1974, Taylor> After the Nixon administration, advancements in affirmative action became less prevalent. "During the brief Ford administration, affirmative action took a back seat, while enforcement stumbled along.": 145 Equal rights was still an important subject to many Americans, yet the world was changing and new issues were being raised. People began to look at affirmative action as a glorified issue of the past and now there were other areas that needed focus. "Of all the triumphs that have marked this as America's Century โ...none is more inspiring, if incomplete, than our pursuit of racial justice." In the first half of the 20th century segregation was considered fair and normal. Due to changes made in American society and governmental policies the United States is past the traditional assumptions of race relations.: 275 "Affirmative action is a national policy that concerns the way Americans feel about race, past discrimination, preferences, merit โ and about themselves. This is why it is an American dilemma, and that is why we must understand how it developed and how its rationale and definition have changed since the 1960s.": 283 In 1983, Reagan signed Executive Order 12432, which instructed government agencies to create a development plan for Minority Business Enterprises. While the Reagan administration opposed discriminatory practices, it did not support the implementation of quotas and goals (Executive Order 11246). Bi-partisan opposition in Congress and other government officials blocked the repeal of this Executive Order [clarification needed]. Reagan was particularly known for his opposition to affirmative action programs. He reduced funding for the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, arguing that "reverse discrimination" resulted from these policies. However, the courts reaffirmed affirmative action policies such as quotas. In 1986, the Supreme Court ruled that courts could order race-based quotas to fight discrimination in worker unions in Sheet Metal Workers' International Association v. EEOC, 478 U.S. 42. In 1987, in Johnson v. Transportation Agency, Santa Clara County, California, 480 U.S. 616, the Supreme Court ruled that sex or race was a factor that could be considered in a pool of qualified candidates by employers. After the election and inauguration of Barack Obama in the 2008 election, a huge excitement swept the nation for the first African-American president of the United States. Many supporters and citizens began to hope for a future with affirmative action that would be secure under a black president. However, progress was not as apparent within the first few years of president Obama's administration. In 2009, education statistics denote the problems of college admissions in the US: "The College Board recently released the average 2009 SAT scores by race and ethnicity. They found that the gap between Black and Latino student versus White and Asian students has widened, despite the College Board's recent efforts to change questions to eliminate cultural biases." To the administration, it was apparent that more work was needed to better the situation. The following year in 2010, Obama presented his plan regarding the past administration's policy, under George W. Bush, called the "No Child Left Behind Act." Unlike the No Child Left Behind Act, president Obama's policy would instead reward schools and institutions for working with minorities and oppressed students. Additionally, in an indirect manner, the Obama administration aimed to garner support for more federal money and funds to be allocated to financial aid and scholarships to universities and colleges within the United States. They also have endorsed the decision of Fisher vs. University of Texas where the Supreme Court decision which endorses "the use of affirmative action to achieve a diverse student body so long as programs are narrowly tailored to advance this goal." The Trump administration supported rolling back Obama-era policies on affirmative action, and Trump advocated that institutions, including universities, colleges, and schools, should use "race-neutral alternatives" concerning admissions. The guidelines the administration set were aimed to curb the Supreme Court decision's in Fisher v. University of Texas. In 2019, the United States District Court for the District of Massachusetts ruled in Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College, a lawsuit alleging discrimination in admission against Asian Americans by the college, that Harvard's system, while imperfect, nonetheless passed constitutional muster. Students for Fair Admissions v. President and Fellows of Harvard College was appealed, and in January 2022, the Supreme Court agreed to hear the case together with a similar case related to admissions practices at the University of North Carolina. The case was argued on October 31, 2022. After the court rejected affirmative action at U.S. colleges and universities on June 29, 2023, President Joe Biden said he "strongly" disagreed with the decision. In a televised address, he urged the nation to make sure the decision did not become "the last word" on affirmative action. "Discrimination still exists in America," he said. Legal history In 2010, Arizona voters passed a constitutional ban on government-sponsored affirmative action known as Proposition 107. As of January 1, 2012 (House Bill 623), affirmative action is not allowed in college admissions and employment. During the November 6, 2012 election, a majority of Oklahoma voters voted to pass Oklahoma State Question 759, which ended affirmative action in college admissions and public employment. Arguments in favor of affirmative action President Kennedy stated in Executive Order 10925 that "discrimination because of race, creed, color, or national origin is contrary to the Constitutional principles and policies of the United States"; that "it is the plain and positive obligation of the United States Government to promote and ensure equal opportunity for all qualified persons, without regard to race, creed, color, or national origin, employed or seeking employment with the Federal Government and on government contracts"; that "it is the policy of the executive branch of the Government to encourage by positive measures equal opportunity for all qualified persons within the Government"; and that "it is in the general interest and welfare of the United States to promote its economy, security, and national defense through the most efficient and effective utilization of all available manpower". Some individual American states also have orders that prohibit discrimination and outline affirmative action requirements with regard to race, creed, color, religion, sexual orientation, national origin, gender, age, and disability status. Proponents of affirmative action argue that by nature the system is not only race based, but also class and gender based. To eliminate two of its key components would undermine the purpose of the entire system. The African American Policy Forum believes that the class based argument is based on the idea that non-poor minorities do not experience racial and gender based discrimination. The AAPF believes that "Race-conscious affirmative action remains necessary to address race-based obstacles that block the path to success of countless people of color of all classes". The group goes on to say that affirmative action is responsible for creating the African American middle class, so it does not make sense to say that the system only benefits the middle and upper classes. Researchers told ABC News in 2023 that economic inequality, segregation and academic inequity in K-12 schools, as well as the lasting effect of past exclusion from colleges and universities have led to the continued underrepresentation of Black and brown students in four-year institutions. Supporters of affirmative action point out the benefits women gained from the policy as evidence of its ability to assist historically marginalized groups. In the fifty years that disenfranchised groups have been the subject of affirmative action laws, their representation has risen dramatically in the workforce, but some research suggests the increase in white women is due to their decision to enter their workforce rather than affirmative action. According to anti-racism activist Tim Wise: Thanks in large measure to affirmative action and civil rights protections that opened up previously restricted opportunities to women of all colors, from 1972 to 1993: โ The percentage of women architects increased from 3% to nearly 19% of the total; โ The percentage of women doctors more than doubled from 10% to 22% of all doctors; โ The percentage of women lawyers grew from 4% to 23% of the national total; โ The percentage of female engineers went from less than 1% to nearly 9%; โ The percentage of female chemists grew from 10% to 30% of all chemists; and, โ The percentage of female college faculty went from 28% to 42% of all faculty. (Moseley-Braun 1995, 8) Furthermore, since only 1983, the percentage of women business managers and professionals grew from 41% of all such persons, to 48%, while the number of female police officers more than doubled, from 6% to 13% (U.S. Department of Commerce, Bureau of the Census 1995, Table 649). According to a 1995 study, there are at least six million women โ the overwhelming majority of them white โ who simply wouldn't have the jobs they have today, but for the inroads made by affirmative action (Cose 1997, 171). For the first 250 years of America's recorded history, Africans were traded as commodities and forced to work without pay, first as indentured servants then as slaves. In much of the United States at this time, they were barred from all levels of education, from basic reading to higher-level skills useful outside of the plantation setting. After slavery's abolition in 1865, Black-Americans saw the educational gap between themselves and whites compounded by segregation. They were forced to attend separate, under-funded schools due to Plessy v. Ferguson. Though de jure school segregation ended with Brown v. Board of Education, de facto segregation continues in education into the present day. Following the end of World War II, the educational gap between White and Black Americans was widened by Franklin D. Roosevelt's GI Bill. This piece of legislation paved the way for white GIs to attend college. Despite their veteran status, returning Black servicemen were not afforded loans at the same rate as White ones. Furthermore, at the time of its introduction, segregation was still the law of the land barring blacks from the best institutions. Overall, "Nearly 8 million servicemen and servicewomen were educated under the provisions of the GI Bill after World War II. But for blacks, higher educational opportunities were so few that the promise of the GI Bill went largely unfulfilled." According to a study by Dr. Paul Brest, Hispanics or "Latinos" include immigrants who are descendants of immigrants from the countries comprising Central and South America. In 1991, Mexican Americans, Puerto Ricans, and Cuban Americans made up 80% of the Latino population in the United States. Latinos are disadvantaged compared to White Americans and are more likely to live in poverty. They are the least well-educated major ethnic group and suffered a 3% drop in high school completion rate while African Americans experienced a 12% increase between 1975 and 1990. In 1990, they constituted 9% of the population, but only received 3.1% of the bachelors's degrees awarded. At times when it was favorable to lawmakers, Latinos were considered "white" under Jim Crow laws during Reconstruction. In other cases, according to Paul Brest, Latinos have been classified as an inferior race and a threat to white purity. Latinos have encountered considerable discrimination in areas such as employment, housing, and education. Brest finds that stereotypes continue to be largely negative and many perceive Latinos as "lazy, unproductive, and on the dole." Furthermore, native-born Latino-Americans and recent immigrants are seen as identical since outsiders tend not to differentiate between Latino groups. The category of Native American applies to the diverse group of people who lived in North America before European settlement. During the U.S. government's westward expansion, Native Americans were displaced from their land which had been their home for centuries. Instead, they were forced onto reservations which were far smaller and less productive. According to Brest, land belonging to Native Americans was reduced from 138 million acres in 1887 to 52 million acres in 1934. In 1990, the poverty rate for Native Americans was more than triple that of the whites and only 9.4% of Native Americans have completed a bachelor's degree as opposed to 25.2% of whites and 12.2% of African Americans. Early Asian immigrants experienced prejudice and discrimination in the forms of not having the ability to become naturalized citizens. They also struggled with many of the same school segregation laws that African Americans faced. Particularly, during World War II, Japanese Americans were interned in camps and lost their property, homes, and businesses. Discrimination against Asians began with the Chinese Exclusion Act of 1882 and then continued with the Scott Act of 1888 and the Geary Act of 1892. At the beginning of the 20th century, the United States passed the Immigration Act of 1924 to prevent Asian immigration out of fear that Asians were stealing white jobs and lowering the standard for wages. In addition, whites and non-Asians do not differentiate among the different Asian groups and perpetuate the "model minority" stereotype. According to a 2010 article by Professor Qin Zhang of Fairfield University, Asians are characterized as one dimensional in having great work ethic and valuing education, but lacking in communication skills and personality. A negative outcome of this incorrect stereotype is that Asians have been portrayed as having poor leadership and interpersonal skills. This has contributed to the "glass ceiling" phenomenon in which although there are many qualified Asian Americans, they occupy a disproportionately small number of executive positions in businesses; although this has recently changed with the many successes of Asian billionaires, pop-culture icons including Bruce Lee, sports figures such as Jeremy Lin, gold-medal figure skater Michelle Kwan, and free-style skier Eileen Gu. Many proponents of affirmative action recognize that the policy is inherently unequal; however, minding the inescapable fact that historic inequalities exist in America, they believe the policy is much more fair than one in which these circumstances are not taken into account. Furthermore, those in favor of affirmative action see it as an effort towards inclusion rather than a discriminatory practice. "Job discrimination is grounded in prejudice and exclusion, whereas affirmative action is an effort to overcome prejudicial treatment through inclusion. The most effective way to cure society of exclusionary practices is to make special efforts at inclusion, which is exactly what affirmative action does." The National Conference of State Legislatures stated in a 2014 overview that many supporters for affirmative action argue that policies stemming from affirmative action help to open doors for historically excluded groups in workplace settings and higher education. Workplace diversity has become a business management concept in which employers actively seek to promote an inclusive workplace. By valuing diversity, employers possess the capacity to create an environment in which there is a culture of respect for individual differences as well as the ability to draw in talent and ideas from all segments of the population. By creating this diverse workforce, these employers and companies gain a competitive advantage in an increasingly global economy. According to the U.S. Equal Employment Opportunity Commission, many private sector employers have concluded that a diverse workforce makes a "company stronger, more profitable, and a better place to work." Therefore, these diversity promoting policies are implemented for competitive reasons rather than as a response to discrimination, but have shown the value in having diversity. The American Association of University Professors (AAUP), in 2000 concluded that the consensus of research found that "the resulting diversity actually helps the institution achieve its educational goals....racial and ethnic diversity has both direct and indirect positive effects on the educational outcomes and experiences of college students" According to a study by Geoffrey Maruyama and Josรฉ F. Moreno, the results showed that faculty members believed diversity helps students to reach the essential goals of a college education, Caucasian students suffer no detrimental effects from classroom diversity, and that attention to multicultural learning improves the ability of colleges and universities to accomplish their missions. Furthermore, a diverse population of students offers unique perspectives in order to challenge preconceived notions through exposure to the experiences and ideas of others. According to Professor Gurin of the University of Michigan, skills such as "perspective-taking, acceptance of differences, a willingness and capacity to find commonalities among differences, acceptance of conflict as normal, conflict resolution, participation in democracy, and interest in the wider social world" can potentially be developed in college while being exposed to heterogeneous group of students. In addition, broadening perspectives helps students confront personal and substantive stereotypes and fosters discussion about racial and ethnic issues in a classroom setting. Furthermore, the 2000 AAUP study states that having a diversity of views leads to a better discussion and greater understanding among the students on issues of race, tolerance, fairness, etc. Fidan Ana Kurtulus, an economics professor, found that during the 1970s and early 1980s, affirmative action led to an increase in the share of women and minorities working in federal contractors compared to firms that were not required to follow affirmative action guidelines. There have been many supporters of affirmative action over the course of American history. Several prominent figures in the civil rights movement, including Martin Luther King Jr., Bayard Rustin, and Thurgood Marshall, have expressed support for affirmative action in some respect. In Why We Can't Wait, King advocated for racial preference to be given to African Americans to counteract the oppression they'd endured for centuries. No amount of gold could provide an adequate compensation for the exploitation and humiliation of the Negro in America down through the centuries. Not all the wealth of this affluent society could meet the bill. Yet a price can be placed on unpaid wages. The ancient common law has always provided a remedy for the appropriation of the labor of one human being by another. This law should be made to apply for American Negroes. The payment should be in the form of a massive program by the government of special, compensatory measures which could be regarded as a settlement in accordance with the accepted practice of common law. โ Martin Luther King, Jr., Why We Can't Wait These "compensatory measures" included a system resembling reparations for slavery, as well as preferential treatment in college admissions decisions. Rustin was in favor of similar policies, although in his lifetime, he was more critical of universities admitting based on applicants' races. Marshall, on the other hand, was a firm believer in affirmative action in admissions decisions, writing, following the verdict on Regents of the University of California v. Bakke, "it is because of a legacy of unequal treatment that we now must permit the institutions of this society to give consideration to race in making decisions about who will hold the positions of influence, affluence, and prestige in America.โ Many presidents throughout the last century have failed to take a very firm stance on the policy, leaving the public to discern the presidents' opinion for themselves. Bill Clinton, however, made his stance on affirmative action very clear in a speech on July 19, 1995, nearly two and a half years after his inauguration. In his speech, he discussed the history in the United States that brought the policy into fruition: slavery, Jim Crow, and segregation. Clinton also mentioned a point similar to President Lyndon B. Johnson's "Freedom is not Enough" speech, and declared that just outlawing discrimination in the country would not be enough to give everyone in America equality. He addressed the arguments that affirmative action hurt the white middle class and said that the policy was not the source of their problems. Clinton plainly outlined his stance on affirmative action, saying: Let me be clear about what affirmative action must not mean and what I won't allow it to be. It does not mean โ and I don't favor โ the unjustified preference of the unqualified over the qualified of any race or gender. It doesn't mean โ and I don't favor โ numerical quotas. It doesn't mean โ and I don't favor โ rejection or selection of any employee or student solely on the basis of race or gender without regard to merit... In the end, Clinton stated that all the evidence shows that, even though affirmative action should be a temporary policy, the time had not come for it to be ended. He felt it was still a relevant practice and overall, the goal of the nation should be "mend it, but don't end it." Clinton's words became a slogan for many Americans on the topic of affirmative action. In addition to activists and politicians, several modern-day academics and political theorists support affirmative action, including Ibram X. Kendi and Robin DiAngelo. Arguments against affirmative action Affirmative action has been the subject of numerous court cases, where it is often contested on constitutional grounds. Some states specifically prohibit affirmative action, such as California (Proposition 209), Washington (Initiative 200), Michigan (Michigan Civil Rights Initiative), and Nebraska (Nebraska Civil Rights Initiative). A 2005 study by Princeton sociologists Thomas J. Espenshade and Chang Y. Chung compared the effects of affirmative action on racial and special groups at three highly selective private research universities. The data from the study represent admissions disadvantage and advantage in terms of SAT points (on the old 1600-point scale): In 2009, Princeton sociologist Thomas Espenshade and researcher Alexandria Walton Radford, in their book No Longer Separate, Not Yet Equal, examined data on students applying to college in 1997 and calculated that Asian-Americans needed nearly perfect SAT scores of 1550 to have the same chance of being accepted at a top private university as whites who scored 1410 and African Americans who got 1100. After controlling for grades, test scores, family background (legacy status), and athletic status (whether or not the student was a recruited athlete), Espenshade and Radford found that whites were three times, Hispanics six times, and blacks more than 15 times as likely to be accepted at a US university as Asian Americans. Thomas Espenshade cautions though, "I stop short of saying that Asian-American students are being discriminated against in the college application process because we don't have sufficient empirical evidence to support that claim." According to Richard Sander, artificially elevating minority students into schools they otherwise would not be capable of attending discourages them and tends to engender failure and high dropout rates for these students. For example, about half of Black college students rank in the bottom 20 percent of their classes, Black law school graduates are four times as likely to fail bar exams as are whites, and interracial friendships are more likely to form among students with relatively similar levels of academic preparation; thus, Black and Hispanic people are more socially integrated on campuses where they are less academically mismatched. He states that the supposed "beneficiaries" of affirmative action โ minorities โ do not actually benefit and rather are harmed by the policy. Sander's ideas have been disputed, and his empirical analyses have been subject to substantial criticism. A group including some of the country's lead statistical methodologists told the Supreme Court that Sander's analyses were sufficiently flawed that the Court would be wise to ignore them entirely. A 2008 study by Jesse Rothstein and Albert H. Yoon confirmed Sander's mismatch findings, but also found that eliminating affirmative action would "lead to a 63 percent decline in Black matriculants at all law schools and a 90 percent decline at elite law schools." These high numbers predictions were doubted in a review of previous studies by Peter Arcidiacono and Michael Lovenheim. Their 2016 article found a strong indication that racial preference results in a mismatch effect. However, they argued that the attendance by some African-American law students to less-selective schools would significantly improve the low first attempt rate at passing the state bar, but they cautioned that such improvements could be outweighed by decreases in law school attendance. A 2021 study in the Quarterly Journal of Economics found that the 1998 ban on race-based affirmative action in California public universities led to lower wages for minority applicants and deterred qualified students from applying, which it stated was inconsistent with the mismatch effect. A 2023 study published in Research in Higher Education also argues against mismatch and explains that Ariciacono and Lovenheim's findings are not supported when considering additional states and years. The controversy surrounding affirmative action's effectiveness is based on the idea of class inequality. Opponents of racial affirmative action argue that the program actually benefits middle- and upper-class African Americans and Hispanic Americans at the expense of lower-class European Americans and Asian Americans. This argument supports the idea of class-based affirmative action. America's poor population is disproportionately made up of people of color, so class-based affirmative action would disproportionately help people of color. This would eliminate the need for race-based affirmative action as well as reducing any disproportionate benefits for middle- and upper-class people of color. In 1976, a group of Italian American professors at City University of New York successfully advocated to be added as an affirmative action category for promotion and hiring. Italian Americans are usually considered white in the US and would not be covered under affirmative action policies, but statistical evidence suggested that Italian Americans were underrepresented relative to the proportion of Italian American residents in New York City.[better source needed] Libertarian economist Thomas Sowell wrote in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study, that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies. Critics of affirmative action assert that while supporters define diversity as "heterogeneous in meaningful ways, for example, in skill set, education, work experiences, perspectives on a problem, cultural orientation, and so forth", the implementation is often solely based on superficial factors including gender, race and country of origin. Supreme Court Justice Clarence Thomas opposes affirmative action. He believes the Equal Protection Clause of the Fourteenth Amendment forbids consideration of race, such as in race-based affirmative action or preferential treatment. He also believes it creates "a cult of victimization" and implies blacks require "special treatment in order to succeed." Thomas also cites his own experiences of affirmative action programs as a reason for his criticism. Frederick Lynch, the author of Invisible Victims: White Males and the Crisis of Affirmative Action, did a study on white males that said they were victims of reverse discrimination. Lynch explains that these white men felt frustrated and unfairly victimized by affirmative action. Shelby Steele, another author against affirmative action, wanted to see affirmative action go back to its original meaning of enforcing equal opportunity. He argued that blacks had to take full responsibility in their education and in maintaining a job. Steele believes that there is still a long way to go in America to reach the goal of eradicating discrimination. Libertarian economist Thomas Sowell identified what he says are negative results of affirmative action in his book, Affirmative Action Around the World: An Empirical Study. Sowell writes that affirmative action policies encourage non-preferred groups to designate themselves as members of preferred groups [i.e., primary beneficiaries of affirmative action] to take advantage of group preference policies; that they tend to benefit primarily the most fortunate among the preferred group (e.g., upper and middle class blacks), often to the detriment of the least fortunate among the non-preferred groups (e.g., poor white or Asian); that they reduce the incentives of both the preferred and non-preferred to perform at their best โ the former because doing so is unnecessary and the latter because it can prove futile โ thereby resulting in net losses for society as a whole; and that they engender animosity toward preferred groups as well.: 115โ147 Implementation in universities In the United States, a prominent form of racial preferences relates to access to education, particularly admission to universities and other forms of higher education. Race, ethnicity, native language, social class, geographical origin, parental attendance of the university in question (legacy admissions), and/or gender are sometimes taken into account when the university assesses an applicant's grades and test scores. Individuals can also be awarded scholarships and have fees paid on the basis of criteria listed above.[citation needed] Sex-based affirmative action is legal under Title IX, which exempts sex-based discrimination in admissions to private undergraduate colleges. In the early 1970s, Walter J. Leonard, an administrator at Harvard University, invented the Harvard Plan, "one of the country's earliest and most effective affirmative-action programs, which became a model for other universities around the country." In 1978, the Supreme Court ruled in Regents of the University of California v. Bakke that public universities (and other government institutions) could not set specific numerical targets based on race for admissions or employment; the Court said that "goals" and "timetables" for diversity could be set instead.[better source needed] Dean of Yale Law School Louis Pollak wrote in 1969 that for the previous 15 years Yale "customarily gave less weight to the LSAT and the rest of the standard academic apparatus in assessing black applicants". He wrote that while most black students had "not achieved academic distinction", "very few have failed to graduate" and that "many black alumni have ... speedily demonstrated professional accomplishments of a high order". Pollak justified the university's plans to increase the number of minority students admitted with lowered standards "in the fact ... that the country needs far moreโand especially far more well-trainedโblack lawyers, bearing in mind that today only 2 or 3 per cent of the American bar is black", and that if Yale could help "in meeting this important national need, it ought to try to do so". He believed that the "minor fraction of the student body"โup to two dozen in the class entering that yearโwith "prior educational deficiencies" was not likely to damage the school, and expected that the number of "well prepared" black applicants would greatly increase in the future. Scholars such as Ronald Dworkin have asserted that no college applicant has a right to expect that a university will design its admissions policies in a way that prizes any particular set of qualities. In this view, admission is not an honor bestowed to reward superior merit but rather a way to advance the mission as each university defines it. If diversity is a goal of the university and their racial preferences do not discriminate against applicants based on hatred or contempt, then affirmative action can be judged acceptable based on the criteria related to the mission the university sets for itself. Consistent with this view, admissions officers often claim to select students not based on academic record alone but also on commitment, enthusiasm, motivation, and potential. Highly selective institutions of higher learning do not simply select only the highest SAT performers to populate their undergraduate courses, but high performers, with scores of 2250 to 2400 points, are extraordinarily well-represented at these institutions. To accommodate the ruling in Hopwood v. Texas banning any use of race in school admissions, the State of Texas passed a law guaranteeing entry to any state university if a student finished in the top 10% of their graduating class. Florida and California also have similar college admission guarantees. Class rank tends to benefit top students at less competitive high schools, to the detriment of students at more competitive high schools. This effect, however, may be intentional since less-funded, less competitive schools are more likely to be schools where minority enrollment is high. Critics argue that class rank is more a measure of one's peers than of one's self. The top 10% rule adds racial diversity only because schools are still highly racially segregated because of residential patterns. To some extent, the class rank rule has the same effect as traditional affirmative action. From 1996 to 1998, Texas did not practice affirmative action in public college admissions, and minority enrollment dropped. The state's adoption of the "top 10 percent" rule has helped return minority enrollment to pre-1996 levels. Race-conscious admissions continue to be practiced in Texas following Fisher v. University of Texas. Professor Cornel West estimated that when he attended Harvard College in the early-1970's, 95% of black students were descended from American black families dating back to the Jim Crow era. But during a panel discussion at Harvard University's reunion for black alumni during the 2003โ04 academic year, two prominent black professors at the institutionโLani Guinier and Henry Louis Gatesโpointed out that one unintended effect of affirmative-action policies at Harvard designed to increase the number of black students had been the replacement of American black students with black immigrants. Guinier and Gates claimed that only about a third of black Harvard undergraduates were from families in which all four grandparents were born into the African American community, and that the majority of black students at Harvard were Caribbean and African immigrants or their children, and/or mixed-race children of biracial couples. By 2007, 41% of black students at Ivy League colleges were reportedly first- or second-generation immigrants, a group which made up only 13% of the US black population. In 2020, Harvard students whose families had been in the US for generations began referring to themselves as "Generational African-Americans", who hypothesized that their numbers were vanishingly small. The subject is alleged to be "taboo" among admissions officers, and black Harvard students have claimed the university has discouraged them from collecting demographic information about the backgrounds of the black student population. UCLA professor Richard H. Sander published an article in the November 2004 issue of the Stanford Law Review that questioned the effectiveness of racial preferences in law schools. He noted that, prior to his article, there had been no comprehensive study on the effects of affirmative action. The article presents a study that shows that half of all black law students rank near the bottom of their class after the first year of law school and that black law students are more likely to drop out of law school and to fail the bar exam. The article offers a tentative estimate that the production of new black lawyers in the United States would grow by eight percent if affirmative action programs at all law schools were ended. Less qualified black students would attend less prestigious schools where they would be more closely matched in abilities with their classmates and thus perform relatively better. Sander helped to develop a socioeconomically based affirmative action plan for the UCLA School of Law after the passage of Proposition 209 in 1996, which prohibited the use of racial preferences by public universities in California. This change occurred after studies showed that the graduation rate of blacks at UCLA was 41%, compared to 73% for whites. A 2007 study by Mark Long, an economics professor at the University of Washington, demonstrated that when state referendums and court decisions forced flagship public universities in California, Texas, and Washington to abandon their large, race-based affirmative-action preferences in admissions, so-called "Top-X" alternatives to racial preferencesโin which the highest-graded students at all public high schools in the state were guaranteed admission to public collegesโwere unable to make up for the losses in black and Hispanic enrollment. Specifically, apparent rebounds of black and Hispanic enrollment were, in fact, explained by increasing minority enrollment in high schools of those states, and the primary beneficiaries of these "class-based" affirmative action policies appeared to be white students. On the other hand, Long noted that affirmative action itself has both moral and material costs, including the unpopularity of race-based affirmative action in college admissions; the high costs associated with full-file reviews of applicants; and the specter of litigation. A 2020 study by UC Berkeley Center Studies in Higher Education researcher Zachary Bleemer on the impact of California's ban on affirmative action on student outcomes using a difference-in-difference research design and a newly constructed longitudinal database linking all 1994โ2002 University of California applicants to their college enrollment, course performance, major choice, degree attainment, and wages into their mid-30s found "the first causal evidence that banning affirmative action exacerbates socioeconomic inequities." According to the study, the ban on affirmative action decreased Black and Latino student enrollment within the University of California system, reduced their likelihood of graduating and attending graduate school, and resulted in a decline in wages. At the same time, the policy did not significantly impact white and Asian American students. A 2023 study by Harvard University Fellow in Ethnoracial Relations David Mickey-Pabello provides evidence that more schools were impacted by state-level bans on affirmative action than previously known. Mickey-Pabello describes a process termed the "anti-affirmative action avalanche" where underrepresented minority students are displaced from the most highly selective schools, and some ultimately enroll at for-profit schools. The for-profit schools that had high enrollments of underrepresented minority students after state-level affirmative action bans in this study were also subsequently involved in lawsuits for predatory and illegal recruitment practices. In 2025, two years after the supreme court banned affirmative action in school admission, the percentage of black students in 19 select elite universities dropped compared to 2023 levels. In Princeton, the percentage decreased by almost half, from 9% to 5%, levels similar to 1968's cohort. In California Institute of Technology, only 2% of the incoming cohort identified as Black. In the same group of universities, a modest increase in Asian-American admission is observed in 12 universities. Dean Pollak wrote of the Yale quota for black students in response to a letter from Judge Macklin Fleming of the California Court of Appeal. Fleming criticized the Yale system as "a long step toward the practice of apartheid and the maintenance of two law schools under one roof", with consequent "damage to the standards of Yale Law School". He warned that such an admission policy "will serve to perpetuate the very ideas and prejudices it is designed to combat. If in a given class the great majority of the black students are at the bottom of the class", it would result in racial stratification between students, demands by black students to weaken academic standards, and other racially based "aggressive conduct". Fleming noted that racial quotas were a zero-sum game, as "discrimination in favor of X is automatic discrimination against Y"; Asians in California, for example, were overrepresented in engineering schools and would suffer if black and Mexican applicants received preferential treatment. He stated that a quota system violated "the American creed, one that Yale has proudly espoused ... that an American should be judged as an individual and not as a member of a group". In 2006, Jian Li, a Chinese undergraduate at Yale University, filed a civil rights complaint with the Office for Civil Rights against Princeton University, claiming that his race played a role in their decision to reject his application for admission and seeking the suspension of federal financial assistance to the university until it "discontinues discrimination against Asian Americans in all forms" by eliminating race and legacy preferences. Princeton Dean of Admissions Janet Rapelye responded to the claims in the November 30, 2006, issue of the Daily Princetonian by stating that "the numbers don't indicate [discrimination]." She said that Li was not admitted because "many others had far better qualifications." Li's extracurricular activities were described as "not all that outstanding". Li countered in an email, saying that his placement on the waitlist undermines Rapelye's claim. "Princeton had initially waitlisted my application," Li said. "So if it were not for a yield which was higher than expected, the admissions office very well may have admitted a candidate whose "outside activities were not all that outstanding". In September 2015, the Department of Justice concluded its nine-year investigation into alleged anti-Asian bias at Princeton and cleared Princeton of charges that it discriminated against Asian American applicants. Furthermore, the department found that a number of Asian American students benefitted from race-conscious admissions. In 2012, Abigail Fisher, an undergraduate student at Louisiana State University, and Rachel Multer Michalewicz, a law student at Southern Methodist University, filed a lawsuit to challenge the University of Texas admissions policy, asserting it had a "race-conscious policy" that "violated their civil and constitutional rights". The University of Texas employs the "Top Ten Percent Law", under which admission to any public college or university in Texas is guaranteed to high school students who graduate in the top ten percent of their high school class. Fisher has brought the admissions policy to court because she believes that she was denied acceptance to the University of Texas based on her race, and thus, her right to equal protection according to the 14th Amendment was violated. The Supreme Court heard oral arguments in Fisher on October 10, 2012, and rendered an ambiguous ruling in 2013 that sent the case back to the lower court, stipulating only that the university must demonstrate that it could not achieve diversity through other, non-race sensitive means. In July 2014, the US Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit concluded that UT maintained a "holistic" approach in its application of affirmative action, and could continue the practice. On February 10, 2015, lawyers for Fisher filed a new case in the Supreme Court. It is a renewed complaint that the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Fifth Circuit got the issue wrongโon the second try as well as on the first. The Supreme Court agreed in June 2015 to hear the case a second time. In July 2016 a majority of the Court found in favor of the University of Texas at Austin, with Justice Kennedy finding for the Court that the university's affirmative action policies were constitutional, despite the requirement of strict scrutiny. On November 17, 2014, Students for Fair Admissions, an offshoot of the Project on Fair Representation, filed lawsuits in federal district court challenging the admissions practices of Harvard University and the University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill. The UNC-Chapel Hill lawsuit alleges discrimination against white and Asian students, while the Harvard lawsuit focuses on discrimination against Asian applicants. Both universities requested the court to halt the lawsuits until the U.S. Supreme Court provides clarification of relevant law by ruling in Fisher v. University of Texas at Austin for the second time. In May 2015, a coalition of more than 60 Asian-American organizations filed federal complaints with the Education and Justice Departments against Harvard University. The coalition asked for a civil rights investigation into what they described as Harvard's discriminatory admission practices against Asian-American applicants. The complaint asserts that recent studies indicate that Harvard has engaged in systematic and continuous discrimination against Asian Americans in its "holistic" admissions process. Asian-American applicants with near-perfect test scores, top-one-percent grade point averages, academic awards, and leadership positions are allegedly rejected by Harvard because the university uses racial stereotypes, racially differentiated standards, and de facto racial quotas. Harvard denies engaging in discrimination and said its admissions philosophy complies with the law. The school said the percentage of Asian-American students admitted has grown from 17% to 21% in a decade while Asian-Americans represent around 6% of the U.S. population. The lawsuit against Harvard was heard in Boston federal court in October 2018. On October 1, 2019, Judge Allison D. Burroughs rejected the plaintiffs' claims, ruling that Harvard's admissions practices meet constitutional requirements and do not discriminate against Asian Americans. SFFA filed an appeal in the First Circuit Court of Appeals, which sided with the university. In June 2023, on further appeal, a majority of the Supreme Court actually found in favor of SFFA, ruling that the practice was unconstitutional and that when favoring black and Hispanic applicants the university did disadvantage Asian applicants in the admissions process as the process was a "zero sum" game where the granting of preferences to some minorities due to their race necessarily disadvantaged others because of their race. The Court held that affirmative action programs "lack sufficiently focused and measurable objectives warranting the use of race, unavoidably employ race in a negative manner, involve racial stereotyping, and lack meaningful end points. We have never permitted admissions programs to work in that way, and we will not do so today". In August 2020, the US Department of Justice notified Yale University of its findings that Yale illegally discriminates against Asian American and white applicants and demanded Yale cease using race or national origin in its upcoming 2020โ2021 undergraduate admissions cycles. Yale has issued a statement viewing the allegation as "baseless" and "rushed" and "will not change its admissions processes in response to today's letter because the DOJ is seeking to impose a standard that is inconsistent with existing law". Numerous myths and misperceptions regarding affirmative actions shape public opinion on the issue. These misperceptions often shape public opinion on specific cases as well. For example, in Students for Fair Admissions, the conflation of two separate issuesโHarvard University's affirmative action policy and specific claims of discrimination by Harvard University โ colors some people's judgements on affirmative action as a whole. Such conflation allows "longstanding myths about affirmative action and socially salient racial stereotypes concerning who does, and does not, belong in elite institutions of higher education" to prosper. Hence, it is often difficult for public opinion polls on cases, let alone the general issue of affirmative action, to be unaffected by such myths. The use of affirmative action in higher education has been debated countless of times during college admissions seasons, especially due to the mismatch effect. Though it creates opportunities for people of color and for people of minority groups to access higher education, many public universities, have been attacked for depending on racial quotas, implemented through affirmative action policies, to reach diversity goals. This has prompted for high-profile lawsuits and Supreme Court rulings based on arguments of reverse racism or discrimination that prevents admissions to "more qualified" white students to take place. Consequently, these cases have constantly reshaped the view on affirmative action policies by referring to it, in its original sense, a race-conscious policy, which ultimately obliges the inclusion of people of minority groups in higher education. Most importantly, it has questioned whether or not affirmative action is effective in achieving numerical goals while avoiding preferential treatment, where many[who?] have deemed it a form of "reverse discrimination." In 1974, the California Supreme Court ruled that UC Davis violated the Equal Protection Clause and the Civil Rights Act because they were relying on racial quotas heavily. Allen Bakke was a thirty-five-year-old man who applied to UC Davis medical school in two consecutive years, but was rejected both times. This was because UC Davis had a special admission affirmative action program that reserved 16 spots for minority students, out of 100 admission slots, which Bakke argued was the reason he was rejected twice from the medical program despite having a high GPA and MCAT score. In this special program, mostly run by members from minority groups, applicants who were considered disadvantaged did not have to meet the 2.5 grade point average minimum that the general admissions program implemented, and were only rated against other applicants from minority groups. Since UC Davis was not able to prove that Bakke wouldn't have been admitted even if the special admission programs didn't exist, it was concluded that he was being discriminated by the color of his skin and was not being treated equally due to the racial quota. Thus, Bakke was admitted to the school, as 8 out of 9 judges declared that the heavy reliance on the racial quota violated the Equal Protection Clause on the Fourteenth Amendment. This ruling, however, did not prohibit the use of race as a factor in college admissions decisions, it only prohibited its use for non-competitive admissions that favored a small demographic of minority group students. "Diversity" now became a factor in constitutional law, as the Court ruled it was allowable to consider race as a plus factor when trying to foster "diversity" in their classes. Public opinion regarding affirmative action Public opinion polls on affirmative action have varied significantly. It is likely that survey design, the framing of the survey question itself, and other factors may have significant effects on the survey results. The following polls only discuss affirmative action in higher education. In general, "affirmative action" is supported by the general public, but "considerations based on race" are opposed. In a survey conducted by Gallup in 2013, 67% of U.S. adults believed college admission should be solely based on merit. According to Gallup: "One of the clearest examples of affirmative action in practice is colleges' taking into account a person's racial or ethnic background when deciding which applicants will be admitted. Americans seem reluctant to endorse such a practice, and even blacks, who have historically been helped by such programs, are divided on the matter. Aside from African Americans, a majority of all other major subgroups believe colleges should determine admissions solely on merit." In a national survey conducted by the Pew Research Center in 2014, among 3,335 Americans, 63% felt that affirmative action programs designed to increase the number of African American and minority students on college campuses are a good thing. In February 2019, Gallup published the results of a November and December 2018 survey and found that support for affirmative action programs was growing. They polled 6,502 Americans. Of survey respondents, 65% favored affirmative action programs for women and 61% favored affirmative action programs for minorities. Also in February 2019, the Pew Research Center published the results of a January and February 2019 survey and found that 73% of its respondents said that race or ethnicity should not be a factor in college admissions decisions. According to this survey's results, majorities across racial and ethnic groups agree that race should not be a factor in college admissions decisions. White adults are particularly likely to hold this view: 78% say this, compared with 65% of Hispanics, 62% of African Americans, and 58% of Asians. A few years later similar results were repeated. In 2022, a Pew Research Center poll found that 74% of Americans believe race or ethnicity should not factor into college admissions decisions. See also Notes References Further reading External links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืื ืืืื_ื ืชื ืืื#cite_note-316] | [TOKENS: 76002] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืึดึผื ึฐืึธืึดืื (ืึดึผืืึดึผื) ื ึฐืชึทื ึฐืึธืืึผ (ื ืืื ื-21 ืืืืงืืืืจ 1949, ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ื'ืชืฉ"ื) ืืื ืคืืืืืืงืื ืืืืื ืื ืืฉืจืืื ืืืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืคืืืช "ืืืืืื" ืืืฉืจ ืืคื ืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื (ืื ืคืงืื). ืืฉื ืื 1984โ1988 ืืืื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืื"ื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืคืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืชืื ืขืฉืจื ืืกืื ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ. ื-1993 ื ืืืจ ืืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืืืื. ืืืื ืฉืฉ ืืืื ืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื, ืืฉืืืฉ ืชืงืืคืืช ืื ืจืฆืืคืืช: ืืื 1996โ1999 ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืขืฉืจืื ืืฉืืข; ืืื 2009โ2021 ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืชืืื, ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืฉ, ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืืจืืข ืืืฉืืืฉืื ืืืืฉ; ืืืื ืืฆืืืจ 2022 ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืืข. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื, ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ, ืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืชืคืงืืืื ื ืืกืคืื, ืืืงื ืืืงืืื ืืืืื ืืชืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื. ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืง ืืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื, ืืืขื ืืฉื ืื 1999โ2002 ืืื ืคืจืฉ ืืืคืืืืืืงื. ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืืช ืืชืฉืขืื ืืชื ืขื ืืกืื ืืืจืื ืืืกืื ืืืื ืขื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช. ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืืื ืืฉื ืื 2003โ2005, ืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืงืืื ืืคืจืื, ืืืจืืช ืืืกืื ืืงืืฆืืฅ ืืงืฆืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืจืืืขืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื, ืืฉื ืช 2018, ืืืขืืจื ืืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืชื ืืืืืฉืืช, ืืกืคืืืืจ 2020, ื ืืชืื ืืกืืื ืืืจืื. ืืืื ื ืื ืืชืืจืื ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืคืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืืชืื ืืืจืขื ืืืฆืข ืขืืื ืขื ื, ืืืฆืข ืฆืืง ืืืชื, ืืืืฆืข ืฉืืืจ ืืืืืืช. ื-2023 ืืืจืข ืืื ืฉืืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืืคืจืืฅ ืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืจืื, ืื-2025 ืชืงืคื ืืฉืจืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืฆืข ืขื ืืืืื. ืืืจืืขืื ืืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืชืื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืกืชื ื ืืช ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื 2005 ื-2013 ืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืโืืฆืจืื, ืืืืื ืืืืจืชืืช ืืขืกืงืช ืฉืืื ืืฉื ืช 2011, ืืชืคืจืฆืืช ืืืคืช ืืงืืจืื ื ืืืฉืจืื ืืฉื ืช 2020, ืงืืืื "ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืฉืคืืืช" ืืฉื ืช 2023 ืืืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืื ืจืืืช ืืขืงืืืชืื. ื-24 ืืืื 2020 ืืืืฉื ื ืืื ืืชืื ืืืฉืื ืืขืืืจืืช ืฉืืื ืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืชื ืื ื ืืื ืืฉืคื ืคืืืื ืืฉืืืฉ ืคืจืฉืืืช ืฉืื ืืช: ืชืืง 1000, ืชืืง 2000 ืืชืืง 4000. ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืืืฉื ืืื ืื ืืฉืคื ืคืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืชื. ื-21 ืื ืืืืืจ 2024 ืืืืืข ืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื (ICC) ืื ืืืฆืื ืฆืืื ืืขืฆืจ ื ืืื, ืื ืื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ื, ืืืื ืคืฉืขื ืืืืื ืืคืฉืขืื ื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืจืื. ืจืืฉืืช ืืืื, ืฉืืจืืชื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืืืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืืื ืฉืืืฉืช ืื ืืื ืฉื ืฆืืื (ืืืืช ืกืื; 1912โ2000) ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืื ืฆืืื ื ืชื ืืื (1910โ2012) ืื ืงืจื ืขื ืฉื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื, ืืคืจืืกื ืื ืืืื ืกืื. ืืื ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืชืืืื ืืฉืืื ืช ืชืืคืืืช ืื-1955 ืืงืืืื. ืืงืืจ ืืฉื "ืืืื" ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ืจืื. ืืืืชื ื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืื[ื] ืืืืจ ืืฉืื "ืื" ืืงืจืืืช ืืืจื ืืืืชื. ืืืื ืื ืืืง ืจืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืื ืชื ืืื. ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืืช ื-50 ืืชืืืืช ื-60 ืืืืชื ืืืฉืคืื ืืกืืจืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืชืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื, ืขื ืฉืืฉืคืืชื ืขืืจื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉื ืช 1963, ืืขืงืืืช ืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื. ืืืฉืคืื ืืจื ืืฆ'ืืื ืื, ืคืจืืืจ ืฉื ืคืืืืืคืื ืฉืืคื ืกืืืื ืื, ืฉื ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืชืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืคืขืื ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืื, ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ื-1967 ืืื ืืืชืืืืก ืืฆื"ื, ืืขืื ืฉืืฉืคืืชื ื ืฉืืจื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉื ืฉื ืชืืื ื ืืกืคืืช. ืืื ืฉืืจืช ืืกืืืจืช ืืื"ื, ืฉืื ืฉืืจืช ืื ืืืื ืืื ืชื ืืืืืฉื ืื ืืืื ืขืื. ืืื ืขืืจ ืืกืืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืื ืืืืคืงื ืืืชื ืชืืช ืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืขืืืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืขืืืง ืงืืื ืืืืื. ืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืฆืข ืชืฉืืจื, ืืืืฆืข ืชืืคืช ืืืืืฆืข ืืืืืืก 4 ืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืชืฉื. ืืืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืข, ืืืืจ ืฉืืฆืื ืืืฆืจื ืคืชื ืืืฉ ืขื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืขื ืฉืืืืช 13, ืืขืช ืฆืืืืช ืชืขืืช ืกืืืฅ ืขื ืืื ืกืืจืืช ืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืืืขืจืืืช, ืฉืืืืชื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืฆืจืืื. ืืืืฉื, ืกืืื ืงืืจืก ืงืฆืื ื ืื"ืจ ืืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืืคืงื ืฆืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืคืงื ืฆืืืช ืืฉืชืชืฃ ื ืชื ืืื, ืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืืืฆืข ืืืฉืชืืืืช ืขื ืืืืก "ืกืื ื", ืฉืขืืื ืคืืงื ืืคืงื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืจืง. ื ืชื ืืื ื ืคืฆืข ืืคืขืืื ืื ืืคืืืืช ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืืืื. ืืคืขื ืืืจืช, ืืืืจื ืืคืขืืื ืกืืืืช ืืกืืจืื, ื ืชืงืข ืืฆืืืช ืฉืขืืื ืคืืงื ืืืจื ืืืืืืืื ืกืืื ืืชืฉืืฉืืช ืืืงืืจ. ืืคืงื ืคืืืชื, ืขืืื ืืืื, ืืฉ ืืขืืจืชื ืืืืืฅ ืืืชื. ืืงืืฅ 1972 ืืฉืชืืจืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆื"ื ืืืจืืช ืกืจื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืืจื ืืฆื"ื ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช MIT ืฉืืืกืฆ'ืืกืืก. ืขื ืคืจืืฅ ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืคืืจืื ืืืืงืืืืจ 1973, ืฉื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืืื. ืืื ืืฆืืจืฃ ืืงืืืฆื ืืืืืชืจืช ืฉื "ืืืืจืื" ืืืืืืื, ืฉืฉืืจื ืขื ืื ืืื ื ืืงืจื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืงืื ืืืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืืฉืืืข ืืฉื ื ืืืืจืชื ืืืขืืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืฆืคืื. ืืคื ืืืืืืื, ื ืจืื ืื ืคืืงื ืขื ืืืฆืข ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืฆืคืื. ืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืฉืจืช ืืืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืขื 1981. ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืคืืจ, ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉื ืงืืื ืชืืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืืืจืืืืืช (B.S.A.D) ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช MIT ื-1974, ืืชืืืจ ืฉื ื ืืืื ืื ืขืกืงืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืื ืืืื MIT ืกืืืื ื-1976. ืขืืืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืฉืื ืขื ืฃ ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืืชืืื ื ืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืฆืืจ, ืืื ืืืืช ืืกืืจ ืชืืจื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืื ืึพMIT ืืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืืืจื ืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืืืขื ืืืืื ื. ืืืงืืื ืืืืืืืื, ืขืื ืืฉื ืชืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืขืืฅ ืขืกืงื, "ืืืกืืื ืงืื ืกืืืื ื ืืจืืค". ืืืืชื ืขืช ืืื ื ืขืฆืื "ืื ื'ืืื ื ืืชืื" ืื "ืื ื ืืชืื". ื ืืชืื ืืื ืฉื ืืขื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืชื ืืขืืชืื ืขื ืืืืจืื. ื-1976 ืฉืื ืืช ืืืื, ืืื ื ื ืชื ืืื, ืฉื ืืจื ืืืืื ืืืฆืข ืื ืืื, ืืขืช ืืืืชื ืืคืงื ืกืืืจืช ืืื"ื. ืืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉื ืช 1977 ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืกืืฃ 1976 ืืขื 1980 ืขืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืื ืืื ืชื ืืืงืจ ืืืจืืจ, ืฉืขืจื ืืกืคืจ ืื ืกืื ืืื-ืืืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืจืืจ. ื-1980 ืืื ืขื ืืืื ืขืื ืืคืจืก ื'ืืืืื ืกืงื ืืกืคืจืืช ืืืืืงืจ, ืืขืืืจ ืืืฆืืช ืืืชืื ืืื ื. ืืื 1979โ1982 ืขืื ืืื ืื ืืฉืืืืง ืฉื ืืืจืช ืืจืืืืื "ืจืื ืชืขืฉืืืช". ืืืกืืจืช ืคืขืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืื ืชื ืืืงืจ ืืืจืืจ, ืืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืคืืืืืืงืืื, ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืฉื ืืจื ืก, ืฉืืื ืืกืึน ืืคืืืืืืงื ืืืืืืฅ ืืื ืืชื ืืฆืืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื. ืกื., ืชืคืงืื ืฉืืืื ืืื 1982โ1984. ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืจื ืก ืืฉืืจืืจ, ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืงืืื, ืขื ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืจืืื ืืชืคืงืื. ืืื 1984โ1988 ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืื"ื ืืืื ืืืืคืขืืชืื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืขืืืืืช. ืืืจื ืฉืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืฃ ืืช ืขืืจื ืฉื ืืื"ื ืืื"ื, ืงืืจื ืืืืืืื, ืฉืฉืืจืช ืืงืฆืื ืืืืจืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉื ืืื, ืชืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื"ื, ืืืืื ืจืื ืฉื ืืฆืืื, ืืืฉืืฃ ืืกืืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืฉื ืคืืฉืขื ืืืืื ื ืืฆืื ื ืืกืคืื. ื-1988 ืืืขื ืง ืื ืชื ืืื ืชืืืจ ืืืงืืืจ ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจ-ืืืื. ืงืจืืืจื ืคืืืืืืช ืืงืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืชืื ืขืฉืจื ื-1988, ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืคืืืช "ืืืืืื". ืืื ืืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืชื ืืขืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืืฆื ืืืงืื ืืชืฉืืขื ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื, ืฉืืืื ืื ืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืืืจืืืช ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืืืืฅ. ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืื ืกืช ื-12, ืืืชืื ื ืืกืื ื ืฉื ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืฉื ืืจื ืก, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจ ืืื ืืื. ืืื ืืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืื ื ืืฆืจ ืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืฆืฆื ื ืืฆื ื ืืจืืืืช ืฉืืชืขืฆืื ืืืืจ ืืื. ืืื ืืชืคืงืืื ืืื"ื, ืื ืืชืคืงืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืืคืขืืชืื ืืชืงืฉืืจืชืืืช. ื-1991 ื ืื ื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืจื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืืืขืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืจืืฉืืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฆืืง ืฉืืืจ. ืืืืจ ืืืืขืืื, ืขืงื ืืืชื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืื, ืขืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืกืื ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืกืื ืฉืจ ืืืฉืจื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื. ืืงืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืืืฉ ืขืฉืจื, ืฉื ืขืจืื ื-1992, ืืืฆื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืื ืืฉืืฉื ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืคืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืคืจืืฉืชื ืฉื ืฉืืืจ, ืืชืืืื ื-1993 ืืืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืคืืื. ืืืืื ืืกืข ืืืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืืืช, ืืชืคืจืกืื "ืคืจืฉืช ืืงืืืช ืืืืืืช". ืืืืคืขื ืืืืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืจืช ืืื ืืืืฉืืช, ืืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืื "ืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืงืฃ ืืืืจืช ืคืืฉืขืื" ื ืืกื ืืกืืื ืืืชื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืงืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืจืืืืช ืืืืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชื. ืืจืืืื ืืืคื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืขื ืืืืชื ืืืจืืื ืืคืจืฉื, ืืขืืืงื ืืช ืืงืจืข ืืื ืืฉื ืืื. ืืงืืืช ืื ืืืฆืื ืืขืืื, ืืืืืื ืืชื ืฆื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืืคื ืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื, ืื ื ืืืื ืืืฉื ืงืฆื, ืืืื ื-52.1% ืืืงืืืืช (72,705 ืืชืื 139,522 ืงืืืืช ืืฉืจืื). ืืจืืฉ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื, ืืืงืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจืืคืืช ืืช ืืกืืื ืืืกืื ื-1993 ืืืืืืจ ืฉืืืกืื ืืืื ืืื ืืจืืจ ืืืคื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืื ืืืงืจ ืืืืจืืช ืคืืืืขื ืืจืืจ ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืคืื ืืช ืืืื, ืงืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช, ื ืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืจืืื. ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืคืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืชื ืืคืื ืช ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืฆืืื ื ืื ืืฆืืง ืจืืื ืืืกืื ืืืกืื ื', ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืืืงืืืืจ 1995. ืืฉืชืชืคืืชื ืืืคืื ื ืืฆืืืช ืจืขื ื ื ืฉืื ืืืฆื ืืื ืชืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืจืื ืงืืืจื ืฉืขืืื ืืืืชืื "ืจืืื ืงืืืจ ืืช ืืฆืืื ืืช", ืืืชื ืืคืจืกืื ืจื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืขื ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืื ืจืื ืืช ืืืจืื. ื-29 ืืืื 1996 ื ืขืจืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืืจืืข-ืขืฉืจื, ืืคื ืฉืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืฉืืจื. ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื, ืฉืืขืื ืคืจืก, ืฉืืืืืฃ ืืช ืืฆืืง ืจืืื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฆืื, ืืจืื ืืืืง ืฉื ื-29,000 ืงืืืืช. ื ืืฆืืื ื ืืชืงืื ืืืคืชืขื ืืงืจื ืืคืจืฉื ืื. ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืขืจืืฅ ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืฆื ืคืจืก ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื 1.4%, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืงื ืฉื ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืคื ืืช ืืืงืจ ืืชืืคืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืืืืช ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืกืืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืืชืืกืก ืขื ืชืืืฉืช ืืืกืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืจืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืขืงื ืืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืขืช ืคืืืืขื ืืชืืืืืช, ืืฆื ืืืืืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืกืืื ืืืกืื ืฉื ืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืฉืื. ืื ืืืขื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืจ ืคืขื ืืจืขืช ืคืจืก, ืขืงื ืืขืืื ืืกืืืืช ืืืฉืคืขื ืืจืืฉืืช ืฉื ืจืฆื ืจืืื, ืืืชื ืืื ืืืคืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืชืืจืื ืืช, ืืืชื ื ืืฆื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืกืืขืืช ืืืชืืจืืช ื"ืืืืืื-ืืฉืจ-ืฆืืืช". ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืื ื ืืื ืืฉื ืืื, ืคืจืก ืืืคืืข ืขืืืฃ ืื ืจืื, ืื ืฉืคืืข ืืืืืืื ืืฆืืืืจื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืชื ืืขืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืงืจื ืืืืขืืืื ืคืขืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืขืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืขืจืืืช ื ืื ืขื ืืืชืืื ืืืืฉืื, ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืฆืข "ืขื ืื ืืขื" ืืืืคืืื ืขื ืืคืจ ืงืื ื ืืืื ืื, ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืขื ืชืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื. ืืืื ืืืืืื ืงืืคืืื ืฆืขืืจื ืืืืืช ืื"ื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืืกืฃ ืืืื ืืง: "ื ืชื ืืื. ืื ืืื ืืืืืืื", ืืืืจืืช ืืจื ืืจื ืฉื, ืื ืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืฆืืืข ืื ืชื ืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืฆื ืื ืื ืืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืขืฅ ืืจืชืืจ ืคืื ืงืืฉืืืื ืืงืืคืืื ื ืืืืื ืขื ืกืืกืืืืช ืงืืืืืช ืืื "ืคืจืก ืืืืง ืืช ืืจืืฉืืื", ืฉืืื ืืคืงืืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ื ืืืืจ ืืืคื ืืฉืืื ืืงืจื ืขืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืจืืื. ื ืืฆืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืชื ืืืื 47 ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฆืขืืจ ืืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืจ ืงืื ืืืืื ื ืืชืืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืึพ18 ืืืื ื 1996 ืขื ืึพ6 ืืืืื 1999. ืืืืื ืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืขืกืง ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืืกืื ืืืฉืจืืื-ืคืืกืืื ื. ืืื ืฉืืจ ืขื ืืกืืื ืืืกืื, ืชืื ืืฆืืจื ืขื ืขืืงืจืื ืืคืื ืืงืืื ืืชืืืืืืืืช ืื ืกืืืืช ืจืง ืืืงืืื ืืงืืื ืืชืืืืืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช. ืืืชืื ืืื, ืืชืขืืื ืืกืืจืช ืืืจืื ืืฉืืืื ืคืืกืืื ืืช, ืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉืืจื ื ืืกืจื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืชืื ืืืกืืื ืืืกืื ื'. ืืชืืืืช ืกืคืืืืจ 1996 ื ืคืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืกืจ ืขืจืคืืช ืืืขืืจ ืืจื, ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืคืืืฉื ืืกืืืืช. ื-24 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1996 ืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืคืชืืืช ืื ืืจืืช ืืืืชื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืคืจืฆื ืืืืืืช ืื ืืจืช ืืืืชื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืฆืคืื ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืืืืืื ื ืืจืื 17 ืืืืื ืฆื"ื ืืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืืจืืื ืคืืกืืื ืื. ืืืืืืืช ืืชืคืชืื ืืขืงืืืช ืคืชืืืช ืืคืชื ืืฆืคืื ื ืฉื ืื ืืจืช ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืจืืืข ืืืืกืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืฉืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืฉืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืชืืช ืืกืืื ืืจ ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืขืจืขืจ ืืืชื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืง ืืช ืืืืฉืืจ ืฉื ืชื ืืคืชืืืช ืคืชื ืืื ืืจื ืืืชืื ืืืืืช ืืขืช ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืจืช "ื ืืืขื ืืกืืข ืงืืืื ื". ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืจืืข ืืืืืื ื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืื ืืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืฆื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืคืืกืืื ื ืืื ืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืคืืช ืฉื ืขืจืืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืืื ืฉืืืชื ืืืืืช ืืืคืจืืช ืกืืจ ืืขืจืื ืืขืจืืืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืขืืจืืืช, ืฉื ืคืกืงื ืชืื ืืืื ืกืคืืจืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืงืจื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืงืืื ืืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืขืจืคืืช ืืคืกืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืกืืื ืืื ืืจืื. ืืคืกืื ืกืืื ืืช ืืืจื ืืืชืืืช "ืืกืื ืืืจืื" ืืื ืืืจ 1997. ืืืกืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืฉืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืืช ืืจืื ืฉืืื ืฉื ืืขืืจ ืืืจืื, ืืืขื ืืืืจ ืืขืจืช ืืืืคืื ืืืืืจืื ืกืืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืชืื ืืืืืืืกืื ืืืฉืจืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืชืืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืงืืื ืฉืชื ื ืกืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืฉืืืื ืขื ืื ืกืืื ืืืืจืื ื ืงืจืื "ืฉืืืฉ ืืคืขืืืืช". ืื ืกืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืฆืขื ืืืืชื ืืืืฉ. ืืงืืฅ 1997 ืืชืจืืฉื ืฉื ื ืคืืืืขื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืขืงืืืชืืื ืืืจื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืชื ืงืฉืืช ืื'ืืื ืืฉืขื, ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืืก ืืืจืื. ืืคืขืืื ืื ืขืืชื ืืคื ืืกืืื ื "ืืืืกื" ืฉืืืฆืขื ืืืชื ื ืชืคืกื. ืืชืืืจื ืืฉืืจืืจื, ืฉืืื ืืฉืจืื ืชืจืืคืช ื ืื ืฉืืฆืืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืขื ืืฉืืจืจื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืกืืจืื ืคืืกืืื ืื, ืืจืืฉื ืฉืืื' ืืืื ืืืกืื. ืงืืื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืช ืืกืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืกื ืืื ืืจืืืง, ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืก ืฉืืืจืฉ ืืืจืื ืื ืขืฆืจ ืื ืืืชืชื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืฉืฉ ืฉืืฉืคืื ืืขืืจืจ ืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืืฉ ืืช ืืคืืืืขืื. ืืกืคืจ ืืคืืืืขืื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืฉื ื ืจืืฉื ืืืืฉืืืช ืฉืืคื ืื, ืืฆืืง ืจืืื ืืฉืืขืื ืคืจืก ืืืฉื ืืื ืฉืืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืจืง ืืืจืืื ืฉืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 1999, ืฉื ืช ืืืื ืชื ืืืืจืื ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ื ืจืฆืื 4 ืื ืฉืื ืืคืืืืขืื, ืืืกืคืจ ืื ืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืชืืคืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืขื 2008. ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ืืช ืืืืืฃ ืืื ืขืืจื. ืืงืืช ืืืืขืฆื ื ืขืฉืชื ืืืชืื ืืืืืฆื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืืืกืืจืช ืืคืงืช ืืงืืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืคืืจืื ืืื ืืืฆืื ืืคืืขื ืขื ืืื ืจืืฉื ืืืืฉืืืช ืฉืงืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืชืงืืคื ืืจืืื ืฉื ืงืืคืืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืืจืฉื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืชืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ื ืืืกืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืกืื ืืืจืื ืื ืกืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช, ืืื ืก ืื ืฉืื ืงืืื ืืื ืืช ืืขืืืช ืืื ืืืืงืืืืจ 1998. ืืืืขืืื ืืกืืื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉืจืื, ืฉืืชืื ื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืฉืื ืืืงืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืชืคืืจ, ืื ืกืืื ื ืืกืคืช, ืฉืืืื 13% ืืฉืืื C ืฉืืืื ืฉืืืขืืจื ืืฉืืื A ื-B,โ 1% ื-12% ืืืชืืื, ืืืคืชืืืช ื ืื ืชืขืืคื ืืื-ืืืืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืืชืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืชืืื ืืช ืกืขืืคื ืืืื ื ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืงืืจืืื ืืืืกืื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืฉื ืื ืืชืื ืกื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืขืื ืื ืืืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืงืืื ืืื, ืืืื ืื ืคืืจืกื ื ืืกื ืืืฉ ืฉื ืืืื ื ืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืืช ืืกืขืืคืื ืืงืืจืืื ืืืืกืื ืืฉืจืื. ืืืจื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืฆืขื ืืืฉืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืจืง ืืืง ืงืื ืืื ืกืืื ืฉืื ืืชืืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืจื: โืืชื ื โ ืืงืืื, ืื ืืชื ื โ ืื ืืงืืื.โ ืชืงืืคื ืื ืืชืืคืืื ื ืืืชืืงืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืื ืกืืืืช ื"ืคืขืืืืช" ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืคืขื. ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืชื, ืื ืงืืคืืื ืืืืขืื ืขื ืกืืจืื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืื ืจืื ืืืืืจ, ื ืฉืื ืืืขืื ืืกืืจืื. ืืืขื ืช ืื ืืก ืจืืก ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืง, ืืืืื ืฉืืฆืื ืืืืืจ ืืฉืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืืจืื, ืืืืชื ืืืกืืืชื, ืืืื ื ืกืืื ืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืงื ืขื ืืกืืก ืืืืืืช 1967, ืชืื ืฉืชืืืื ืืงื ืืืืืืง ืืืงืืข ืืืืจ ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืื. ืืืขื ืช ื ืชื ืืื, ืืื ืืชืขืงืฉ ืขื ืื ืฉืงื ืืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืชืจ. ืฉืืืืช ืฆื"ื ืืืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืงืืจืื ืืช ืจืืื, ืืื: ืืกืื ืืืกืืงืื (4 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1997), ืืืช ืฉืืืฉื ืงืฆืื ืื ืืกืืืจืช ืฆื ืื ืื ืืืืชืงืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืื (23 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1997) ืืืกืื ืืฉืืืืช (5 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1997) ืฉืื ื ืืจืื 12 ืืืืื ืฉืืืืช 13 ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืื. ืืกืื ืืืกืืงืื ืืืืืจ ืืกืืจ ืืืื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืช ืืคืงืคืืง ืฉืืฉืืืืช ืฆื"ื ืืืจืื ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืจื ืืืงืืช ืืจืืื ืืจืืข ืืืืืช ืฉืคืขืื ืื ืกืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืื. ืืขืงืืืช ื ืคืืืช ืืงืฆืื ืื ืืืืืข ืื"ืจ ืืคืืืช ืืขืืืื, ืืืื ืืจืง, ืขื ืืชืืืืืืชื ืืฆืืช ืืืื ืื ืชืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืืจื, ืขืืืฃ ืชืื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืกืืจืื. ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืฉืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืช ืืืชืช ืขื ืื ืกืืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืืืื ืฉื ืืช ืืืื ืชื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื, ืืืืจ ืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ, ืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืืื ืื ืืฆืจื ืืฉืืจื ื ืืืืจืืงื ื. ืคืขืืืืช ืื, ืฉืืืืชื ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืื ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ื'ืจื ืคืืืืื (ืื ') ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืฆืจื, ืขืืจืจื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืงืจื ืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืฉืืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืื ื ืฉืืืฉื ืฉืจื ืืืฆืจ: ืื ืืจืืืืจ, ืืขืงื ื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืจืืช โ ืื ืืื ืืืฉื ืคืจืง ืืื ืฉื ืืฉื ื. ืืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืชื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืื ืืจืืืืจ, ืื ืืฉื "ืจืฆืืขืช ืืืืืกืื" ืืืืื ืืืชืคืืจืืช ืืืืจืื ืืขืืืจ ืฉื ื ืืื ืืกืชื ืืชืคืงืื. ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืื ืืื ืคืจืฉ ืืืื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืฆืขืืื ืืืืืืืื[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืฉื ืงื ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืช 1998, ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืกืื ืืืฉืืื ืจืขืืขืื ืขืื. ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืกืืืืช ืฉืืง ืืืคืฉื, ืืขืื ืขื ื ืก ืืช ืขืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืคืฉืืช ืืืช ืืืคืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืฉ ืชืคืืกื ืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื. ืืืืฉืืชื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืคืืฆืื ืืืคืืชืช ืืืจืขืื ืืชืงืฆืืื. ืืืฉืืชื ืืืฆืขื ืืคืจืื ืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืชืืืช ืืืืืจืืืืฆืื ืืืืืข ืืืืฅ, ืืืื ืืืืื "ืจืฆืืขืช ืืืืืกืื", ืืืื ืฉืืจื ืืืชืคืืจืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืจืืืืจ ืืชืคืงืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืจื ืจืคืืจืื ืืคื ืกืื ืฉืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืคื ืกืื ืชืงืฆืืืืช ืืคื ืกืื ืฆืืืจืช, ืืืจืืืช ืืขืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืื ืื ืืืกืคืช ืืคืขืื ืกืืืืจื ืฉืืืฉื, ืชืืืืช ืฉืืจืืชื ืืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืช "Yes" ืืืืกืคืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉืืง ืฉืืืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืื-ืืืืืืืช. ืชืงืืคืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืงื ืืขืืช ืืจืืคืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืื ืืืกืื ืขื ืืขืื ืืจืืชื ืืคืืืืืืื ืึปืึผืึผ ืืขืืชืื ืืืจืืงืืช ืืฆืจืืืืช. ืื ืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืื ืืืง ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืืืืจื ืฉืืคืฉืจื ืืช ืจืฆื ืืฆืืง ืจืืื. ืืกืื ืืื ืืจื ืืืืืื ืืฆื ืืืง ืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืงืืืืืฆืื, ืืขืื ืฉืืคืืืืช ืืฉืืื ื ืื ืขื ืืืกืคืง ืื ืจืฉืช ืืืืืื, ืื ืืืืง ืฉืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืกืื, ืืืขืงืืืช ืืชืงืคื ืฉืื ืขืืืื ืขื ืฉืืื ืืืืืขืืื. ืืฉ ืืืืขื ืื ืื ืืืก ืืฉืืื ืืืคืื ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืขื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืืช ืืืคื ืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉ ืืืืขื ืื[ืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื] ืื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืืจื ืืขืงืืืช ืืชืจืกืืชืื ืืืคื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืงืื ืืื ื.[ื] ืขื ืืืช, ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืกืืจืชื. ืืืคืขืชื ืืชืงืฉืืจืชืืช ืืืืืืฉืช ืืืืื ืื ืชืืืืื, ืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืื ืขืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืชื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืื. ืืืชืืจืืจืืช ืขื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืจืื ืื. ืืชืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืืืฉ ืขืฉืจื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ื-21 ืืืฆืืืจ 1998 ืืฆืืืขื ืืื ืกืช ืืงืจืืื ืฉืืืฉืืช ืขื ืคืืืืจื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืจื ืกืืื ืชืืจืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืงืืจื, ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืขืช ืื-ืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื, ืขื ืืฃ ื ืืกืืื ืืชืื ืืื ืืข ืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืชื. ืืืืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืชืืืืื ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืง, ืืืขืื ืืคืืืช ืืขืืืื; ืืฆืืง ืืจืืื, ืฉืืืชื ืคืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืคืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืจืืฅ ื ืืื; ืื ื ืืืื, ืฉืขืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืขืืื ืืฉืืจื. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืคืจืฉื ืืจืืื, ืืืื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืืจืืฅ, ืืืื ืชืื ืืืืขืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืฉืืจื ืชืืื ืืืืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืจืง, ืฉื ืืฆื ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืื 1999, ืืฉืืื ืืจืื ืฉื 56% ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืจืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืืืกืชื ืขืื ืืคื ื ืคืจืกืื ืืชืืฆืืืช ืืกืืคืืืช ืืืืืืข ืขื ื ืืืืช ืคืกืง ืืื ืืืคืืืืืืงื, ืืฉืืฆืืื ืขืืื ืืจืืื ืฉืจืื, ืฉืืืฆื ืืืืืืคื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืืื. ืืืืื ืชืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืื ื ืืงืื ืฆืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืฉืื ืืงืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจืชื ืืฉืื ืฉืืขืจ ืขื ืืื ืขืืืงืื ืืงืจืข ืืขื ืืืืื ื ืฉืจืืฉ ืื ืืฉืืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืืืจ ืฉืืคืกืื ืืืืืจืืช 1999, ืคืจืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืชื ืืื ืกืช. ืืืืืืกื 1999 ืืื ื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืืจืช ืืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืชืงืืืช ืืืืืจืช "ืืืงืืจืืง ืคืืื". ืขื ื ืคืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืจืง ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืช 2000, ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืืคื ืืืืืจ ืืคืืืืืืงื. ืขื ืคื ืืืง, ืืชืคืืจืืช ืืจืง ืืืืจื ืืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืฉ ืฉืืชืงืืืื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช, ืื ืืืืง ืฉืืืจืช ืื ืชืชืืคืฉืจ ืืงืืช ืืืฉืื ืืฆืืื. ืืคืืืช ืฉ"ืก, ืฉืื ืจืฆืชื ืืืกืชืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืื, ืกืืจืื ืืชืืื ืืคืืืืจ ืืื ืกืช, ืื ืกืืืขื ืืืขืืจืช ืืืง ืฉืืคืฉืจ ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืชืืืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืขืืืืชื ืืืคืชืืขื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืฉืจืื, ืฉื ืืฉื ืืืืชื ืขืช ื"ืืืชื ืืืืจ" ืืืคืืคืืืจื ืคืืืช ืื ืชื ืืื. ืืืจื ืืืฆืข "ืืืืช ืืื", ืชืงืฃ ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืฉืจืื ืืื ืืคืืืืขืื ืืงืจื ืืื ืืกืช ืฆื"ื ืืขืจืื ืืคืืกืืื ืืืช. ืืื ืงืจื ืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืคืจืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืื ืื ืฉืืจ ืขื ืขืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืคื ืฉืื ืืืขืชื ืฆืจืืื ืืืชืืฆืข ืืคืจืื ืืืืช. ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ, ืขื ืคืืจืืง ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืืช, ืืื ืืชืืืืื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืคืจืื. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2002 ืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืืงืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืคืืืฉ ืืขืืจืืง. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืื ืืฉืืืขื ืืืื ืืคืืืฉื ืืื ืืขืืช ืืคืืงืื ืืืจืคืืจืื ืฉื ืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืขืืืชื ืืขืจืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื "ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืชืื, ืคืขืืืืชืื ืืืชืงืืืืชื ืฉื ืกืืื ืืืกืืื ืืคืืชืื ื ืฉืง ืืจืขืื ื" ืืืืกืืฃ ืื ืชืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ื ืฉื ืกืืื, ืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืชืืืื ื ืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืขืฆืืืืช ืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืื. ืืคืืขื ืืชืืจืจ ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืขืืจืืง ืื ืืืื ืขืืจืืง ืื ืืื ืื ื ืฉืง ืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืช, ืืจืืื ืืขืจืืืื ืื ืืฉืคืขืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืกืืื ืืืกืืื ืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืืชื ืฉืืืืืช ืืกื ืืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืช 2002 ืืฆืืจืฃ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืฉืืช ืฉืจืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ. ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืื ืฉืจืื ืขื ืื ืืืช ืืืืืื, ืื ืืคืกืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื 24%. ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืืช ืฉืจืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืชืืืืช 2003, ืืืฆืข ืื ืชื ืืื ืชืคืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ. ื ืชื ืืื, ืฉืืคืฅ ืืชืืง ืืืืฅ, ืกืืจื ืชืืืื, ืื ืืืกืืฃ ืงืืื ืืช ืืชืคืงืื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืคืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืฆื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืงืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืฆืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืก ืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืง ืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืฉื ืชืืื ืืืฆื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืฆืจ, ืขืจื ืจืคืืจืืืช ืืจืืืงืืช ืืืช ืืชืืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืชืืื ืืืืกืื ืืฉืืง ืืืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืงืคืืืืืกืืืช ืชืงืืคื, ืืงืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืคืืชืช ืืืฆืืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืงืืฆืืฆืื ื ืจืืืื ืืชืงืฆืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืคืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืชืืืช. ืืื ืืืืจ ืจืืืช ืขื ืืฆืืจื ืืงืฆืฅ ืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืฉืง ื"ืืืฉ ืืจืื (ืืืืืจ ืืคืจืื) ืืกืืื ืขื ืืื ืืช ืืืืฉ ืืฉืื (ืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจื)". ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ืชื, ืืืืฅ ืืช ืืจืคืืจืื ืฉืืื ืื ืงืืืื, ืกืืืื ืฉืืื, ืืืคืืชืช ืฉืืขืืจื ืืก ืืืื ืกื. ืืืงืืื ืืจืืื ืืช ืืกืืก ืืืก ืืืืื ืคืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืืืช ืืืก ืืชืืฉืื ืืชื ืืืืืืช. ืืืืฆืข 2004 ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืคืืชื ืืืจืืชืืช ืื ืื ืืก ืืืื ืกื ืืืก ืืืืจืืช (25% ืืขืืืช 36%) ืขื ืฉื ืช 2010 ืืืคืืชืช ืืืก ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืขื ืืืืืื (44% ืืขืืืช 50%). (ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืชื ืชื ืืขืช ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉื ืช 2012 โ ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืก ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืขืื ื-48% ืื-50% ืืฉื ืช 2013, ืืืื ืฉืืขืืจื ืืืก ืืืื ืกื ืขื ื-40,000 ืฉ"ื ืืืืืฉ ืืจืื ืืืืื ื ืืืจืช.) ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืื ืืคืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืขืื ืฉืืจ ื ืืื, ืื ืืชืจ ืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืจืง ืขื ืืขืื ืืื ืกื ืืื ืื ืืช ืืืขืื. ืขืจืื ืฉื ื ืงืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืก ืืื ืกื ืืืงืคื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืช. ืืืกืืจืช ืชืืงืื 147 ืืคืงืืืช ืืก ืืื ืกื, ืืืขืื ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืก ื-15% ื-20% ืขื ืจืืืืื ืจืืืืื ืืฉืืง ืืืื, ืืจืืืช ืื ืืืช ืืืืจืกื ืืจืืืืืช ืขื ืคืืงืืื ืืช, ืืืื ืืฉื ืช 2007 ืื ืขื ืฉืื ืืงืจืงืขืื. ืืชืืืืช 2004 ืืืืื ืงืืฆืืฅ ืืืืกืื ืขื ืงืฉืช ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืฆืจื ืฆืจืืื, ืืืงืืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืช ืืืข"ื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืฉื 17%. ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืื ื ืืช ืืงืจืืืจืืื ืื ืืงืืืช ืงืฆืืืืช ืจืืืื ("ืชืฉืืืื ืืขืืจื") ืืืืื ืืงืืฆืืฅ ืืงืฆืืืืช ืืืืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืช ืื ื ืืขืื, ืืืืจืื, ืืขืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืงืฆืืืืช ืืฆืืช ืืขืืืื. ืืงืืฆืืฅ ืืงืฆืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืฃ ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืชืืคืฉืจ ืื ืืื ืืขืืืื ืฉืืืคืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช, ืฉืืืืคื ืืกืืจืชื ืคืขืื ืืืืืืช ืงืฆืื ืื (ืืืืืื ืืืง ืืืคืจื), ืื ืืื ืืืง ืืืงืืืืืฆืื. ืืงืืฆืืฆืื ืืงืฆืืช ืืืืืื ืคืืขื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืขืจืื, ืฉืืื ืฉืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืกืืช. ืงืืฆืืฆืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืงืฆืืืืช ืคืืขื ืืืืืืช ืืื-ืืืจืืืช, ืืืืืืืื ืืืงืฉืืฉืื ืืขืืจืจื ืื ืฉื ืฉืืืชืืช ืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืื ืฉื ืืืงื ืงื ืคื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื, ืืืขืืจื ืืืจืืช ืจืืืช ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืคืื ืคืจืืืื. ื-2003 ืืื ืคืงื ืืืืจืกื ืื ืืืช "ืื ืขื", ืืืืืื ืืืชื ืงืืืฆืช "ืื ืคืืื" ืฉื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืืืฅ ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืชืืืืช 2004 ืืืจื ืืืืื ื ืืช ืื ืืืชืื ืืืืจืช ืืกืคื ืืช "ืฆืื" (50% ืืืืืจื) ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืกืื ืขืืคืจ ืชืืืจืช ืืืฆื ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื. ืืืืื, ืฉืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืืืงื ืจืืื ืื "ืขืกืงืช ืืฉืงืฉืืงื", ืขืืจืจ ืืืงืืจืช ืฆืืืืจืืช ืจืื, ืื ืืชืื ืขืืื ืืขืจื ืืื"ื ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื. ืืจืขืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืง ืืืกืงืื ื ื ืืืจ ืืงืืืฆืช ืืฉืงืืขืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืชืื ืืจืื ืคืื, ืชืืืจืช 1.3 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื, ื-80% ืืฉืืื ืืฉืืง, ืขื ืคื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืช ืฉื ืกืืจื ืืืืชื ืืขืช ืืืืจืกื. ืืืจืช ืืชืงืฉืืจืช "ืืืง" ื ืืืจื ืืงืืืฆื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืกืื ืืืืืคืงืก, ืืืืืจ ืืงืจืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจืกืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืงืืืืื ืืืืืืคืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืจืขืื ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืง ืืืืื, ืื ืื ืืฉื ืช 2008 ืื ืืื ืืื ืง ืืืืืื ืคืจืืืืช. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืคืืืช ื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืชืืืืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืฆืืจ ืชืืจืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืืขืื. ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืกืื ืฉืืจ ืขื ืืขืืืืื, ืฉืื ืชืืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืกืื ืืืจื ืืืฉืืชืืช ืขืืืจ ืื ื ืื ืืืฉืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 2009, ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืคืขืื ืืื ืืืช ืืจืคืืจืื, ืืืฉืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืืืจ ืคืจืืฉืชื ืืชืคืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืงืืข ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืื ืืจืคืืจืื ื ืืฉืื. ืืื ืืื ืคืชืจืื ืืืฉืืจ ืงืจื ืืช ืืคื ืกืื ืืืจืขืื ืืืช, ืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืงืจื ืืช ืืคื ืกืื ืืืืืจืช ืืงืจื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืช, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืจืืช ืืืืืื. ืชืืื ืืช ืืกืืืข ืืคืฉืจื ืืงืจื ืคืืขืื ืืื ืืื, ืฉืืืจ ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืคืจืขืื, ืืช ืชืฉืืื ืืคื ืกืื ืืืืจืื. ืฆืขื ืื ืืืื ืืืขืืื ื ืืืจืช ืฉื ืืคืจืฉืืช ืืขืืืชืื ืืงืจื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืช ืืืขืืืืืื ืืฆืืฆืื ืืืืืืืช ืืขืืืชืื. ืืงืจืืช ืกืืฃ ืืืื ืชื ืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืจืคืืจืื ืืฉืืง ืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช "ืืขืืช ืืืจ". ืืืชืื ืืืืืฆืืชืื, ืฉืืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ื ืืืฆื ืืื ืงืื ืืืืืจ ืืช ืงืืคืืช ืืืื ืืืช ืงืจื ืืช ืื ืืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืืืขืืืชื. ื ืชื ืืื ืกืคื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืชืืื ืืฉื ืขืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืขืื ื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืื ืืื-ืฉืืืืื ืืืฉืง. ืขื-ืคื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืกื ืืืืืื ืืืืื, ืฉืืขืืจ ืืขืื ื ืืื 2002 ื-2004 ืขืื ืื-10%, ืืืกืคืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืขื ืืืช ืขืื ื-12%. ืืจืืื ื ืจืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืขืืืื ืืืจืืฉืช ืื ืืงืงืื ืืืืื ืืืชืจืืคืืช, ืื ืืงืจื ืืืจืืื ืฉืืฉืชืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืขืื ืืืื ืืื, ืืงืจื ืืืจืืื ืขืืืืื ืื ืคื ืกืืื ืจืื. ืืขืื ื ืืชืจืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืชืืฆืื ืืืงืืฆืืฆืื ืืชืฉืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืงืฆืืืืช. ืืฆื ืืืืงืืจืช, ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืชื ืืฉืชืคืจื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืง ืืืฉืจืื: ืืกืืฃ 2002 ืืชืงืฉืชื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืก ืืกืฃ ืืืืื ืืช ืืจืืช, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืืชื ืืื ืืืืคื ื ืืืจ. ืืื"ื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืคืื ื ืกืืช ืฉื ืื ืง ืืฉืจืื ืืฉื ืช 2003 ืฆืืื ืื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืขืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืงืื ืืคืื ื ืกืืื ื ืืข, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืฉื, ืืฆืืื ืืืขืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืงืืฆืืฆืื ืืชืงืฆืื (ืืฃ ืฉืขืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืขืื ืฉื ืืืชื ืฉื ื), ืืืช ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืจืืื ืืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืฆื ืืฉืืืงืื ืืขืืื, ืงืืืช ืืขืจืืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืืช ืืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืฆื ืืืืืืื ื. ืืฉื ืช 2007 ืคืจืกืื ืืืืงืช ืืืืงืจ ืฉื ืื ืง ืืฉืจืื ืืืืจ ืฉืื ื ืืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืงืจื-ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืชืงืืคืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืจืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืคื, ืืจืื ืืฉืืืฉ ืืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืง ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืฆืื ืืื, ืืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืฆื ืืืืืืื ื ืืฆืืืืช ืืกืืจ ืืขืืืื ืืจืื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืฆืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืื ืืืก ืื-ืขืจืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืชื ืชืงืืช. ืืื ืชืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืืข ืืขืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืงืจืืืืช ืฉื ืืืง ืืืชื ืชืงืืช ืืื ืกืช. ืขื ืืืช ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืข ืืกืชืืืืืืืช, ืืคืจื ืื ืกืืื ืืฆืืจ ืคืืืืืคื ืืืฆืืข ืขืจืืืช ืืฉืื ืขื, ืืฃ ืื ืืฆืืืจ ืฉืืืฉืื ืืฆืืืข ืืขื ืืชืื ืืช. ืืฉืขืืชื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืื ืกืช, ืืฆืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืืขืื, ืื ืืฆืื ืืืืืืืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืคืื ืืชืคืืจ ืื ืื ืืืืฆืข ืืฉืื ืขื. ืืืืฉื ื ืกืื ืื ืืืืืืืืืืื ืืชืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืื ืืชืงืืื ืืฉืื ืขื. ืืช ืืชื ืขืจืืชื ืืืืืืืืืืื ืฉืืฆืื, ืืืืก ืืืืจืคืช ืืฆืื ืืจืคืืื ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืขืจืคืืช. ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืืชืืข ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืื ืขื, ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืฆืืืข ืืื ืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืขื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืขืืช ืฉื ืขืจืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืกืช. ื-7 ืืืืืืกื 2005, ืขืจื ืืืฆืืข ืืคืื ืื, ืืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืขื ืคืื ืื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืฉืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื, ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืชืคืืจืืชื. ืืื ื ืืืง ืืช ืืืืืชื ืืืชืคืืจ ืืืฉืฉื ืฉืืขืื ืฆืคืื ืืงืื "ืืกืืก ืืจืืจ ืฉืืกืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืฉืจืื" ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ืจืคืืจืืช ืืืจ" ืืื ืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืืจืคืืจืืืช ืฉืืืงืฉ ืืขืจืื ืืืกืืจืช ืชืคืงืืื. ื-30 ืืืืืืกื 2005 ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืื ืชื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืืขืืืืชื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื. ืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืืจื ืขื ืชืืืืชื ืื ืชื ืืื. ืืืื ืกืคืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืขืืื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืืขืืืืชื ืืชืคืงืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืจืืื ืฉืจืื, ืืืขื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจื ืฉืืื "ืฉืืืื ืืืจืฆ". ืืกืคืืืืจ ืคืขื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืื ืขื ืื ืืื ืื ืฆืืื ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืชื ืืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืฉืจืื, ืืืงืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืืืืจืช ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืคืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืจืื ืืชืคืงืืื. ืืืฆืขื ื ืืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืคืจืฉ ืงืืืืช ืงืื, ืื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืชืคืงืื ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืชื ืืขื. ืืชืืืืช ืืฆืืืจ 2005, ืืขืงืืืช ืคืจืืฉืชื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืฉืจืื ืืืคืืื ืขืฆืืืืช ืืฉื "ืงืืืื", ืืคื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืืข ืขืฉืจื. ืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืคืจืืืืจืื ืกืืืื ืฉืืื, ืืฉืจืื ืืฅ ืืืฉื ืคืืืืืื. ืขืืื ืื ืืื, ืฉืืชืืืื ืืชืืืื, ืืกืืจ ืืช ืืืขืืืืชื ืืืืืืข ืขื ืชืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืคื, ืฉืืชืืืื ืืชืืืื ืื ืืื, ืขืืจ ืืืคืืืช "ืงืืืื". ืืืืืจืืช ืืคื ืืืืืช ื ืขืจืื ื-19 ืืืฆืืืจ 2005, ืื ืชื ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืคืืื ืขื 44% ืื ืืงืืืืช (ืืื 33% ืืฉืืื, 12% ืืคืืืืืื ื-9% ืืืฅ). ื-2 ืืืจืฅ 2006 ืืฆืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืขืชื ืืืืขืืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืขื ืืืคืืื ืืืืจื ืืคืจืืืืจืื ืคืชืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืจื ืืชื ืืขื. ืืื ื ืืื ืืืขืฉื ืืืื ืืคืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืื ืืชื ืืขื, ืฉื ืืฉื ืืฉื ืื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืงืืจ ืืฉืืืชืืช ืืชื ืืขื[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ]. ืืชืืืืืช ืืฆืขื ืื ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืืื ืืขืืจืืืช, ืืื ืืื ืืชืฉืืืืช ืขื ืฉื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืคืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืขื ื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืชืืงืื ืงืืกืืื ืืืื, ืืืฆืืืขื ืขื ืืขืืืื ืื ืืฆืขื ื ื ืงื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจ ื ืืืจื ืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืกืช ื-17, ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืฆื ืืงืืืืชื ืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช. ืืคืืขื ืื ืืื ืืืืืจ ื"ืฆืขื ืงืืกืืื" ืืืชื ืืื ืคืจืืืืจืื ืจืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืจื ืืชื ืืขื ืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ื-17 ืืืืื ืขืื ืืคืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ื ืชื ืืื, ืฉืืื ื-12 ืื ืืืื, ืืืช ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืืขืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืื ืืจืืื ืฉืจืื ืืขื ืืฃ ืขืืืืช ืืืืก ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืจื ืืืจืื, ืฉื ืจืื ืืืื ืืขืืืืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืคืืื. ืื ืืื ืืชืืืกื, ืงืฉืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืืืช, ืฉืคืืขื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช, ืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืจืืช, ืื ืงืืข ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืจืืืช ืืืขื ืืฆืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืืืข ืฉืืืฉืื ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืชื ืืขื. ืืื ืกืช ื-17 ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื. ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืฉื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืกืื ื ืื ืฉืงืคืช ืืืืจืื ืืืชืืืฉืช ืืคืฆืฆืช ืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืืจืื ืื ืื ืืฆืืช. ืืฉื ืช 2008 ืืืฉืจื ืืื ืกืช ืืฆืขืช ืืืง ืคืจืืืช ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืขืกืงื ืืืืกืืจ ืืฉืงืขื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืื ืงืฉืจ ืขื ืืืจืื. ื-14 ืืืืืืกื 2007 ื ืขืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืื. ืืจืืื ืืขืืงืจื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืคืืื, ืกืืืื ืฉืืื, ืคืจืฉ ืืืคืื ืชืืืช ืืืืจืืฅ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืคืืื ืืฉื ืืงืืืช ืืคืจืืืืจืื, ืชืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืขืื ืขืืงืจื ืืืื ืืื ืคืขืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืคืืื, ืืฉื ืคืืืืืื ืืื ื ืื ืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืฉื 72.8% ืืืืกืก ืืช ืืขืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืขืื ืืืคืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืช. ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืคืขื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืงืืจืื, ืืืคืืจ ืืงืื ืืก, ืืืืืงืชื ืฉื ืคืืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืขืืืื ืืืงืื ื-36, ืืืืจ ืฉืื ื ืืืจ ืืืงืื ื-20. ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืจื ื ืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืฉื ืชืคืกื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืฉืืื, ืื ืชื ืืื ืืจืฉ ืืงืืช ืืขืืช ืืงืืจื ืืืืืชืืช ืืืงืจ ืืืืืื. ืืืืืจื ื ืืฉื ืืคืืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืืขืื ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืฉืืกืืคื ืืชืคืืจ. ืืืืืคืชื, ืฆืืคื ืืืื ื, ืืฉืื ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืื ืืคืืืจื ืืื ืกืช. ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืฉืืื ื ืขืฉืจื ืืื ืืจื ืืงืกืืืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืืก ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืข ืขืืคืจืช ืืฆืืงื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืข ืืช ืขืืืชื ืฉืืืืื ืืจืืืง ืืฉ ืืืคืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืก ืืจืฆืืขื ืืชืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืฆืข. ืืงืืคืืื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืคื ืืื ื ืืกืืกืืืืช ืืื "ืืืง ืืืืืืื, ืืืง ืืืืืื". ื-3 ืืคืืจืืืจ, ืืฉืืืขืืื ืืืจื ืชืื ืืืฆืข "ืขืืคืจืช ืืฆืืงื", ื ืคืื ืืืฉืงืืื ืจืงืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืืงืจ ืืขืืจ, ืืืืื ืฉืืืฉืืชื ืชืคืขื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืก ืืจืฆืืขื, ืืชืงืฃ ืืช ืืืฉืืช ืงืืืื ืขื ืื ืฉืื ืขืฉืชื ืืืช. ืืฉืจืื ืืืจ, ืฉืืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืกืืจืืื ืฉื ืืงืืคืืื, ืกืืคืจ ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืชื ื-2020 ืฉืืืืืื ืืืฆืืจื ืืืืชื ืฉืื, ืขืงื ืกืงืจืื ืคื ืืืืื ืฉืืจืื ืขื ืืชืืืงืืช ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื ืืฉืืชืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืจืฆื ืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืฉืืื ืืขืฉื ืืืจ ืืื, ืืืื ืืืกืืฃ ืืฉืชืื ืข. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ื-18 ืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ื-27 ืืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืกืืขื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืจื ืงืืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืฆืืคื ืืื ื ืืืคืจืฉ ืฉื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืื. ืืืืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืื ื-ืืชื, ืฉืืืืืฅ ืืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืื ืจืื ืืื ืกืช (65 ื"ืืื), ืื ืฉืื ืฉืืขืื ืคืจืก ืืืื ืขืืื ืืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืื ืงืืืืืฆืื ืฉืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื, ืืคืืืช ืืขืืืื, ืฉ"ืก, ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจื. ื-31 ืืืจืฅ 2009 ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืงืื ืืืื 30 ืฉืจืื ื-9 ืกืื ื ืฉืจืื. ืืืื ื 2009 ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช "ื ืืื ืืจ-ืืืื", ืฉืืืจืืื ืืืืข ืืกืืื ืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืืงืืช ืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืช ืืคืืจืืื, ืืืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืช ืืขื ืืืืืื, ืืืชืืจ ืขื ืืืืช ืืฉืืื. ืื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืขืฉืจื ืืืื ืืืืจ ื ืืืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืงืืืจ, ืืืื ืงืฉืืจ ืืืืขืื ืขื ืืืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืืคื ืืืื, ืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจ-ืืืื ื ืชืคืก ืืฆืืืืจ ืืชืคื ืืช ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืืก ืืขืืืืชืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืคื ืชืืืื ืืฉืืื. ืืื ืืืจ 2010 ืืืืืื ืืขืืช ืฉืจืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ืืืืฅ ืืช ืืชืื ืืช ืฉืืืฆืขื ืขื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืคื ืื ืืฆืืง ืืืจืื ืืืืฅ' ืืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืขื ืืฆืจืื ืืขืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืืจื ืืืฆื ืฉ"ื. ืขื ืืืืืื ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื "ืงืืืืชื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืกืชื ื ืื ืืืืืืืื... ืืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืกืืจืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืงืจืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื". ืืขืงืืืช ืฆืขื ืื ืคืกืงื ืืืกืชื ื ืืช ืืืขื ืืืืจื. ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืืจืืฃ ืืืฉืืจ ืืืชืืฉื ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืจืงืื, ืืฉืืจ ืฉืืื ืืขืช ืืืื ืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืจื, ืืืืจ ืืืฆืข ืขืืคืจืช ืืฆืืงื, ืืืืจืืฃ ืืชืงืืคืช ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฉื ืืขืื ืืกืืฃ ืืื 2010. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2010, ืืขืงืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืืืขืื ืขื ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืืงืื, ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ืก ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืช ืขื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืคืชืืจ ืืช ืืกืืกืื ืืืฉืจืืื-ืคืืกืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืฉืชื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉื ื ืขืืื ืืชืื ืืกืชืืืืืืืช ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืก, ืืืืืืืื ืืืืจืืฉื ืืืืจื ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืช ืืขื ืืืืืื. ืืืงืืื, ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฆืื ืืฆื ืืืฉื ืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืคืื ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉื 10 ืืืืฉืื. ืืืืืืกื 2011 ืืืจืขื ืืกืืื ืืืจืื ืืืจืฅ ืฉืืืื ืืคืืืืข ืงืืื ื ืืืืืจ ืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืขืื ืืจื ืกืื ื, ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืงืคืช ืจืงืืืช ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืื ืขืืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืืจืื. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2011, ืื ืืื ืืื"ื, ืืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจืืื ืขื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืชื ืืขืช ืืืจืืฉ ืืืื"ื ืืืจื ืืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืฉืจืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืงืจื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืืืืฉ ืืช ืฆืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื. ืืืงืืื, ืคืขื ืืืืืจื ืืงืืขืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืจืื ืืืืขืฆืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืืจื ืืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช, ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฆื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืจืฃ ืคืขืืืืช ืืื, ื-29 ืื ืืืืืจ 2012 ืืืฉืจื ืืขืฆืจืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืจืื ืืืื (ืืืืืื 67/19 ืฉืื) ืืช ืืืืจื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืืืื ื ืืฉืงืืคื ืฉืืื ื ืืืจื ืืืื ืืื"ื. ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื, ืืืืื ืืคืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืงืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืจื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืงืืคืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืก, ืืคืืขื ืืืจ ืืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืืืืง ืืืชื. ืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืื ืข ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืกืืจ ืงืืข. ื-11 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2011 ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ืืช ืขืกืงืช ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืืก - ืืืกืืจืชื ืฉืืืจืจ ืืืขื ืฉืืื ืชืืืจืช 1,027 ืืกืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืคืืกืืื ืื. ืื ืืืืืจ 2012 ืืืกื ืฆื"ื ืืช ืืืื ื'ืขืืจื, ืจืืฉ ืืืจืืข ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืก, ืืขืงืืืช ืืจื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืคืชืืืช ืืืฆืข ืขืืื ืขื ื, ืฉื ืืขื ืืื ืืข ืืจื ืจืงืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืจืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืฆืข, ืืคืฉืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืื ืืกืชื ืฉื ื'ืืื ืืฉืขื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืืืืจื ืขืืื ืืจื, ืฉืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืขื 2011, ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืข ืืกืืจืื, ืืชืืืื ืืืจืืงืื, ืืกืื ืืืืื ื ืกืืื ืืืงืืช ืืจืืช ืืืืื, ืชืื ืืฉืืจืช ืจืื ืืืืฉืืืื ืืืฉืจืืืื ืืจืื ืืืงืืื. ืืคื ืืืฆืขื ืืจืื ืชืืกืืจ ืืกืืจืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืจืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืชืืฆืข ืืืืืคื ืฉืืืื ืื ืขื ืกืขืืืื. ืืืฆืขื ืืืชื ืืืจืืช ืืจืื ืื ื ืืืชื ืขื ืืกืฃ ืืืื ืกืืจืื. ืกืืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืื ืขืกืง ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืื ืืื ืกืืืืืช ืชืงืืคืชื ืฉื ืืชืงื ื ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื. ืขื ืกืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ื ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืชืจืืข ืืืจ ื-1993. ืืคืชืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืืจืฃ ืฉื ืืื ืกืช, ื-31 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2011, ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืื โืืืจืื ืืจืขืื ืืช ืชืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืขื ืืขืืื ืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืขืืื ืโ. ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืจืขื ืืืืืช ืืืชืงื ืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืชืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืืื 3, ืืืงื ืืืืกื ื"ืืืกื", ืฉืืื ืขื ืืจืืื ื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืจืืื ืื, ืืื ืืคืขืื ืืืืคื ืืฉืื ืื ืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืช. ื-27 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2012 ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืคื ื ืืขืฆืจืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืื"ื. ืื ืืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืืฉืจ ืืืจืื ืชืืืข ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืขืฉืจ ืืจืื ืฉื 90% ืชืืื ืื ื ืงืืืช ืืื-ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืื ืงื ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืืืข ืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืชืคืงืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืืฉ ื"ืฉืจ ืืืกืืจืืืื ืืืืืืช". ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืฆื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืจื ืืืจืืื ืืืื ืกืืช ืืืกืื, ืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืขืืชื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืืชืืืืช ืืืื ืชื, ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืขืจื ืืืืืจืืช. ืืืืื 2010 ืืืขืื ืื ืืืก ืขื ืกืืืจืืืช. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืข ืืืื ืืช ืขื ืื"ืจ ืืืกืชืืจืืช, ืขืืคืจ ืขืื ื, ืขื ืขืกืงืช ืืืืื ืืืฉืง. ืืฉืจืื ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืฉืืืฉืง ืฉืื ืฆืื ืืขืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื. ืืืื ืคืืฆืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช. ืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืฉืืขืืชื. ืืฉืงื ืืชืืืง ืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืงื ืืืช ืขืชืืืืช ืื"ื ืืฉื ืื ืืขืช ืืืกืืฃ. ืืืื ืืืช ืืืจืืจืืกืคืงืืืื ื ืืงืจื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืืขืช ืืืฉืืจ, ืืืืืช ืืฆืืืชื ืืื ืืขื ื ืจืืืช ืฉื ืคืืืขื ืืืฉืง ืืืืื ืืงื ืืื ืืืฉืจืืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืกื ืืงืื ืจืคืืจืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืืง ืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืงื ืขื ืงืืืช ืืืฉืืจื ืื ืืื. ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฉืื, ืื ืืขืงืืืช "ืคืจืฉืช ืืืืืื ื", ืืืฉืฉืืช ืื ืืืข ืืืจื ืคืขืืืชื ืฉื ืืขืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืืื, ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืคืื ืืช ืืจืคืืจืื. ืืืื 2010 ืืฆืืจืคื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืืคืืชืื ืืืืื (OECD). ืืืืื-ืืืืืกื 2011 ืคืจืฆื ืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืกืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืืืจ ืืืืงืจ ืืืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืืืื ืืงืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืขืืช ืืจืืื ืืจื ืืืืืืฉ ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืคืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉืขืื ืืืืื, ืืืืืฅ ืืช ืจืื ืืืืฆืืชืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืฅ ืืืืืฆืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืื 3, ืืืขืื ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืข"ื, ืืก ืงื ืืื ืขื ืืืง ืืืืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืฉืืขืืจื ืืก ืืื ืกื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2012 ืืืืข ืืืืจืขืื ืืชืงืฆืื ืืืืื ื ื-39 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื, ืืคืืืื ืืืืชืืื ื. ืืืจืขืื ืื ืืืืื ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืืจ ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืขืืืืช ืืืกืื ื ืืกืคืืช. ืืืชืื ืืืกืื ืืงืืืืืฆืืื ื, ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืฉืจ ืืจืืืืช ืืืืฉืืชื ืืืขื ืืง ืืช ืืกืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืกืื ืืฉืจ ืืขืงื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจื. ืขืชืืจื ืฉื ืืืกืชืืจืืช ืืจืคืืืืช ืืื"ืฅ ื ืื ืืกืืจ ืื ื ืืืชื. ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืฉืืจืื ืืืคืช ืฉืคืขืช ืืืืืจืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืจื ืืจืืืฉ ืืืกืื ืื ื ืื ืฉืคืขืช ืืืืืจืื ืืื ืชืืฉืื ืืืืื ื. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืชืืกื ื ืจืง ื-700,000 ืืฉืจืืืื (ื-10%) ืืืืืื ื ื ืืชืจื ืขื ืขืืืฃ ืฉื ื-4.5 ืืืืืื ืื ืืช ืืืกืื. ืืฉื ืช 2010 ืคืจืฆื ืืฉืจืคื ืืืจืื ืื ื ืกืคื 44 ืื ื ืืื, ื-17,000 ืืืฉ ืคืื ื ืืืชืืื ืืงืจืื ื-25 ืงื"ืจ (25,000 ืืื ื) ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ื ืขืฆืื ืขืื ืืืฉ. ืฉืจืคื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืกืื ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉืืชืจืืฉ ืืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืืชื ืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2011 ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืขืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืืื ื, ืฉืขืกืงื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืงืืช ืืขืืืช ืืงืืจื ืืืืืชืืืช ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืกืืืืืืชืื ืืืืฃ ืืืฉืจื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื. ืืื ืืืจ 2012 ืืืงื ืืื ืืกืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืฉืจื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืจื ืืืคืื ืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืื ืขืืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืกืืืืจ, ืืืชืื ืืืืืฆืืช ืืขืื ืฉืขืื ืืจืืฉื ืืืืืฃ ืืืื' ืืฆืืง ืื ืืฉืจืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืืืื ื ืืืจ ืฉืืข ืชืืคืื ืืืืจืช ืืกืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืชืื ืืื ืชืืงืฆืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืจ ืฉืืข ืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืืจืืช ืืื-ืืืืืืืช ืืืงืื ืืจืืื ืื"ืค ืกืืืืจ ืืืืจ ืฉืืข. ืืกืืฃ ืื ืืืจ 2012 ืืชืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืคื ืืืืืช ืขื ืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืคืืืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืืงืื ื-36 ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช 2008, ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจ-ืื ืกืช. ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืชืคืงืื, ืืฉืืฆืืืขื ืื ื-75% ืืืืชืคืงืืื. ืืืืงืืืืจ 2012 ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืขื ืืืืืืช ืขื ืชืืืืชื ืืืงืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืชืืืืช 2013, ืืืื ืฉืงืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืกืช, ืืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืคืืืืช "ืืืืืื" ื"ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื" ืืจืฉืืื ืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉืืื ืชื "ืืืืืื ืืืชื ื" ืืงืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ืืืืืจืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืชื ืืจืฉืืื ืืืฉืืชืคืช ื-31 ืื ืืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ื-19 ืืงืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืชื ืืฉืืืฉืืช. ืืืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืขื ืื ืืืืืจ 2013. ืืืจืฅ 2013 ืืืืกืืจืช ื ืืกืืื ืืช ืชืืืื ืฉื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืง ืืืืื - ืฉืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืืจืงืื, ืจื'ืค ืืืืค ืืจืืืื ืขื ืืฉืืช ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืืงืื ื, ืืืจื ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืืฉืืจ ืืขืงืืืช ืืืจืืขื ืืืฉื ืืขืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืชื ืฆื ืขื ืืืจืืขื ืืืฉื, ืืฉื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืกืืืืช, ืฉืืืคืจืื 2014 ื ืจืื ืืงืจืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืืชืืื ืขื ืืกืื, ืื ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฆืข ืฆืืง ืืืชื, ืืืืกืื ืืืจืืจื ืฉืื. ืืืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืชืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืืคื ืืจืืฃ ื ืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืืจืงืื ื ืขืจืื ืืคืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืฉืจืื, ืฉืฉืืื ืืื ืืชืงืคื ืื ืื ืืืช ืืฉืืจืืจืืช, ืฉืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืช ืืฉืคืืืช ืืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืืฉืจืื, ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืจืช ืืกืข ืืืืจืงืื. ืืืืง ืืืืกื ืืจืื ืืโืืฉืจืื ืืืืกื ืืฉืจืืโืืฆืจืื ืืกืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืช ืฆืืืืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืจืื ืื ืืืฆืจืื ืฉืืฉืืืืช ื-ืกืืกื. ืืืจืฅ 2019 ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืกืื ืืืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืืื ืจืืฉื ืืืืขืฆื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืคืช ืืจืฆื ืฉืืืฉื ื ืขืจืื ืืืืืื ื-12 ืืืื ื 2014 ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืก, ืคืชื ืฆื"ื ืืคืชืื ืืืืฆืข ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืชืืจ ืืืืืคืื ืืืคืืืขื ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืก ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืฆืข ื ืขืฆืจื ืืืขืื ื-400 ืคืืกืืื ืื, ืืจืืืชื ืื ืฉื ืืืืก, ืืจืืืช ื-50 ืืกืืจืื ืฉืฉืืืจืจื ืืืืื ืขืกืงืช ืฉืืื. ืืื ืื, ื ืืฉืคื ืขืฉืจืืช ืกืืืงืื ืชืช-ืงืจืงืขืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืจืื ืืืขืืืืช ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืฆืจื ืขืฉืจืืช ืจืืืื ืื ืืืืขื ืื. ื-8 ืืืืื 2014 ืคืชื ืฆื"ื ืืืืฆืข ืฆืืง ืืืชื ืืชืืืื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืืก ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืืืืฆืข ืืื ืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืืจืืืช ืืื ืืกื ืงืจืงืขืืช ืืืจืืง ืฉื ื-3 ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืื ืืจืืช ืืชืงืคืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืืก. ืืืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืจื ืืืืก ืืืคื ืจืงืืืช ืืคืฆืฆืืช ืืจืืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืืฉืจืื. ื-30 ืืืืื ื ืืืคื ืืืคืืชืืื ืฉื ืกืื ืจืืฉืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืฉื ืกืื ืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืงืจื ืฉื'ืืขืืื, ืื-7 ืืืืืืกื ื ืคืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืงืฉ ืืื ื ืืกืืืข ืืืฉืืช ืืืคืืชืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืข ืืืชืื ืืช ืืืกืืื ืคืขืืื ืจืืืช ืืืคืกืงืืช ืืฉ ืฉืืืฆืขื ืขื ืืื ืืฆืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืืฆื ืืืฉืจืื ืืงืืื ื ืชืืื ืืืืจืคืช ืืืขืจืื. ืืืืื ืืืืฆืข ื ืืืจื ืืชืืืืช ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืจืง ืืืืื. ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืจืฉ ืืืฉืจืื ืืืกืืื ืืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ ืืืงืื ืืช ืืืจืงืื ืืงืืจ ืืืชืืืืืช ืืกืืกืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืกืืจื, ืื ืืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืฆืข ืืกืชืืื ืืืืจ ืืฉืืขื ืฉืืืขืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ื-26 ืืืืืืกื, ืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืืคืกืงืช ืืืฉ ืืกืืื ืืืืฆืข ืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืฉื ืืขืืื ืืื ืืฆืืขื ืืงืืื ื ืืืืื ื-ืืืืืื ื, ืฉืื ืื ืจืื ืื ืืื ืื ืจืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืฆืข, ื ืชื ืืื ืกืคื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืขื ืื ืืฆืื ืืกืคืงืช ืืงืืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืจืืช ืืชืงืืคื ืืคื ื ืืืืฆืข. ืืืืื 2014 ืืื ืขืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืคืืืืขื ืืจืืจ ืืฆื ืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืืืงืืืืจ ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืฆืขื ืืืืืื ืคืืกืืื ืื ืคืืืืขืื ืฉืฉืืื ืืื ืืคืืืืข ืืืืช ืืื ืกืช ืงืืืืช ืื ื ืชืืจื ืืืื ื ืจืฆืื 6 ืืฉืจืืืื. ื-3 ืืืจืฅ 2015 ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืคื ื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชืจืืข ืืคื ื ืืืกืื ืืืชืืืฉ ืืื ืืืขืฆืืืช ืืืืจืื, ืืืกืืจ ืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืช. ืืขืฆื ื ืฉืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืชืืื ืื ืืื ื ืื ืก ื ืชื ืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืืื ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืจืง ืืืืื. ืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืคื ื ืืงืื ืืจืก. ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืจืขืื ืฉื 40 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื ืืชืงืฆืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืฆืจ ืืฉื ืช 2012, ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืงืืืืช ืืฆืคื ืืืืจืขืื ืชืงืฆืืื ืืจืื ืฉื 4.9% ืืฉื ืช 2013, ืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืชืงืฆืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืกืื, ืืืงื ื-2013 ืืืืงื ื-2014. ืืืคืจืื 2013 ืืืฉืจื ืจืคืืจืืช ืืฉืืื ืืคืชืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืกืืช ืืืืืืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืขืืื. ืืืฆืืืจ ืฉื ืืืชื ืฉื ื ืืืฉืจ ืืืง ืืจืืืืืืืช ืืคื ืืกืงื ืืช ืืืืขืื ืืืืืจืช ืืชืืจืืชืืืช ืืืฉืง. ืืืื 2014 ืืงืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืืขืื ืืืืื ืช ืชืงืฆืื ืืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืฃ ืืืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืงืจ, ืืฉื ืืืื ืช ืชืงืฆืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืขืื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืืฆืืชืื ืืืืืฉ ืืื ื 2015, ืืื ืฉืงืืคืืช, ืฆืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืงืืข ืืจืคืืจืื ืืคื ืกืืืช. ืืื ื ืชืงืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืจืืคื ืฉื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืฉื ืืขืืื ืืืจืืื"ื ืืื ืืืื ืงืื. ื-2 ืืืฆืืืจ 2014 ืคืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืจ ืืคืื ืืฆืืคื ืืื ื ืืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืคืจืฉื ืืืืืฉืื ืืชืจ ืฉืจื "ืืฉ ืขืชืื" ืืืื ืกืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืืงืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ื-17 ืืืจืฅ 2015. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจ ืฉืืื ืขืฉื ืืืช ืืฉืื ืฉืืคืื ืืืื ื ืชืื ื ื "ืคืืืฉ" ืฉื ืืขื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืคืืช. ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืจ ืื ืขืฉื ืืืช ืืขืงืืืช ืชืืืืชื ืืืืง "ืืฉืจืื ืืืื". ืืืืื ืืกืคืจื "ืืืื: ืกืืคืืจ ืืื" ืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืื ืขื ืฉืคืืืจ ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืคืื ืืืื ื "ืขื ืกืื ืฉืืืขื ืงืื ืกืคืืจืืืืืช ืฉืืกืจื ืื ืืื ืืืงืื ืืืขืงื ืืืฆืื ืืคืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืชืื ื ืื ื ืืื ืคืืืฉ". ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืคืืืชื ืืืืืื ื-30 ืื ืืืื. ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืชื ืืืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืจ ืฉืืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืฆืจื ืืฉื ืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืคืฉืจืช ืืช ืืงืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช. ืืคืืกื ืฉืคืจืกื ืืืฃ ืืคืืืกืืืง ืฉืื ืืชื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืืงืื ืืืฉืื ืขื ืืฉืืชืคืืช ืืืืขืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืฆืืง ืืจืฆืื ืืืื ื, ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืชืืจ ืขื ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืื ืืขื ืืืืฆืื ืืื-ืืืืืืื ืืืืืชืืจ ืขื ืืื ืืจืกืื ืืืืืื ืืื. ืืืื ืืืืืจืืช, ืืืืง ืืงืืคืืื ืืืจืฆืช ืืืฆืืขื ืฉืืืชื ืืืืื, ืคืจืกื ืกืจืืื ืืืืื, ืฉืกืคื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืขืืื ืืื ืืืจ: โืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืกืื ื. ืืืฆืืืขืื ืืขืจืืื ื ืขืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืงืืคื. ืขืืืชืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืืืืืกืื. ืจืืืชืื ืื ื ืืื V15, ืืฉ ืื ื "ืฆื 8", ืืฉ ืื ื ืจืง ืืชืื, ืฆืื ืืงืืคืโ. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืข ืฆืขืจ ืขื ืฉืืืจืื ืคืืขื ืืขืจืืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืกืืฃ ืฉืืขืฉืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื, "ืืืื ืืืฉืงืขืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืืขืืืื", ืืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืชืืืื ืืื. ื-14 ืืืื 2015, ืืืฉืืขื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ื-34 ืืจืืฉืืชื, ืืืฉืื ืฆืจื ืฉื ืฉืขื ื ืขื 61 ื"ืืื. ืืขืืืจ ืืฉื ื, ื-26 ืืืื 2016, ืืฆืืจืคื ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืขืื ื-66. ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืืืฃ ืืคืืจืืืจ 2017 ืืืืคื ืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืฆืื ืื ืืื (ืจืื ืืืื). ืขื ืกืืฃ 2016 ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืืืจื, ืื ืืืืืฃ ืขื ืืื ืฆืื ืื ืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2019 ื ืืืจ ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืืขืื "ืืืื" ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืฉืคืืขืื ืืขืืื. ืืื ืืืืงืืืืจ 2015 ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืงืฃ ืืคืืืืขืื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืขื ื ืฉืืคืื ืืฉืจืื ืืชืืืื ืช ืืคืืืข ืืืกืื ืื-ืืงืฆื, ืืืืืฉืื ืชืืืจื ืืช ืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืขื ืืฉื ืขื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืจื ืืช ืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืจืฉืชืืช ืืืืจืชืืืช ืืืงืืื ืืช. ืื ืืืจืืจ ืืขื ืืืืจืื ืขื ืืืืฉ ืืจืฅ, ืืืกืืฃ ืืืืฉ ืืื ื ืขืื ืฉืื ืืกืคืจ ืืคืืืืขืื, ืืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืจืืืื. ืื ืืื ืฉื ืฉื ืืืืขืืืช ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืฆืืื ื ืืขืืืื ื-37, ื-20 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2015, ืืืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืื' ืืืื ืื-ืืืกืืื ื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืชืืืื ืืืืืจ ืื ืชืื ื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ืจืง ืืืจืฉ ืืืชื, ืื ืืืืคืชื ืืืจ ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืขื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืขืฅ ืื ืืฉืจืืฃ ืืืชื. ืืืจื ื ืชื ืืื ืขืืจืจื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืขืืื, ืื ืืืืง ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืฉืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืกืืืจืื, ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืกืชื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืจืชื ืืืืชื ืืืฆืื ืืช ืชืืืืชื ืฉื ืื-ืืืกืืื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืืจ. ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืฆืข ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืืช ืชืงืืคืืช ืฉื ืฆื"ื ืืืืื ื, ืืืืจื ืืื ืืข ืืขืืจืช ื ืฉืง ืืืืืืืื ืืืฉืืฉ ืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืกืืจืื. ืืืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืกืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืืื ืชืืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืจืืกืื ืืืคืจื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืจ ืฉื ืฉืชื ืืืืื ืืช. ืืฉื ืื, ื ืคืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืคืขืืื ืืืืืช, ืืื ืืกืคืืืืจ 2015, ืขื ื ืฉืื ืจืืกืื, ืืืืืืืจ ืคืืืื. ืืืื 2016 ืืื ื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืงืื ืืฉื ืืขืืื, ืฉืืชืคืืจ ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืกืช ืืืชื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืืคืื "ื ืืจืจืช ืืืชืืืืช". ืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืชืคืืจ ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืืฉืจ ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื. ื-2018 ืืกืืกืื ืืืืจืื ื-ืืฉืจืืื ืืคื ืืขืืืืช ืืฉืืจ ืขื ืืืืจืช ืื"ื ืืชืืื ืืืจืื ื ืืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืืคืืจืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืฉืื ืืชืขืืคื T-4 ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืกื ื ืืชืืืืฉืช ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืฉ ืืคืจืื, ืืชืงืคืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืจืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืกืืืืืช ืืืืืืฆืืืช ืฉืืขืืืช. ื-30 ืืืคืจืื 2018 ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืืื ืืฉืฃ ืืืืข ืืืจืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืืคื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคื ืืกืืืื ืืงืืฆืื ืฉืืืฆืื "ืืืืกื" ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืืจืื ื ืืกืชื ืืืกืชืืจ ืืช ืชืืื ืืืชืื ืืคืืชืื ื ืฉืง ืืจืขืื ื. ืืืจืชื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืกืื ืืืจืขืื ืขื ืืืจืื. ืืืื ืืจื ืืืืืฆืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืช 20 ืืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืฆืื ืฆื"ื ืืืจืืื ืืืชืืืื ืชืงืฃ ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืขืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืกืืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 2018 ืืื ืืกืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช, ืืื ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืฉืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืก. ืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืืืชืจ ืฆื"ื ืฉืืจืช ืื ืืจืืช ืืจืืจ. ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืจืฅ 2018 ืืชืืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืคืจืืช ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืืช ืขื ืืืจ ืืืขืจืืช ืกืืื ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืก. ืืืืืืืช ื ืืจืื ื-220 ืคืืกืืื ืื, ืจืืื ืคืขืืื ืืจืืจ. ืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืขืื ืืืฉ ืืืคื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืฉืืืช ืืืืจืฉ ืืขืืืฃ ืขืื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืช ืขืคืืคืื ื ืชืืขืจื, ืืืื ื ืชืืขืจื ืื ืคืฅ ืืจืงืืืช ืฉืฉืืืจื ืคืืกืืื ืื ืื ืืจืฆืืขื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2018 ืคืชื ืฆื"ื ืืืืืืช ืคืืงืื ืืฆืคืื, ืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืงืจืืืช ืืืืฃ ืืืืืืขืื ืืืืฆืข ืืื ืฆืคืื ื ืืืืชืืจ ืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืจืืช ืืจืืจ ืืชืงืคืืืช ืฉืืคืจ "ืืืืืืื" ืืฉืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืืโืืื ืื. ืื ืืืืืจ 2019 ืืืกื ืฆื"ื, ืืืืฆืข ืืืืจื ืฉืืืจื, ืืช ืืืื ืืื ืื-ืขืื, ืืคืงื ืืืืจื ืืฆืคืื ืืช ืฉื "ืคืืืืืช ืื-ืงืืืก", ืืืจืืข ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื "ืื'ืืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ื". ืืชืืืื ืืจื ืืืจืืื ืืืืช ืจืงืืืช ืืขืืจ ืืฉืจืื, ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืคืฆืืฅ ืืืจืืช ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืืืจื ืืืกืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืืจ 2018 ืืืืขื ืืฉืจืื ืืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ ืขื ืืืืืก. ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืกืืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืฉ ืฆืื ืืจ ืืืกืคืื ืืงืืจ ืขืืืจ ืืืืืก, ืื ืชื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืืงืืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืก ืืืืคื ืืฉืืจ ืืกืืื ืฉื ื-30 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืฉ, ืืืืขืื ืืคืื ืืขืืจืช ืืืกืฃ ืชืกืืืข ืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืืงืฉ ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืจืืงืื ืืืืฉื ืืจืืืค, ืกืืืื ืื ืืฆ'ืื, ืืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืงืืจืื ืฉืืืกืคืื ืฉืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืก ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืจ. ืืจืืฉืืช 2019 ืืกืืืจ ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืคื ืืจืืื ืืืืก: "ืื ืฉืจืืฆื ืืกืื ืืงืื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืฆืจืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืืง ืืืืืก ืืืืขืืจืช ืืกืฃ ืืืืืก. ืื ืืืง ืืืืกืืจืืืื ืฉืื ื โ ืืืื ืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื". ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืช ืฉืืืื ืืืืก ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืชืื ืชืคืืกื ืื ืืคืืืื ืืคื ืื ืคืืกืืื ื ืืื ืข ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืืื ื ืขื ืืคืืกืืื ืื. ืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืจืช ืืกืฃ ืืงืืจ ืืืืืก ืืชืคืืจ ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืคืืืช "ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื" ืืจืืฉืืชื ืคืจืฉื ืืืงืืืืืฆืื. ืืฉื ืื ืฉืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืฉืจ ืืขืืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืื ื-18 ืื ืืืืืจ 2018 ืืึพ17 ืืืฆืืืจ 2018 ืืื ื ืืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืื ืืชืคืืจ ืืชืคืงืื ืื ื-10 ืื ืืืืืจ 2019 ืืฉื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืคืชืื ืื ื. ืืฉื ืช 2019 ืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืชืจืขื ืืจืืฉ ืืฉื"ื ื ืื ืืจืืื ืื ืืืข ืืื ืฉืืืจืืข ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืก ืืฉืชืืืช ืขื ืืืง ืืืืกืฃ ืืงืืจื. ืืฉื ืช 2020 ืื"ื ืฆืืื ืื ืืคืืืช ืืจืืขื ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืข ืืืจืืข ืืฆืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืก ืืื ืืืืฉ. ืืคืืจืืืจ 2019 ืืืื ืืงืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืขืืื ืืืืื ืขืื, ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืคืจืืืงื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืฉืื ืืื ืข ืืืืจืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืขื ืคืืจืืืจ 2019. ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืช ืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืื, ืืชืงืืื ืืืืื 2334 ืฉื ืืืขืฆืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื"ื, ืืืืจืฉืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืคืกืงืช ืื ืืืช ืืชื ืืืืืืช "ืืฉืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืืื ืืืืืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื". ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืื ื ื ืงืื ืฆืขืืื ื ืื ืกื ืื, ื ืื ืืืื ื ืืืืงืจืืื ื ืืืืคืกืงื ืืขืืจืช ืืืืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืกืืืช ืฉื ืืื"ื, ืฉืืืืจื ื ืชื ืืื ืขืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืืค ืืืืืข ืขื ืืืจื ืืืคืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืจืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืจื ืขื ืืขืืจืช ืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืจืื, ืืชื ืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืืืืืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืขื ืืขืืจืช ืฉืืจืืจืืชื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ื-14 ืืืื 2018 ื ืขืจื ืืงืก ืคืชืืืช ืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืืจืืืค ืคืจืฉ ืืืกืื ืืืจืขืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืืคืขืื ืขืืื ืกื ืงืฆืืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืืคืกืืง ืืืืื ืืืกืืืช ืคืืกืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืจ"ื, ืคืจืฉ ืืืื ืกืง"ื ืืืืขืฆืช ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืื"ื ืืกืืจ ืืช ืืงืื ืกืืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืื ืืช ืคืจืืฉืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืืืฉื ืืืื ื, ืื ืืฉ ืืจืืืื ืืคืจืืฉื ืคืืืขื ืืืื ืืจืกืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื. ืืืจืฅ 2019 ืืชื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืค ืขื ืฆื ืืืืจื ืืืจืืงืืืช ืืจืืืื ืืช ืืฉืจืืืืช ืขื ืจืืช ืืืืื. ืืืื ืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืขื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆืขื ืื. ืืื ืืืจ 2020 ืืฆืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืค ืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืฉืื ("ืขืกืงืช ืืืื"). ื ืชื ืืื ืงืืื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืช. ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืชืงืจืจื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืจืืืค ืื ืชื ืืื. ื-4 ืืืืื 2017 ืืืงืจ ืืืฉืจืื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืืื, ื ืจื ืืจื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืืืง ืืงืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืกืืืข ืืฉืจืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืกืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืืช. ืืืืชื ืืืืฉ ืืืงืจ ืืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืคื. ืืื ื ืคืืฉ ืืคืจืื ืขื ื ืฉืื ืฆืจืคืช ืขืื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืคืฉื, ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืงืจ ืืืื ืืจืื. ืืื ืืชื ืขื ืฉืืจื ืฉื ืืกืืืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืืืื-ืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืขืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจืื. ืืืืื ืืงืื ืฆืื ื ืชื ืืื ืงืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืงืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืืงื: ืืืืื 2016 ืขืจื ืกืื ืืืงืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืืงืืจ ืืืืื ืื ืืจืื 40 ืฉื ื ืืืืฆืข ืื ืืื, ืืฆื ืคืกืื ืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืืงืืืืช, ืืืงืืจ ืืงื ืื ืขื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืช, ืืืงืืจ ืืจืืื ืื ืืืืชืืืคืื. ืืืื ื 2017 ื ืื ืืคื ื ืืืืขืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืจื ืืคืจืืงื (ืื ') ืืื ื ืคืืฉ ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืืื. ืืืืงืืจื ืืงื ืื ืื ืืืืืจ 2017 ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืขืช ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืจื ืงื ืืืื. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2017 ืืฆื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืงืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืฉืจืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืคืืฉ ืขื ืื ืืืื ืืจืื ืืื ื, ืงืืืืืืื ืืืงืกืืงื. ืืฉื ืืื ืืก ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืคืืฉ ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืืค ืื ืืืข ืืืฆื ืืืืืคืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืขืฆืจืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช. ืืกืืฃ 2017 ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืชืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื ืืจืื ืืจืขื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืคื ืื, ืืืขื ืืจืื, ืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืชืงื ืืืืืช ืืืืจืฉ ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืืฉืืืช ืืช ืืืกืชื ื ืื ืืืจืืชืจืืื ืืืกืืืื ืฉืืฉืจืื ื ืื ืขืช ืืืืืืืจื ืืืืืืชื ืืืชื ืืขื ืง ืืืืืจืฉืื ืืืืืื ื ืืงืืืืช. ื-2 ืืืคืจืื 2018 ืืืจื ืจืืื ืื ืืืกืืืชื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืืจืฉืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืงืจื ืืืืฉื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืคืขืืื "ืืืฅ ืืืจืืคื ืขื ืืืฉืืช ืจืืื ืื" ืืกืืช ืืืืกืื, ืื ืืงืจื ืืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืื ืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืืฉืืช ืจืืื ืื. ืืืงืื ืืืช, ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืฉ ืขื ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื, ืืจืื ืืจืขื, ืืื ื ืฆืืืืช ืืื"ื ืืคืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืื ืืืกืชื ื ืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืจืืคื ืืขืื ืืืืงืืื ืืคืืจ ืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืืฉื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืฉืจืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืชืืื. ืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืืื ืืืืืช ืืืกืชื ื ืื ืืืชืงื ืืืืืช, ืื ืืืชืงื ืื ืฉื ืืคืขืืืืช. ืขื ืืงืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช. ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ื ืืช ืจืืฉ ืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืื ืฉืืื ืคืืืืจ ืืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช.ืืืกืืืื ืืงืืืืืฆืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืกืืขืืช ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืชืืื ืืจืคืืจืืืช ืืฉืืง ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืฉืืืืฉืื ืชืงืื ืื ืืกืจ ืขืืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืงืื ืื ืืฉื ืฉืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืชื ืื ืืืืื. ืืฉื ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืขืงื ืงืฉืจืื ืขื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืฅ' ืืืขืื ืืืง, ืืืืื ืืืืืืกื 2016 ืืืกืืื ืืช ืฆืื ืื ืืื ืืืคื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืง, ืืืคืืจืืืจ 2017 ืืคื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืขืงืืืช ืขืชืืจืืช ืืื"ืฅ ืื ืืฉื. ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืงืจื ืืฉืจ ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืงืืืข. ืืืืื 2015 ืคืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืคืืจืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืืืจ: ืืืืื ืืืจืช ืืืืืืืืื ืืืงืืช ืชืืืื ืืฉืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืงืืื. ืืืื ืืชืืืืช 2017 ืคืขื ืืกืืืจืช ืืชืืืื ืื ืืืืงืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืกืคืื ืืืืื ืคืืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืชื ืื ืืชืืงืฃ ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ, ืืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืฉืืจ ืืืกืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืชืืืื ืืงืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืื ืชืืงื ืืืืฃ ื ืคืจื. ืชืืงืื ืืืงืืงื ืขืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืขืจื ืืงืืช ืืชืืืื, ืื ืืืงืคื ืืืื ืื"ืฅ (ืื-2018 ืืฃ ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืกืช), ืื ืฉืืชืืืื ืืืงื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืช. ืขื ืืงืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืช, ืื ืืคืืขื ืืกืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ื ืืชื ื ืืกืื ืืฉืจ ืืขืงื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจื. ืืืืืืกื 2015, ืืขืงืืืช ืขืชืืจื ืฉืืืืฉื ืกืืขืช "ืืฉ ืขืชืื", ืงืืข ืื"ืฅ ืื ืืืฆืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืกืื ืฉืจ ืืืขืื ืฉื ืฉืจ ืืขืืื ืืืชืื ืืช ืืฉืจ. ืืขืงืืืช ืื, ืืืขืฆืช ืืืืื ืืชืืจื ืฉื "ืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื" ืืชืืจื ืืืืฆืื ืืืชืื ืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืช. ืืชืืืืช 2020 ื ืืจืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืืืื ืขื ืืืคืช ืืงืืจืื ื. ืชืืืื ืืืคื ืืฉืจื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืจืคืืื ืฉื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคื ืืฉืจืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืขืช ืืชืคืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืืืฃ ืืืื ืกืืจ ืืจืฆื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืคืืข ืชืืืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืื ืชื ืืืืขืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืขื ืฆืขืื ืืืืฉืื ืืขื ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืื ืืจืฉืื. ืืืืฉื ืฆืืฆื ืืช ืืืคืขืืชืื. ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืืืขืืช ืืื ืืืืจืขืื ืืชืงืฆืืื ื-29.9 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื ืืกืืฃ ืฉื ืช 2014, ื-54 ืืืืืืจื ืืืื ื 2019, ืืจืืื ืฉื 14 ืืืืืืจื ืฉ"ื ืืขืืืช ืืืขื ืืชืงืฆืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืงืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืชืืื ืืื, ืฉื ืืขื ืืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืคื ื ืืืื ืฉืืืช ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืคืจื ืกืืืืืช ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืื ืืคืื ืืืืืืืช ืขื ืืืืืจืื, ืืืฆืื, ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืืจื. ืืืืง ืืคืขืืืืชืื ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืชืืื ืืื ื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืืืื. ื-27 ืืืจืฅ 2016, ืคืกื ืื"ืฅ ืืช ืกืขืืฃ ืืืฆืืืืช ืืืชืืื, ืื ื ืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืื ืฉื ืฉื ื ืืชืืงืื ื. ืืืื ืืืชื ืฉื ื ืขืืจื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืฉืื, ืขื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืกืขืืฃ ืื. ืืฉื ืช 2016, ืืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืกืื ืคืจืื. ืืฉื ืช 2019, ืคืืจืกืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืื ืื ืืฉื ืืฉืืจ ืืืงืืื ืื ืืืฉืจืื ืื ื ืืฆืจื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืขืจืืืช ืืชืืงืฆืืช ืืืชืืืืืืช ืขื ืกืื ืืช ืืืฉืืจ. ืืกืืฃ ืื ืืืจ 2016 ืืืฉืจ ืืืืฉืื "ืืชืืื ืืืืชื" ืืคืื ืืืืชื ืืืืจื ืืืชืจืื ืขืืจืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืขืืช ืืชืคืืื ืืขืืจืืช, ืื ืืืื ืืืขืฆื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืื ื ืฉืืช ืืืืชื. ืืืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืคืจืืฉ ืืืงืืืืืฆืื, ืืืฉืื ืืืงืื ืืขืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืืฉืช ืฉื ืืืชืืื, ืขื ืฉืืืงืคื ืืืื ื 2017. ืืชืืงืื ืืคืงืืืช ืืก ืืื ืกื ื ืงืืข ืฉืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืื ืืคืืืจ ืืืก ืืื ืกื ืืชืฉืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื ื, ืฉืืื ื ืืฉืืืจืช ืื ืงืฆืื, ืืืืื ืืคืืืจ ืื ืืชื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืจืืฉื ืฉื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืก ืขื ืืืืืช ืืกื 600,000 ืฉ"ื ืฉื ืืชื ื ืื ืืืืืื ื ืืฉื ืชืืืืงืช ืืืชื ืืคืจืื ืืงืืกืจืื, ืืืืืื ืืขืืช ืืืกืคืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืชืืื ืจืืจืืืงืืืืืช ืืช ืืก ืืืื ืกื ืืื ืขื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืื ืงืืื ืืชืืืืช ืืชืืงืื ืืงืืื. ืืกืืฃ ืืฆืืืจ 2015 ืืงืืื ืืจืื ืืืืืื, ืืืงืฉืช ื ืชื ืืื, ืืช ืืคืจืืืืจืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืคืืื, ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืืืขื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืจืืืง ืืืืชื ืืขืช. ืืืืจ ืฉืื ื ืจืฉืื ืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืจ 2016 ืืืื ืืช ืืคืจืืืืจืื ืืืืืืข ืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืืจ ืคืขื ื ืืกืคืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืืืื. ื-24 ืืืฆืืืจ 2018, ืืืืจ ืคืจืืฉืช "ืืฉืจืื ืืืชื ื" ืืืงืืืืืฆืื, ืขืงื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืชืืืืชื ืืืืืคืงืช ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืจ ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื, ืืืงืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ื-21. ื-26 ืืืฆืืืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืื ืกืช ืืช ืคืืืืจื ืืงืืขื ืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืขืจืื ื-9 ืืืคืจืื 2019. ืืงืืคืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืืช, ืขืืื ืืช ืจืืฆืชื ืืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืื ืืคืืืืช ืืืืื. ืืื ืืฃ ืฉืจืืื ืืช ืืืงืื ื-28 ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืขื ืืืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืืชืงืืืื ื-9 ืืืคืจืื 2019, "ืืืืืื" ืืื ื-35 ืื ืืืื ืืงืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ื ืจืืืื ืจืืืืื ืืช ืืชื ืืืื ืื ืื ืกืืช ืืืืงืื ืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืงืื ืืืฉืื. ืกืืื ืืคืงืืขืช ืคืจืง ืืืื ืฉื ืงืฆื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืื ืืช ืคืืืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืืืฉื ืื, ืขืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืืขืืจ. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืฉืชืืื ืฆืืจืฃ ื ืชื ืืื ืืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืืช "ืืืื ื". ืื ืืกืฃ, ืฉืื ืข ืืช ืืคืืืช "ืืืืช" ืืคืจืืฉ ืืืืืืจืืช, ืืชืืืจื ืืืืืืช ืชืคืงืื ืฉืจ ืืืฉื ืคืืืืืื ืืืงืืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืงื ืืืืก ืจืคืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืจืืื ืืคืืืช ืืืืืื ื-32 ืื ืืืื, ืืขืืืช 38 ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืคืืืช "ืืืื ื" ืืืื ืืืจ ืืื ืกืช ืืื ืื-ืืื, ืฉืืืจ ืืืคืืืช "ืืืืช ืืืืืื". ื-25 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2019 ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืจืืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืื, ืืืืจ ืฉื ืชืื ืืืื 55 ืืืจื ืื ืกืช, ืืขืืืช 54 ืฉืชืืื ืืืจืืื ืื ื ืื ืฅ. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉื ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืขืืจ ืืืจืืื ืื ื ืื ืฅ, ืืฉืจ ืื ืขืื ืืฃ ืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืฉืื. ืืฉืื ืืชืคืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืืืื ืฉืืืืขื ืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืฉื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2019 ื ืขืจืื ืคืจืืืืจืื ืืจืืฉืืช "ืืืืืื", ืืื ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ื-72.5% ืืืงืืืืช, ืืฉืืชืืืื ืืื ืืืขืื ืกืขืจ. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื, ืฉื ืขืจืื ื-2 ืืืจืฅ 2020 ืืืืืื ืจืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ื-36 ืื ืืืื, ืื ืืืืจ ืฉืื ืฅ ืืื ืืืืืฆืชื ืฉื 61 ืืืืจื ืืื ืกืช, ืืืื ืขืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืืื ื ืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉืื. ืืืจื ืกืืฃ ืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืฅ, ืืขื ืจืงืข ืืชืคืจืฆืืช ืืงืืจืื ื, ื ืืชื ืืกืื ืงืืืืืฆืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื. ื-7 ืืืื, ืืืืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืชืืืืชืืื ืฉื 72 ืืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืืืืงืฉืื ืืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืืขืืืื ืืืขืงืืืช ืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืขืืื ืืช ืืื ืื. ืืคื ื ืื ื ืืืชื ืขืชืืจื ืืื"ืฅ ื ืื ืืืืช ืืื ืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื, ืื ืืืืง ืฉืืื ื ืืฉื ืืคืืืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืื ืคืืจืกื ืืกืืจ ืืื ืืขืช ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ื ืืกืจ ืขืืื ืืขืกืืง ืื ืืฉืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืืฉืคืื. ื-17 ืืืื 2020 ืืืฉืืข ืืงืื ืฆืื ืืืืฉืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืืืฉ. ืืืืชื ืืขืื ืืืฉืืข ืื ื ืื ืฅ ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืืคื, ืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืชืื ืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืขืืืจ ืฉื ื ืืืฆื, ื-17 ืื ืืืืืจ 2021, ืื ืืืืืคื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืชืืืฉื. ืืืฉืื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืง ืืืืคืช ืืงืืจืื ื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืฉืืืืชืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืงืืืื ืชืืื ืืืช ืกืืืข ืืืขื ืงืื ืืืืจืืื. ืืืจื ืืืืื ืื ืืชืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืืืฉ ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืืฆืืื, ืืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืืฉืช ืืชืืืืื, ืฉืืืืืื ืืกืืจ ืฉื ื ืืืื ืชืฉืจื. ืืืงืืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืืืืช ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืฉืืชื ืขื ืจืงืข ื ืืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืฉื ืืืฉื ืืืื ืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืฉื. ืืขืงืืืช ืขืืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืืชืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืขื ืกืืจ ืฉืืืฉื ืืกืืฃ ืืฆืืืจ. ืืืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืกืืื ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืจืื, ืื ื"ื ืคืืืืจ, ืขื ืจืืืฉืช ืืืกืื ืื. ืืจืืืช ืืืจืื ืืฉืจืื ื ืขื ื ืืงืจืืืืช ืืืชืืกื ืืืคืจืง ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืืชืืกื ืื ืื ืคืฉ. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืฆืขื ืฆืขืืื ืืกืืคืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืฅ ืชืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืค ืฉืืื ืชื "ืชืืื ืืช ืืืื". ืืืื ืชืืื ืืืช ืืื ืืจืื ืืืคืจืง ืขื ืืชืืืช "ืืกืืื ืืืจืื" ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช ืืืืจืืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืขื ืืจืืงื ืืกืืื, ืื ืืืกืื ืขื ืกืืื ืื ืืชืืืฉ. ื-13 ืืืืืืกื 2020 ืืฆืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืค, ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืืื' ืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืื, ืืช ืืกืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช-ืืฉืจืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช. ืืคื ืืคืจืกืืืื, ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืกืืคืื. ื-11 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2020 ืืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืจืื ืืช ืืืกืื ืขื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ื ืืืชื ืืืกืื ืืืคืืืืืืื. ืืกืืืื ืืื ื ืงืจืื "ืืกืืื ืืืจืื". ืืืกืื ื ืืชื ื-15 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2020 ืืืืช ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช (ืืืชืืืืช) ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืืช, ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืจืื. ื-10 ืืืฆืืืจ 2020 ืืืืจื ืืืืืฉ ืืืกืื ืขื ืืจืืงื ืืืฆืืจืคืืชื ืืืกืืื ืืืจืื. ื-22 ืืืฆืืืจ 2020 ื ืืชื ืืจืืื ืืกืื ืืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืงื. ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืฆืจื ืืืฉืจืื ืืกืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืจืืื ืืืืจื ืืจื ืขืจื ืืกืขืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืจืืงื ืืจื ืกืืืื. ื-24 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2020 (ืฉืขืื ืืฉืจืื), ืืืืืข ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืืค ืืืกืืืช ืขืืชืื ืืื ืืืคืื ืืช ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืขื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื, ืจืืฉ ืืืขืฆืช ืืจืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืกืืืื ืขืื ืื-ืคืชืื ืื-ืืืจืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืกืืืื ืขืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืคื ืจืฉืื ืื ืืฉืจืื ืืกืืืื ืืืื ื ื ืืืกืื ืืืคืืืืืืื ืืืืื. ื-6 ืืื ืืืจ 2021 ืืชืื ืืืฉืืช ืกืืืื ืขื ืืฆืืจืช "ืืกืืื ืืืจืื". ื-2 ืืืจืฅ 2021 ืืืืืขื ืืชืืืขืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื ืืฆืืง ืขื ืืงืืจืช ืืืจืืขืื ืฉืืชืจืืฉื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืื ื-13 ืืืื ื 2014. ืืืื ื"ื ืืขืืืจ, ื"ื ืืืืืจ ื'ืชืฉืค"ื, 30 ืืืคืจืื 2021 ืืชืจืืฉ ืืกืื ืืืจืื, ืื ื ืกืคื 45 ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืคืฆืขื 102 ืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืชืืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ื-6 ืืืจืฅ 2024 ืคืจืกืื ืืขืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืืืืืชืืช ืืืงืจ ืืกืื ืืจ ืืืจืื ืืช ืืกืงื ืืชืื, ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืืืื ืฉืืืข ืื ืืื ืืคืืืช ืืื ืขืืื ืืืขืช ืขื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืืื ืฆืืื ื ืืืืฆื ืืขืฉืืช ืืฉื ืชืคืงืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื. ืขืงื ืืขืืืืชืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจืื โ ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืฉืืืืจ ืจืงืืืช ืคืืกืืื ืืืช ืืขืืจ ืืฉืจืื, ืคืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืฆืข ืฉืืืจ ืืืืืืช. ืืืงืืื ืืืืฆืข ืคืจืฆื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืื ืืฉืจืื. ื-23 ืืืจืฅ 2021 ืืชืงืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืจืืข, ืฉืืื ืืชืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื"ืจ ืืืืืื. ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืจื ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ื-36 ื-30, ืื ืืืคืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืกืช. ืืืคืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืฉ ืขืชืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืจ ืืคืื, ืขื 17 ืื ืืืื. ืื ืฉืื ืจืืืื ืจืืืืื ืืขื ืืง ืชืืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืื ืื ืชื ืืื, ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืฆืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืขืืจ ืืืคืื, ืฉืืฆืืื ืืืงืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืคืื, ืืื ืขื ื ืคืชืื ืื ื. ื-13 ืืืื ื ืืืฉืืขื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืฉ, ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืคืื ืืจืืฉืืช ื ืคืชืื ืื ื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืคื ืืืื ืืกืชืืืื ืืืชืจ ื-12 ืฉื ืืช ืืืื ื ืจืฆืืคืืช ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืขืืจ ืืฉืืฉ ืืจืืฉ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื, ืืฉืจ ืชืืช ืื ืืืชื ื ืื ืขื ืืืงืืช ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืืขืืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืืขื ื ืืงืืคืื ืืืืฆืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืจืฉ ืืื ืืืจื ืืื ืกืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืคืืืืืกืืจืื ืจืืื. ืืืจื ืื ืกืช ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืขืืจื, ืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืคืืื ืืจืฉืชืืช ืืืืจืชืืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื, ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืฆืืืขื ืื ื ืื ืืืงืื ืฉืืื ืชืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืชืงื ืืช ืฉืขืช ืืืจืื ืืฉืืคืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื ืืืขื ื ืฉืื ืื ืจืืฆืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืืืจื ืฉื ืืคืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืงืื ืกืคืฆืืคืืื ืฉืืงืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืขืฆืื ื ืื ืข ืืืืืืข ืืขืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฆื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ื ืคืชืื ืื ื. ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืฆืข ืขืืืช ืืฉืืจ, ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืข ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืฆื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืคืื. ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืคื ืืขืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืชืืจืืฆืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฃ ืืกืืืืช ืืขืื ืืกืืืื ืืืฉืชืชืฃ. ื ืชื ืืื ืกืืื ืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืชืงืฆืื ืืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2021 ื ืื ื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืขืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืืฉืืช ื ืชื ืืื ื-2019. ืืืงืก ืืื ืืื ืืืง ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืื ื ืื ืฅ ืฉืืืื ืื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืฉืืืฃ ืืช ืืงืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืื ืชื ืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืจ ืื "ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืืจื", ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืจืืืงื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืืจ ืืฆืื ืืืื ืจืืื. ืืืืื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืขืฉืจืื ืืืืฉ, ืืืงืจ ืืช ืืกืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืื ืื ืขืื ืืคื ื ืคืจืกืืื. ืืื ืืฃ ืืฉืืืข ืืชืืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืื-ืืืืื ืืืกืื, ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืื ืจืืื ืืช ืืชืืืืืืืชืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืขืจ ืืช ื ืืงืื ืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืชื ืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืกืืื ืืืกืื. ื-29 ืืืฆืืืจ 2022, ืืืฉืืขื ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืืข. ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืจ ืืจืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืคืกืง ืื"ืฅ ืื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืจืื ืืจืขื ืืฉืจ ืืืงื ืืืืกืจ ืกืืืจืืช ืงืืฆืื ื, ืขื ืจืงืข ืขืืจื ืืคืืืื ืืืฉื ืืฆื ืฉืืื ืฉืืฆืื ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืฉืืืจ ืืช ืืื ื ืืขืืืจืืช ืืก. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืคืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืจืขื ืืฉืืืฉืช ืืชืคืงืืืื ืฉืืืขื ืื: ืืืฉื ื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ืฉืจ ืืคื ืื ืืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืช. ืึพ4 ืืื ืืืจ 2023 ืืืจืื ืฉืจ ืืืฉืคืืื ืืจืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืชื ืืงืื ืจืคืืจืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืกืืจืช ืคืกืืืช ืืืงืื ืืคืกืงืช ืืชืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืื ืกืช ืืจืื ืจืืื, ืืืืื ืขืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช, ืืืืจืช ืชืคืงืื ืืืืขืืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืืขืฅ ืื ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืจืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืจืช ืฉืืคืืื ืื ืฉืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืืื ืจืื ืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืคืจืกืื ืืจืคืืจืื, ืงืืขื ืืืืขืฆืช ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืื ืืืจื-ืืืืจื, ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืข ืืืืชืขืจื ืื ืืืื ืืืงืืงื ืืจืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืขืงื ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื, ืืืืืชื ื ืชืื ืืืฉืคื ืคืืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืงืืืื ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืช "ืืืง ืื ืืฆืจืืช", ืืืื ืืื ืืข ืืืืืจื ืืืืฆืื ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืฆืจืืช ืขืงื ืืชืขืจืืืช ืืืงืืงื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืื ืืขืืืชื ืืืื ืคืืืื. ืืจืคืืจืื ืฉืืืฆืขื ืืฆืจื ืืชื ืืืืช ืฆืืืืจืืช ื ืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืจืืืช ืืืงืฃ. ืืืืืื ืืขื ื ืฉืืืืื ืืืงืืงื ืืืืืื ืคืืืขื ืืขืฆืืืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืฉืืื ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืกื ืืืืืื ืืคืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืฉืชืืืื ืืช ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืฉืจืืืืช, ืขื ืืื ืืคืืืชื ืืืืืงืจืืื ืืืืื. ื ืฉืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืกืชืจ ืืืืช ืืืงืืขื ืืช ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืขื ื ืฉืชืคืืข ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืคืืช. ืขื ืืฃ ืืืช, ืืืืฉืื ืื ืฆืืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืฉืืื ืืงืื ืืช ืืืงื ืืจืคืืจืื, ืชืื ืืชืขืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืคืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืื ืืจืคืืจืื, ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืคืืืื ืงืฉื ืืขื. ืืืง ืืืชื ืืื ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืืื ืืจืืช ืืืืจืฅ ืืงืืืฆืช ืงืฆืื ืื ืืฆื"ื ืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืืชืืจืื ื ืืืื "ืืืืช ืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืื" ืฉืืืืื ืืืคืกืืง ืืช ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืืื. ื-25 ืืืจืฅ ืงืจื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ื, ืืขืฆืืจ ืืช ืืงืืงืช ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืืืืจ ืืกืื ื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื. ืืชืืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืคืืืืจืื, ืขืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืขืฆืืช ืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืกืคืื ืื ืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืจืฅ ืฉืืื ื "ืืื ืืื ื". ืืืกืชืืจืืช ืืจืืฉื ืืืืืจ ืืคืจืื ืืืืืขื ืขื ืืฆืืจืคืืช ืืืืื ืืืืจื ืขื ืฉืืืชื ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืง. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช, ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืฉืืืืช ืืจืคืืจืื ืืื ืืกื ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืื ืฉืื ืขื ืืืืคืืืืฆืื. ืืื ืชืืื ืคืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืงืืื ืืฉืืืืช, ืงืืืื ืืงืืืืืฆืื "ืชืจืืื" ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืช ื ืฆืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืืขืื ืืืืืจืช ืฉืืคืืื, ืขื ืืื ืืฆืืขื ื ืื ืื ืืืืขืืืื. ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืจืฉื ืฉืชืืืื ืืืืจืช ื ืฆืืืช ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืืืขืื, ืืืชืื ืื ืืื. ืืืกืืฃ ื ืืืจื ื ืฆืืืช ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืงืจืื ืืืืจืจ, ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืืืจื ืงืืืืืฆืื, ืื ืืืขื ืขื ืืชืจืืื ืืืื ืืืงืคืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืช ืื ืฉืื. ืืชืืืื ืืืงืงื ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืื ืขืืืช ืืกืืืจืืช, ืขืืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืขืฉืจืช ืืืคืื ืืชื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืข ืขื ืืคืกืงืช ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืขื ืื ืคืืืืขื ืืจื ืืืจืืกื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืืืฆืข ืฉืืืจ ืืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืืฉืื ื ืงืื ืืฆืขืืื ืฉืื ืื ื ืื ืืืคืืขืื. ืึพ9โ13 ืืืื, ืืืืจ ืขืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืืจ ืืฉืืืืจื ืจืงืืืช ืืขืืจ ืขืืืฃ ืขืื, ืืื ืฆื"ื ืืช ืืืฆืข ืืื ืืืฅ ืืกืืืื ืืืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืื-ืงืืืก. ืืกืืคื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืื ืืืืฆืข "ืฉืื ื ืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืืจืชืขื". ืืืืื 2023 ืืืืจ ืขืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืคืืืืขืื ืืฆืคืื ืืฉืืืจืื, ืืฆื ืฆื"ื ืืืืฆืข ืืืช ืืื ืืขืืจ ื'ื ืื ืืืืื ื ืืคืืืืื ืฉืื. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2023 ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืขืฆืจืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืฆืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืก ืืงืืืื ืื ืืจืืืืืฆืื ืขื ืกืขืืืื, ืืฆื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืืฃ ืืฆื ืืืจืฉ ืืขืฆืจ ืฉื ืขืจื ืืกืขืืืืช, ืืืืื ืื ืกืืืื ืืื ืกืขืื. ืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืืื ืืืืืช ื ืื ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืฉืคืืืช. ื-26 ืืืฆืืืจ 2023 ืืืืืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืขืฉืจืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืจืืืช ืฉื 60%. ืืฉืจืื ืืชืืงืื, ืืคื ืคืจืกืืืื ืืจืื, ืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืขืฉืจืช ืืืืจื ืืื. ืืชืืืืช 2024 ืคืืจืกื ืื ืืืจืื ืคืขืื ืื ืืืฉืฉื ืืืฉืืช ืืื ืจืืืืื ืื ืืจืฉืื ืืคืฆืฆื ืืจืขืื ืืช. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2023 ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืื ืืขืฆืจืช ืืื"ื, ืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืฉืจืื ื ืืฆืืช "ืขื ืกืืคื ืฉื ืคืจืืฆืช ืืจื - ืืกืื ืืืกืืืจื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืกืขืืืื" - ืืกืื ืฉืืืืขืื ืื ืืื ืืขืืฆืืื. ืืืื ื 2024 ืฉืืื ืืขืืช ืืจืื ืืก ืืืงืจ ืคืจืฉืืืช ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืชืื ืืืืจื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืืจืืขื ืืืฉืื ื ืืกืคืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืฆืืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉืื. ืืืืก ืื ืชื ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืขืช ืืืืขืื: "ืืืชืืื ื ืืืฆืืืืจืช ืืคื ื ืืืืขืื ืืฉืื ืื ืขืืื, ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืงืจืื ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืขืืืง ืืชืืืืื ืขืืืื ืืืื ืื ืื ื ืงืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืจื ืฉื ืกืืืืืช ืจืืืฉืืช. ืืืช, ืชืื ืืฆืืจืช ืกืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืชืื ืคืืืขื ืืืืกื ืืืืฅ ืืืืื ืืจืกืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื". ืืกืคืืืืจ 2025 ืคืจืกืื ืืืืขืื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืกื ืืื ืืกืชืืจื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืขืื ืขื ืืจืื ืื ืืขื ืืื ืจืืฉ ืฆืืืืืช ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืจืช ืฆืืืืืช ืืืฆืจืื. ืื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืจืืืฉ ืฉืืืฉ ืฆืืืืืช ืื ืืืื ืืขืืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืชืื ืืืขืืืช ืืงืืื ื ืืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืืชืืช. ืืืืื 2024 ืืืจืืื ืฉืืืฉ ืืืจืืช ืืืจืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืืช (ืืืื'ืก, ืคืืฅ' ืืกืื ืืจื ืื ื ืคืืจืก) ืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื, ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืชืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืฉื ืช 1988. ืืื ืื, ืืืืจืื ืืืืฉ ืฉื S&P ืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืฉืืืืืช ืืฉื ืืกืืืื ืื ืืืืืคืืืืืืื ืืืฉื ืขืืืืืื ืืืืืืฉ ืชืงืฆืื ืืืื ื ืืฉื ืช 2025. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2024 ืืืจืืื ืืืื'ืก ืืช ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืคืขื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืฉื ื ืืืืืคื ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืชื ืืจืืืช. ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืกืื, ืืื ืืื ืืขืืืช ืืก ืขืจื ืืืกืฃ ื-17% ื-18%. ืขืื ืืคื ื ืืขืืืช ืืืืกืื, ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืคื ืืืขืฆื ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืฉืจืื ืืืืชื ืืงืจื ืืืชืจ ื-38% ืืขืืืช ืืืืฆืข OECD. ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืงืืืื ืืืืฉืื ืฆืขืืื ืฉืงืฉืืจืื ืืจืคืืจืื ืืืฉืคืืืช. ืืืฉื, ืฉืื ืื ืืืง ืืกืื: ืืฉืคืืื ืฉืื ื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืฉืงืื ืฉื ืืคืืืืืืงืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืจืช ืฉืืคืืื, ืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืจื-ืืืืจื ืืชืคืงืื ืืืืขืฆืช ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืืฉืื. ืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืคืืฃ ืืืกืืจ ื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืกืจ ืขืืื ืืขืกืืง ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืื ืืชืืงืื ืืคืืืืืื ืืืชื ืืืื ื ืืื. ืืืคืจืื 2025, ืืงืจืืช ืคืจืกืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉื ืืจืืืค, ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืขื ืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืื ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืขืงื ืืขืืืฃ ืืืกืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืกืืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืช, ืืืืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืก ืืืืื 17% ืขื ืกืืืจืืช ืืฉืจืืืืืช. ื-25 ืืกืคืืืืจ 2025 ืงืืขื ืืขืืช ืืจืื ืืก ืื ืืื ืืงืจืื ืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืฉ ืืจืืฉื ืฉื"ื ืืคืขืื ืืืืคื "ืฉืืื ื ืจืืื ืืืืืงืจืืื". ืืฉืืชื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืคืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืฆืืืืช ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืก ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื, ืขื ืืฉืืื ืืขืืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ืืจืฉืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืืช. ืืื ื-2018 ืงืืื ืืขืืจื ืืจื ืืฉืจืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืจืืฉืื ืื ืงืื, ืืงืืจ ืืืื ืืืืก. ืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉืืื ืืช ืื ืืืื ืงืืจ ืืงืื ืืช ืืขืืจืช ืืืกืคืื ืืืืคื ืกืืืจ, ืืชืื ืืืื ื ืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืื ืืข ืืกืืื. ืืืฉืืืช ืกืืขืช ืืืืื ืืืจืฅ 2019 ืืขื: "ืื ืฉืจืืฆื ืืกืื ืืงืื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืฆืจืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืืง ืืืืก ืืืืขืืจืช ืืกืฃ ืืืืืก." ืืืืฆืข ืฉืืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจืจ ืฉืืชืคืืกื ืืฉืื. ืืชืื ืืืืฆืข, ื ืชื ืืื ืืขืจืื ืฉืืชืงืืื ืฉืงื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืจืช ืขืื ืืืชื ืื ืืืฆืขืช ืจืืฉ ืืฉื"ื, ื ืื ืืจืืื, ืืืกื ืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืก ืืขืื. ืืืฉืจ ื ืืืจ ืืืืฉ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื, ืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืกืืจื ืืืกืคืืช ืืืกืืจืช "ืืืืขืื ืืงืืจืืช".[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืืืื 2023 ืชืืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืืขืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืื ืืชืื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืขืงื ืืฉื ืช 2004, ืืืช ืืชืืฆืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืชื ืื ืืืขืืจ ืืืื ืคืงืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืฉื ืืืชืจื ืขืืืื. ืืืืชื ืืืืืฉ ืฉืื ืืฉื"ื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืกืื ืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืฉืืงืื ืืืจืชืขื ื ืื ืืืืก ืืืืฆืขืืช โืกืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืก, ืืจืืืช ืืกืืืืืื ืืืืืงืืื, ืืืฉื ืืืชืจืขื, ืฉืืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืฉืืื ืืกืคืจ 1". ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืืฆืืช ืืืืืฉืื ืื ืงืืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืกืื. ืืืื ืชืฉืจื 2023 ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืจ ืืืขืจืืช ืืื ืืืืก. ื-1 ืืืืงืืืืจ ืืืืืฅ ืื ืจืืฉ ืืฉื"ื ืจืื ื ืืจ ืืืืฆืื ืืคืืขื ืืช ืชืืื ืืช "ืืขืจืืคื" ืืืืจืื ืืืืช ืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืืืก, ื ืชื ืืื ืกืืจื ืืื ืื ืืงืื ืืกืืจื ืืืจืืืช ืืื ืืืืก. ืืืืงืจ 7 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2023, ืืื ืฉืืช, ืฉืืืช ืชืืจื, ื"ื ืืชืฉืจื ื'ืชืฉืค"ื, ืคืชืื ืืจืืื ื ืืืจืืจ ืืคืืกืืื ืื "ืืืืก" ื"ืื'ืืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ื" ืืืื ืฉืืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ. ืืืกืืช ืฉืืืืจ ื-4,300 ืจืงืืืช, ืืืจื ื-6,000 ืืืืืื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืขืฉืจืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืฉืจืืืืื, ืืืขืจ ืืืจื ืืืืชืงื ืื ืฆืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืขืืืฃ ืขืื ืืืกืืืืชื, ื-119 ืคืจืฆืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืจ, ืืืืืืืจ ืืืืื, ืชืื ื ืืืื ืงืจืืืช ืืจื ื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืขืืื. ืืืืืืื ืืืฆืขื ืืขืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืก, ืจืฆืื ืืืจืื 1,173 ืื ื ืืื, ืืชืืื ืืืื ื-779 ืืืจืืื, ืืืืคื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ื-251 ืื ืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืจืื, ื ืฉืื, ืงืฉืืฉืื ืืชืื ืืงืืช. ืืฉืขืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืชืืช ืืืื ื ืืช, ืฉืืืจื ืืฉืืจืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืื ืืื"ื ืืืืืื ืฆื"ื, ืฉืืื ืื ืืืชืืช ืืกืคืจืืช. ืืงืจืืืช ื ืืจืื ื-1,609 ืืืืืื ืืฉืื ืืฉืจืื, ืืืฆื ืืืฉืจืืื ื ืืจืื 329 ืืืืืื, 58 ืฉืืืจืื ื-10 ืื ืฉื ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืช ืคืชื ืฆื"ื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืจืื. ืืฉืจืื ืคืื ืชื ืืืืฉืืืื 29 ืืืฉืืืื ืืขืืืฃ ืขืื ื-22 ืืืฉืืืื ืืฆืคืื ื. ืืืืืื ื ืืจืื ืจืืืืช ืคืืกืืื ืื, ืืื ืืืคื ืืืืืื, ื ืืจื ืืจืก ื ืจืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืคืื ืืชืืฉืื ืืจืฆืืขื ื ืืืฆื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืชืืืจืจ ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื. ื ืืกืฃ ืขื ืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืขืื, ื ืืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืฆืืจ ืืืชื ืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืืื, ืืืืช'ืื ืืืืจืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืกืคื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืืช ืืชืขืฆืืืช ืืืืืก, ืืจืืื ืืืจืืจ ืืฉืืื ืืขืื ืืขื ืื ืฉืกืืจื ืืงืืช ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืืืก, ืืื ืขืฉื ืฉืืืฉ ืืขืจืืืช ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืืช ืืืืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืื ืืืกื ืืืง ืืืืืจืื. ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืฆืืืืจื ื"ืฉืืืช ืืืืจืืืช" ืืคืจืืฆืชื ืื ืชื ืืื ืกืืจื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืช ืืืจืืืช, ืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืืืื ืืืืช ืฉืืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืื ืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืงืจ ืืชืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืชืช ืชืฉืืืืช ืขื ืื. ืขื ืืืช ืื ืืืืืจ, ืืฉืื ืืจืืืื ืืจืฉืช NBC ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืืืจ: "ืืืืื ืฉืืฉ ืื ืืืจืืืช [...] ืืืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืจืื ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืื ืงืจื". ืื ืืืืืจ 2025 ืคืจืกื ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืื"ื ืืฉื "ืืืขืืจ ืชืคืืกืช ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฉืคืขื ืขื ืชืืืืืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืื ื ืืืฆื"ื", ืืืกืืจืช ืกืืจืช ืื"ืืืช ืขื ืืฉืื 7 ืืืืงืืืืจ, ืืื ืงืืข ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉ ืืืจืืืชื ืืืื ืช ืชืคืืกืช ืืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืชืคืงืืื ืืจืืื "ืืืชืื ืฉืืืืชื ืืืืืจืช ืืกืืจืืืื ืืืจืช ืืืื ืืืคื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ื, ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืกื"ื ืื ืืจืฉ ืืืืคื ืืคืขืืชื, ืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืฆื"ื ืืืืขืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืื ืขืื ื-7.10.23". ืืืืื 2024 ืืก ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืงืืจ ืืืื ื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืืืืงืืจ ื ืื ืืคืขื ืืจืืืขืืช ืืคื ื ืฉื ื ืืชื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืจืืฉืื ืืขืฉืืช ืื, ืืงืืื ืคืืืฉืืช ืขื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื'ื ืืืืื, ืกืื ืืช ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืงืืื ืืืจืืก ืืืืืขืื ืื ืฉืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืืค. ื-19 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2024, ืืฉืขืืช ืืืืงืจ, ืฉืืืจ ืืจืืื ืืืจืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืื"ื ืืืื ืื ืืขืืจ ืืืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืืกืจืื, ืืืื"ื ืคืืข ืืืืื ืืืจ ืืฉืื ื. ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืขืช ืืคืืืขื ืืื ืืื ื ืคืืขืื ืืืืจืืข. ื-4 ืืคืืจืืืจ 2025 ืืืงืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืฆื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืืค. ืืืืงืืจ ืืชืืงื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืจืืืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืฆื ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื ืืืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืืกืืืช ืขืืชืื ืืื ืืฉืืชืคืช, ืืจืืืค ืืฆืืข ืืฆืขื ืืคืชืืขื ืืคืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืชืืงื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื, ืชืคื ื ืืช ืืชืืฉืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืชืฉืงื ืืช ืืืืืจ ื"ืจืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื" ืชืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืงืืืช. ืืฆืขื ืื ืขืืจืจื ืชืืืืืช ืืื-ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืืืืื ืืฉื ืืฉืืืืชืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ื-21 ืืืื 2025 ืืื ืก ื ืชื ืืื ืืกืืืช ืขืืชืื ืืื, ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืฆื ืฉื ื. ืืืกืืืช ืืขืืชืื ืืื ืืชืืืืก ืืคืกืืงืช ืื"ืฅ ื ืื ืคืืืืจื ืจืืฉ ืืฉื"ื ืจืื ื ืืจ, ืืกืืืืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ื, ืืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืื ืืืืจืขื ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื, ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืคืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืืจ ื"ืฉืจืฉืจืช ืืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ". ืื ืืื ืืื ืืฉื "ื ืืื ืืืคืืคืื" ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืื: โืขืืฉืื ืื ื ืฉืืื ืืชืื, ืขื ืื ืชืงืคื ืืืชื ื ื-7 ืืืืงืืืืจ? [...] ืขื ืืืืกื F-35? ืขื ืื? ืขื ืื ืงืื? ืขื ืื? ืื ืชืงืคื ืืืชื ื ืขื ืืคืืคืื, ืงืืฆ'ื ืืงืืืื ืืื ืืจืื. ืื ืขืืื ืคืจืืืืช.โ ื-12 ืืืคืจืื, ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืืค ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืกืื ืืจืขืื ืืืฉ ืืืงืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืืคืืืืื 60 ืืื. ื-2015 ืขื ืคืจืืฉืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ื-2018 ืืืืกืื ืืงืืื ืืคืฉืจื ืืืจืื ืืืคืงืืื ืืกืื"ื ืืคืงื ืขื ืืชืงื ืื, ืจืืช ืืขืฉืจืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืชื ืขื 3.67%, ืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืขืฉืจ ืืืืชื ืขื 300 ืง"ื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืืจืืืค ืืคืจืืฉ ืืืืกืื ื-2018 ืืชืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืจืช ืืกื ืงืฆืืืช, ืืืืฆื ืืืจืื ืืช ืืืชืืืฉืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืช ืฉืื. ื-31 ืืืื ืคืจืกืื ืกืื"ื ืฉืืจืฉืืช ืืืจืื 408.6 ืง"ื ืืจืืช ืืขืฉืจื ืฉื 60%. ืืคื ืืขืจืืืช, ืืคืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืื ืื ืขืฉืจ ืคืฆืฆืืช ืืจืขืื. ืืฉื ืืจืืืช ื ืฉืง ืืจืขืื ื ืฉืืืฉ, ื ืืชืจ ืืืืจืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจ ืืจืืื ืฉืืืื ืืชืืืืช ืฉืจืฉืจืช ืืจืขืื ืืช ืืคืืฆืืฅ. ืืกืืฃ ืืฆืืืจ 2025 ื ืคืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืจืืืค ืืืืืืชื ืืคืืืจืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืขื ืืืขืืจ ืืฉืื ื' ืืืกืื ืืื ืืืืก, ืกืืืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืื ืื ืืคืืจืืง ืืืืืืื ืื ืฉืงื, ืืืืกืืจ ืืืคืฉืจื ืืื ืกืืจืื. ืื ืืืืชื ืคืืืฉืชื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืขื ืืจืืืค ืืฉื ืช 2025. ืื ืืืืืจ 2025, ืืกืขืืืื ืืืืืจืืงืืื ืกืืืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืขื ืืขืืจืช ืืืืกื F-35 ืืงืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืจืขืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืืื, ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืช ืื ืืจืืืืืฆืื ืืฉื ืช 2023. ืืืื 13 ืืืื ื 2025 ืืืจื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืงืืื ื ืืืืื ื-ืืืืืื ื ืขื ืืืฆืข ืขื ืืืืื, ืฉืืืจืชื ืืื ืกืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืืื ืชืงืฃ ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืขืจืื ืืืืจืื ืืชืงื ื ืืจืขืื ืืืชืจื ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืื ืืื ืืชื ืงืฉ ืืืื ืืจืืฉื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืช, ืืื ืืคืงื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืกืืื ืกืืืื, ืจืืื"ื ืฆืื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืงืจื, ืืืืขื ื ืืจืขืื ืืืืจืื. ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืืกืืืืืื, ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืจืื 30 ืืืจืืื ืืฉืจืืืื ืืืจืกื ืื ืืื ืื ืืชืฉืชืืืช. ืืืื 22 ืืืื ื ืืฆืืจืคื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืชืงืืคืืช ื ืื ืืืจืื, ืืชืงืคื ืืชืงื ื ืืืจืขืื. ื-24 ืืืื ื ืืืืจืื ืืคืกืงืช ืืฉ ืืืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืืืืช ืคืกืงื. ื-5 ืืคืืจืืืจ 2026 ืคืจืกื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืชืฉืืืืชืื ืืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืงืช ืืืืงืจ ืืช ืืืจืืขื ืืื ืฉืืขื ืืืืงืืืืจ. ืืืกืื ืืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืคื ืืืืืืขืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืื, ืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืืืฉืืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืืืก ืื ืกืืืช ืฆื"ื ืืืื ืื ืืฉื ืช 2000 ืืืืชื ืชืงืืช ืืฉื ืช 2005. ืืชืืืื ืืืกืื ืคืจืกืื ืืกืคืจ ืขืืชืื ืืื ืืขื ืืช ืฉืืืกืื ืืืื ืกืืืืคืื ืืฉืงืจืื. ืืจืืื"ื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืงืื ืืขื ืฉืืืกืื "ืฉืงืจื ืืื ืืคืืืืืื", ืืื ืืขื ืื ื"ื ืืืื ืืื ื, ืืื"ืจ ืืืืคืืืืฆืื ืืืืจ ืืคืื ืืชื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืคืจืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืกืื. ืคืจืฉืืืช ืคืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืช ืคืขืืืืชื ืืคืืืืืืช ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืขืื ืื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืคืขืืื ืืขื ืืช ืืคืืืืื: ืฉืฉ ืคืจืฉืืืช ืืืืขื ืืืื ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืฉืืจื, ืืชืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืชืืงืื ื ืกืืจื ืืืฉืืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืืข ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืืื ืชื ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืช ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืฉื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืืฉื ืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืคืจืฉืช ืืจ-ืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืจ 1997, ืืืืืื ืืืขืื ืืฉืืืช ืื ืืื ืืขืืจื ืืงื ืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ื ืคืชืื ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืขืงืืืชืื ืืืืืฆื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืืืฉ ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืฉืื. ืืืกืืฃ, ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืงืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื, ืฉืืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืคืจืฉื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืขืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืง ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืจืืืืช, ืื ืฆืืื ืื "ืืืชื ืืืืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืขืื ืชืืืืืช". ืืคืจืฉืช ืขืืื, ืฉืืืื ืืกืคืืืืจ 1999, ืืืขืื ืืฉื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ื ืืฆื ืืช ืืขืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืจ ืขืืื, ืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืฉืืืฆืข. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2000 ืืืืืฆื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืขืืื ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืืจืืช ืฉืืื, ืืจืื ืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืงืืจื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืงืืจืช ืคืจืฉืช ืขืืื, ืขืื ืืฉื ืฉืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืขืืืจื ืืืืงืชื ืืืืฉืืช ืืชื ืืช ืฉืืืชื ืงืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืขืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืจืืืฉ ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืงืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืฉ ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืชื ืืคืจืฉืืช, ืื ืืืืง ืฉื ืืืกืจ ืจืืืืช, ืื ืืชื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืจืฅ 2011, ืคืจืกื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืจืืื ืืจืืงืจ, ืชืืงืืจ ืืชืืื ืืช "ืืืงืืจ", ืฉืื ืืขื ืื ืืฉื ืื 1999โ2008 ื ืกืขื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืคืืชื ืืืืฅ ืืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืฉืืื ืืืคืื ืคืจืืืื, ืื ืืืจื ืืืจืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืคืืืืืืงื ื-2002. ืืชืืงืืจ, ืฉื ืืืข ื"ืคืจืฉืช ืืืืืืืจืก", ืืืื ืืืืืงื ืฉื ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืืืืงื ืืฉืืจืชืืช. ืืื ืืืจ 2017 ืงืืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืืืฉืืจื ืืืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืขื ืกืืืจืช ืืืืืงื. ืืื ืืื ืืืจ 2017 ื ืืงืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืื ืืฉืืจืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉื ื ื ืืฉืืื: "ืชืืง 1000", ืืืืื ืืฉื ืืงืืืช ืืืืืช ืื ืื ืืืจื ืื ืืืืฆ'ื ืื'ืืืืก ืคืืงืจ ื"ืชืืง 2000" ืืขืืกืง ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืื"ื "ืืืืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืช", ื ืื ื ืืืืก, ืฉืืื โ ืขื ืคื ืืืฉื โ ืืฆืืข ืืืืก ืื ืชื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืงื ืืกืืงืืจ ืืืืกืคืช ืืชืืื ืืืขืื ืืชืืืจื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืชืืื ืช ืืคืฆืช "ืืฉืจืื ืืืื". ืขื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืคืื ืืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืคืขืืื ืจืืืช "ืื ืืืื ืืืื, ืื ืืื ืืืื". ืืืืื ืืืงืืจืืช, ืืขืื ืืืจื ืื ืกืช ื"ืืืืืื" ืืฆืขืืช ืืืง ืื ืืืขืืช ืืืงืืจืืช ืืฉืืจื ืืืื ืืฆืขื, ืฉื ืืืขื ืืฉื "ืืืง ืืืืืฆืืช", ืฉืืคืื ืชืืฆืืืชืื ืฉื ืืงืืจืช ืืฉืืจื ืืืขืืจื ืืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืื ืฉืืืฉืืจื ืชืฆืืื ืขืืืชื ืืขื ืืื ืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืฉืื. ืืืฆืขืืช ืขืืจืจื ืืืงืืจืช ืื ืืขื ืืืคืืื ืื ืื ื ืืขืื ืืืื ืขื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2017, ืืืืืข ื ืชื ืืื ืื ืื ืื ืืช ืื"ืจ ืืขืืช ืืคื ืื ืฉื ืืื ืกืช, ืืืื ืืืกืื, ืืืืืืื "ืืืง ืืืืืฆืืช", ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืฆืขืช ืืืืง ืื ืชืืื ืขื ืืงืืจืืชืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืคืืจืืืจ 2018, ืืืืจ ืืฉื ื ืืืฆื ืฉื ืืงืืจืืช, ืืืืขื ืืืฉืืจื ืืืกืงื ื ืื ื ืืฆืื ืชืฉืชืืช ืจืืืืชืืช ืืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืฉื ื ืืชืืงืื. ื"ืชืืง 1000" ืืืืกื ืื ืชื ืืื ืขืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืงืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื. ื"ืชืืง 2000" ืืืืกื ืื ืชื ืืื ืขืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืงืฉืช ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืืืืขืช ืืืฉืืจื, ืืกืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืคืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืื ืชื ืืืชืคืืจ. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืขื ืืช ืืืฉืืจื ืืขืจืขืจ ืขื ืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืงืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืฆืืช ืืฉืื ืฉืืืืจืื "ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืืืฉืชืืจืจ ืืืจืืฉื ืฉืื ืืืฉืคืขื ืืชืืืฉืืช ืืกืจืืช ืืกืืก ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืงืืจื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ื ืคืขืืชื ื ืืื" ืจืื ืืืจื ืืงืืืืืฆืื ืืืคืจื ืจืืฉื ืืืคืืืืช ืื, ืืชืืืฆืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืืงืช ืืืคืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืชื ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืืืคืช ืืืืง "ืชืืง 4000", ืืื ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื 433 ืฉื ืืฉืืจืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืขื ืจืฉืืช ื ืืืจืืช ืขืจื, ืืื ืืืื ื 2017. ืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืคืจืฉื ืื: ืืขื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจืช "ืืืง" ืฉืืื ืืืืืืฅ', ืื ื"ืืืช "ืืืง" ืกืืื ืื ืืืจ, ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืฉืืื ืคืืืืจ ืืืืขืฅ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ื ืืจ ืืคืฅ. ื-2 ืืืจืฅ 2018 ืืจืืฉืื ื ื ืืงืจื ืืืืืจื ืืืงืืื ืืคืจืฉื ืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืจื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืฉื ืืงืืืช ืฉืืื. ืฉื ืืื ืืืืฉืืืื, ืคืืืืจ ืืืคืฅ, ืืชืื ืขื ืืกืื ืขื ืืืื ื. ื ืชื ืืื ืืขื ืฉืืกืืืื ืืื ืจืง ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืืจื. ื-2 ืืืฆืืืจ 2018, ืคืจืกืื ืืฉืืจืช ืืฉืจืื ืืช ืขืืืชื ืื ื ืืฆืื ืชืฉืชืืช ืจืืืืชืืช ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืงืืืช ืฉืืื, ืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืงืืืช ืืืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืขื ืฉืืืืืืชืื ืืชืงืืื ืืืืืฆืช ืืืจืื ืืืงืฆืืข ืืืฉืจื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืืฃ ืงืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืกืื ืืคืกืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืฅ' ืืืืื ืืชืจ 'ืืืืื' ืกืืงืจ ืืืชื ืืืืคื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืืจืช. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืขื ืฉืืืงืืจื ืื ืืชื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืช, ืขืงื ืกืืจืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืขืืช ืืืชื ืคื ืื ืืื ืคื ืื ืขื ืขืื ืืืืื ื. ืขื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืชืืงืื 1000, 2000 ื-4000 ืืฆื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืจืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืืืฉ ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืคืืฃ ืืฉืืืืข ืื ืชืคืืจืกื ืืคื ื ืืืืืจืืช, ืืฉืื ืฉืื ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืฉืืืืข ืืคื ื ืืืืืจืืช. ืืืืขืื ืืืชื ืืืชืจืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืงืจ ืืืืื ื, ืืืชื ืืช ืืงืฉืชื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืืืืงืืืกืงื ืืืืืฉ ืืขืกืงืื ืกืคื ืกืจ ืคืจืืจืืื'. ืืืืขืื ืงืืขื ืื ืื ืขืืื ืืืืืืจ 300 ืืืฃ ืืืืจ ืฉืงืืื ืืื ืืืชืจ. ื ืชื ืืื ืขืชืจ ืืื"ืฅ ื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืคืกืง ืฉืืืืขืื ืชืงืืื ืืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืฉืื ืืฆืื ืืคื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืคืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื, ืืฉื ืงืืืช ืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืขื ืืื ื. ืืคืืจืืืจ 2019 ืืืืืข ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืืืื ืืฉืงืื ืืขืืื ืืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืคืืฃ ืืฉืืืืข, ืืฉืืืฉืช ืืชืืงืื: ืืชืืง 1000 ื-2000 ืืืฉืืช ืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื, ืืืชืืง 4000 ืืืฉืืช ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื. ืืชืืืื ืืืฉืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืกืข ืฆืื ื ืืื ืืืืคืขืืช ืืืฅ ืคืกืื ืขื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืชื ืืืงืืจืช ืขื ืคืจืงืืื ืืืืื ื ืฉื ื ืืฆื ืืขื ืืคืจืงืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืืจื, ืฉืืืืจืื ืชืืื ืืขืืื ืงืืฆืื ืืช ืืขื ืืื ืืขืืืชื ืืืื. ืืฉืืืืข ืืชืงืืื ืืืฉื ืืจืืขื ืืืื ืืืืงืืืืจ ืืืชื ืืฉื ื. ื-21 ืื ืืืืืจ 2019 ืืืืืข ืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืชื ืืืฉืื ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืขืืืจืืช ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืชืืง 4000 ืืืขืืืจืืช ืืจืื ืืืคืจืช ืืืื ืื ืืชืืงื 1000 ื-2000. ืืชืืืื ืืฆื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืขื ืฉืื ืืชื ืืืงืืจืช ืืจืืคื ืขื ืืขืจืืช ืืืืคืช ืืืืง (ืืืฉืืจื, ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื). ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืืืฉ ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืขืืืจืืช ืืืืืืกืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืื, ืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืขืืื ืืืฉืคื ืชืื ืืื ืืืื ืชื. ืืขืงืืืช ืืืฉืช ืืชื ืืืฉืื, ืืืืฉื ืขืชืืจื ืืื"ืฅ ืฉืืจืฉื ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืจ, ืืืชืื ืืืืืช ืืจืขื-ืคื ืืกื. ื-2 ืืื ืืืจ 2020, ืืชืคืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืชืืงื ืืฉืจืื ืฉืืื ืืืืืง โ ืฉืจ ืืขืืืื ืืืจืืืื, ืฉืจ ืืืงืืืืช, ืฉืจ ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืช. ื-1 ืืื ืืืจ 2020 ืืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืฉื ืืื"ืจ ืืื ืกืช ืืงืืืช ืืกืื ืืช ืืืขืืืชื ืืืื ืคืืืื. ื-28 ืืื ืืืจ 2020 ืืืืจ ืฉืจืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืจืื ืืืืขืื ื ืื ืืชื ืืืกืื ืืช, ืืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืืงืฉื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืขืืช ืืืืฉ ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืชื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื. ื-24 ืืืื 2020 ืืื ืืฉืคืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืชืงืฉืืจืชื ืืฆืืืืจื ืืืื. ื-30 ืื ืืืืืจ 2025 ืืืืฉ ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืงืฉืช ืื ืื ื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ื, ืืฆืืง ืืจืฆืื. ืืช ืืงืฉืชื ื ืืืง: ืืืื 2024 ืืืืฉ ืืชืืืข ืืจืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื ืืืื ืืงืฉื ืืฆื ืืขืฆืจ ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืฉืืจืช ืคืฉืขืื ื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืจืขืืช ืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืฆืขื ืืืืื, ืืจืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืจืฆื, ืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืื ืืช ื ืื ืืืืืืกืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืจืฆื ืืจืืืช ืืืงืฉืจ ืฉื ืืจืขืื. ืืืงืฉื ืืืืฉื ืื ืืืคื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืื ื, ืืืืงืืื ืืืืฉื ืืงืฉื ืืฆืืื ืืขืฆืจ ืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืืก - ืืืื ืกื ืืืืจ, ืืกืืขืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืฃ. ื-21 ืื ืืืืืจ 2024 ืืืืืข ืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืื ืื ืืืฆืื ืฆืืื ืืขืฆืจ ื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืคืฉืขื ืืืืื ืืคืฉืขืื ื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืจืฆืืขืช ืขืื. ืขื ืคื ืืืช ืืืื, ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืจืืืื ืืคืฉืขืื ืฉื ืืจืขืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืื, ืจืฆื, ืจืืืคื ืืืืืื ืช ืชืงืืคืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืื ื ืชืืืื. ืืฉืืขืืช ืืืฆืืช ืฆืืื ืืืขืฆืจ ืืื ืฉ-124 ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืขืฆืืจ ืืืืกืืืจ ืืช ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืกื ืืชืืืื. ืืฆืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืงืืืฆืช ืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืชืคืกืืช ืืืคืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืืง ืืืื-ืืืืื. ืชืคืงืืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืื ื ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืฆืืื ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืืกืืืจืื ืื ืฆืืื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ื, ืืื ืืคืงื ืกืืืจืช ืืื"ื ืฉื ืืจื ืืืืฆืข ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืฆืขืืจ ืขืื, ืืื ืจืืคื ืืกืืคืจ. ืืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื, ืืืืฉืข, ืืื ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืชืืืืงื, ืืขืื ืฉื ืฉืืคืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื, ืฉืืฉื ื ื ืชื ืืื. ื ืืฉืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืจืื (ืืืงื) ืืืืกืื (ืืืืจ ืืื, ืืจื) ืืฉื ืช 1972. ืืฉื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืช, ื ืืขื, ืฉืืืืื ืืืจื ืืชืฉืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืื ืืื ืจืื, ืืืฉ ืขืกืงืื ืืกืื ืืจืกืื; ืืืชื ื ืืขื ืืฉ ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืืฉื ื ืืืื. ืืฉื ืช 1979 ืืชืืจืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืืืืืกืื. ื-1981 ื ืืฉื ืืคืืืจ ืงืืืืก, ื ืืฆืจืื ืืจืืืืช ืฉืขืืจื ืืืืจ ืงืื ืกืจืืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืื ืืฉืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืื"ื, ืขืืจื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืจืชืืืืงืกื. ืืฉื ืืื ืืชืืจืฉื ื-1989. ืืืจืฅ 1991 ื ืืฉื ืืฉืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจื ืื ืืจืฆื, ืฉืืืืชื ืืืืชื ืขืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืจ ื"ืื ืขื". ืฉืจื ืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืืกืืคืจ, ืืืฉืืจืจ ืืืืื ื ืฉืืืื ืื ืืจืฆื, ืฉืืืฉื ืืคืกืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืขืืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืืื. ืืืื ืฉื ื ืื ืื, ืืืืจ ืืืื ืจ. ื-2002 ืจืืฉื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ืืงืืกืจืื ืืกืืื ืฉื 1.8 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ. ื-2007 ืจืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื 1.7% ืืื ืืืช ืืืจืช NMDM, ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืื, ืื ืื ืชื ืืืืืงืืืกืงื, ืชืืืจืช 600 ืืืฃ ืืืืจ. ื-2010 ืืืจ ืืืชื ืชืืืจืช 4.3 ืืืืืื ืืืืจ, ืืืฉืงืคืื ืจืืื ืฉื 13.2 ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื. ืขื ืคื "ืคืืจืืก ืืฉืจืื", ืืื ื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉื ืช 2019 ื ืืื ื-50 ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื ืืืืื ืืืจื ืืช ืฉืชื ืงืืืืช ืืจืืื ืืจื ืขืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืงืืกืจืื, ืฉืขืจืื ื-25 ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื. ืืขืฉืืจ ืืฉืืื ื ืืืืื, ืืฉื ืื 2023โ2024, ืขืืจ ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉืชืืช ืงืืฆื ืื, ื ืืชืื ืืชืืงืื ืืงืข ืืคืฉืขืชื ืื ืืชืื ืืืกืจืช ืืืืืช ืืขืจืืื ืืช. ื-17 ืืืืื 2024 ื ืืฉืฃ ืื ืขืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืชื ืืื ืืืฉืคืืชื, ืืื ืืฉื ืื 2018โ2023, ืขืืื ืขื 30 ืืืืืื ืฉืงืืื. ืืืจืฅ 2016 ืคืจืกื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืืืื ืกืจื ื ืกืืืืก ืืคืืืกืืืง ืฉืื ืืขื ืื ืฉืืืจืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ื ืขืฆืจื ืืืืื ืืืืืฉ 1 ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืกืืืง ืืืืื ืืชื ืืืืจืืช ืืฉืชื ืฉืจื. ืืชืืืื ืืืืฉื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืชืืืขืช ืืืื ืขื ืกื 279 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื. ื-11 ืืืื ื 2017, ืงืืข ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืฉืืืืืจ ืืืฉืื ืืจืข ืฉืคืืจืกื ืืืืจื ืืคืืืข ืืืืื ืืช ืกืจื ื ืืฉืื ืืื ื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื ืืคืืฆืืืื ืืขืื 15 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื ืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืคื. ืืขืงืืืช ืชืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืคืืืจ ืกืจื ื ืืืืืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืช. ืขืจืขืืจ ืฉืืืืฉ ืกืจื ื ืขื ืคืกืง ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืชื ืืืื ื ืืื. ืืงืฉืช ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืฉืืืืฉ ืกืจื ื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ื ืืืชื ืืฃ ืืื. ืืืฆืืืจ 2018 ืืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืชืืืขืช ืืืื ืขื ืกื 200 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื ื ืื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืื ืืกืคืืช, ืฉืคืจืกื ืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืื ืื ืื ืงืืื ืืืืืช ืืกืคืืืช ืืคื ืกืื, ืืชืืืจื ืืื ืฉืืช ืืืื ืขืืืช ืืจืจื, ืืืฉื ื ืืืืขื"ืฉ ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืื, ืชืคืขื ืืืืืชื ืืชืืงืื. ืืืื 2023, ืืืฉืื ืคืฉืจื, ืฉืืืกืืจืชื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฉื ืืช ืชืืืขืชื ืืืกืคืืช ืืคืจืกื ืืืืจื ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืื ืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืก ืื ืชื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืจืจื ืื ืืช ืื ืื. ืืื ืืืจ 2022 ืืืื ืืืชืืจืจ ืชืืืขืช ืืืื ืฉืืืืฉื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืืจ ื ืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืื ืืืืืจื, ืขื ืฉืืขื ืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืืืืืื ืฉืื "ืืืื ื ืคืฉ ืืืงืืงืื ืืืืคืื ืคืกืืืืืืจื". ื-21 ืื ืืืืืจ 2022 ื ืคืกืง ืฉืืืืืจื ืืืจ ืืฉืื ืืจืข ืืืืื ืืืชื ืืฉืื ืืืฉืคืืช ื ืชื ืืื 62,500 ืฉ"ื ืคืืฆืืืื ืืชืืกืคืช 35,000 ืฉ"ื ืฉืืจ ืืจืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืฉืคื. ื-16 ืื ืืืืืจ 2023 ืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืฉืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืจืฆื ืืชืฉืืื ืคืืฆืืืื ืืกื ืืืขืื ืืืฆื ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื ืืืื ืฉืืจืื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืฆื ืืขื ืื ืืฉ ืืกืื ืกืืื ืืื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื ืฉืืคืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉืชืคื ืืื ืืืืื. ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืคืกืง ืื ืืกืฃ 50 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื ืืืืืช ืืืืื ื. ืืจืฆื ืขืจืขืจ ืขื ืคืกืง ืืืื, ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืจืื ืืืื ืืช ืคืกืง ืืืื ืื ืงืืข ืฉืืจืฆื ืืฉืื ืืฉืืจืื 290 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื, ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืืืฆืจ ืืืืื ื. ืืฉื ืช 2025 ืืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืชืืืขืืช ืืฉืื ืืจืข ืืืืืช, ืืื ืชืืืขืืช ื ืื ืืฉื ืืขืืื, ืืืืขื ืฉืจืื, ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื. ืืืคืจืื 2025 ืืืืฉ ื ืชื ืืื ืชืืืขืช ืืฉืื ืืจืข ื ืื ืคืขืืืช ืืืืื ืฉืงืื ืืจืกืืจ, ืขื ืกื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื. ืืชืืืขื ืขืืกืงืช ืืฉืืืฉื ืคืจืกืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืขื ืืืืืจื ืื ื ืชื ืืื ืงืืื ืฉืืื ืืงืืจ, ืื ืืขื ืื ืื "ืืคืจืกืื ืืืืืจ ืคืืืข ืืืกืืืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืชืงืื ืืืขืจืื ืืืืืงืจืืื". ืืืืืื ืืื ืชื ืคืชืื ืืจืกืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืื ืื, ืฉืชืื ืคืืืช ืืฉืขื ืืืืก 500 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื, ืืืืืฉื ืฆืื ืืืืชืจ ื-750 ืืืฃ ืฉ"ื ืฉืชืจืื ื-4,800 ืืืฉ. ืกืคืจืื ืกืคืจืื ืืขืจืืืชื: ืืขืงืืืช ืืืื ืชื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืขืกืง ื ืชื ืืื ืืืชืืืช ืกืคืจ ื ืืกืฃ, ืฉื ืงืจื ืชืืืื "ืืฉืื ืืืจืื" ืืืืืฉื ื ืงืจื "ืื ืืจ ืืืฉืจืืื", ืืืฃ ืงืืื ืืงืืื ืขื ืคืจืกืืื ืืืื"ื, ืืืฆืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืช, ืื ืขื ืื ืืกืชื ืืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฉื ืืช, ืื ื ื ืชื ืืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ. ืคืจืกืื ืืืืงืจื ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื ืฉืจ ืืืืจืฉืช ืขืืืื ืืืืื โข ืฉืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ ืืื ืืืงืื โข ืฉืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืืฉืคืืื, ืืฉืจ ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืืืจื ืืืฉืจ ืืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืื ืืืกืื โข ืืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืชืืจ ืื ืืืืจ โข ืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืชืขืฉืืื ื ืืจ ืืจืงืช โข ืืฉืจื ืืฉืืืืื ืืืจืชื ืืงืืืื ืืขืื ืืืืฉื ืืื ืืืื โข ืฉืจืช ืืืืฉื ืืช, ืืืืข ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื โข ืฉืจ ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ โข ืฉืจ ืื ืื, ืืืืื ืืืืืกื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืง ืืกืจืืืืฃ โข ืฉืจ ืืชืจืืืช ืืืกืคืืจื ืืืงื ืืืืจ โข ืฉืจ ืืื ืจืืื ืืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืื ืืื โข ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืื, ืฉืจ ืืืจืืืืช, ืฉืจ ืืจืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืจืชื ืืฉืจ ืืชืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืฅ โข ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื ืืฉืจืื ื"ืฅ โข ืกืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื, ืฉืจ ืืจืืฉืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืฉืจืื, ืฉืจ ืืืฉืคืืื, ืฉืจ ืืขืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืจืืชื ืืช ืืจืื ืืืื โข ืฉืจ ืืขืืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืคืืจ ืกืืคืจ โข ืฉืจืช ืืืชืืืฉืืืช ืืืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืกืืจืืง โข ืืฉืจื ืืืื ืช ืืกืืืื ืขืืืืช ืกืืืื โข ืฉืจ ืืืืฆืจ ืืฉืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืืืืืื ืืฆืืื ืกืืืืจืืฅ' โข ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืืขืื ืกืขืจ โข ืฉืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืงืืฉ โข ืฉืจ ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืฉืืื ืงืจืขื โข ืฉืจืช ืืชืืืืจื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืจื ืจืื โข ืฉืจ ืืชืคืืฆืืช ืืืืืืง ืืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืขืืืื ืฉืืงืื ืฉืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืืืื: ืืืืื ืืืืื โข ืืฆืืื ืกืืืืจืืฅ' ืฉืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฆืจ: ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืืช โข ืืฉืืื ื ืืจื โข ืืฆืืง ืืื โข ืืื ืขืืืจ โข ืืื ืืืงืื ืฉืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืฉืคืืื: ืืืื ืืืกืื ืฉืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืื ืื: ืืืื ืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืงืืจื_ืคืืืืืช] | [TOKENS: 3696] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืืื ืชืืืื ืฉื ืืืจืืจ ืขืืืืืช ืืืืจ ื ืกืืืืช ืืชืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืืขืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืขืืืจื ืคืืืืืช (ืืจืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืชืจืฉืืืืืช). ืืงืืจืืช ืคืืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืคืช ืืืืง ืืืืื ื ืืืืกืืืืช ืืื, ืืืืจื ืืืชืจ ืืช ืืขืืจืืื ืื, ืืืืืฉ ื ืืื ืืกืคืืง ืจืืืืช ืฉืืืคืฉืจื ืืช ืืขืืืชื ืืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืฉืคื ืคืืืื. ืคืขืืืืช ืืงืืจื ืฉืืืืืช ืื ืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช, ืืืคืืฉ ืืชืคืืกื, ืชืฉืืื ืืืขืฆืจ ืืฉืืืื. ืชืืืื ืืืงืืจื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืฉืื ืืช ืื ืืืืช ืืงืืจืืช ืืชืืืืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืืืื: ืคืชืืืช ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืคืชืืืชื ืฉื ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืืข ืืืืฉืช ืชืืื ื ืฉื ืืื, ืืืืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืจื ืขื ืืชืจืืฉืืชื ืฉื ืขืืืจื ืคืืืืืช (ืื ืืฉื ืืขืืืจื ืคืืืืืช), ืืื ืื ืืื ืืฆื ืื ืคืืข ืืืื ืื ืจืง ืืื ืขื ืจืืืื ืืืชืจืืฉืืช ืืขืืืจื. ืืืงืจืื ืืกืืืืื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืช ืขื ืขืืืจืืช ืงืืืช ืืืกืืช, ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืจื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืคืขืื ืฉืืงืื ืืขืช ืืืืืืื ืืขืฆืื ืืื ืืคืชืื ืืืงืืจื ืื ืืกืจื ืืื. ืืื ืื, ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืฉืื ืืช ืจืฉืืืืช ืืคืชืื ืืืงืืจื ืืืืืืชื, ืืืฉืจ ืืฉ ืืฉื ืฉืืืฆืข ืื ืฉืขืืื ืืืชืืฆืข ืืขืฉื ืคืืืื. ืชืืืื ืฉืืคืื ืืงืืจื ืืืืื ืืืชื ืื ืขื ืืื ืจืฉืืช ืืงืืจื ืืืช ืืืื ื/ืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืจื ืฉืื ืืช ื/ืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืืจืืื ืืงืฆืืขืืื, ืขื ืคื ืืฆืืจื. ืชืืืื ืืฉืืคืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืฉืื ืืช ืงืืืขืื ืืืืง. ืืืฉืจืื, ืืงืืจืืช ืคืืืืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืจืช ืืฉืจืื, ืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืชื ืื ืื ืขื ืืื ืืืคืื ืืืจืื, ืืืื ืจืฉืืช ืืืืก, ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืืงืช ืืืงืืจืืช ืฉื ืืก ืืื ืกื, ืืืฉืืจื ืืฆืืืืช, ืื"ืฉ, ืืืื ืืืฉ ืืขืื. ื ืืืื ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืืชื ืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืงืืขื ืืืืงื ืืืืื ื ืืืชืงื ืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืจืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืขืืืื ืืืืื ืืืขื ืฉืช ืืืืงืจืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืจืช ืืืงืืจื. ืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืงืืจืืชืื, ืื ืืืช ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืืฉืืจื ืืช ืื ืฉืื ืืขืืกืงืื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืืืืช ืืืืขืืช ื ืจืืืืช ืืชืืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืื ืืื ื ืจืืืืช, ืืคืขืืช ืืืฉืืจ ืืืขื ืืืืชืืจ ืืืืกืืฃ ืจืืืืช, ืืืฉืืช ืคืกืืืืืืืืืช ืืขืื. ืืฆืืจืื ืืืงืืจื ืืืืงืจืื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืขืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืคืืืืืจืฃ ืืืืขืจืืืช ืืืืื ืคืืืื ืืืื: ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืกืืฃ ืืืืขืช ืืฆืืขืืช, ืืืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืื, ืงืืกืชืจืื, ืืืืงืืช ืืืืืืืืืช (ืืืฉื ืืืืงืช ืื ืืืืืงืช ืกืื ื DNA) ืืคืืืืงืืืืช (ืืืฉื ืืืืงืืช ืืืืกืืืืช), ืืฉืืืืืช ืืจืคืืืืืืืช ืืขืื. ืืฉื ื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืงืืจื ืืืืืืช, ืืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืชืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืงืจืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืืืื, ืืื ืขืืืจืืช ืฆืืืืจืื ืืื, ืคืฉืืขื ืืื ืืืืืืช, ืกืืจ ืืกืืื, ืขืืืจืืช ืจืืืฉ, ืขืืืจืืช ืืื, ืืืืฃ ืืกืคืื ืืคืฉืข ืืืืจืื, ืคืจืืงืื ื ืืขืืืจืืช ืืืฉื. ืืขืืืชื, ืืจืฉืืืืช ืืงืืจื ืงืื ืืช ืืืกืืช, ื ืืื ืฉืืืืงืจืื ืขืืกืงืื ืืงืฉืช ืจืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืชืืืืื, ืืืฉ ืืื ืคืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืชืืืืช. ืืขืืชืื ืืฉืชืชืคืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืงืจืื ืืืงืืจื ืืืช, ืื ืชืืื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืขื ืชืืง ืืืงืืจื, ืืืจืื ืืจืืืื ืืื ืืืื. ืืฉืื ืกืืืืช ืืืจืฉืืช ืืืช, ืคืื ืื ืืืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืื, ืืื ืฉืืกืืืขื ืืืงืืจืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืข ืฉืืื. ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืืืชืจืช, ืื ืืกืฃ ืืคืขื ืื ืืคืจืฉื, ืื ืืืืกืืฃ ืจืืืืช ืงืืืืืช ืขื ืคื ืืื ื ืืจืืืืช, ืืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืจืฉืืข ืืช ืืืฆืขื ืืขืืืจื. ืืืงืจืื ืืื ืืคืฉืืขื ื ืืืขืช ืืืืชืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืช ืื ืฉืคืืฉืข ืขืืืจ ืืืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืืชืื ืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืืื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืงืืจื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืฃ ืืขืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืจืคืื. ืืืืงืจืื ืืงืืืื ืืืฉืจื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช, ืืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืฉืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืจืช ืืชืฉืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืชืฉืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืฉืื. ืืฉ ืืงืื ืชืฉืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืฉืืฉ ืืื ืกืืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืชืช ืืืืข ืื ืืฉืงืจ. ืืชืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืช ืฉืคืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืงืื ืชืฉืืืืช ืฉืคืฉืื ืืืืื. ืืืช ืืื ืื ืืฉืืืช ืืฉื ืื ืืื ืืช ืคืฉืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืื ื ืืจืืืืช. ืืจืืฉื ืืืจืช ืืืชืฉืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืฅ ืืคืกืืืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืคืขืื ืขื ืื ืฉืื. ืืฆืืจื ืืคืขืืช ืืืฅ ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืชืฉืื ืืฉืงืจ ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืฆืื ืื ืืฆื ืฉืืื. ืืืฅ ืคืกืืืืืืื ืจื ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืื ืขืฉืื ืืืคืืง ืชืฉืืื ืื ืืืื ื. ืืขืืจ ืืืืช, ืืืฅ ืจื ืืื ืขืฉืื ืืืจืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืฉืขืฉืืืืช ืืคืืื ืืืกืชืืื ืืืืชื ืื ืืืชืืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืื ื ืืฉื ืื ืขื ืืืืืกืจ ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืงืืจื. ืกืืื ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืืกืชืืืืช ืืืจื ืืื ืืืกืืืืช ืืืืืช: ืืงืืจืืช ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืชืจ ื ืขืืจืื ืื ืจืืืฉ ืื ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืจืืืฉ, ื ืคืกืงืืช ืขื ืืืชืืจื ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื ืฉืืืฆื ืืช ืืืืืข ืฉืขืื ืืจืฉืืชื. ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืฉื ืกืืจื ืขืฉืืื ืืืืคืชื ืืืืฉ ืืคื ื ืฉืื ืื ื ืกืืืืช (ืืืื: ืืืคืขืช ืขื ืืืฉ ืื ืืืืื ืจืืื) ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืืืช. ืืกืืจืช ืืืงืืจื ืืคืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืงืืจื ืคืืืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืง ืกืืจ ืืืื ืืคืืืื (ืืงืืจืช ืืฉืืืื), ืชืฉืก"ื-2002, ืฉืื ื ืงืืข: ืจืื ืื ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%92%27%D7%90%D7%A8%D7%93_%D7%93%D7%99%D7%99%D7%9E%D7%95%D7%A0%D7%93] | [TOKENS: 2087] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ื'ืืจื ืืืืืื ื ื'ืืจื ืืืืกืื ืืืืืื ื (ืืื ืืืืช: Jared Mason Diamond; ื ืืื ื-10 ืืกืคืืืืจ 1937) ืืื ืืืืืื, ืคืืืืืืื ืืืื-ืืืืืจืฃ ืฉื ืชืืจืช ืืืืืืืฆืื, ืืืืื-ืืืจืืงืื. ื ืืื ื-2008 ืืื ืืืื ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืืืืจืคืื ืืืคืืืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืงืืืคืืจื ืื ืืืืก ืื ื'ืืก. ืืืืืื ื ืืื ืืคืจืก ืคืืืืฆืจ ืืืื ืกืคืจื "ืจืืืื, ืืืืืงืื ืืคืืื" (1998), ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืขืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช (1999) ืืืคืจืก ืืืืฃ (2013). ืงืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ื ื ืืื ืืืืกืืื ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืืืฆืื ืืืืืืืื ืืคืืืื. ืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืจืืงืกืืจื (Roxbury Latin School), ืืืืืจ ืืื ืกืืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืงืืื' ืืจืืืืจื ืืืืงืจืชื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืืืจื ื-1958. ืืืืฉื ืืืืืืื, ืงืืื ืชืืืจ ืืืงืืืจ ืืคืืืืืืืืื ืืืืืคืืืืงื ืฉื ืืืืืจื ื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืงืืืืืจืืื' ื-1961. ื-1962 ืฆืืจืฃ ืืืืืื ื ืืขืืืช ืืืืจ (Junior Fellow) ื"ืืืจืช ืืขืืืชืื ืฉื ืืจืืืืจื" (Harvard Society of Fellows), ืืจืืื ืืืงืจืชื ืฉืืืืจืืช ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืื, ืืฉืื ืฉื ื ืืืืจืื ืขืฉืจื ืืฆืืืื ืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืฆืจืคื ืืืจืืื. ืืฉื ืื 1962โ1966 ืฉืื ืืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืืืจื. ื-1966 ืืชืื ื ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืคืืืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืงืืืคืืจื ืื ืืืืก ืื ื'ืืก. ืขืื ืืฉื ืืช ื-20 ืฉืื, ืคืืชื ืงืจืืืจื ื ืืกืคืช, ืืงืืืื, ืืืงืืืืืื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืขืืคืืช ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉื, ืืจืืฉ ื ืืกืืื ืขืฉืืจ ืืขืืืืช ืฉืื. ืืื ืขืจื 17 ืืกืขืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืืื ืืกืืืืื, ืขื ืื ืช ืืืงืืจ ืืช ืืืงืืืืืื ืืืชืคืชืืืช ืืฆืืคืืจืื. ืืื ืืืชืจ, ืืืื ืืืืฉ ืฆืืคืืจ ืฉืืฉืื ืื ื ืืืื (Amblyornis flavifrons). ืืคืขืื ืืฉืืืจืช ืืืืข ืชืื ื ืชืืื ืืช ืืงืืคื, ืฉืืืฉืื ืืจืืื, ืืืขืจืืช ืคืืจืงืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืง ืืืื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉื. ืืื ืื ืขืจื ืืกืขืืช ืืืงืจ ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืงืจื ืืขืืืืืช ืืฉืืืืจ ืืืืช ืืืจ. ืืฉื ืืช ืืืืืฉืื ืืืืื, ืคืืชื ืืืืืื ื ืืืืจืื ืงืจืืืจื ืฉืืืฉืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืืกืืืื, ืืืื ืืืื ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืืืืจืคืื ืืืืขื ืืจืืืืช ืืกืืืื, ืืฉืจืชื ืืืื. ืืืืืื ื ืืืืข ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืจื ืฉื ืืฆืืจืืช ืืืข ืคืืคืืืจื ืืืฉืืืืช ืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื, ืืืืืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื. ืืื ืืื ืืคืจืก ืคืืืืฆืจ ืืฉื ืช 1998 ืขืืืจ ืกืคืจื ืจืืืื, ืืืืืงืื ืืคืืื, ืฉืื ืืขืื ืืฉืขืจื ืฉืืืจืืื ืืืืืจืคืืื ืืกืืืืช ืืงืฉืืจืืช ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืจืืข ืืืชืคืฉืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืืืขืจืืืช ืืขืืื. ืืืืืื ื ืืื ืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืคืืืืกืืคืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืช (ื-1988), ืืืงืืืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืขืื ืืืืงืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืขืื ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืืืจ, "ืืขืืื ืขื ืืชืืื", ืืืกืก ืืืืืื ื ืืช ืขืืืชื ืืคืื ืกืืกืืืื ืื-ืืืื ืชืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืงืืจืื ืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืกืืกืืืื ืืืื ืชืืื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืจืื ืกืืกืืืื ืื-ืืืื ืชืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืื ืืจืืืืช ืืืฉืคืืขืื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืชืจ ืขื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืจืืืช. ืกืคืจืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9D&veaction=edit§ion=60] | [TOKENS: 74883] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืจื ื ืกืคืืื ืก ืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืื (ืฉื ืืืขื: Homo sapiens, ืืชืขืชืืง: ืืึนืืึน ืกึธืคึดึผืึถืื ืก, ืืืืื ืืช: "ืืึนืืึน" โ ืืื, "ืกึธืคึดึผืึถืื ืก" โ ืืืฉื ืื ืชืืื ื) ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืื ืง ืืืฉืคืืช ืงืืคื ืืืื, ืืืืื ืฉื ืืชืจ ืืกืื ืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื (ืืืกืืช ืืืืื ืืืคื) ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืขืื ืืืืื: ืืืื ืคื ืฉืืืฉื ืืขืจื ืืคืืื ืืืืืืช ืงืืคื ืืืื ืืงืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืฉืืืคื ืื ืืืืจืืื. ืืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืืืชื ืืืงืืคื ืขื ืฉืชื ืืคืื ืืืืืจืืืช, ืืืชืืืช ืืจืืขืืชืื ืืืฆืืขืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืชืงืื ืืืืื, ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืจ ืฉืื. ืืื ืืืืืก ืืืืื ืขืฉืืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืื ืืืฉืชืืื, ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืขื ืืืื ืืืจ, ืืืฉื ื ืืช ืืชื ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉืืชืืืื ืืฆืจืืื ืืืืืืืชื, ืืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืก ืกืืืื. ืืื ืืชืืคืืื ืืชืืืขื ืืืืืจื ืืคืืชืืืช, ืืืืืืชื ืืืชืงืืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืื ืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืืข, ืืกืืืื ืืืคืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืฉืืฉืื ืืฉืคื ืืืืชื, ืืจืขืืื ืืช, ืืืืืื ืืช, ืืืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืกืืืช ืืืจืชืืื ืืืจืืืื. ืืืื ืืฉ ืืืืืืช ืืจืคืืงืฆืื ืขืฆืืืช, ืืืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืชืืื ื ืืช ืคื ืืืืช ืื ืืชืื ืขืฆืื. ืืืื ื ืคืืฅ ืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ, ืืืื ืื ืืจื ืงืืข ืืืืื ืืืขื ืืื ืืืจืงืืืงื. ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืชืคืชืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืฉืช ืืคืจืืงื ืืคื ื ื-200 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืื ืืืชืคืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืฉืืช ืืขืืื ืืืฉื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืื ืืืืจืืงื, ืชืื ืืืืคื ืืืืืขื ืฉื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืงืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืฉืืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืืจืืคื ืืืืกืื. ืืืืจื ืืจืืืช ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืื ืืื ืืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื, ืืจืง ืืคื ื ืืขืฉืจืช ืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฆืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืื ืืืืงืฃ ื ืจืื ืืฆืืจื ืืงืืืืช. ืืคื ื ืืืืฉืช ืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืืชืจ ืคืืชืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืชื, ืืืืื ืืชืขื ืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉืืื. ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืืคืฉืจื ืืืืคืื ืืชืขืฉืืืชืืช ืืืืืืฉื ืืืืข ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช, ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ื-8 ืืืืืืจื ื ืคืฉ. ืื ืื ื-ืืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ื, ืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืขืืจ ืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืืช ืืื ื ืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ื, ืืกืืืืื ืืชืช-ืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืจื ื (Homo sapiens sapiens). ืกืืืื ืื ื ืืขื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืืื ืงืจืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืื, ืฉืืกืืื ืืชืช-ืืื ื ืคืจื ืืชืื ืืืื "ืืื ื ืืื" ืื ืืืื ื ืคืจื ืืกืื ืืื (Homo). ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืจื ื ื ืืฉื ืืชืช-ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืฉืจื ืขื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืชืช-ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืกืคืืื ืก, ืืืื ืืกืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืชืช-ืืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืื. ืืืืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืฉืช ืื ืืชืืืืจ ืคืจื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืื, ืืื ืืชืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืื. ืืขืืจืืช, ืืืืื ืืื ืืชืืืืจ ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืงืจื. ืืคื ืกืืคืืจ ืืืจืืื ืืฉื ื ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืฉืืช (ื, ื ืืืืื), ืืฉื ื ืืืจ ืืืฉืืจืฉ "ืืืื", ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืโืขึธืคึธืจ ืึดื ืึธืึฒืึธืึธืโ. ืืืื ืืืืื "ืืื" ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืฉืช ืืืจื-ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืืื. ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืชืืืืกืื ืื ืืืื ื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืช, ืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืชืืืืกืื ืืืื ื "ืื ืืช ืืื"[ื], ืืืขืืชืื ืจืืืงืืช ืืืื ื "ืื ืืช ืืื" ืขื ืฉืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืงืจืืืช. ืืืื ืืืื ื ืื "ืื ืืฉ", "ืื ืืฉื" ืื "ืื ืื ืืฉ",[ื] ืืืืื ืืฉืื ืฉื ืื ืืฉ, ื ืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืขื ืคื ืืืงืจื[ื]. ืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ื ืงืจืืื ืืขืืชืื ืืึฑื ืึนืฉืืึผืช ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื. ืฉื ืืชืืืจ "ืื ืืฉื" ืืขืืชืื ืืฆืืื ืฉืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืกืื ืืืื, ืืชืืื ืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืื ืชืืื ืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืคืืื ืืช ืื ืืืืืืืช ืื ื ืืื ืืืงืฉืจืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืฉื ืืืกืจืืืช ืืืืคืชืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืขืื-ืืืื, ืืืืขืืช ืขืฆืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืฉืืื, ืื ืืืืงื ืืช ืืืืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืืื ืืืฉ. ืฆืืจืช ืืจืืืื ืฉืื, ืื ืฉืื, ื ืืฆืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ื ืจืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืื โ ืื ืจืง ืืืจืื. "ื. ื ืฉืื" ืืื ืชืืืืฃ ืื ืจืฉืื ืืืชืืื ืฉืืงืคืืืื ืขื ื ืืกืื ื ืืืืจืื ืืืืื ื ืืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื แผฮฝฮธฯฯฯฮฟฯ (ืึทื ึฐืชึฐึผืจืึนืคึผืึนืก) ืคืืจืืฉื "ืืื" ืื "ืื ืืฉ", ืืืื ื ื ืืืจื ืืืื ื "ืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื", ืืชืืื ืืืืขื ืืขืืกืง ืืืงืจ ืืืืจื ืืืชืจืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืื "ืื ืชืจืืคืืฆื ืืจืืืช", "ืื ืชืจืืคืืืืจืคืืื" ื"ืืขืืงืจืื ืืื ืชืจืืคื". ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืื Homo (ืืึนืืึน), ืืืื ืืฉืืฉืช ืืืืืืืืื ืืฉื ืืืืขื ืฉื ืกืื ืืืื. ืืื ืื ื ืืืจื ืืื ื ืืืื ื "ืืืื ืืื" ืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช Human ืืฉืจ ืืฉืืฉืช ืื ืืฉื ืขืฆื ืฉืคืืจืืฉื "ืื ืื ืืฉ" ืืื ืืฉื ืชืืืจ ืฉืคืืจืืฉื "ืื ืืฉื". ืืฉื ืืืืขื ืฉื ืืืื, Homo sapiens (ืืึนืืึน ืกึธืคึดึผืึถืื ืก), ื ืืชื ืืฉื ืช 1758 ืขื ืืื ืืืงืจ ืืืืข ืืฉืืืื ืงืืจืืืืก ืืื ืืืืก ืืืกืืจืช ืคืืขืื ืืืืืจืช ืืืงืกืื ืืืื ืฉื ืขืืื ืืื. ืืฉื ืชืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืฉื ืืืืขื ืืืคืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืก, ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืชืืจืช ืืช ืืกืื ืืืฉื ืืื ืืช ืืืื. ืฉื ืืกืื, Homo, ื ืืงื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ื"ืืื", ืืฉื ืืืื, sapiens, ืคืืจืืฉื "ืชืืื ื", "ื ืืื" ืื "ืืืฉื". ืืืืฉื ื ืืืจื ืืืฉืืจืฉ Homo ืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืขืืื ืฉื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืงืจืืืื ืื ืืืืชืจ, ืืื ืืฉืคืืช ืืืื "ืืืืื ืืืืื" ืืชืช-ืฉืื "ืืืืื ืื ืื". ืืืืืืืื ืืขืจืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืืฃ ืืื ืืฉื, ืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืืฃ ืืืื. ืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืืขืืงืจ ืฉื ืืื ืืงืจืืืื ืื ืืืืชืจ: ืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืืช ืืคืืืืืืืืืช, ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืขืื ืืืืื ืืงืจืืืื ืืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืชืืืช ืืฉืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืคื ืขื ืฉืชื ืืจืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืช, ืืืืื ืืืืื ืคื ืฉืืืฉื ืืขืจื ืืืืื ืฉื ืงืืคื ืืื. ืืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืคืจืืืืื, ืืคืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื-ืฆืืจืชืืืช ืืืืืืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืฆืข ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืฉืื. ืืืืืฆืข, ืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืื 1.6 ื-1.7 ืืืจืื ืืืฉืงืื 54 ืขื 64 ืงืืืืืจื, ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืื 1.7 ื-1.8 ืืืจืื ืืืฉืงืื 76 ืขื 83 ืงืืืืืจื. ืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืื ืง ืืืคืืกื, ืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืืคืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืงื ืฉืืื ืืืจืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืจืืืช ืืขืฆืืืช ืืื ืขืืจื ืืชืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืงืืคื ืขื ืฉืชืืื, ืืืืคืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืื. ืขืฆืืืช ืืืจื ืืืฉืืง ืืจืืืืช ืืฆื ืืืื, ืื ืืืืคื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืกืืช ืืืืจื ืืืคื ืืืฉืืืื ืืคืจืืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืคืจืง ืืืจื ืืืฆื ืื ืฉืืฉืืงืืื ืคืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืงื ืืจืื ืืืืฃ, ืืืืจืืืื ืงืจืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฆื. ืืืื ืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื "ืงืขืจื", ืฉืืขืช ืขืืืื ืืงืืคื ืืขืจืกืืช ืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืคื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื. ืฉืจืืจ ืืขืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืฉืจืืจื ืืขืืื ืืคืืชืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื, ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืคื, ืืงืืื ืืืืฉืืื. ืขืืื ืืฉืืจื ืืคืืชื ืืืืื ืืืืช S ืืืื ืฆื, ืืฉืืืงื ืืืืชื ื ืืชืงืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืื, ืคืืชืื ืืคืืขื ืืืืื ืืขืืืขืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืขืช ืืืืื ืืจืืฆื. ืขืืื ืืฉืืจื ืืชืืืจ ืืืืืืืืช ืืชืืชืืชื, ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืื ืืฆื ืฉืืจ ืืืื ืงืื, ืื ืฉืืจืืฉ ืคืื ื ืงืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืืฃ ืืชื ืืื ืื ืืืช. ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฃ, ืืืคื ืืชืื ืืงืืช ืืืกืืช, ืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืื. ืขืฆื ืืืจืืข, ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืงืฆืจืืช ืืืกืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืฃ, ืืืฉืืืื ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืจืืข ืฉื ืงืืคืื ืืงืืคื ืืื, ืืืืช ืืืชืืื ืืืืืงื ืืืืคืื ืืืืฉืืจืื ืืื ืืืืคืืก ืขื ืขืฆืื. ืขืฆื ืืืจืืข ืืคืืชืืช ืืขื ืืืืคื ืฉืืืจืคืง ืคืื ื ืืืืฆื ืืืคืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฆืืืช ืืคื ื ืืืืฃ ืืืคื ืื. ืขืฆืืืช ืืฃ ืืื ืขืืื ืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืืื ืชื ืืขื ืืืื. ืืืืืื ื ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืฆืืขืืช, ืืื ืืฆื ืฉืืจ ืงืืคื ืืืื, ืื ืืจืื ืืฉืจืืจื ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืคืื ืืืืืง ืืืคืฆืื ืงืื ืื. ืืคืจืง ืืืจืืืง ืืืืชืจ ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืฆืืข ืืชืจืื ืืงืฆืื ืืชืืืื ื"ืืจืืช" ืืืฆืืข ืฉืืชืืช ืืฆืืคืืจื โ ืชืืื ื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืกืื ืืืื ืฉืืชืคืชืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืืชืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืชื. ืืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืื ืงืื ืืืืจืื, ืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืืงืขืืช ืืขืฆืืืช ืืืกืช ืื ืืื ืืคื ืืืื ืฆืขืืจ ืืืื, ืืืชืืืคืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืฉืื ืืื ืงืืืขืืช. ืืื ืืฆื ืื ืืงืืคืื ืฆืจื ืืืฃ, ืืฉืื ืืื ืืงืืืขืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืจืืข ืืกืช ืฉืชื ืืืชืืืช, ื ืื ืืื, ืฉืชื ืงืื-ืืืื ืืช (ืื ืงืจืืืช ืื ืืืชืขืืช) ืืฉืืืฉ ืืืื ืืช, ืืืกื ืืืื 32 ืฉืื ืืื. ืืืืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืงืื ืช ืืืกืชืืช ืืืื ืื-ืืื ื ื ืืืกืืช ืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืงืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืจืืืช ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืจืืข ืืกืช ืืืงืขืืช ืื ืชืื ืืื ืืคื ืจืง ืืืื 17 ืืืืชืจ, ืืืืืืจ ืืืกืืช, ืืขื ืื ื ืงืจืืืช ืืขืืจืืช ืฉืื ื ืืื ื. ืืขืืชืื ืืืง ืืฉืื ื ืืืื ื ืื ืื ืืจืืขืชื ืืฃ ืืื ื ืืืงืขืืช ืืื, ืื ืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืชืื ืขืฆื ืืืกืช. ืืชืืฆืื ืืื ื ืืชื ืืืืืช ืืืืืฅ ืืฆื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืื 28 ื-32 ืฉืื ืืื. ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืงืื ืืช ืืืกืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืื ื ืืืชื-ืืชืืื: ืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืฆื ืืืจืคืื ืืงืืคื-ืืื, ืืืืชืืืช ืืื ื ืฆืืืืืช ืืื ืืคืกืง ืืื ืืฆื ืืืจืกืืื, ืืืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืืืืช ืืจืืืืช ืืื ืืฆื ืืืืื ืขืฉื. ืฉืื ืืื ืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืขื ืืกืชืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืื. ืืฉ ืืืงืจืื ืืกืืืจืื ืฉืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืื ืืื ืืืืฉ ืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืช ืืืื ืงืฉื ืืืืฉืืื, ืชืจื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืช ืืฉืื ืืื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืืื, ืืฃ ืฉืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืืืฆืื ืืื ืงืืื ืืขืืืืืช ืืขืชืืงืืช ืืืืชืจ ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืฉ. ืืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืื ื ืกืืจืช ืืคืจืืืืื, ืืืื ืขืื ืืื ืืคืืชืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช ืงืืืื (ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืจืืฉ) ืืืืืืืืช, ืื ืฉืฉืืืช ืืจืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืคืคืื ืืืืื ืจืื, ืืืกืืืขืื ืืืืงืื ืฉืชืืื ืืคืจืืื ืงืื ืื ืืงืจืืืื. ืจืืืืช ืฆืืขืื ืืคืืชืืช ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืจืืืืช ืืฆืืข ืืืืคืืกืืช ืืงืืคืื ืฆืจื-ืืฃ ืืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืฉืืืฉื ืกืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืฉืชืืช, ืืฉืจ ืืชืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืฆืืขื ืืืื, ืืจืืง ืืืืื (routine trichromacy). ืืืคืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืขืื ืืืื ืืื ืืคืจืืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืื ืงืื ืืืืจืื, ืืื ืคืชื ืืจืืืช ืขืื ืจืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืจืืืื ืฉื ืืงืจื ืืช, ืืืื ืืืฉืฃ ืืืง ืืืื ืืืืื ืืขืื. ืื ืืืื ืืืืืชื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืช ืืืืื ืืขืื ืืงื ื ืืขืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืคืืกื ืฉืื, ืืืงื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืืจืื. ืืืฉ ืืจืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืฉ ืืคืืื ืืืชืจ ืืฉื ืืงืืคืื, ืืืืชืื ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืจืื ืืงืื ืืืืช ืืืฃ ืฉืื ืงืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืกืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืืช. ืืชืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ืฉื ืงืืืื ื ืจืื (olfactory receptors) ืืฆื ืืืื, ื-55% ืืื ื ืืชืืจืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืคืื ืืคืกืืืืืื ืื ืืืชื ืืชืคืงืืื. ืืืืจ ืืขืงืืืกืื ืืชืงืจืช ืืคื, ืืืืื ืชืคืงืื ืืฉืื ืืืืฉ ืืจืื ืืฆื ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืงืื, ืืชื ืืื ืืฆื ืืืื ืืืจ ืืฉืื ืืขืืืจื. ืืืื ืืืื ืืกืืืืช ืืฉืืืข ืงืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืชืืจืื ืฉืืื 20 ืืจืฅ ื-20 ืงืืืืืจืฅ, ืืืื ืขืืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืงืื[ื] ืื ืืื ืืจืืช ืืฃ ืืืชืจ ืืฆื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืจืื ืืงืฉืืฉืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืืืฉืืช ืฉืืืขื. ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืชื ืืื ืื ืคื ืืืืฆืข ืฉื 1,350 ืกื ืืืืืจืื ืืขืืงืืื. ืืืชืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืฃ ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืืื ืืื, ืืืกืืื ืืขืืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืขื ืฉืืจ ืืขืื ืืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืืื ืจืืื. ืืกืคืจ ืชืื ืืขืฆื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืขืจื ืื-86 ืืืืืืจื, ืืฉืจ ืืืฆืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืชืจ ื-100 ืืจืืืืื ืงืฉืจืื ืกืื ืคืืืื. ืืืขืฉื, ืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืขืืื ืืื ืืืืคื ืืืืื โ ืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืืืชื ืื ืืคืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจ, ืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืจืื ืืืื ืืืคื ืืืืื ืืืจืื. ืขื ืื ืช ืืืฉื ืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืฃ ื ืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืื EQ โ(Encephalization Quotient ืื "ืื ืช ืืืืืืืช") ืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืขืื-ืืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืฉืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืื ืงืื ื ืืฆื ืืืจื-ืืื ืื ืืืื ืขืจื EQ ืืื 6 ื-8, ืืคืืจืืฉ ืืืืจ ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืคื 6 ืขื 8 ืืืฆืคืื ืืืื ืง ืืขื ืืืื ืืืฃ ืืืื. ืืื ืืขืจื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืงืื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืจืื, ืืืืืคืื ืื ืืงืืคื ืืืื, ืืงืืืื ืืืจื-ืืื ืขืจืื EQ ืฉื 2 ืขื 5, ืืืืื ืง ืืืืืฆืข ืืงืื ืืืืืจื ืขืจื ืฉื 1. ืขืจืื ืืืกืคืจื ืฉื EQ ืชืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืื ืืืจ, ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืื ืจืง ืืื ื ืคืจืืืืื ืืชืงืื ืขืจื EQ ืฉื 3 ืืืื, ืฉืคืืจืืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืคื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืื ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืืฃ. ืื ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืืจ ืืงืื ืืืื ืขืจื EQ ืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืฉืืจ ืืืื ืื. ืืืืืจ ืืืคืืชื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืงืืืคืช ืืืื ืืืืื, ืฉืืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืชืืืื ืืชืคืืกื, ืชื ืืขื ืจืฆืื ืืช, ืืืืขืืช, ืืื ืช ืฉืคื, ืืืืืจ ืืขืื. ืงืืืคืช ืืืื ืืื ืืืขืฉื ืืจืืขื ืจื-ืฉืืืชืืช ืฉื ืชืื ืขืฆื ืืชืื ืืืืื ืฉืฉืืื ื-2,360 ืกื"ืจ (ืืืื ื, ืืจืืืืข ืฉืืืจื ืฆืืขื ืืืขื ืืฆื ืืืจ), ืืืื ืืฉืืคืขืช ืืงืคืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืคื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืื ืืืืืืก ืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืืืช. ืงืืืคืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื 75% ืขื 84% ืืืฉืงืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืื, ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืง ืืืจ. ืืืกืคืจ ืืืืืื ืฉื ืชืื-ืขืฆื ืืงืืืคืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ื-16 ืืืืืืจื, ืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืงืืืคืช ืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืง ืืืจ ืฉื ืืื, ืืืฉื 9 ืืืืืืจื ืืฆื ืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืื, 6โ7 ืืืืืืจื ืืฆื ืืฉืืืคื ืื, ื-5.6 ืืฆื ืืคืื ืืืคืจืืงื ื[ื][ื]. ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืจืงืื ืืขืืช ืฆืจืืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฃ ืืืื โ ืืืฆื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืืืืช ืฆืืจื ืืืื, ืฉืืฉืงืื ืจืง 2% ืืืฉืงืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืฃ, 20% ืืืื ืชืฆืจืืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืฃ. ืชืฆืจืืืช ืืืกืืช ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืฃ ืืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืฆื ืชืื ืืงืืช โ ื-50%, ืืืฆื ืืืืื ืื ื 4 ืฉื ืื ื-66%. ืืื ืืกืคืง ืชืฆืจืืืช ืื ื ืืจืฉืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืกืคืงืช ืืงืืืจืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืืืื ืืช ืกืืืจืืชื (ืจืื ืืกืขืืฃ ืชืืื ื), ืืืืืืคืื ืืืกืื ืืชืฆืจืืืช ืืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืจืงืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืคื, ืืื ืจืงืืช ืฉืจืืจ, ืืืืื ืืช ืงืฆื ืืืืืื ืืฆื ืืืืื ืืืชืืืจืื, ืืืฉืืืื ืืงืืคื ืืื ืืืืื ืงืื ืืืจืื. ืขืืจ ืืืื ืืฉืืฃ ืืืกืืช ืืฉืืขืจ, ืคืจื ืืฉืืขืจ ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืขืจ ืืืงื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืจืื ืืืืจืื. ืฉืืขืจ ืืืืฃ ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืขื ืขื ืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืช, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืคืฉืขื (ืฉืขืจ ืืขืจืืื) ืืืืชื ืืฉืื. ืืืขืฉื, ืืกืคืจ ืืงืืงื ืืฉืขืจืืช ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืืื ื ืคืืืช ืืื ืฉืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืื ืงืื ืจืืื ืืืจืื, ืืื ืฉืืจืืืช ืืฉืขืจืืช ืืฆืืืืืช ืืขืืจ ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืช ืืงืื ืืช ืืืื. ืืงืืงื ืืฉืขืจืืช ืขืืืื ืงืฉืืจืื ืืฉืจืืจืื ืืืขืืจืื ืืืืงืคืื ืืืชื, ืื ืฉืจืคืืงืก ืกืืืืจ ืืฉืืขืจ ืืืืคืืกื ืืืื ืงืื ืขืืืื ืคืืขื ืืื ื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืงืืจ (ืืชืืืฉื ืืืืื ื "ืขืืจ ืืจืืื") ืืืขืืชืื ืืชืืืื ืืืชืจืืฉืืช ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืื (ืชืืืืช "ืืืืื ืื ืืจื"), ืืขืืชืื ืืืืืื ืฆืืจืืืจืช. ืืื ื ืืื ืฆืขืืจืื ืืืจืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืง ืืืืจืืง, ืืืืื ืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืื ืงืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืคืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืื ืงืื ืืืฉืชืืื ืฉืืชืืช ืืคืจืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืงืืื ืืืื. ืืืื ืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืฉืืืช ืฉืืื ืชืช-ืขืืจืืช ืฉืืกืืืืช ืืืชื-ืืจืืจืืช ืืคืืชืืช ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืจืื ืืืื ืงืื ืืืืฉืชืืื[ื]. ืฆืืข ืืขืืจ ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืฉืื ื โ ืืฉืืืจ ืืืขื ืืืืืืื ืืขื ืืืืจ ืืืืชืจ, ืืืงืื ืืืื ืืจืืจื ืืชืืฆืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืกืืืืื ืืคื ื ืืขืืจ. ืฆืืข ืืขืืจ ืืื ืชืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืกืื ืืคืืืื ื ืืื ืื ืืชืื ืืขืืจ. ืชืื ืืขืืจ ืืฃ ืืืืฆืจืื ืืื ืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืชืืืื ืืงืจืื ื ืืืืืจื ืกืืืื ืืคืืืขืช ืืื, ืื ืฉืืืจื ืืืคืงื ืืฉืืืืฃ. ืืืฉื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืขืืืื ืืจืืจื ืืืขืืช ืืชืคืชืืืช ืจืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืขืืจ ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืจืคืืื ืฉืืื ืงืจืื ืช ืืฉืืฉ ืืืงื, ืืื ืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืืคืงื ืืืกืจืื ืฉืื, ืืืจืืืื ื ืืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืขืืจ ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืจืคืืื ืืขืืื ืงืจืื ื, ืืืืคืฉืจ ืืงืจื ื ืฉืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืืขืืจ ืืืกืืืข ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืืืื D. ืฆืืข ืืฉืืขืจ ืืฆืืจืชื ืืฃ ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืื ืฉืื ืื. ื ืจืื ืฉืฆืืข ืืฉืืขืจ ืืืงืืจื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืฉืืืจ, ืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืคืืืขืืช ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืืฆืจืืช ืฆืืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืืื ื ืื'ืื ื'ื. ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืื ืืชืคืฉืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืืช, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืจืืคื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืืจืืคืืื. ืื ืื ืืืฉืคืืขืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืฉืขืจื ืืืจืืื ืืฉืืขืจ ืืืง, ืืชืืืชื ืื ืืงืืจืื. ืขื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืฆืืจ ืืืื ืื ืืฉืขืจื ืืืืคืืข, ืื ืฉืืืจื ืืฉืืขืจ ืฉืืื. ืืื ืื ืฉืืจ ืืืื ืงืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืฆืืจ ืืืคืืืืืื โ ืื ืืื ืืืชืืื ืืกืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืฉื ื ืืขืจืื ืืจืืืืืืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืื. ืืขืจื ืืืจืืืืืืืื ืืืื (ืงืจืืืืืค) ืืืื 23 ืืืืืช ืืจืืืืืืืื, ืืฉืื ื ืืืงืฆืช ืืืงืจืืืืืค ืฉื ืงืืคื ืืื ืืืืื 24 ืืืืืช. ืกืืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืื, ืฉื ื ืืืืืช ืืจืืืืืืืื ืืฆื ืงืืคื ืืื ืืชืืื ืื ืขื ืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืื ืืืจืืืืืืืื ืืกืคืจ 2 ืืืื. ืืืคื ืงืืืขืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฃ ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืฉืืจ ืืืื ืงืื: ืืชืื ืื ืงืืืช ื ืืฆื ืืื ืืจืืืืืืื ืืื XX, ืืขืื ืฉืืชืื ืืืืจืื ื ืืฆื ืืื ืืจืืืืืืื XY, ืืืืืจ ืืจืืืืืื X ืืื ืืืจืืืืืื Y ืืื, ืืืืืืื ืื ืืื. ืืจืืืืืื Y ืงืื ืืืชืจ ืืืจืืืืืื X. ืืืจืฉืช ืืจืืืืืื Y ืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืขืึผืึธึผืจ ืืืชืคืชื ืืื, ืืขืื ืฉืืืจืฉืช ืืจืืืืืื X ืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืขืืึผืจ ืืืชืคืชื ืืืช. ืืื ื-DNA ืืืจืืืืืืืื ื ืงืจื ืื ืื. ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืกื ืืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืืืจื ืืืืืช ื ืืงืืืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืจืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืชืกืืกื ืืช (140 ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื), ืื ืื ืงืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืจืื, ืืืฉื ืืื ืจืืืืช (ืขื 130 ืืืืืืจื ืืืืืช). ื ืืงืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืืืืื, ืขื ืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืคืจืืืงื ืื ืื ืืืื, ื-20 ืืืฃ ืื ืื ืืืชืืจืืืื ืืืืืื ืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืคื ืคืกืืืืืื ืื ืืฉืจ ืืื ื ืืชืืจืืืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืคืืืื ืื ืืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืกื ืืืื ืจืง ืืืืื ืขื ืฉื ื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืชืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื. ืืืื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืชืืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืืฉ ืื ืชืคืงืื ืืฉืื ืืืงืจืช ืื ืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืง ื ืืืจ ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืฉื (ืืืืื ืขืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืืงืช ืขืื ืืืืงืจ ืืื ืื) ืืื ืืืืื ืช "DNA ืื ืืืื" ื"DNA ืืื" ืฉืืื ืืื ืชืคืงืื ืืืขืื ืืืื, ืืืืืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืจืืจืืืจื ืกืคืืืื ืื, ืืืฉืืคืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืืคื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืคืื, ืืืฉืจืืื ืจืืจืืืจื ืกืคืืืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืคืขืืืื ืขืื. ืืงืจื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืฉ ืืืืื ืื ืื: ืืืืืื ืืจืฆืฃ ืืื ืื ืืื ืื ื ืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืกืคืจ ื-SNP (ืืืื ืื ืืงืืืืืื ืืืื) ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืขื ืฉื ืช 2008 ืืื ื-3.1 ืืืืืื. ืคืืจืืฉ ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ืืจืืืงืื ืืืืชืจ ืื ืืื, ืืืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืืืื ืืืจืืงื ืืืจืืืืช, ืืืืข ืืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืื 1,000 ื ืืงืืืืืืืื ืืืืืฆืข, ืืืืื ื ื-0.1% ืืืื ืื. ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืขืจื ืขืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ื-1% ืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืงืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืืชืจ: ืฉืืืคื ืื ืืฆืื ืืืื ืืื. ืืืืืืื ื ืืฆืจืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืฆืืืจืืช ืืืืฆืืืช โ ืฉืื ืืืื ืืกืืจ ืืืืืช ืื ืืงืืืืืืืื. ืงืฆื ืืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืืฆืข ืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืกืืจ ืืืื ืฉื ื-100 ืืืืจ, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืฆืข ืืืจืืฉ ืืืืืื ื-100 ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืฉืืืคืืขื ืืฆืื ืืืื ื ืงืืืืืช ืืฆื ืืืจืื[ื]. ืืจืืืช ืืืืืฆืืืช ืืืื ืื ื ืืืืจืืืืช โ ืืื ื ืืืืงืืช ืืืื ื ืืืขืืืืช โ ืืจืืื ืืืืื ืื ืชืฆืืื ื ืืขืืืจ ืืชืืจืฉื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืื, ืื ืืืขืืื ืืชืคืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืกืืฃ ืื ืื. ืกืืฃ ืื ืื ืขืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืชืคืฉืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืงืืช ืจืฆืกืืืืืช, ืฉืืื ื ืืืจืืืช ืื ืืง ืขื ืฉืื ืืึผืจึธืฉืืช ืืฉื ื ืืืืจืื ืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจืฉืชืืืช ืืืกืืื ืืช ืืื ืคืืฆืืช ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืกืืกืืืง ืคืืืจืืืืก, ืื ืืกืื ืื. ืืืขืื ืืขืืจ ืืฃ ืืืชืจ ืื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืืขืฉืืืืช ืืืชืคืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืืจืืจื ืืืขืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืื-ืกืืืืืช ืืืงืืื (ืจืื ืืคืจืง ืืืืืืืฆืื). ืืชืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืงืืื, ืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืืช, ื-85% ืืืกืืจืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืื, ืืจืง ืืืง ืงืื ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืืจืคื ืื ืืชื ื. ืืืชืื ืืืืงื ืฉืงืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืฆื ืืจืฆืฃ ืืื ืื ื ืืฆืจ ืืืฉื ืืืืจืืช ืืฉืื ืฉืื ื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืขืืื ืฆืืฆืืื ืขื ืื ื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืกืืื ืืืืื. ืืืงืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืืื (ืืื ืืืคืื ืืคืืืช) ืฉื ืกืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืจ ืืืฆืื ืฉื ื ืืืงืื ืฉืืื ื "ืื ื ืชืขืจืืืช". ืขื ืืืช, ืืจืืืช ืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืขืื ืืืื ื "ืืืข" ืืชืืืืจ ืืชืื ืื, ืืฉืื ืฉืืืชืื ืืื ืจืฆืืฃ ืืืื ื ื ืืชืืืง ืืืืคื ืืืื ืืงืืืืจืืืช ืืกืืจืชืืืช ืืื ืฉืืืจืื, ืืื ืื ืืืืืื. "ืืืขืื" ืืืื ืื ืืืกืืจืชื ืื ืืื ื ืืืืจื ืืงืืืืื ืืชืช-ืืื ืื ืืืฉืืฉืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืืืืื ืืฆื ืืื ื ืืขืื-ืืืื ืืืจืื. ืืืช ืืฉืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืืืจื ืืช ืฆืขืืจื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืื ืื, ืื ืฉืืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืชืืื ื ืืืื ืืืกืืช ืืืจืืช ืชืคืืฆืชื ืืืื-ืขืืืืืช. ืื ืืืืจื ืื ืืืืืช ืขืืื ืชืืืคืืช ืืืืจื ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืืกืืืจืื, ืืืืืืช ืืจืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืชืขืจืืืช, ืชืจืื ืืืงืื ืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืจืคืืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืชื ืืืช. ืืฉื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืงืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืคื ืื ืืืฆืื ืืฆืื ืฉืืกืคืจ ืชืช-ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืื ืืชืคืฆืื ืืคื ื ืืื ืืืฃ ืขื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืื, ืืขืื ืฉืืื ื ืืืชืคืฆืืืช ืืื "ืืืขื" ืืื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืชื ืฉืืืืช ืืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืืชืจ. ืชืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืื ืง ืืืจ, ื-80 ืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืชืืืช. ืืืื ืงืื (ืืืฃ ืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืคืชืืืช ืจืืืช) ืชืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืชื ื ืืืื ืืืจืื, ืื ืืืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืชืืฆืื ืืฉืืขืืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืชืืืชืช ืชืื ืืงืืช[ื], ืืื ื ืืื ืฉืฆืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืงืืช ืืื ืขืฉืืืื ืืืืืข ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ื. ืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉืชืืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืื 122 ืฉื ื, ืืืื ืืืืขื ื'ืื ืืืืื ืงืืื ืืฆืจืคืชืืช. ืืืจืืื ืืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืืฆืข ืชืฉืขื ืืืืฉืื (ืึพ40 ืฉืืืขืืช), ืฉืืืืืื ืืืฃ ืืื ืขืืืจ ืฉืื ืืืื ืคืืืืืืืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืจืืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืชืคืชื. ืืืืื ืืชืงืืคื ื ืื ืืช ืฉืืื ืืืืืืจืช ืืืื ืืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืฉืืฉืช ืืืชืืืืช ืืืขืืจืช ืืืฆื, ืืืืจื ืชืืื ื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืขืืืจ, ืืื ืืกืืืืง ืืืืจื ืคืกืืืช. ืืืืจืืื ื ืืงืจ ืืจืคืืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืื ืงืืืืืื ืืืืืืืืช, ืืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืจืคืืืช ืืื ืืืขืืืจ, ืืขืืกืงืช ืืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืกืืืืืื ืจืคืืืืื. ืืชืคืชืืืช ืขืืืจ ืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืจ ืืคืจืื, ืืืฉืจ ืชื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืคืจืืช ืืชืืืง ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืืกืืืฆืืกื, ืื ืงืื ืืืืคื ืืจืื. ืืฉืืืขืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืื ื ืืฆืจืื ืฉืืืืช ืืชืืื ืืขืืืจืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืกืืจืืืฆืื, ืืืื ืืชืคืชืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืจื ืืืืฃ. ืืชืงืืคื ืขื ืืฉืืืข ืืฉืืื ื ืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืขืืืจืืืช ืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืกืื, ืืืืื ืืืฉืืืข ืืชืฉืืขื ืืืืื ืืชืืื ืฉืื ืืขืืืจ, ืฉืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืชืคืชืืื ืขื ืืืืื. ืชืืื ืื ื ืืงืจ ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืจืืืืืืื, ืืืืืืืืื ืืชืคืชืืืชืืช ืืฉืืืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืื ืจืคืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืจื ืกืืื ื ืืชืืืื ื ืื. ืืืจื ืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืืื, ืื ืืืช ืืืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืืืช ื ืืืืื ืชืืืืื, ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืฉืืืช, ืจืืืขืืืช ืืืฃ ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืฃ ืื ื ืืืจืืช ืืืื. ืืืฉืืืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืงืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืื ืืืื ืงืฉื ืืืืืฉืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืขืืชืื ืืฃ ืืกืืื ืช, ืฉืื ืจืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืกืืช ืฉื ืืืืื ืืชืงืฉื ืืขืืืจ ืืชืขืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืขืฆืืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืื. ืืกืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืื ืคืืช ืืฉืืขืืชืืช ืืืืืช ื-20 ืื-21, ืืืืืช ืืืืืืฉืื ืจืคืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืื, ื ืืชืื ืงืืกืจื, ืืืืงืช ืืืืืจื ืกืืื ื ืืืืจืืื ืืืืืงืช ืื ืฉืคืืจ. ืืชืื ืืง ืืกืจ ืืฉืข ืืืืืชื ืืชืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืคืืื ืืชืื ืืง ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืชื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืจืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืฃ ืืืืืช ืคื ืื, ืืืืคื ืืขืฉื ืืื ืขืืืืจ ืืืขื ืืืืืืื. ืืืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืงื ืืช ืืืื ืืืขืงืื ืืืจื ืขืฆืืื ืืชืคืชืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืจืืขื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืฉืืช ืื ืืืื ืืจืืขื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืช ืฉื ืืคืฆืื ืืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืื. ืชืื ืืงืืช ืืืจื ืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืื ื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืฆื ืฉื ื, ืืืืื ืืฉื ื ืขื ืฉื ื ืืืฆื ืื ืืืืงืคืื ืขื ืจืืืืื ืืืชืืืืื ืืืืช, ืื ืคืืชืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืืื, ืจืืฆื ืืงืคืืฆื ืืืจืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืฉื ืื ื ืืกืคืืช. ืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืื ืืงืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืืืืจืช ืืกืืืืชื ืืงืจืืื (ืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืกืขืืฃ ืฉืคื). ืืื ืืฆื ืฉืืจ ืืืื ืงืื ืืชืื ืืง ื ืืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืื, ืืืืคื ืืืืขื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืงื ืืฉืื ืืื. ื ืจืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืจืืืช ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืืกืืืจืื ืชืื ืืงืืช ืื ืงื ืืืฉื ืืฉื ืชืืื ืขื ืืจืืข ืืฉื ืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืื, ืืืฃ ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ[ื]. ืืืืจืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืฃ ืืืืงื ืืช ืืื ืืื, ืืืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืื, ืขื ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืื ืงื ืืืงืืืง ืืชืจืืืืช ืืืื ืืชืื ืืงืืช, ืคืืืช ืืคืืืช ืืงืืื ืืื ืืง ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉื ืชืืื. ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืืช ื ืืฉืืช ืืืื 3 ืืขื ืืื 12 ืืขืจื, ืืืชืืคืืื ืช ืืืืืื ืืชืืฉืืช ืืงืฆื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืงืืช. ืืืื ืืืื ืขืืืื ืชืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืื ืชื, ืืืืืชื ืืืืจืืชื. ืื ืกืงืจื ืื ืืืื, ืืฆืืืื ืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืฉืืง. ืชืงืืคืช ืืืชืืืจืืช ื ืืฉืืช ืืืืืื 12 ืขื 20 ืฉื ื ืืขืจื, ืืืชืืคืืื ืช ืืชืืืื ืืืชืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืจืช ืืขืฆืืืืช. ืชืืคืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืคืจืฅ ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืชืืืจืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืืช, ืืฉืจ ื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืฉื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืช, ืืืชืืฆืื ืืื ื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืืฆืข ืืืืื ืืืฃ ืื ืฉืื ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืืขืืชืืื. ืืกื ืืืื ืชืงืืคืืช ืืื ืงืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืืืชืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืจืืข ืืชืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืช, ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืง ืืืจ, ืืืื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืื ืจืืื ืขื ืืืขืชื ืืืืจืืช. ืืืื ืืื ืขืื ืช ืจืืืื ืงืืืขื, ืืืื ืืชืจืื ืืื ืขืื ืืช ืืฉื ื. ืืืืื ืื ืงืืืช ืฉื ืืื ื ืืื ืงืื ืจืืื, ืื ืฉืื ืืืืจืืช ืืฉ ืืืืฅ ืืืืืจื: ืืืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืื, ืืื ืืื ื ื ืืืคืจืืช ืืชื ืืจืข ืืื ื ืฉืืคืช ืืืืฆื ืืืจืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืืืื. ืืืืืจ ืืืืืฅ ืืืืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืืืืฆืข ื-28 ืืื, ืื ืขืฉืื ืืืฉืชื ืืช ืืื 21 ื-39 ืืื. ืชืืคืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื "ืืืืฅ ืืืกืชืจ" โ ืืืืฉื ืืื ื ื ืืืื ืกืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืฆืช, ืืืื ืขืฉืืื ืืงืืื ืืืกื ืืื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืฅ, ืืืฃ ืืืฉื ืืจืืืช ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืจืืื ืืืืฉื ืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืงื. ืืืขื ืืืืืฅ ืืืืฉื ื ืกืชืจ ืืคืืื ืืืืืฉื ืขืฆืื, ืื ืฉืืงืฉื ืขื ืื ืืกื ืืชืืื ื ืช ืืืืจืืื ืื ืฉืื ืขื ืืขืืืช ืคืืจืืืช ืืื, ืืขื ืื ืืขืช ืืืจืืื ืืฉืืืช "ืืืืื ืืืืืืื" ืืืืื. ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืขื ืื ืฉืืจ ื ืงืืืช ืืืื ืงืื, ืืฉืจ ืืชืืืืืืช ืืคืขืืืึนืช ืืื ืืช ืจืง ืืขืช ืฉืื ืืกืืืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืชืจืื ืืฉืื ืฉื ืชืืื ื ืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืงืืื ืืืกื ืืื ืืืืคื ืฉืืจืชื ืื ืจืง ืืฆืืจื ืจืืืื, ืืื ืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืืง ืืงืฉืจ ืืืืจืชื ืืืจืืฉื ืืื ืื ื ืืืื, ืงืฉืจ ืืืืืข ืืชืจืืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืช. ืชืืคืขื ืืืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืช ืืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืขืืืืช ืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืชื ืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืคื ืื-ืืื-ืคื ืื, ืื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืืกืืืืื ืื ืืชื ืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืืืจ ืื ืคืืฆื ืืขืืื ืืื. ืืื ืืฆื ื ืงืืืช ืฉื ืืื ื ืืื ืงืื ืืืจืื, ืื ืงื ืืืจืืช ืืืืฃ ืืืืฉื ืืืคืจืืฉ ืืช ืืืืจืืื ืคืจืืืกืืจืื ืืืขืื ืืช ืืืืืฅ, ืืื ืืงืืื ืืช ืืกืืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืฉืื. ืืืืจื ืืจืืืช ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืืกืืืจืื, ื ืจืื ืฉืชืงืืคืช ืื ืงื ืืจืืื ืคืขืื ืืืกืืจืืืื ืืืขืืช ืืื ืืขืช ืืืจืืื ืืืืฆืืจืช ืืคืจืฉ ืืืืื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืืื, ืื ืฉืืื ืื ื ืืจืฉื ืืืคื ืืืืชืจ ืืชืื ืืง ืืื ืืืืชื ืืื. ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืงืืฆืืจ ืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืงื (ืจืื ืืกืขืืฃ ืื ืงืืช) ืืคืฉืจ ืื ืฉืื ืืืืช ืืื ืฉื ื ืื ืฉื ืชืืื, ืืืื ืชืจื ืืงืฆื ืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืื. ืืืื, ืืจืื ืืชืจืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืงืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืฃ ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืกืืืืืช ื ืืืืืช ืื ืฆืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืคืืืืืืื โ ืืืจื-ืืื ืคืืืืืื ืื ืืืขืืชืื ื ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืคืืืืื ืืจืื. ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืคืืืืืืื ืืืจื-ืืื ืืชืคืงืืื ืืืืืช, ืืืืงืืื ืืืง ืืืืคืื ืืฆืืฆืืืื ืืืคืจื ืกืชื. ืืื ืืฉืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืชืื ืืื ื ืงืืคื ืืืื, ืืคืจืืืืื ืืืืื ืงืื. ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืืจืื ืืกืืืขืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืฆืืฆืืื ืขื ืืืืจืืช ืืืฉื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืคืืืขืึนืช ืฉื ืืืจืืื, ืื ืงืืช, ืืืืืช ืืืชืืืจืืช ืืืื. ืืื ืืฆื ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืื ืชืืื ื ืฉืืจืช ืืื ืืืืื, ืืืกื ืืื ืขื ืฉืืชืคืื ืืืจืื ืืื ื ื ืืืจืื, ืืฆืืฆืืื ืืขืืชืื ืืืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืื ืืฃ ืืื ืืืื. ืืขืฉืืจืื ืืืืจืื ืื ืืืขืจื ืืคืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืื ืืกืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืื ืืืกืชืืืืช ืืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืืช ืืื ื ื, ืืืฉืคืื ืื ืืจืืืืืืช ืืืืชืจ ืขืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืจ ืืืืฉื ืืืงืืืืื ืืืกื-ืืื ืืืขืืืื ืื ืขื ืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืช ืฆืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืืชืคืื. ืชืืคืขื ืืืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืช ืืืื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืจืื ืืืืจ ืชืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืคืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืช. ืืชืืคืขื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืฆื ื ืฉืื, ืืฉืจ ืืืื ืืืืืช ืฉืืื (ืืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืจื ืืื ืืกืืืืืช ืืื 50 ืฉื ื) ืืคืกืืงืืช ืืืืืฅ ืืืื ื ืืกืืืืืช ืขืื ืืืืช, ืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืื ืืกืืืขืืช ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืื. ืืชืืืื ืืจืื ืืืืจืืชื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืืขืืจ ืืฆื ืืืจืื, ืฉืื ืืืฆืืจ ืชืื ืืืจืข ืืืืคื ืืื ื ื ืคืืกืง ืืืืืคื ืขืงืจืื ื ืื ืขืฉืืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืคืืจืืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืืคืื, ืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืข ืืืจืืช ืืืฉืง ืืืื ื ืืืจืืช ืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืงืฉืืฉืื ืืืชืจืื ืืกืืืข ืื ืืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื. ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืงืืื ืืจืืืฉ ืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืงืฉืืฉืื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ืฉืฆืืจื, ืืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืื ืืชืคืงืืื ืืจืืฉื ืืฉืคืืืช, ืืืืขืฆืื ืืืฃ ืืื ืืืื ืงืืืืืช. ืืขืจืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืชืืื ื, ืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืื ื ืืคืจืืืืื, ืื ื ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืื, ืืืกืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืฆืืื, ืืืื ื ืืชืืืื ืืกืื ืืกืืื ืฉื ืืืื. ืขืืืืืช ืืจืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืงืจืื ืขื ืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื ืื ื-ืืื ื ื ืืจืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืจืืืช ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืขื ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืืชืืช, ืื ื ืืื ื ืืืื ื ืืฆืื ืืขืื-ืืืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืกืืฃ ืืกืจื ืืืืืืช, ืืืืงื ืฉื ืืจืขืื, ืคืืจืืช ืืฉืืจืฉืื. ืืืฉืื ืืืฉ ืืขืืืื ืืืื ืืขืืจืช ืืื ืืื ืืขืฅ ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืื ืคืจืืืกืืืจืืื, ืืึดืคืฉืจื ืืื ืืืืฆืื ืคืืืช ืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืฉืื, ืืืขืืก ืืืขืื ืืืืช ืจืื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืืื. ืืื ืื ืกืืืขื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืฉืจ ืฆืืจื ืืืชืจ ืงืืืจืืืช ืืงืืืื ืืื ืจืงืื ืืืจืช ืืืืฃ (ืืืืชื ืืฉืงื), ืืืืืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืงืื ืช ืืืกืชืืช ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืฆื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืื ืืืืืช, ืืืฉืืืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืงืืืืื ืืืชืจ. ืื ื ืืื ืืชืืืื ืืช ืชืืื ืชื ืืืชื-ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื, ืืืฉื ื ืชืจืืืืืช ืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืขื ืืืขืืืช ืืืฆืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืขืืืช ืืืื. ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืืชืืช, ืืืืช ืืขืื ืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืึดืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืคืงืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช, ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืื ืช ืืื ืืื; ืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืื ืช ืืืฆืจื ืืื; ืืืชืกืกืช ืกืืืจืื ืืืืืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืชืืคืฉืจื ืืืืจืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื, ืืกืืืข ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืืืจ ืืืื ืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืขืืฉืื, ืืืืืฉ, ืืืืฉื ืืืืืฆื. ืืืืื ืืงืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืจื ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืืชืืช ืืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืชืจืื ืืืกืคืจ ืงืื ืฉื ืกืืื ืืืืืืื ืืงืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืขืืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืขืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืงืืืืื, ืืืฆืจื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืขืืื[ื"ื]. ืืืืจื ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืืกืืืจืื, ืืืกืืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืกืืืื ืขืืงืจื ืขืืืจ ืืืืืืกืืืช ืฉื ืื ื ืืื, ืืขืืชืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืกืื ืืช ืืืข, ืืฆืืจืช, ืืืืืืช ืืฉืขืืื, ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืขืื-ืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืฉืฉืืืฉื ืืืืื. ืืืจืืขืื ืืืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืจืื ืืจืขื ืืืื ื ืืืชืช-ืชืืื ื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืฆื ืืืืื, ืืกืจื ืืืฆืขืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืืฉืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืคื ืื"ื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืืืงืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืฉื ืช 2015, ืฆืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืฆืขืช ืืขืืื ืืื ืืขืจื 1,800 ืงืืื-ืงืืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืื, ืืขืื ืฉืืจืืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืื ืืืืืฅ ืขื ืฆืจืืื ืืืืืช ืฉื 2,700 ืงืืื-ืงืืืจืืืช ืืืืจ ื-2,200 ืงืืื-ืงืืืจืืืช ืืืืฉื (ืืกืคืจ ืืงืืื-ืงืืืจืืืช ืืืจืืฉ ืืืื ืชืืื ืืืื, ืืืื, ืืืฉืงื ืืืืฃ, ืืกืื ืื ืืืืื ืืขืื). ืืื ืืจืขื ืืขืืืื ืืื ืืื ืกืืืืกืื ืืืชืืจ ืืช ืืฆื ืืจืขื ืืขืืื. ืืฉื ืื 1990โ2013 ืขืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืกืคืจ ืืืชืื ืืขืืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืฉืื ืช ืืชืจ ืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืืชืื ืืชืช-ืชืืื ื. ืืืืืช ืืื ืืขืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืช ืืขืืงืจื ืืฆื ืื ื ืืื, ืืืจื-ืืื ื ืคืืฅ ืืืชืจ ืืืืืช ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืื ืชืืื ืืช. ืืืฉื ืืจืืืช ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืืกืืืจืื, ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืคืฆืืช ืขื ืืื ื ืืืคืื, ืืืืืงืื ืืืคืืืื ืืืจืื ืืจืื ืืืจืืืช ืื ืคืืขืื ืืืงืจื ืืืืืช, ืชืืืคืืช ืืงืจื ืชืื ืืงืืช ืืืืืื ืงืื ืื[ื"ื][ื]. ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืขืืชืื ื ืคืืฆื ืืืืคืืช ืฉืงืืื ืืืื ื ืืืจ ืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืคืจืื ืืืขืจืื ืฆืคืืคื ืืืืืืกืื ืขื ืชื ืื ืกื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืืื ื ืืจืืขืื[ื"ื]. ืงืืื ืืชื ืฉื ืืืคืืช ืืืจื ืขื ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืืชืืช, ืื ืืฉื ืืขืืืื ืืฆืคืืคืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืขืื-ืืืื ืืืืืชืื ืฉืืืืื ืืฆืคืืคืืช ืืฉืคื ืืช ืืืงืืืื ืืคืชืืื ืื ืฉืืื, ืืืขืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืคืืช ืืื ืืืขืืืขืืช ืฉืืืจืืช, ืืฆืืช ืืกืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืฉืคืขืช. ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืฉืฉืจืื ืืืคืืช ืืืื ืคืืชืื ืืจืื ืืกืืืืช ืฉื ืืกืื ืืช ืืืืื, ืืืืฉืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืืืจืื ืืืจืื, ืืขืืชืื ืืจืื ืืืื-ืืขืช ืืืืืงื ื ืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืืืชื-ืืกืื ืืช. ืืจืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืืคืื ืืืืืคืจืืืืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืคื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืงื, ืืืกืืจืืื ืืืืงืืื ืื ืืชื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืคืืช ืืืื, ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ื ืืจืื ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืฉืขืืื[ื"ื]. ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืื ืืชืคืชืืืืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืฉืื ื ืืช ืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืชืืืชื ืืฆืืจื ืืืคืื ืืช. ืืืื ืึพ19 ืืชืืืชื ืืืชืืืจืื ืืืืืืงืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืช, ืืืืืช ืขืืืืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืคืกืืจ ืืจืืืจื ืงืื, ืฉืืจืื ืื ืืืืืงืื ืื ืืืคืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืงืืช. ืืขืงืืืช ืืื ื ืื ืคืืชืื ืืืกืื ืื ืจืืฉืื ืื, ืืื ืืืกืื ื ืื ืืืืช ืฉืืฆืจ ืคืกืืจ, ืืืืืฉื ืืืกืื ืื ืจืืื ื ืืกืคืื, ืืื ืื ืืืืืืืืงื, ืืืจืืฉื ืคื ืืฆืืืื ืฉืืชืืืชื ืขื ืืื ืืืืกื ืืจ ืคืืืื ื ืึพ1928. ืืืงืืื, ืืืืืฉืื ืืชืืื ืกื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืืื ื ืฆืืืืจืืช โ ืืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืช, ืืกืคืงืช ืื ืฉืชืืื ื ืงืืื ืืฉืืคืืจ ืชื ืื ืืืืจืื โ ืืคืืืชื ืืืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืช ืืชืคืฉืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช. ืืขืงืืืช ืชืืืืืื ืืื ืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืคืืชืืืช ืฉืืขืืจื ืืชืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช, ืืชืฉืืืช ืืื ืืจืคืืืืช ืืืคื ืชื ืืืชืจ ืื ืืืจืื ืืชืืืชื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืืืื: ืืืืืช ืื ืืืื ืื, ืืืืืช ื ืืืื ืืืช ืืกืจืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืืื ืืช ืืืชืคืชืืืช, ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืขืืืื ื ืคืืฆืืช ืืงืืื ืืืช ืืืชืจ. ืขื ืคื ืื"ื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืขืืืื, ืืืจืื ืืชืืืชื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉื ืช 2004 ืืื (ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืช) ืืืืืื: ืืืช ืืืืื, ืชืคืืฆื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืชืืื ืชืคืืฆืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืคืจื ืืื ืืืจืงืืืงื (ืฉืืฉ ืื ืชืื ืืช ืืืงืจ ืื ืื ืืืืจื ืงืืข). ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืชื ืืืืฉืชื ืืขื ืืชืคืืฆื ืืืืืืจืคืืช ืืจืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืจื ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืื. ืืชืงืจืืื ืืืื ืืื ืจืง ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืคืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืฆืืื[ื"ื]. ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืชืจืืืช ืืคืฉืจื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืงืืื ืืืืชื-ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืจืืืช, ืืขืจ ืืฉื ืืจืืคื, ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืืื ืืจื ืืจืงืืืช. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืืงืจื ืืกืจื ืืืืืืช ืืืืงืจืืืืจืื ืืืืื ืงืืืืื ืืื ืื ืขื ืชืคืืฆื ืืงืืืืืืช ืืฃ ืจืืื ืืืชืจ โ ืืืฉื ืืชืืฉืื, ืืืื ืืืืช, ืชืืงื ืืจืื ื, ื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืื ืขืฆืื ืฉื ืกืืืืืช, ืืืืื, ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืงืื ืืืจืืืื ืื ืงืืืืื ืืืขื ืืื ืกืืืื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ, ืืืื ืืืืจื ืงืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืืื, ืืื ืืจื ืงืคืืื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืืืงืืื ืืก. ื ืืื ื-2023, ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืื ื 8 ืืืืืืจื ื ืคืฉ. ืืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืื ืืื ืชืืฆืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืขื ืื ืืฉ ืืืชืืจืื ืืืชื ืืืื ื ืืชืคืืฆืฆืืช ืืืืืืกืื. ืืืฉื ืืจืืืช ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื, ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืขืืื ืื ืชื ืจืง ืืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคื ืื ื ืืื[ื"ื]. ืืคื ื ืืื ืืืคื ืฉื ืื, ืืืขืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืฆืื ืืืงื ืืืืืื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืืงืืืืช ืืคืฉืจ ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืช ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืื, ืืืืฉื ืืจืืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืื ืืืืช ืืืืืื ืื. ืืคื ื ืืืืชืืื ืฉื ื, ืืืืืฉื ืืืืคืื ืืชืขืฉืืืชืืช ืืืจืืื ืืชืืืชืช ืชืื ืืงืืช ืืชืืฆืื ืืืฉืื ืืจืคืืื ืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืืืกืืื, ืืฉืจ ืืืืขื ืืืืืืืจื ื ืคืฉ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ื-19, ืืฉื ื ืืืืืืจื ื ืคืฉ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ื-20, ืืืฉืืขื ืืืืืืจื ื ืคืฉ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ื-21. ืงืฆื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืข ืืฉืืื ืืฉื ืืช ื-60 ืฉื ืืืื ื-20 โ ื-2.2% ืืฉื ื ืฉืคืืจืืฉื ืืืคืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืื 31 ืฉื ื. ืืื ืืขื ืืืื, ืืืฆืขื ืื ืืขื ืืฉืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืืคืืงืื ืืืืื ืกืืืขื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืงืฆื ืืืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืคืืืช ื-1% ืืฉื ื, ืฉืคืืจืืฉื ืืืคืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืื 70 ืฉื ืื. ืชืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืืช ืชืืืืืช ืืชืืืืช ืืงืฆื ืืืืืื: ืืืจืืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืคืืชืืืช ืืขืืื ืืืื ืืจื ืงืฆื ืืืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืคืก ืืืฃ ืืืื ืืื (ืืืืืจ ืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื), ืืืื ืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืชืืื ื ืืขืงืืืชืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืฉืืืืืืกืืืช ืืขืืื ืชืชืืืฆื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ื-22 ืขื ืืืื ืฉื ื-10.5 ืืืืืืจื ืื ื ืืื[ื"ื]. ืืฉืคืขืืช ืืขืจืืชืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืขื ืืกืืืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉื ื ืืงื ืึพืืืื ืขืืืื ืืช ืืขืจืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ. ืืืกืืจืช ืืืงืจืื ืขื ืืงืืืืืื ืืงืืืืืช ืืื ืืืงืจ ืืืืืืช ืคืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืชืืืืื ืฉืืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืืื ืืฉืคืืขื ืืฆืืจื ื ืจืืืช ืขื ืืคืื ืื ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืคืืขื ืขื ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืจ ืืฆืชื ืืช "ืืืจืื ืืืืื" ืืงืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช. ืืืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื, ืคืืชืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืชืืื ืืืืจืชื ืืืคืขืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืื ืืฉื ืืช ืืชื ืืืืื ืืงื ื-ืืืื ื ืจืื ืขื-ืื ืช ืืืชืืืื ืืฆืจืืื (ืืื ืืื ืืก ืกืืืื) โ ืืืจื ืืขืจืืช ืขื-ืื ืช ืืืคืื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืื ืืขืจืื, ืืืืืช ืฆืืื ืืจ ืืืืืช ืืจ, ืืืื ื ืกืืจืื, ืืืืจื-ืืื ืืืชืงื ื ืืฉืงืื ืืืืคืฉืจืื ืืืื ืฆืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืคืืื ืืืชื-ืืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืืจืืื. ืืฉื ื ืืชื ืืืืื ืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืืื ืืืื ืืกืื ืช ืืืขืืืืช ืืชืืฆืื ืืคืขืืืืช ืืืื. ืืืฉื, ืืขืจืืืื ืฉืืืชืจ ืืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืฉืืื ืืืขืจ ืืืืืจืฉ ืืื-ืชืืืื ื ืืืฉืืื, ืืชืืฆืื ืืจืขืืืช ืืชืจ, ืืจืืชืช ืขืฆืื ืืืขืจื ืืืืฉืจืช ืฉืืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืขืืืจ. ืคืขืืืืช ืืืื ืืจืื ืื ืกืืืขื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืขืื-ืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืจืืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืื ืฉืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืกืคืืื ืก ืืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืื ืืคื ื-ืื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืืจืืืืืช. ืืฉ ืืืขืจืืืื ืฉืืืจ ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืืช ืชืจืื ืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื ืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืจืืื ืืืื ื ืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืขืืื ืืกืืฃ ืืคืืืกืืืงื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืืงื. ืืืฉื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืจื ืื ื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืืืฉืช ืืืกืืจืืื ืืคื ื ื-45 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื ื ืืืื ืฉื 23 ืืชืื 24 ืืืื ืื ืฉืืฉืงืื ืขืื ืขื 44 ืง"ื, ืืืืืื ืืืืคืจืืืืืื, ืืคืจืืงืืคืืืืื, ืืจืื ืืืืก ืืืืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืจื ืื ื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืืืฉืช ืืืจืืงื ืืคื ื ื-14 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื ื ืืืื ืฉื ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืงืื ืืืฉืงื ืืขื 100 ืง"ื, ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืื ื ืืกืืกืื, ืืขืื ืืืืง, ืขืฆืื ื ืืงืจืงืข, ืืืฃ ืืื ืืืจืคืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืืื, ืืืจืื ืืืืจืืงื ื ืืืื ืืืืืืช. ืืืืช ืชืจืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืกืืฃ ืืคืืืกืืืงื, ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืชืืืจืืช ืืงืืื, ืฉื ืืื ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืงืจ ืืขืืงืจ ืืืื ืืงืืฉื ืืชืืจื ืืืืืืง ืืช ืืืขืืืืช ืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืกื, ืืืช ืืขืืืืืช ืืืจืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืขืช ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืกื. ืืขืืืช ืืืช ืืื ืืืืืงืช ืขื ืืืืืก ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืงื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืื. ืืืืืื, ืื ืื ืืืื ื ื ืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืื ืฉื ืขืืฃ ืืืืื ืืขืื ืืืกืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืขื ืืฉื ืืืืืจืื, ืืืืืืกืงืจ ื ืืืื 8 ืืื ื ืขืืฃ ืืคืื, 17 ืืื ื ืืืืจืื (ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืขื ืง), ืืฉื ื ืืื ื ืืืคืืคืืืืืื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืขื ืืฉื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื. ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืืกืืืจืืืช, ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืจ ืืืืข ืชืืขื ืืช ืืืืืชื ืฉื 784 ืืื ื ืืขืื-ืืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืช 1500 ืืกืคืืจื, ืืืืื ืฉืืจ ืืืจ, ืืืจืช ืืงืืืื, ืืืื ืืืกืื ื, ืคืจืช ืืื, ืขืืฃ ืืืืื ืืืืืืืก ืงื ืืจืืื. ืืืืืื ืืขืจืื ืฉืืื ืื ืจืืื ืืื ืืืจืื ื ืืืื ืืื ืชืืขืื, ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืขื 4,000 ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืื "ืืกืื ื ืืืืจื" ืืืืืื. ืืืืืจ ืืคืืื โ ืฉืจืืคืช ืืืง ืืืืื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืขืจืืช ืืจืื ืืขืืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืจืืืื ืคืืื ืื-ืืืฆื ื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืืืืกืคืืจื, ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืืชืืืืืช ืขืืืืืช ืืืืคืจืช ืืคืืกื ืืงืืื ืืืขืืื. ืืืืืจ ืืื ืงื ืืืืจืื โ ืฉืืืืฉ ื ืจืื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืืงืืืืช ืชืขืฉืืืชืืช ืืืืืจ ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืืช ืขืืืคืืช ืฉื ืชืจืืืืืช ืื ืงื ืืืจืื ืืืขืจืืืช ืืืฉืชืืืช ืืืืืืช. ืขืืืคืื ืืื ื ืฉืืคืื ืื ืืจืืช ืืืืื, ืืืฆืจืื ืืืืจืืคืืงืฆืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืืคืจืืืช ืืฆืืช ืจืขืืืืช, ืืื ืง ืืงืืืืคืจืื ืืืืฆืืจืช "ืืืืจืื ืืชืื" ืืืืงืืื ืืกืื. ืืขืงืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืคืืื (ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืื) ืืืื ืืฃ ืืกืืื ืืืฉืคืืข ืขื ืืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืืื. ืืืงืจืื ืืืืขื ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืงืืืืช ืืืชืขืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืื ืืืืคื ื ืืืจ ืืช ืจืืืื ืืคืืื ืืื-ืืืฆื ื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืืกืคืืจื, ืืืืขืจื ืฉืฉืื ืื ืื ืชืจื ืืืืคื ืืฉืืขืืชื ืืืชืืืืืช ืฉื ืคื ื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืืขืืจ ืืืืฆืข ืฉื ืืืขืื ื-0.75 ืืขืืช ืฆืืืืืก ืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช[ื"ื]. ืืืื ืืืืฆืจ ืืืฉืืจืจ ืืกืืืื ืืืคื ืืืืืงืืื ืืืฉืื, ืฉืจืืื ืืื ืืชืคืืจืื ืืืขืจืืืช ืืงืืืืืืืช ืืืื ื ืืชืคืจืงืื. ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืขืืืืื (Persistent organic pollutants โ POPs) ืืื ืื-ืื-ืื, PCB ืืืืืงืกืื ืื ืืฆืืืจืื ืืจืงืืืช ืืขืืึพืืืื ืืืฉืจืฉืจืช ืืืืื, ืืืืจืืื ืืคืืืขื ืืคืืจืืืช, ืืกืื ืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืืื. ืืืงืจืืคืืกืืืง ืืคืืกืืืง ืืึพืคืขืื ืืืจื ืืืขื ืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ โ ืืืขืืงื ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืขื ืื ืืืจืงืืืงื. ืืืงืืงืื ืืื ื ืืืขืื ืขื ืืื ืคืื ืงืืื, ืืืื ืืขืืคืืช ืื, ืืจืืืืื ืขืืื ืืืขืื ืฉืจืฉืจืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืืื. ืืืืื ืืชืืืช ืืืืืช (ืืืื ืืกืคืืช, ืงืืืืื ืืขืืคืจืช) ืืืชืขืฉืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืจื ืื ืืงืื ืขืฆืืืื ืืืจืืืืชืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืงืืื ืืชืื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืืืื โ ืืืงืจืื ืืขืจืืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืช ืฆืืจืืช ืืืืคื ืืฉืืจ ืื ืขืงืืฃ 25โ40% ืืืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืฆืจืช ืืคืืืืกืื ืชืื ืืืืฉื, ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืชืืจื ืืืืืงืชื. ืืืืฆืช ืืืงืืื ืืกืื โ ืงืืืืช ืขืืืคื ืืคืืื ืืื-ืืืฆื ื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืืืฆืช ืืืืงืืื ืืกืื, ืืคืืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืื, ืจืืืืืช ืืคืื ืงืืื ืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืืจื ื. ืืจืก ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืช โ ืคืืชืื ืืืคืื, ืืจืืืช ืืื, ืืื ืืจืกื ื (ืืืฉื ืจืฉืชืืช ืืจืืจื) ืืืืืื ืืืื ืคืืืขืื ืืฉืื ืืืช ืืืืืืื, ืื ืืจืืืื ืืขืฉื ืื, ืืืฉืืฉืื ืืชื ืืืืื ืงืจืืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืฉืืืจื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื. ืืืืจืื ืืชืื โ ืืืืจืื ื ืจืืืื ืืืืงืืื ืืกืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืฉืคืื ื ืืจืืช ืืืืืื, ืกืืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืฆื ื ืืืืืช ืขื ืืคืกืืืช ืืชืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืื ืืชืขืฉืืืชื. ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืขืจืืืช ืืืงืืืืืืืช ืืื ื ืคืืืขืื ืจืง ืืืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืฉืคืืขืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืขื ืื ื ืืืื: ืืืฆื ืืืื ืชืืืืก ืื ืจื ืืืงืกืื, ืืืืืืจื ืืืืกืืืจื "ืจืืืืช ืืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืข" (1863), ืืฆ'ืืจืืก ืืจืืืื, ืืกืคืจื "ืืืฆื ืืืื" (1871), ืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืขื ื ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืคืืข ืืืืช ืฉืืื, ืืื ืืชืคืชื ืืืืืืฆืืื ืืช ืืชืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืื ืื ืงืืืื ืืฉืืชืฃ ืืืื ืืืงืืคื ืืืื. ืืืงืกืื ืืืจืืืื ืกืืจื ืฉืืฉืืืคื ืื ืืืืืจืืื ืื ืงืืคื ืืืื ืืงืจืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืืคืฉ ืืช ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืงืืืื ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืืืืฉืช ืืคืจืืงื, ืืงืื ืชืคืืฆืชื ืฉื ืืฉืืืคื ืื ืืืืืจืืื (ืืจืื ืื ืื ืงืืืื ืืฉืืชืฃ ืืืโืฉืืืคื ืื, ืืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืงืืืื ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืืื ืืืืืจืืื). ืืฃ ืื ืคืจืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืืืื ืขืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืขืื, ืืืืชืื ืฉืืืงื ืื ืืืืืืขื ืืขืืื, ืืฉ ืืืื ืงืื ืฆื ืืืก ืืืขื ืืืืื ืขื ืขืฆื ืืชืคืชืืืชื ืืืืืืืฆืืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืงืืืื ืื ืืืฉืืชืคืื ืื ืืืงืืคื ืืืื. ืืืืงืจืื ืืืืืืฆืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืกืืฃ ืืืื ื-20 ืืืืื ื-21 ืืืืจืจ ืื ืจืฆืฃ ืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืงืืคื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืคื ืื ืืืืืจืืื. ืฉืืืืช ืฉืขืื ืืืืงืืืจื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืชืืจื ืืช ืืื ืืคืืฆืื ืืื ืืขื ืฃ ืฉืืื ื ืืชืคืชื ืืืื, ืืืกืืื ืืืื ืืชืช-ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืื ืื, ืืขื ืคืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืงืืคื ืืืื. ืืืื ืืืขืจื ืืื ืืคืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืืขื ืฃ ืืฉืืืคื ืื ื-8 ืขื 4 ืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื, ืืืคืืฆืื ืืขื ืฃ ืืืืจืืื ืืคื ื ืืืืืืื ืขื ืฉื ื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืืคื ื ืื. ืืชืงืืคื ืื ื ืืฆืื ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืืื ืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืื, ืื ืจืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืจืืจ ืขืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืงืืืื ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืื ื ืืจืืฉืื. ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืืืืฆืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืจื ืืช ืืขื ืฃ ืืืืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืืงืคืืช ืขื ืืจืืืืื ืืืืืจืืืช, ืืฉืจ ืฉืืจืจื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืขืฆืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืื ืื ืจืื ืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืื. ืชืฆืืจืช ืฉืื ืืืคืืื ื ืฉืื ืืขืืจ ืืื ืืืคืืก ืขื ืืจืืข ืืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืฉืชืืื ื ืืฆืื ืืฆื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืืคืืชืงืืก ืจืืืืืก (Ardipithecus ramidus), ืฉืืืืื ืืคืืจื ืืืื ืฉืื ืืชืืื ืืืชืืืคืื ืืืชืืืจื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉื 4.4 ืืืืืื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื. ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืจืช ืืืชืจ, ืืื 4.2 ืืืืืื ื-1.4 ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื, ืืืืจืื ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืกืื ืืืกืืจืืืคืืชืงืืก (Australopithecus), ืฉืืืจ ืืืื ืืงืืคืื ืืืืืืื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืฉืืจื ืขืืืื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืฉื ืืืคืืก ืขื ืขืฆืื. ืืืืืืช ืื ืคื ืืคื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืขืืื ืฉืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืงืืคื ืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ื. ืืืขื ืื ืืคืืืืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื ืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืกืื ืืืื, ืื ืื ืื ืืจืืจ ืขืืืื ืื ืืื. ืืืื ืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืกืื ืืืื (Homo) ืืืคืืขื ืืืคืจืืงื ืืคื ื 2 ืขื 2.8 ืืืืืื ืฉื ื, ืืืงืืืืื ืฉืืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืก (Homo habilis, ืืืื ืืืืืื), ืืืืืกืื ืืช ืจืืฉืืช ืืกืืชืืช ืืืฉืืืืฉ ืื ืจืื ืืืื ืืื. ืืืื ืืจืงืืืก (Homo erectus, ืืืื ืืืงืืฃ) ื ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืคืจืืงื, ืืคื ื ื-1.8 ืืืืืื ืฉื ื, ืืืชืคืฉื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืืจืืคื ืืืืืจื ืืกืื. ืืื ืืื ืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืฉ ืืืืคื ื ืจืื ืืฆืืจืื ืืืืื, ืืื ื ืืชืืื ื. ืืฆื ืืื ื ืกืื ืืืื ืืชืจืืฉื ืขืืืื ืืืจืืชืืช ืืืืื ืืืื, ืฉืชืื ืคืืืช ืืฉื ื ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืฉืืืฉ ืืช ื ืคืื ืื-400 ืกื"ืง ืืฆื ืืืกืืจืืืคืืชืงืื, ืื-600 ืกื"ืง ืืฆื ืืืืืืก, ื-1,000 ืกื"ืง ืืฆื ืืจืงืืืก ื-1,350 ืกื"ืง ืืืืืฆืข ืืฆื ืื ื ืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ื. ืืืงืืื ืืขืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืชืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืกืืชืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืืื ืืืงืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืืืื ืื ืืื (ืจืื ืืคืจืง ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื). ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืกืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืืื ืกืคืืื ืก (Homo sapiens) ืืชืืื ืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉื ืืืฆื ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื ืืืคืจืืงื, ืืืจืืคื ืืืกืื. ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืขืืืื ืืคืืื ืื ืืืคืืื ื ืืืืืืืช ืคืจืืืืืืืืื ืื ืคื ืืื ืงืื ืืืืืฆืข ืืืื ืื ื ืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ื, ืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืชืืช ืืืื ื ืืืฆื-ืจืฉืื "ืืืื ืกืคืืื ืก ืืจืืื", ืืขืื ืฉืืืงืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืจืื ืกืืก. ื ืจืื ืฉืืคื ื ื-400 ืืืฃ ืขื 200 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื ืืชืคืชืื ืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืจืืคื ืืืืขืจื-ืืกืื, ืืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืืืคืจืืงื. ืื ืืื ืืจืืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืขืื ืืื ืืืื ืืฉื ืืืืืช ืื ื ืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ื, ืื ืืืคืืื ื ืืืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืขืืืื ืืื ืืจืืืืื, ืืืชืจืืืช ืฉืืื ืืชืืื ืจืง ืขืืืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืงืืืจื ืืงืกืืช, ืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืื ืกืืืืืืืช. ืงืืืืช ืืืืืงืช ืืชืืื ืืื ืืฉ ืืกืืื ืืช ืื ืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืื ื ืคืจื ืืกืคืืื ืก, ืื ืืชืช-ืืื ืืชืื ืืืื ืกืคืืื ืก. ืื "ื ืฉืืืฆื ืืืืืื ื ื ืืื ืืจืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืคืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืื ืื ืืชืคืฆืื ืืืฉืืฉืืช ืฉืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืคื ื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืฉื ืื, ืื ืืืื ืื ืขืืืืืช ืืฉืืขืืจ ื ืืื ืฉื ืจืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืจืช ืืืชืจ (ืจืื ืืกืขืืฃ ืืื). ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืฉืืชืงืืืื ืื-ืืื ืืช ืขื ืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืกืืืืจ (ืชืืจืื ืืืืข ืืืจืื ืืคื ื ื-40 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื), ืืืื ืคืืืจืกืืื ืกืืก ืืืื ืกืื ืื (ืชืืจืื ืืืืข ืืืจืื ืืคื ื ื-50 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื), ืืืืื ืืจืงืืืก ืืืจืื-ืืืจื ืืกืื (ืชืืืจืืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืคื ื ื-50 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื). ืื ืืืคืจืืงื ื ืจืื ืฉืืืืืืกืืืช ืกืคืืื ืก ืืจืืื ืืชืงืืืื ืืื ืจื ืืฆื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืช ืืืืคืขืชื, ืืฉืืื ืืื ืขื ืชืืื ืืช ืืจืืืืืช ืืชืืื ืฉื ืขื ืชืงืืคื ืฉื ื-15 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื. ืืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืื ื ืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ื ื ืงืจืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืขื ืืืงืืื ืืืื ืกืคืืื ืก ืืืืจื ื ืื ืืืืืช, ืืืขืืชืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืื ืื ืืืงืกืื ืืื ืืชืช-ืืืื "ืืืื ืกืคืืื ืก ืกืคืืื ืก" (Homo sapiens sapiens). ืืืืืื ืื ืืขืชืืงืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉืกืืืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืงืืืืฉ ืืืจืื ืืชืืืคืื, ืืชืืืจืื ืืฉืืื ืืจืืืืืืจืืช ืืจืืื-ืืจืืื ืืืื ืฉื ื-190 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื. ืืืฉืืืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืืื ืืกืคืืื ืก ืืจืืื, ืืชืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืื: ืื ืืกืฃ ืืขืืืช ืืืืืื ืื, ืืขืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืืจืฆืคื ืืื ืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื, ืืืืืจืื ื ืืฃ ืขืืืืืช ืคืืืืื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืฆื ืืชืื ืืืืื ื ืืื, ืืฆืืืขืืช ืืฃ ืื ืขื ืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืืืจื ืืช ืืืืฉืช ืืคืจืืงื ืืคื ื ื-200 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื. ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืืงืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืฅ ืืืคืจืืงื ื ืืฆืื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื, ืืืขืจืช ืืืกึฐืึดืึธึผื (ื-194 ืขื 177 ืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื), ืืื ืืืขืจืช ืืืื ืืืืขืจืช ืืงืคืืฆื (ื-120 ืขื 90 ืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื). ืืืชืื ืฉืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืฆืืื ืฉืืืื ืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืืืืจืช ืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืืืืฅ ืืืคืจืืงื, ืฉืืืชืืจื ืขืืืืืช ืื ืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช. ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืจืช ืืืชืจ (ืืคื ื ื-60 ืขื 40 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื) ื ืืฆืื ืืืฉืจืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืื ื ื ืืื ืืจืืืื. ืืคื ื ื-60 ืขื 50 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื ืืืื ืืืืจื ื ืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืื ืืืืฅ ืืืคืจืืงื, ืืฉืจ ืืฆืจื ืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืช-ืืื ื ื. ืืืฆืืื ืืฉืืืืื ืืฆืืืขืื ืขื ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉืืืจืืข ืืงืืืื ืืฆืจ "ืคืจืืืืืจ ืืงืืืื", ืืคื ื ืืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคื ืฉื ืื, ืืืืืื ืืช ืื ืืคืฉืจื ืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืื ืืื ืืืืคื ื ืจืื ืืืื ืืืคืจืืงื. ืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืขืจืช ืื ืืช ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืืื ื-55 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื. ืขื ืคื ืืืืฆืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืืื ืื ื ืจืื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืขื ืืืืกืืจืืื ืืคื ื ื-60 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื, ืืืืจืืคื ืืคื ื ื-40 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื ืืืืืจืืงื ืืคื ื ื-17 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื. ืืืืจื ืืกืืจืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืชืืืื, ืืืื ืคืืืื ืืื ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืฉืงื ืืืืืืกืงืจ ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืืืื ืืชืจืืฉื ืืคื ื ืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืืืื. ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืฆืืื ืืืคืจืืงื ื ืขืืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืจืืืืื, ืืืื ืืฉ ืืืงืจืื ืืกืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืืฉืืื ืขื ืืื ืืคืืืฉืื ืืืืืจื ืืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืงืจ ืคืืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืกืืื ืืขืื ืขื ืฉืืขืืจ ื ืืื ืฉื ืจืืืืช ืืืืืื ืคืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืคืืืฉืืช ืืืืจืืืืืช. ืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ื ืืืืฆื ืืกืืืชื, ืืืจืืคืื ืื ืืืจืืงืื ืืฉ ืืืื ืงืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืงืืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืจืืืื, ืืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืกืืจืืื ืืฉ ืื ืืกืฃ ืื ืืืื ืงืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืงืืืื ืื ืื ืืกืืืื. ืกืืืจ ืืื ืื ืฉืืืืคื ืืืื ืื ืืืคืจืืงืืื ืื ื ืืื ื ื ืืืื ืงืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืงืืืื ืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืคืจืืงื, ืืฃ ืื ืงืฉื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืื ืฉืขืืืื ืื ืืืฆื ืื ืืืื ืขืชืืงืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืจืืืืื ืืืคืจืืงื. ืืืืืืฆืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืชืจืืฉ ืืื ื ืืื ืื ืืืืื ื, ืื ืื ืงืฉื ืืืืืื ืื ืืคืขืืื ืืฉืื ืฉืืฉืชืืืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืืฉื ืขื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืจื ืืื ืืืคื ืฉื ืื. ื ืืฆืื ืจืืืืช ืฉืงืฆื ืืืืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืฃ ืืืืฅ ืืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืืชืืฆืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืืืคืืขืืช ืื. ืืจืืจื ืืืขืืช ืืืฉื ืืืคื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืกืืืขืช ืืืกืชืืืืช ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืงืืื, ืืืฉื ืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืืืืจืื ืืขืื ืืช ืกืืืจ ืืืื ืืฉืชืืื ืืืจืืจื ืืืขืืช ืขื ืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืฉื ืืืจืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืื, ืื ืืืืจืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืฉืืื ื ืฆืืจืืืช ืืืฆืจื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืฆืืืช ืืื ืืชืจืื ืืจืืจื, ืืฉื ืื ืขืืืื ื ืืืจืืช. ืืืืคื ืืืื, ืืืืฆืืืช ืฉืืคืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืขืืชืงืื ืฉื ืืื ืืขืืืื ืขืืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืื โ ืืืกืคืจ ืื ืคืืฅ ืืฆื ืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื ืื ื ืืืื ื, ืืื ืืฆื ืื ื ืืื ืคืจืืืกืืืจืืื ืืงืืคื ืืื โ ืื-8 ืขืืชืงืื ืืืืืฆืข ืืฆื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืื ืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืชืื ืขืชืืจื ืขืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืืจื ืืชืคืื ืืืื. ืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืืืื ื ืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืืชืืืืก ืืชืืืืืช ืืืื ืืชืจืืืชื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืงืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืชื ืืืชืืขืื ืืืืืจืขืืช. ื ืืื ืืคืชืื ืืืชื ืืืืคืขืช ืืกืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืกืืชืชืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื, ื-3.3 ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื ืืืืจื ืืคืจืืงื. ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืืช ืืกืชืืืืช ืืคื ื ืืื ืืืคื ืขื ืืืืช ืฉื ืื ืขื ืชืืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืชื (ืืชืงืืคืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืงืืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืขืืื). ืืคืืื, ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืืช ืืืกื ืืช ืืจืื ืืืืจืืข ืฉื ืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช, ืืื ื ืืื ืื ืชืืขืื ืืชืื. ืืงืืจ ืืืืืข ืืืฉืื ืืืืชืจ ืขื ืืชืงืืคื ืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืจืืืืืืืืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืื ืืืื, ืืขืฆื ืืืืจืก, ืฉืจืืื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืคืช ืืืื ืฉื ืืืื, ืืื ืฉืจืืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืขืฆืื. ืืืืงืช ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืฉืชื ื ืืืงืื ืืืงืื. ืืืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืจืืืกืื ืืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืงืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืื ืืื ืขืืืื ืืืชืืช, ืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืงืืืืชืืช ืืงืืืช ืืกืื ืืืืจืื ืืืจืืคื, ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืืจืื ืื ืืืืจืื[ื"ื]. ืืชืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืงื ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืืืืืืชืืช, ืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื ืืงืืืื ืืืจื ืืืื ืฉื ืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื, ืืืชืงืืคื ืื ืืืืืชืืช, ืื ืืื ืืืฆืืจ ืืืืื (ืืืืช ืฆืืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืง) ืืืชืืืฉืืืช ืืืคืจื ืงืืข ืืงืืืืื. ืืืขืืจ ืืืฉืื ืืคืืืืืืชื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืืืชื ืืืจืข (ืืืืจืื) ืืกืืืืืช 11,500 ืฉื ืื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื ืืกืืจ ืืคืืจื, ืืืืืฃ ืขื 5,000 ืฉื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืกืื, ืฆืคืื ืืคืจืืงื ืืืืจืืคื. ืืืฆืืจ ืืืืื, ืขืืื ืืชืืกืกืช ืืฆืืืืืืืืฆืื ืืื ืืฉืืช, ืืืืข ืืืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืจืง ืืืืื ืืืคืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช (ืืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืคืจืืงื), ืืืืืืจืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืกืืจืืื, ืื ืืืืข ืืื ืขื ืืขืช ืืืืฉื. ืืืื ื-20 ืืืืื ื-21 ืขืืืื ืืชืงืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ื ืืืืื ืืขืืื ืงืืืฅ ืฉื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืชื ืืืจืืฉืช ืืชืืช, ืืืืงื ืืฃ ืืื ืืงืืืืช, ืืืชืื ืืืืงืจ ืืื ืชืจืืคืืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืชื ืืืกืืง ืขื ืืืจื ืืืืื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืคืจืืืกืืืจืืืช. ืืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืืช ืืงืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืืชืจ, ืืืงืืื ืืืืืืจื ืืื ืืืขืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืกืืชืชืื, ื-3.3 ืืืืืื ืฉื ื ืืขื ื-250 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื. ืืืชืจืื ืืืจืืืืืืืืื ืืืืคืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืืืื ืืชืจืืืช ืืืืืืืืืืช, ืืืชืืคืืื ืช ืืกืืชืืช ื ืชืืื ืคืฉืืืื ืืืงืฆืฆืื, ืืืืืจืื ืืชืจืืืช ืืืฉืืืช, ืืืืืคืืื ืช ืืกืืชืืช ืืืงืคื ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืื ื ืื ืืืืคืืกื ืืืื ืชืงื ืืื ืืืจืื. ืชืจืืืืืช ืืื ื ืืฆืจื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืฉืงืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื ืืืืืจื ื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืื ืืืืืืก ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืืื ืืจืงืืืก ืฉืืชืคืฉื ืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืจืื-ืืืจืืคื ืืืจืื ืืืืจื-ืืกืื. ืืคื ื ื-600 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื, ืืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืกืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืขื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืกืืืืื ื"ืืืื ืกืคืืื ืก ืืจืืื", ืืขื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืคื ื ืขืฆืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืจืื ืกืืก, ืขืืืื ืืงืืฉืจืื ืขื ืืื ืืื ืืืชืจืืืช ืืืฉืืืช ืืืชืจืืืืืช ืืืืืช. ืขืืืืืช ืืฉืืืืฉ ืงืืืข ืืืฉ ื ืขืฉืืช ื ืคืืฆืืช ืจืง ืืงืจืืช ืกืืฃ ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืืืืืืชืืช ืืชืืชืื ื, ืืขืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืขืืช ืืงืืืจื, ืืคืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ื ืขืืจืืช ืืื ื ืืืขื ืืืืืืื. ืืงืืื ืืืืืืจ ืชืงืืคื ืื ื-250 ืืืฃ ืืขื ื-45 ืืืฃ ืฉื ืื ืืคื ื ืืื ื ื, ืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืคื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืื ืจืื ืืชืจืืืช ืืืืกืืจืืช ืืืชืจืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืกืืชืืช ืืื ืฆืืจ ืืงืื ืืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืื. ืืชืจืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืื ื ืื ืืืืืช, ืฉืืืคืืขื ืืืคืจืืงื ืืคื ื ื-200 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื, ืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืจืื ืืกืื ืืืืืจืืคื. ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืืืืืืชืืช ืืชืืืื ื ืฉืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืฉ ืืฆืื ืคืจืกืชื ืื ืืืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืฉืืฉืืจื. ืขื ืืืช, ืงืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืงืจืื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ื ืงืืื ืืืืืืช, ืฉืื ืขืืืืืช ืืงืืืจื ืืืืื ืช ืืืงืกืืช, ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืฆืืข ืืืืืฆืืจ ืืจืืืื ืืงืืฉืื ืื ืขืืืื ื ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืื. ืืืืื ืชืงืืคื ืื ื ืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืื ืืืกืคืจืื ืืืืืื ืื ืืืืฅ ืืืคืจืืงื, ืืืชืคืฉื ืืืืจืื ืื ืืกืื ืืืืืื ืืกืืืืช ืื ืื ืืืฉืืช ื ืืกืคืืช. ืชืงืืคื ืื ืืชืืคืืื ืช ืืชืจืืืืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืืช ืืชืจืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืงืืช, ืฉืืืฆืจื ืืืื ืืฉืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืฃ ืืืืืจืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืื ืขืฆื ืืงืจื, ืืื ืืจืืืื ืืฉืื ื ืืขืื ืืืื, ืคืจืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืคืื ืืืืฉืจืื ืืฆืืืจื ืืขืจืืช ืืจืืืื-ืขืื. ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืฉืชืืื ืืืืจืื ืขื ืื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืืื (ืคืจื ืืื ืืืจืงืืืงื), ืชืื ืืืืงืช ืจืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืืจืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืืื, ืื ืืืืขืชื ืืชืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืช. ืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืื ืืืฉื ืืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืงืืื ื ืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืช ืืืฉืื: ืืืืจื ืืืื ืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืืกืืจืืื ืืืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืืจ ืืคื ื ื-45 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื, ืืืืจืืช ืืืคืืก ืื ืืื ืฉื ืคื ื-ืืื ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืฉื ืกืืจืืช ืื ืจืคืกืืืืช ืืืฆืืืช ืืฆืจื ืื ืืจืืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืงืืืืืืจืื. ืืืืืจื ืืกืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงื ืืฆืคืื ืืช ืืจื ืืจืื ืืื, ืืฉืจ ืืืฉืชื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืช ืืฆืจ ืืจืื ื, ืืืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืคื ื ื-17 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื, ืืืืืจ ืืฉืืืฉืช ืืืคื ืฉื ืื ื ืืกืคืืช ืืชืคืฉืื ืืืืืจืื ืขื ืงืฆื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืจืืงื ืืืจืืืืช. ืืืฉืืื ืืขืื ืืื ืืฆืืืขืื ืขื ืื ืฉืื ื-ืืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืืืืืืชืืช ืืขืืืื ื ืืืจ ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืชืืื, ืืขืื ืฉืคื ืืืจืืืช, ืชืืืขื ืืืืฉืืจื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื ืื ื-ืืืื ื. ืืคื ื ื-12 ืืืคื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืื ืจืืืช ืืขืืืจ ืืืืจืื ืืืืจื-ืืืื ืืืืืกืก ืขื ืฆืื ืืืงื ืืืืจื-ืืืื ืืืืืกืก ืขื ืืงืืืืช. ืืกืืื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืืฉืื ืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืชืืืจื ืืืงืืื ืืืืืืื: ืกืืื ืขืืื ืืงืจื ืฉื ืืคืืืกืืืงื ืฉืืืื ืืขืืืืช ืืืืคืจืืืจืืช ืืืคืืก ืคื ื ืืื, ืืืืขืืืืช ืจืืื ืืืงืจืืื ืื ืฉืืืกื ืืช ืฆืคืื ืืืจืืืกืื ืืืืจืืงื. ืืขืื-ืืืื ืจืืื ืฉืฉืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืชืืขืื, ืื ืืฃ ื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืขืงื ืชืืืจืืช ืืืงืืื ืืฆืื ืืื ืื ืกืืื. ืืฆื ืฉื ื, ืืืงืืืืช ืจืืื ืึดืคืฉืจ ืืืงืืื ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืจืช ืืืืืื ืืื ืื, ืื ืื ืืคื ืืชืืืฉืืืช ืืฆื ืืงืืจืืช ืืื. ืืืืคืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืงืืื ืืืชื-ืชืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื โ ืืืืืจ ืืกืืจ ืืคืืจื ืืฉื ืื 9,500 ืขื 8,500 ืืคื ื"ืก, ืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืจืื, ืืืื ืืขืจื ืืคืจืืงื ืืืืฉืช ืืืจืืงื, ืจืง ืืืืืจ ืืจืื ืืืชืจ, ืืฉื ืื 4,000 ืขื 3,000 ืืคื ื"ืก. ืืืืคืื ืืชืืกืกื ืขื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืงืื ืืืกืืช ืฉื ืืื ื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืฆืืืื, ืืฉืจ ืฉืื ื ืืืฉื ืืืืจืืช ืืช ืืคืืืืืืืืื ืฉืืื ืืืช ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืชืืืื ืืฉืืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืืชื-ืืืืื, ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืืจื ืืืืืืชืืช, ืขื ืื ืจืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืชืืื ืืคืจืืืื. ืืืื ืืืฆืื ืืืฆื-ืืืคื ืืื ืฉืืืืชื ืืื ืขืื ืืคื ื ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืืชืืช, ืืืื ื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืขืื ืืจืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืืืช. ืืื ืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืฉืื ืื ืื ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืจืคืืื ืฉืื ืื: ืืืืืจ ืืกืืจ ืืคืืจื ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืฉืขืืจื ืืฆืืื ืืจืขืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืขื ืืืจ (ืฉืืคืื ืืขื ืืืืช), ืืงืจ ืืืจ (ืฉืืคื ืืืงืจ ืืืืช), ืืืฉ ืืืืคืืื (ืฉืืคื ืืืืฉ ืืืืช) ืืืขืจืื (ืฉืืคื ืืืืืจ ืืืืช) ืืืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืื, ืฆืืจ ืืขืืืื. ืืขืจืืืช ืืจืื ืืกืื ืืืืช ืกืืก ืืืจ (ืฉืืคื ืืกืืก ืืืืช) ืืขืืงืจ ืืฆืืจื ืขืืืื ืืชืืืืจื, ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืืืจื ืืกืื ืืืืช ืฆืื ืืืืจื, ืืืืจืืงื ืืืจืืืืช ืืชืืจืก, ืืืืืจืืงื ืืืจืืืืช ืชืคืื ืืืืื. ืืจืืืช ืืืืงืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืืชืืช ืืืืช ืืืชืคืชืืืืืช ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืืชืจ ืืชืืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื, ืฉืื ืืื ืึดืคืฉืจื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืฆืืจ ืืืืืจืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืฆืจื ืืกืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืืืจื ืงืืข, ืขืืืจ ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืงืืืืืืช, ืืืกืืืช, ืืืืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืืืช ืืจืืื ืืชืื ืื ืืืืื ืืจืื ืืชืคืชืื ืืืคืจืื ืืืขืจืื ืืฆืืจื ืืฉืืืืช ืืื ืชืืืื ืืืงืืช ืฉืื, ืืงืฆืืช ืื ืืฉืงืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืื ืขื ืชืืืืช ืขืื ืืช ืืฉื ื. ืืืงืืื ืืืฉืืื ืงืืข ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืืคืืขื ืืืจืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืฉื ืจืืขืื ื ืืืืื, ืฉืืืกืกื ืืช ืืืืืชื ืขื ืจืขืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืช ืืืืืช ืขืืื, ืกืืกืื, ืืืืื ืืืฃ ืืืืื ืฆืคืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืจื ืขืจืื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืงืืืืื. ืืฉืชืืืืช ืขื ืืืืจื ืืืื, ืืืื ืคืืจืืื, ืืงืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืจืขื ืืคืื ืื ืืข ืขืืงืจื ืืคืฉืืืืช, ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืขืืื, ืืืืืื ืืขืืชืืช ืืืกืืจ ืืจืขื, ืืืฉื ืืชืืฆืื ืืืฆืืจืช, ืืืืืื ืืืงืืช ืฆืืืืช ืืืืืฆืืจ ืขืจืื ืืืืืืช. ืืืจืืช ืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื ืขืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืชืงืืื, ืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ื ืืืงื ืืืืฅ ืืืืจืืช ืืืงืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืจืื ืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืงืฉื ืืื ืืงืืื ืืงืืืืช, ืืืื ืืขืจืืช ืขืืืชืื, ืืืืจืืืช ืฉืืื ืื ืื ืขืจืืืช ืงืจื. ืืืกืืืจืื ืืืื ื ืืืกืืืจืื ืืชืืืืก ืืืงืจ ืชืืืืืช ืืืื ืขื ืคื ืชืืขืื ืืืืืจืขืืช, ืืืื ืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืึฐึผืชื. ืืกืื ืกืืืื ืฉืืืืคื ืขื ืฉืจืืื ืฆืืื ืชืืืจืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉื 6600 ืฉื ื ืืคื ื"ืก, ืื ืืืชื ืืืืืข ืืจืืฉืื ืฉื ืขืฉื ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ื ืจืื ืืชืืขื ื-3500 ืืคื ื"ืก ืืขืจื, ืืืื ืืชื ืืืชืืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืจ ืืขืชืืงื, ืฉื ืืงืง ืขื ืืืืืช ืืจืก. ืืืืื ืืขืกืืงื ืกืืคืจืื ืฉืืชืขืื ืืช ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืืชื; ืืืืฉืื ืืืขื ืืืืขืืช ืืชืืจืืืื ืืื ืืื ืฆืื ืืช ืืืืืฉืืื. ืืืืคื ืืกืืจืชื ืืืืืงืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืฉืืืฉ ืชืงืืคืืช[ื]: ืืขืืจืช ืืืชื ืืืงืื ืขืจื-ืืืื ื ืืืฃ ืืืืืคืจืืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืืช, ืืขืืงืจ ืืขืืงื ืื ืืจืืช ืืืืืืื: ืฉืืืจ ืืืืืืคืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืงื ืืคืจืช ืืืืืืงื; ืืฆืจืื ืืขืชืืงื ืืขืืง ืื ืืืืก; ืชืจืืืช ืขืืง ืืืื ืืืก ืืืืื; ืืืืื ืืช ืืกืื ืืืช ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืขืืงื ืื ืืจ ืืฆืืื ืื ืืจ ืืืื ืืฆื; ืืืืืืงืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืื ืืืจืืงื. ืฆืืืืืืืืฆืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืืคื ืืืงื ืื ืืืืืืื, ืขืงื ืืืืืืช ืืชืืืืจื ืืืืฉื ืืืื, ืืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืคืืชืื ืชืจืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืกืืจืืช ืืกืคืื ืืช ืงืื ืืช, ืืึผื ึธืขืืช ืืืฉืืืื ืืืืคืจืฉืื ืคืฉืืืื, ืึดืคืฉืจื ืฉึตืืื ืืืคืื ืืึดืืืืก ื ืจืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืฉืช, ืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืชืืืื, ืืื ืืคื ืืืืืื ืืงืจืืืืื, ืื ืื ืืื ืืกืืืืืช ืืฆืืื ืืืงืืื ืืกืื ื ืจืืืื, ืืจืง ืืืืืคืจืืืช ืืขืฉืืจืืช ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืืืช ืืกืืื ืืจืืื ืฆืืืืจืืืช ืฉืืืืฆื ืืช ืืชืขืืืจื ืืื ืืื ืื, ืืืืืจ ืืืฆืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืืคืืื ืคื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืงื ืืืืขื ืฉื ืืชื ืืื ืืฉื ืข. ืจืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืจืื ืืืงืืืื ืฉืขืกืงื ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืื, ืื ืืขืจืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืคืืขื ืื ืืขืืืืช ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืกืืืจืื, ืืืืืื, ืคืงืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืช. ืืืฆืืช ืฉืืืืช ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืืชืจ ืืขืืืื ืืชืืืช ืืืืชื ืืคืชื ืขืืงืจื ืืงืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืงืืืืช, ืืืืื ืืื ืืื. ืืคืืื ื ืืืืื ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืขืช ืืขืชืืงื ืืืจืืืช ืืืงื ืืขืืื ืืืฉื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืจืื ืื ืืืชืงืืคืช ืืืจืื. ืื ืืืืจืืงื, ืืืืกืืจืืื ืืืืืงืืื ืื ืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืงืื ืืืคืจืืงื ื ืื ืกื ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืจืื ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืจื ืฉืื ืืืจืื ืื. ืืืืคื ืืื ืืชืืืื, ืืชืงืืคื ืืงืืืกืืช ื ืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืจืช ืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจื. ืืืืจืืคื ืืงืืื ืืคืชืื ืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืฉืืช ืืกืคืืจื ืื ืคืืืช ืืืืืคืจืื ืืจืืืืช ืืืขืจืืืช ืืขืงืืืช ืืืืจืืช ื ืจืืืืช ืฉื ืขืืื. ืชืคืืกืช ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืฉื ืืคืื ืืฉืงืืขื ืืฉืงืคืช ืืขืืงืจ ื ืงืืืช ืืื ืฉื ืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืจืืคืื, ืืขืื ืฉืืืืจื ืืชืืืื, ืืืืื, ืืกืื, ืืืคืจืืงื ืืืืืจืืงื ืงืื ืืชืงืืคื ืื ืฆืืืืืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืืคืจืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืคืืชืืืช ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืขืช ืืขืชืืงื. ืฆืืืืืืืืฆืืืช ืืื ืขืืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืืืฉื ืืื ืคืขื ืขื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืขืืื ืืฉืืืืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืจืืขืื ื ืืืืื ืจืืืื ืกืืกืื ืื ืืขืจืืืช ืฉื ืืจืื ืืกืื, ืื ืืืจื-ืืื ืืืืืขื ืืช ืืื ืืคืืืฉื ืชืื ืืืจ ืื ืฉื ืืื. ืืื ืืจืื ืืืืจื ืืกืื ืืืื ืืืจืืคื, ืฆืคืื ืืืืจื ืืคืจืืงื ืืชืงืืืื ืงืฉืจื ืืกืืจ ืจืืคืคืื ืืื ืืืืืฉื, ืฉืื ืืกืฃ ืืชืืืื ืื ืืืืฉื ืืคืืฆื ืื ืืืืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืืช ืืกืคืืจื ืืขืฉืจืื ืืช, ืืืคืืก, ืืืืง ืืฉืจืคื, ืืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืื ืืืคืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืจ. ืืืืงืืื ืื, ืกืคื ืื ืคืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืื ื, ืืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืืืื ืืืฉืื ืกืคื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืกืงืจ. ืื ืืืจืืงื, ืืืกืืจืืื ืืืจืื ืืคืจืืงื ื ืืชืจื ืื ืืชืงืืช ืืืขืืื ืืืฉื. ืืืืจืืงื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืืจืืืืช ืฆืืื ืืืืคืจืืืช ืืืืื, ืืืฆืืงืื ืืืืื ืงื, ืืืืคืจืืงื ืืื ื ืืืืื, ืื ืฉืืืื ืงืื ืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืชืงืืื ืขื ืฆืื ืืืงื, ืืขืืชืื ืืชืืกืคืช ืืงืืืืช ืคืฉืืื. ืืช ืืขืช ืืืืฉื ืืงืืื ืืคืชืื ืืขืืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืจืืคื ืืืื ื-16, ืืฉืจ ืืืืื ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืฆืืจืช ืงืฉืจ ืืื ืื ืืฆืืืืืืืืฆืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืฉืืช, ืืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืืืืืืืืฆืื ืืืืืืืช, ืืชืจืืืชืืช ืืืคืืืืืืช. ืืฉืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืืืืคืื ืืชืขืฉืืืชืืช ืคืืชืื ืืชืืืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืจืืคื, ืืึดืคืฉืจื ืขืืืจ ื ืจืื ืืืขืืจ ืฉื ืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืชืขืฉืืื ืืืืชื ืฉืืจืืชืื. ืืชืคืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืขื ืืงื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืคื ืืชืจืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืฉืึดืคืฉืจื ืืืืงื ืืืฉืชืื ืขื ืฉืืืื ื ืจืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืืฉืืช, ืืืชืืืฉื ืืื ืืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืช ืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจื, ืืชืืืื ืืืืืคืจืืืืืื ืืืงืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืคื, ืืฃ ืื ืชืืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืืจืื ืขื ืกืืืจืช ืืคืขืจ ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉืืืฉื. ืชื ืืขืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืืืื, ืขื ืื ืืืืฉื ืขื ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืืฉืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืชืืืง ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉืื ืืช. ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืขืืช, ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืคืืืืช ืืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืืื ืืขืฉืจืืช ืฉื ืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืชืืฆืื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืชืืืชืช ืชืื ืืงืืช, ืืขืงื ืื ืืืืคืื ืฉื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืื ืืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืฉื ืื. ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืืฆืื ืืจืจื ืื ืขืืืืชืื ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ืืืื ื-18, ืฉืืืืขื ืืฉืืื ืืฉืชื ืืืืืืช ืขืืื ืืืื ื-20. ืคืกืืืืืืืื ืื ืคืฉ (ืืืืื ื ืืืืขื ืฉื ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืืช mind) ืืื ืืืกืฃ ืฉื ืชืคืงืืืื ืืชืืืืืื ืงืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืขืืช, ืืฉืืื, ืืืืื, ืืืืจืื, ืจืืฉ ืืขืื. ืคืกืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืขื ืืขืืกืง ืืืงืจ ื ืคืฉ ืืืื, ืืืืขื ืืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืช ืื ืคืฉ ืืชืืืื ืฉื ืชืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืชืจืืฉ ืืืื. ืืืขืื ืืคืกืืืืคืืืืช ืืคืืืืกืืคืื ืฉื ืื ืคืฉ ืขืืกืงืช ืืฉืืืช ืืืืก ืฉืืื ืืืืฃ ืืื ืคืฉ. ืื ื ืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืขืืืื ืื ืขื ืืขืื-ืืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืคืฉ, ืืืฃ ืืืืืืืืื ืืื ืขืืื ืืื[ื"ื]. ืืื ื ืืืชืื ืฉืจืืืช ืืชืืื ืืช ื ืคืฉ ืืืื ืงืืืืืช ืืืืคื ืืืฉืื ืื ืืืขืื-ืืืื, ืื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืงืฉื ืืืืงืจ ืืฉืื ืฉืืืืงืจ ืืื ืืฉื ืืื ื ืืืืข ืื ืคืฉ ืืฆืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืืคื ืืืืชื-ืืืฆืขื ืฉืื ืืื ืืืืข ืื ืคืฉื ืฉืื, ืืืฉืื ืฉืืขืื-ืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืื ืขืฉื ืื ืคืฉื ืืืืชื ืืืคื ืฉืื ื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืช. ื ืืฉืืื ืจืืื ืืคืกืืืืืืืื ื ืืงืจื ืืขืืงืจ ืืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจื, ืืืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ื ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืคืกืืืืืืืืืช ืื "ืืื ืืืจืกืืืืช" ืืื ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืคืืื ืืืช ืืชืจืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืืื. ืืฆื ืื ืืื ืืืฉืชื ืืช ืืขืงืืืช ืคืจืกืื ืืกืคืจ "ืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืื ืืฉืืื" ืืื ืจืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืคืืื ืื ืืืฉืืชืคืื ืืื ืชืจืืืืืช ืืืื ืขื ืกืื ืกืงืืจื ืืงืคืช ืฉื ืืืืจื ืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื. ืืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืฉืืชืคืืช ืืื ืชืจืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืจืืืช ืืืจืืช ืฉืืฉืืชืคืืช ืืืืขื ืื ืชืจืืืืืช ืืืื. ืคืกืืืืืืืื ืืื ืชืจืืืชืืช ืืื ืืชืืื ืืขืืกืง ืืืงืจ ืืชื ืืืืช ืื ืคืฉ ืืืื ืขื ืคื ื ืชืจืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืืฉื, ืืืื ืจืืื ืืืช ื ืืฉืื ืืื ืจื ืืืืคืืื ืฉื ืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจื, ืื ืืืงืจ ื-166 ืชืจืืืืืช ืืจืืื ืืขืืื ืืฆื ืขืืืช ืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืคืืืงืืืจ ืฉื ืืืขื ืืืื[ื"ื]. ืืขืืืช ืืืช, ืื ืฉืืงื ืืจืืื ืืืช ืคื-ืื-ืคื ื ืืืื ืจืง ืืืืขืื ืืชืื ืืชืจืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืงื[ื"ื]. ืืืืขืืช ืขืฆืืืช ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืื ื ืืืชืืื ื ืืช ืฉื ื ืคืฉ ืขืฆืื: ืืืฉืืืชืื, ืฆืจืืื ืืคืขืืืืชืื. ืืืื ืืืืื ืขืฆืื ืืืจืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืขืืชืื ืืืืงืจ ืืจืืื ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืืขืืช ืขืฆืืืช. ืชืื ืืงืืช ืืื ืืชืืืืกืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืืชื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืื ืืืจ, ืื ืืืื 18 ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืฆืข ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืื ืืช ืขืฆืื[ื"ื]. ื ืืฉื ืงืจืื ืืื ืืชืืืจืื ืฉื ืื ืคืฉ โ ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืคืจืฉ ืืช ื ืคืฉื ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืืฆืืจืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืืืก ืืื ืจืืฉืืช, ืืืฉืืืช, ืืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืืื. ื ืืกืืืื ืคืกืืืืืืืื ืืจืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืชืจืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืคืชืืื ืืืื ืืจืืข ืขื ืืืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืก ืืื ื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืขืฆืื. ืืืืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืขืฆืืืช ืืืื ืช ื ืคืฉ ืืืืืช ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืชื ืืืืชื ืฉืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืฆืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืกืืืืืฆืืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืขื ืื ืืืืื ืืชืจืื ืืงืืื ืืืกืื ืืืจืชืืื ืชืงืื ืื. ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืช ืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืฉ ืชืคืงืืืื ืืืจืชืืื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืืืืืืช ืขืฆืื โ ืืื ืขืฉืืื ืืกืืืข ืืืฆืืจืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืงืฉืจืื ืจืืฉืืื ืขืืืงืื, ืืฉืจ ืืชืืจื ืืกืืืขืื ืืื ืืืช ืืฉืคืื ืืฆืืื, ืืืืืคื ืื ืชืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฃ ื ืืืื. ืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืื ืคืืฆื ืืืื ืืื ืืืจืืกืงืกืืืืืืช โ ืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืื ืงืืืช ืื ืงืืืช ืืืืจืื, ืื ืืื ืืกืงืกืืืืืืช ืืืืคื ืืืื, ืืฃ ืื ืืกืืจืช ืืืงืจืื ืฉืขืจื ืืืคืจื ืงืื ืกื ืืฉื ืืช ื-40 ืื-50 ื ืืฆื ืฉืืืืืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืืกืืื "ืืืืื" ืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืฉื ื ืืืื ืื, ืื ืฉืืื ื-ืืื ืจืืื ืืฉ ื ืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืงืฉืช ืืืืกืงืกืืืืืช (ืฉืืืื 1โ5 ืืกืืื ืงืื ืกื). ืืืืงืจืื ืืืฆืขื ืืฉื ืืืืช ืืื"ืืืืช ื ืืฉืื ืืขืื ื ืืจืื ืืกืืืื. ืืื ืฉื ืืช ื-60 ืืขืืื ืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืืขืจืื ืืคืจื ืืงืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืชืจ ืืช ืืงืืืื ืืืื, ืื ืฉืืืชืื ืฉืื ืชืื ืื ืืืืงืจืื ืฉื ืงืื ืกื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืช ืื ืืืืืงืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืืฆืืืืช. ืืคื ืืืงืจืื ืื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืืื 8.8% ื-27% ืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืจืืงื ืืช ืืืืืจืช, ืืชืืืช ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืงื, ืืืืืืื ืขื ื ืืกืืื ืืื ื ืืืฉืื ืื ืขื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืื ืืื ื ืืืืืจ ืฉืืื. ืืื ืืฆื ืื ื-ืืืื, ืื ืืฆื ืคืจืืืืื ืงืจืืืื[ื"ื] ื ืืืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืกืงืกืืืืืืช ืืืืกืงืกืืืืืืช ืืื ื ื ืืืจืืช. ืชืจืืืช ืชืจืืืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืืืฉืืจืื, ืืืืข, ืืืืื ืืช, ืืขืจืืื, ืืชืคืืกืช ืืขืืื ืฉืืืื ืจืืืฉ ืืชืืงืฃ ืืืืชื ืืืง ืืืืืจื. ืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืขื ืืขืืกืง ืืืงืจ ืืืืจื ืืืชืจืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช. ืืืฉืจ ืืกืืืจืื ืชืืื ืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช, ืืขืืืจืืช ืืชืืจืฉื ืื ืืืจืืื ืืคืืื ืืืืช, ืืืื ืกืืืืช ืชืจืืืชืืืช, ืื ืืืืืช ืืืกืืืื ืืืืืจื. ืื ืืคืืขื, ืืจืืืช ืชืืื ืืช ืืืื ื ืงืืขืืช ืขื ืืื ืคืขืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืื ืกืืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืืชืจืืืชืืืช. ืืืฉื, ืืืืืจ ืืืื ืช ืฉืคื ืกืืืืืืืช ืืฉืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืื ื ืืื ืืืชืืคืฉืจืช ืขื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืฃ ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืืจื ืืงื ืืืืืจ ืืจืืงื, ืื ืื ืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืฉืคื ืืืืืืจืช ืืชืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืื ืื, ืืื ืืืื ืฉืคื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉืฃ ืืืื. ืขื ืืชืคืฉืืืช ืืืื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืคืจืืืกืืืจืืืช ืืจืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ, ืืืจืืช ืื ื ืืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืฉื ืชืงืืคืืช ืืจืืืืช, ืืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืคืืชืื ืชืจืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืืืืืฆืืืช ืจืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช. ืืืืืื ืืืืืจืช ืืืืชืจ, ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืืฉืช ืืืจืืงื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืขื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืกืืืช ืืขืืื ืืืฉื ืืืฉื ื-13 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื ืขื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืงื ืืชืืืืช ืืขืช ืืืืฉื[ื"ื]. ืืืฉื ืชืงืืคื ืื ืื ืืืืขื ืืืืคื ืืืชื-ืชืืื ืืืฉืืื ืชืจืืืชืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืขืืื ืืืฉื, ืืื ืืงืืืืช ืืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืืืืช ืืฆืืืื ืืืขืื-ืืืืื ืืืงืืืืื ืืืืฉืช ืืืจืืงื, ืคืืชืื ืฆืืจืืช ืืชื ืืืจืืืืืคื ืืืืืืืืช ืืฉืืื, ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืกืก ืชืฆืคืืืช ืืกืืจืื ืืืืืช, ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืฉื ื-ืืคืก. ืืขืืืช ืืืช ืื ืื ืคืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืจืื ืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืื. ืืขืช ืืืืฉื, ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืชืืืืจื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืืฆืื ืชืจืืืชืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืืืจื ืืช, ืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืชืจืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืฉ ืขืืืื ืขืืฆืื ืจืื[ื"ื]. ืชืจืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืชืคืชืื ืืงืฆื ืฉืื ื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืฉื ืืืงื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืื ืงืื ืื ืืืชืงืืืืื ืขื ืฆืื ืืืงื ืืืื, ืืขืื ืฉืืืจืืช ืืงืืื ืืงืืืืช, ืชืขืฉืืื ืืืจืืื ืื ื ืจืืืื. ืืืงืจืื ืืืืื ืืขืืช ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืขืืชืื ื ืืกื ืืืกืืืจ ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืขืืืื ืืชื ืืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืชืจืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืืชืจ. ืื ืื ื ืืื ืืชืจืืืืืช "ื ืืฉืืืช" ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืกืชืืืื ืืืืื ืืชืจืืืืืช ื"ืืชืงืืืืช" ืชืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืช, ืื ืฉืืงืฉื ืืืื ืขื ืืกืืจืื ืื ืืืื ืืชืืจืฉืชืืื. ืืืฉื ืืืจืช ืืกืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืฆืื ืืงืืืืื, ืืื ืืกืจืื ืืขืื-ืืืื ืืชืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืจืื ืืกืืืืื ืืขืืื. ืืงืจ ืืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืขืืืื ืื ืืืื ืชืืื ืืช ืื ืืืืช, ืื ืืืืืืช ืื ืคืืืืืืืืืืช ืืขืฉืืืืช ืืืกืืืจ ืืืืคื ืืืืืืื ืขืืืื ืืช ืฉื ืชืจืืืืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืขื ืืืจืืช. ืืืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืจืืื, ืชืืื ืืช ืชืจืืืชืืืช ืืกืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืืืช ืืืืคืืขืืช ืืฆืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืื ื. ืืขืจืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉื ืฉืคื ืืืืฉื ืืช, ืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืืืฉื ืืช. ืฉืคื ืกืืืืช ืืื ืืจื ืชืงืฉืืจืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืื, ืืืืขืช ืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืจื ืืืชื ืืืื ืืกืื ืืฆืืืชื ืืืื[ื"ื]. ืฉืคื ืืืืกืกืช ืขื ืืขืจืืช ืกืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืืขืืช ืืืงืืืช, ืืืืคืฉืจืช ืืงืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืข ืืขื ืืฉืืขืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืืื ืืช. ืืกืืืื ืขืฉืืืื ืืืืืช ืืงืืืืื ืืืืชืืช ืงืืืืื, ืืื ืืฉืคืช ืืืืืจ; ืืกืืืื ืืจืคืืื ืืื ืืืชืืื; ืืืืืืช ืืืฃ ืืื ืืฉืคืช ืกืืื ืื, ืื ืืฃ ืืืืชืืช ืืฉืืืืื ืืืืขืืจืื ืืืคืืขื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืฉืืจืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืื ืืืฉืืื. ืืืชืื ืืื, ืืงืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืคื ืืชืืืืกืช ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืกืจืื, ืืืืืื ืืืืขืฉืืช ืืฉืืืขื ืื ืืงืจืืื. ืืืฉื ืืช ืืื ืืชืืื ืืขืืกืง ืืืงืจ ืืฉืคื ืืืฉืืืืฉ ืื. ืกืื ืืืงื ืืื ืืขื ืฃ ืืืชืืงื ืืืงืจ ืืืฉืืขืืช ืฉื ืืฉืคื. ื-7,000 ืฉืคืืช ืืืขืืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ื ืืื[ื"ื]. ืืฉืคืืช ืื ืคืืฆืืช ืืืืชืจ ืืฉืคืช ืื ืื ืกืื ืืช ืื ืืจืื ืืช (13.22%), ืกืคืจืืืช (4.88%) ืืื ืืืืช (4.68%). ืืืฉื ืื ืืกืืืืื ืฉืคืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืืฉืคืืืช, ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืคืืช ืืชืื ืื ืืฉืคืื ืืคืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืจ ืื ืืื, ืืืืจื-ืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืขื ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืชื ืืืช ืืงืจืืืืช ืืืืืจืคืืช ืื ืืื. ืืขืืชืื ืืฃ ื ืืชื ืืฉืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืคื ืืื ืฉื ืฉืคืืช ืืืฉืคืื ืขื ืืฃ ืฉืืืื ืืืชืงืืื ืืฉืคื ืืืืืจืช ืขืื ืืคื ื ืืืฆืืช ืืืชื, ืืืฉื ืืช ืืคืจืืื-ืฉืืืช, ืืฉืคื ืืื ืฉื ืื ืืฉืคืืช ืืฉืืืืช. ืืืืื ืฉืคืืช ืืชืคืชืืืช ืืืฉืชื ืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืจืื ืืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืืช ืืฉืคื ืืื ืืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉื ืืฉืคืืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืฉื ืืช ืืื ืืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉื ืืคืจืืื-ืฉืืืช ืืฉื ืืคืจืืื-ืืืื-ืืืจืืคืืช, ืืืื ืืืฉื ืื ืืืกืืืจืืื ืขืืืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืฉืคืืช ืืขืืื ืืงืืจื ืืฉืคื-ืื ืืืช ืืืื. ืื ืืฉืคืืช ืืืืขืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืื ืฉืคืืช ืืฉืืืืืืช, ืืขืืฉืืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืฉืคืืื ืืืืจืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืงื ืชืืืืจ[ื]. ืืืืคื ืืืื, ืืคืืื ืฉืคืืชืืื ืฉื ืฉืืื ืืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื ื"ืคืจืืืืืืืื" ืืืืชืจ ืืืจืืืืช ืื ืคืืืช ืืืฉืคืืช ืืืืืืจืืช ืืชืจืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืชืขืฉืืืชืืืช[ื"ื]. ืื ืื ื-ืืืื ืจืืืฉืื ืฉืคืช ืืืืืจ ืืืช ืืคืืืช ืืื ืงืืชื ืืืืืืืชื ืืืืงืืืช, ืืืื ืฉื ื ืขื ืฉืฉ ืฉื ืื ืืขืจื. ืื ืงืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืคืืช ืืืืืืจืืช ืืกืืืืชื ืืงืจืืื, ืืืจื-ืืื ืืื ืฆืืจื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืฅ ื ืจืื ืืขืื, ืชืื ืืขืืจ ืืื ืืืชื ืฉืืืื ืฉื ืจืืืฉืช ืฉืคื. ืื ื ืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืคืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืื ืืืืจืืชื, ืื ืืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืฉ ืืื ืืืืฅ ืจื, ืืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืื ืืื ื ืจืืืฉืื ืืืืคื ืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืชืืืืจ ืฉื ืืฉืคืืช ืืืืฉืืช. ืงืืฉื ืืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืืกืืืืช ืืขืืงืจืืืช ืืืืกืจ ืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื, ืืขืืื ืืช ืืืฃ ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืจืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืฉืคืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืืืืืื ืืืคืืกืืช, ืื ื ืืืื ืืขืชืืงื ืืจืืื ืืขืชืืงื ืืชืืืืกื ืืืืืจื ืฉืคืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืขืื ื "ืืจืืจืื", ืืฆืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืฉืคื ืืืชื-ืืืื ืช (ืืืืื ื"ืืจืืืจ", "ืืจืืืจ" ืื "ืืืืื"). ืืขืจืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืืื, ืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืฉื ื ืืขืื-ืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืคืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฃ ืืฉื ืื ืืช ืกืืืืชื, ืืืื ืืืื ื ืืืงืื ืกืืจืื. ืืฆื ืฉืืืคื ืืื ื ืืฆืื ืืกืืจืืช ืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืืืืขืืจืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืงืื, ืื ืฉืืื ืงืืืืืื ืืชืืืฉืช ืชืจืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืฉืืงืืืืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืืชืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืขืืชื ืืจืื ืฉืื ื ืืืืืืื ืืกืื ืืืื. ืืืฉื, ืจืง ืื ื ืืื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืชืืืคืืช ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืฆืจ ืืื ืืืจ, ืืจืง ืื ื ืืื ืืืจืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืื ืืฆืืฆืืืื ืืืืคื ืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืืื. ืืื ื ืืื ืืืจืื ืงืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืกืืชืืช ืืื ืืื (ืืคื ื ืืคืืืช 3.3 ืืืืืื ืฉื ื) ืืืฉืืืืฉ ืืืฉ (ืืคื ื ืืคืืืช 800 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื), ืืืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ืืจืฉ ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืืคืขืชื, ืื ืคืืชื ืืฉืืืื ืืืชื ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืืืืืืชืืช ืืขืืืื ื (ืจืื ืืคืจืง ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื). ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืืชืืช ืืชืืกืกื ืขื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืงืืื, ืืจืืฉื ืืืืฉื (ืจืื ืืคืจืง ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืืชืืช). ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืืืจืื ืขืืืืืช ืืืกืืก ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช. ืืืื ืืืชืืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืจืก ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืคื ืืชืคืงืืืื ืจืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืืขืฅ ืฉื ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืืืืืืชืืช (ืจืื ืืคืจืง ืืืืกืืืจืื). ืขื-ืื ืช ืืืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืขืฆืื ืืืืชื ื ืืืืข, ืื ื ืืื ืคืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืื ืืขืฅ, ืืื, ืืื ื ืืืืจ ืืืืื, ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืฉ, ืืชืืืื ืืขืืจ ืืคืจืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืจืื ืืกืืืื ืืืึผืืื, ืืืขืืื ืืื ืฆืืจ, ืคืฉืชื ืืืืชื ื, ืืืืกืืฃ ืื ืกืืืื ืกืื ืชืืืื. ืืืืจื ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื, ืืงืืจ ืืื ืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืขื ืฉืขืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืฆืืข ืขืืืื ืืื ืฉืจืืจืื. ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืืชืืช, ืืืืช ืืงืจ, ืกืืกืื ืืืืืช-ืืืช ืืืจืืช ืึดืคืฉืจ ืืจืชืื ืื ืืช ืืื ืืฉืจืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืืืจื, ืืขืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืืื ืืื, ืืื ืคืืชืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืฆืื ืื ืจืืืืช ืืื, ืืื ืืื ืช ืืื ืืื ืจืืืืช ืจืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืคืจืฉ. ืืืจ ืืขืช ืืขืชืืงื ืืืคืื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืฉืจืืจืื ืฉืื ืืฉื ืืืืช ืืืืช ืืขืืจืช ืืืื ืืช ืคืฉืืืืช, ืื ืจืง ืืขืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืคืื ืืชืขืฉืืืชืืช ืืืืื ืืืคืงื ื ืจืืืช ืฉื ืื ืจืืื ืืืืืช ืืฆืืจื ืืืฆืืข ืขืืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืื ืืขืื, ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ืจืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืื. ืชืืื ืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืขืืกืง ืืืืืข โ ืงืืืืื, ืชืืขืืื ืืขืืืืื. ืฉืืืืช ืืชื ืืืจืืืืืคื ืคืืชืื ืืืืคื ืืืชื-ืชืืื ืืกืืจ ืืคืืจื ืืืืจืื ืืืจืืงื, ืืึดืคืฉืจื ื ืืืื ืืจืืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฃ ืืงืืช ืืืืคืจืืืช. ืืชื ืืืคืืืชื ืืงื ืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืงืจืืื, ืืกืืืข ืืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืขืืจื ืืืืจืืื ืืช ืืืืขืื ืืขืืจ ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืื ื. ืืืฆืืช ืืกืคืจื ืืคืก ืืืฉืืื ืืขืฉืจืื ืืช ืชืืืืืช ืืืืงืื ืืฆืืื ืืกืคืจืื ืฉืืคืจื ืืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืขื ืฉื ืืืฉืืืื ืืจืืชืืืืื. ืืืฆืืช ืืืคืืก ืืืืืจื ื ืืืขืื ืืกืืจื ืืืื ืืคืฆืช ืกืคืจืื, ืขืืชืื ืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืึดืคืฉืจื ืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจื ืืขืช ืืืืฉื. ืืึฐืฆืืึนืช ืืืืืจืฃ, ืืืืคืื, ืืจืืื, ืืืืืืืืื, ืืืืฉื ืืจืฉืช ืืืื ืืจื ื ืืืืื ืืืคืื ืืืืื ืืืืืข ืฉื ืืืื ื-20 ืื-21. ืืชืืขืืช ืืืฉืืคืืจ ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืคืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืื ืืืื ืื: ืืขืืืช ืชืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืชืืืชืช ืชืื ืืงืืช, ืืขืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืคืืื, ืืืืื, ืืืืืื ื ืืืืืืจ. ืืืืงืชื ืืืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืฉื ื ืืืืืืื โ ื ืงืืืช ืืืืจืื โ ืืฉืชืงืคืช ืื ืืืืืืื ืชืจืืืชืืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืจืื. ืชืจืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืืกืืช ืืื ืืืคืืื ืื ืืชืคืงืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืื ืื, ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืจืืช, ืืขืื ืืืงื, ืขืืกืืงืื, ืชืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืกืื ืื ืืืืฉ ืฉืื ื. ืืคืจื, ืืื ืืืืจืืช ื ืฉืื ื ืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืขืกืืง ืืืืคืื ืืืืืื, ืืขืื ืฉืืืจืื ื ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืขืกืืง ืืชืคืงืืืื ืงืฉืื ืคืืืืช, ืืกืืื ืื ืื ืฆืืืืจืืื. ืืืขื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืื ืคืืจืืืจืืืืืช ืืคืืืช ืืืืื ืืกืืืืช, ืืืขืื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืฆืข ืืืขืื ืื ืฉืื, ืืฃ ืื ื ืฉืื ืืกืืืืืช ืืฆืืืืืช ืืขืืชืื ืืืืืข ืืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ[ื"ื]. ืืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืืืืืืืื ืคืืื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืง ืืขื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ืืคืืืืช ื ืฉืื. ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืชืืจืื ืืช ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืงืฉืจื ืืฉืคืื, ืืืื ืืืืืกืกืื ืขื ืงืจืืช ืื, ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืฆืืฆืืื, ืืืืื ืืืืืกืกืื ืขื ืงืฉืจ ืฉืืื ื ืงืฉืจ ืื ืืืื ื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืืฅ. ืืืจืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืงืืืืื ืขืจืืื ืืืืกืืืืช ืฉืื ืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืืจืื, ืขื ืคื ืืืกื ืืฉึฐึผืืึตืจืึผืช ืืื ืื ื ืืื, ืืช ืชืืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืช ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืจืชืืืช ืืืฆืืคืืช ืืื. ืืืฉื, ืืืขื ืชืืื ืืฆืืคื ืืืื ืืืคื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืคืจื ืก ืืช ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืืชืคืื. ืงืฉืจื ืฉืืจืืช ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืืืจืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืฉืชืืืืืช ืขื ืคื ืืืฆื ืืฉืืชืฃ, ืืื ืงืืื ืื, ืฉืืืื, ืืืฃ ืงืืืฆืืช ืืชื ืืืช ืฉืืืืช ืื ืขืืื. ืงืฉืจื ื ืืฉืืืื ืืขืืชืื ืืืฆืจืื ืืจืืชืืช ืืื ืงืืืฆืืช ืืฉืชืืืืืช ืฉืื ืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืืขื ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืืฉ ืืืกื ืฉืืจืืช ืื ืืฉืืื ืืงืจืืืื ืืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ื ืืฉืืืื, ืืืืกื ืืื ืืื ืฉืืจืื ืืืื ืืืชืคืกื ืืืืืื ืขืจืืืช. ืื ื ืืื ืชืืืคืืช ืืชืืจืื ืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืืชื ืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืฉืคืืืช. ืกืืืืช ื ืคืืฆืืช ืืืืืจืช ืงืืืฆื ืืชื ืืช ืื ืืืฆื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืฉืืชืคืื, ืฉืคื ืืฉืืชืคืช, ืชืจืืืช ืืฉืืชืคืช, ืืช ืืฉืืชืคืช ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช. ืืืืจืืช ืืืืคืืื ืื ืืชื ืืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืฆืืงืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืกืืคืจืื (ื ืจืืืืืื) ืืฉืืชืคืื, ืืืืืงืื ืืช ืชืืืฉืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืชืืืืืช ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืืืชื ืืืช ืฉืืื. ืขืืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืืชื ืืืช ืืืจื-ืืื ืืงืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืื ืคืืืืืืื ืืจืืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืื ืขืจื-ืืืื ื, ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช. ืืขืจืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืฉื, ืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืืข ืืืืื ื. ืืคืืื ืืืจืืช ืงืื ืืช ืืืกืืช ืฉื ืื ื ืืื ืื ืืืจืืืืช ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืคืจื ืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืืื, ืืืคืืื ืื ืืฆืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืช ืืกืืขืคืช ืฉื ืืจืืชืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืงืช ืืืื ืื ืงืจืืช ืคืืืืืืงื. ืืชืจ-ืขื-ืื, ืืืจืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืจืืืช ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืฉืืืื ืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืื ืฉืืจ ืืืืจืื, ืืืคืืื ื ืืฆืจ ืฆืืจื ืืืืกืื ืฉื ืชืคืงืืืื, ืืจืืื ืื ืื ืืจืืืช ืืืจืชืืืช. ืืืืื ืืช, ืืืฉื ื ืืชื ืืืืืจื ืืืืฆืขื ืืคืืืืื ืืืืงืง ืืืืืืฃ ืืืงืื, ืืืฆืืจื ืืืืคื ืื ืืืงืื ืืืกืืืช ืฆืืืืจืืื ืืื ืืฉืคื ืืืฉืืจื. ืืืฉื ืืคืจืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืคืืขื ืฉืืืืช ืืืฉื ืจืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืจืืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืื. ืฉืืืื ืงืื ืื ืฉื ืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื ืืืจื-ืืื ืืืื ืืืฉืืจ ืฉืืืืื ื ืืืกืืช, ืืคื ื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืงืืข ืืืงืืืืช, ืฉืืืคืฉืจืื ืืฆืืืจ ืจืืืฉ ืจื ืืืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืงืฃ ืืืื. ืืคืจืื ืืืืจืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืืจื-ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืขืฆื ืฉื ืจืืฉื ืืืฉืคืืืช, ืืืืืจืื ืืื ืืื ืื ืืืชืจ ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉื. ืงืืืืืฆืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืฉื ืฉืืืื ืื ืืคืจืื ืืขืืชืื ืืชืืืืืช ืชืืช ืืฉืืจ ืฆ'ืืฃ, ืขืจื-ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืชืืช ืืื ืจืืืืช, ืืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืช ืขืฉืืืืช ืืืชืืื ืืื ืืืจืืชืืช, ืืืืคืจืืืช ืืคืืจืฆืืืช. ืฉืืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืขืืืืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืืืืืืช, ืืฉืคืขื ืืจืืืฉ, ืืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืืจืืฉ ืืืชื ืืฆืืฆืืืื ืื ืืงืจืืื ืืฉืคืื ืืืจืื, ืชืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืื ืจืืื ืืขืืืจืช ืืืจืืฉื ืืืฆืืื ืืฆื ืืื, ืืืขืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืืฃ ืืฉืืขืืืื ืืฆื ืฉื ื. ืขื-ืื ืช ืืืืืื ืืืืงืจ ืืช ืืืื ืฉื ืฉืืืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืฉืืืื, ืืืฉืืืจ ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืกืืืช ืืื ืืื, ืคืืชืื ืฉืืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืืงืจืืืืช ืืจืคืืืืืงื ืืืช. ืืืฉืืื ืกืืฆืืืืืกืืืื ืืงืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืจืืืื ืืคืขืืืื ืื ืื ืื ืื ืฆืืืืจืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืืืช ืืกืื, ืืืืืงื ืืืืฉ ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืขืจืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืกืืจ ืืืืืื, ืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืืืืื. ืืกืืจ ืืื ืืืืคืื-ืืจืฆืื ืฉื ืกืืืจืืช ืืฉื ืฉืืจืืชืื. ืืื ืื ืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืืช ืืืกืืจ ื ืงืจื ืฉืืง. ืืืืื ืืื ืืขื ืฃ ืืืืขื ืืืืจื ืืขืืกืง ืืจืืืฉ ืืืืกืืจ ืื. ืืืืจืืช ืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืงืืืืืช, ืืืกืืจ ืืื ืกืืจ ืืืืคืื, ืืืืืจ ืืืืคื ืืฉืืจื ืฉื ืกืืืจืืช ืืฉื ืฉืืจืืชืื, ืืืฉืืง ืืื ืืงืื ืคืืื ืฉืื ืืชื ืื ืืกืืจ, ืืขืืชืื ืืืื ืืจืื. ืืืกืืจ ืึดืคืฉืจ ืืื ื ืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืืขืืกืืงืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืืืคื ืื ืืืืง ืืช ืืขืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืขืืืืช ืจืื ืืืชืจ. ืืกืืจ ืืื ืงืืืืืืช ืขืืื ืืืกื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืื, ืืืชืืฆืื ืืื ืื ืืืืคืช ืืืข ืืืคืจืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืงืคืืช ืขืืื ืฉืื ืืช. ืขืืืืืช ืืจืืืืืืืืืช ืืฆืืืขืืช ืขื ืกืืจ ืืืืคืื ืืืื ืฆืืจ ืืืืืืืืช ืืขืฉืืช ืืืจ ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืืืืืืชืืช. ืืืืคืื ืื ืืืืืชืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืขืืืคื ืืืืื ืืฆืืืจืช ืืจืืืฉ ืืงืืืืืืช ืืื, ืืื ืฉืืคืจื ืืช ืืืฆืขื ืืชืืืื. ื ืชืืื ืืกืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืื ืืืืฃ ืืฉืืืฉื ืืคื ื"ืก, ืืืฉืจ ืฉืืืจืื ืืืกืืคืืืืื ืกืืจื ืขื ืชืจืืืช ืขืืง ืืืื ืืืก ืืืืื. ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืคืืชืื ืืืฆืขื-ืืืืคืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืื ืืกืฃ (ืืืืืขืืช, ืืฉืืจืืช ื ืืจ ืื ืืืืฆืขืื ืืืจืื) ืืืฉืจืื, ืืฉืจ ืงืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืกืืจ ืืืืืช ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืคืจืื ืืช ืคืขืืืช ืืงื ืืื ืืคืขืืืช ืืืืืจื ืืืงืืืช ืฉืืจ. ืขื ืคื ืกืืจื ืืงืืืืช, ืฆืืจืืช ืืืชื ืืจืืฉืื ืืช ืืชืคืชื ืืืขืจืืืช ืกืืื ืื ืืืกืืืืช ืฉืฉืืืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืืชืืขืื ืืขืืืช ืืขืกืงืืืช. ืืขืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืคืื ืืชืขืฉืืืชืืช, ืืืืจืืชื ืฉื ืืงืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืคืฉืจื ืื ืกืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ื ืจืื, ืฆืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื, ืืืืื ื ืืืจืช ืืืฉืจืื ืืืฉืงืขื ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉืืช, ืืฉืืคืืจ ืขืฆืื ืืจืืช ืืืืื: ืืฉื ืช 1500 ืืื ืืชืืฆืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืคืฉ ืืขืืื ืฉืืื-ืขืจื ื-550 ืืืืจ, ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ื-21 ืืื ืขืืื ืขื 8,800 ืืืืจ. ืืขืจืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืชืืช, ืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืืช. ืืืืฆืืื ืืจืืืืืืืืื ืื ื ืืืขืื ื-100 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื ืืืขืจืช ืืืื ืืืขืจืช ืงืคืื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืื ืื ืืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื, ื ืืชื ืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืื ื ืกืืื ื ืงืืืจื ืืงืกืืช ืืืืื ืืื ืืืช ืงืืืจื, ืืจืืืืื ืขื ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืฉืืืืจ ืืืืืช. ืฆืืืืืช ืืฆืืืจื ืกืืข ืื ืืชืจืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืงืืช, ืืคื ื ื-30 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื, ืืชืืจืื ื ืฉืื ืฉืืคืขืืช ืืืฃ ืืฉืจ ืืืชืื ืฉืืื ืืืืช ืคืืจืืื, ืืืฆืืจืื ืฉืืฆืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืื, ืืืืืช ืืืจื-ืืื ืืืขืจืช ืฉืืืื, ืืืฆืืืขืื ืขื ืืืื ื ืืขื-ืืืขื. ืืช ืืื ืกืื ืฉื ืืชืืจืื ืืช ืืืจืชืืช ืืชืจืืืชืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืืืช ืืขืจืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืงืคืืช ืขืืื ืืืงืฉืจืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืช ืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืืกืจืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืชืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืืืช ืกืืืื, ืคืืืื ืื ืืืชืื ืงืืืฉ ืืืืืขืืื ืืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืจื ืื ื ืืฆืจื ืืืืื ืืืืงืื, ืืืช ืืฉืืขืืชื. ืื ืืืืื โ ืืืืื ื ืื ืฉืืืช ืฉื ืืืืช ืืืฃ ืฉื ืืคืฆืื ืืืืืื โ ื ืคืืฆื ืืืื ืืฆื ืืืืื ืงืื ืื, ืืื ืืชืจืืืืืช ืฆืืืืื-ืืงืืื. ืคืืืืชืืืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืจืืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืืชื ื ืคืืฆื ืืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืื-ืงืื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืชืืช ืืืจื ืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืื ืืชืืืื โ ืืืื ื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื โ ืืฉืชืจืฉ ืืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจื ืืขืืงืจ ืขื ืืืคืขืช ืืืชืืช ืืืืจืืืืืช: ืืืืืืช, ืื ืฆืจืืช ืืืืกืืื. ืืชืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืงืื ืคืืฆืืื ืืื, ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืฉืืช ืคืืืืกืืคืื ืืืจื-ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืกืืืืื. ืื ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืชืืคืืื ืืช ืืืกืืจืืช ืืืกืืืืช ืฉื ื ืืจืืืช, ืื ืืืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืืกืืจืื ืืฆืืจืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืจืืืื. ืื ื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืฉืืขืื ืื ืืจืืืช ืืืืจืชืืืช ืืืืขื ืืฉ ืืช ืืืืจืืื ืืื. ืืืืืืื ืืื ืื ืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืจืืื ืืขืืื ืืขืืืื ืขื ืื ืฉืื ืืชืขืฆืืืช ืืืืขืืจืืช ืืืืคื ืชืจืืืชื, ืื ืืจืืืช ืืื ืขืฉืื ืืืืืช ืื ืืกืืก ืืืืืืื. ื ืืจืืืช ืืืจืชืืืช ืืืฉืจืฉืืช ืขืืืง ืืืฉืืืชื ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืื, ืืืขืฆืืืช ืืช ืจืืฉืืชืืื ืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืคืจืืืช ืืคืืื ืืืืขืืจ ืืืื, ืขืื ืฉ ืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืจืชืืืช ืืืฉืื. ืืชืืืฉืืช ื ืืจืืืช ืืืขืจืืช ืกืืืจื ืฉื ืขืจืืื ืืืืืื ื ืงืจืืช ืืืกืจ. ืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืกืืืช, ืื ืืืง ืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืืืกืจ ืืืืกื ืืืืง, ืฉืขืืจื ืขืืื ืืืขื ืฉืช ืืคืฉืข. ืืืจืืช ืืื ืจืืืช ืืงืืฉืืช ืืช ืืืืกืจ ืืืืืง, ืืืืืืกืืช ืืื ืืงืืจ ืืฆืืืืง ื ืขืืื โ ืืืืืืื, ืืืขืืื ืื ืืืืืืืืืืื. ืื ืืฉืืื ืืขืจืืื ืจืืื ืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืช, ืจืื ืคืืจืื ืืืืื ืืช. ืึณืึธื ืึผืช ืืืืื ื ืืจืื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืืชืืืืก ืืืฆืืจื ืืืขืืฆืื ืฉื ืืคืฆืื ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืขื ืืืคืื ืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืฉืื ืืขืืจืจืื, ืื ืืกืฃ ืื ืืฃ ืืื ืชืืขืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืืฉืื. ืจืืืื ืจืืฉืื ืื ืืืืฉ ืืกืชืื ื ืืชื ืืืฆืื ืืืจ ืืขืืฆืื ืืกืืืืจื ืืืืงืคื ืฉื ืืื ื ืื ืื ืืชืจืืืช ืืืฉืืืช ืฉืงืืื ืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ื. ืชืืฉืืืื ืืงืืฉืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืฆืืคืื ืืฉืื ื ืืืืช ืืืืจืจืื, ืืชืืืื ืืื ืืืชืงืืคื ืืคืืืืืืชืืช ืืชืืืื ื, ืื ืขืืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืืืชืจ. ืจืง ืืื ืืชืงืืคื ืืคืืืืืืชืืช ืืขืืืื ื ืืชืืืืช ืืืืฆื ืืืจืืืืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืจื ืฉื ืืฆืืจืืช ืืื ืืช ืคืจืืืกืืืจืืช ืืืืืงืืช, ืืื ืฆืืืจื ืืืขืจืืช ืืชืืืืคืื ืืืชืืจืื ืืืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืง ืจื ืืขืื-ืืืื ืฉืื ืื; ืืืืชื ืชืงืืคื ืืชืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืคืื ืืขืฆื ืืืขืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืืืงืื. ืืื ืืช ื ืืฉืืช ืืฆืืจืช ืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืจืกืืืช, ืืื ืงืืืืืื ืื ืืฉืืช ืืืื ืขืืกืงืช ืื ืืืืคื ืืืฉืื. ืืื ืฆืืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืจืืช ื ืืชื ืืื ืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืชืืืช ืืืคืืกืืืืช: ืฆืืืจ, ืคืืกืื ืืืืจืืืืืช; ืืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืงื, ืชืืืืจืื, ืจืืงืื; ืืกืคืจืืช ืืืื ืฉืืจื ืืกืืคืืจืช. ืคืืชืื ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืช ืึดืคืฉืจ ืื ืกืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืฉืื, ืืื ืฆืืืื ืืงืืื ืืข. ืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืึปืึธึผื ืึผืช, ืืืืืช-ืื ืื ืคืขืืืืช ืืืจืช ืฉืืฉ ืื ืฉืืืืฉ ืืขืฉื, ืืืื ืงืืจืืช, ืืืฉืื ืื ืืืืื, ืขืฉืืื ืืืชืขืืืช ืืขืื ื ืื ืฉืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืช. ืฆืืจืืช ืจืืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืช ืื ืืืคืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืืชืจืืืช, ืืชืงืืคื ืืืืืจื ืฉืืื ื ืืฆืจื, ืืื ืฉืื ืืชืจืืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืชืงืฉืื ืืืขืจืืื ืืื ืืืจืืช ืขื ืืจืงืข ืืืืงืฉืจ ืืืชืืืืื; ืืืฉื ืืืฉืช ืชื, ืงืืคืื ื ืืืจ ืืฉืืืคืช ืืจื ืขืฉืืืืช ืืืืืช ืฆืืจืืช ืืื ืืช ืืชืจืืืช ืืืคื ืืช. ืืื ืืช ืืืืืช ืชืคืงืื ืืจืืื ืืคืขืืืืืืช ืืืชืจืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช. ืคืืืงืืืจ ืฉืืืฉ ืืืืืื ืงืืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืกืืื ืกืืคืจืื ืืืืชืืกืื ืืืืจืื ืฉืืืขืืจื ืืืืจ ืืืืจ. ืฆืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืื ืืช ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืขืืจืจ ืจืืฉืืช, ืืืื ืขืืืืช ืืืืฆืืจ ืืืืืืช ืืงืื ืื ืฉืื, ืืขืืชืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืจืืช ืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืืงืกืื ืืืืืืื, ืฆืืืืื ืื ืืชืืื, ืืขืืชืื ืืฆืืจื ืืื ืื, ืืืืืจ, ืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืช ืืจืืื ืืืช, ืืืขืืชืื ืจืง ืืฆืืจื ืืืืื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืืึธืึธึผื ืืืืฆืจ. ืืื ืื ืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืคืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืจืชืืืช ืฉืืื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืชื ืืืืืจืืืืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืกืื ืื ืื ืืกืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืื. ืืฆืืจืืช ืืืคืช ืืกืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืืขืจืฆื ืื ืจืืืช, ืขื ืื ืื ื ืืชื ืขืื ืืจืืืฉ ืืืชื ืืืกืฃ, ืื ืืืฆืืืช ืจืง ืืืืกืืืช ืืืืืจืืขืื ืืืืืืื, ืื ืืฉืืืช ืขื ืืื ืื ืฉืื ืจืืื ืืคืกืืช ืืืฉืื ืืื ืืฉืืช. ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืคืืืขืช ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืฆืืจืื ืืืจืื, ืืขืืชืื ืขื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืชื. ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืฉ ืืืคืืื ืื ืืืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืื ืื ืืฆื ืืขืื ืืืื, ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืืื ืก ืืืฆื ืืคืืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืื ื ืืืืื ืื ืืจื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืฉืคืขืช ืืืื ืืชืจืืืชื. ืื ื ืืื ืื ืืืขื ืืืืืืื ืืขืืื ืืื[ื"ื] ืืฉืจ ืืชืื ื ืื, ืืื ืื, ืืชืืื ืื ืืืฉืชืืฉืื ืืืื ื ืฉืง โ ืืืฉืืจืื ืืืขืืืืื ืืคืืืขื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืืฆืืจืื ืืืจืื. ืืื ื ืฉืง ืขืืื ืืขืืชืื ืงืจืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืคืืชืื ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืฉื ืืงืฉืช ืืืืชื ืืื ืืืืฉืืจืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉืืฆืจื ืืฉืืจืจื ืื ืจืืื ืืืกืืืช; ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืคืงื ืืืืฉืื ืืจืื ืื, ืืจืื ืืคืืื ืคืืชืื ืืืืื ืจืื ืืืืฆืืจ ื ืฉืง ืงืจ ืืฉืจืืื ืืืฃ; ืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืกืกื ืืืง ืฉืจืคื ืืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืื ืคืืฅ ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืืืจ ืื ืจืืืืช ืืขืืจื ืืืืฆืืข ืขืืืื ืืื ืืช; ืืืคืฆืฆื ืืืจืขืื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืจืขืื ืืช. ืืืืืืช ืคืืืืช ื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืจืื ืืฉืืฉืช ืืืฉืืช ืจืืื ืืืืจื, ืืขื ืืฉื, ืืืืขืช ืจืืฉืืช, ืืืืฉืื ืกืืกืืืื ืืืืืืงื ืืขืืช, ืืืฃ ืืฉืขืฉืืข ืกืืืกืื. ืืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืชืืช ืืืชืจืืืชืืช ืฉื ืืืืืืช ืชืืืื ืืืงืฉืจ ืฉืื. ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืื ืขืืจื ืืืจืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืจืืืช ืชืืืื ืืชืืขื ืฉื ืชืืจืืืช, ืืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืจืืืช ืืขืืื ืืืงืืขืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืืช, ืืืืงืงืืช ืืืงืื ืืืงืืืืช ืชืงื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืช ืื ืืื. ืื ืื ืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืช ื ืชืคืกืช ืืืงืจืื ืืกืืืืื ืืืืืืืืืช, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืจ ืืืืืจ ืืืื ื ืขืฆืืืช ืื ืืืจืืื ืื ืจืฉืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืจื ืืฆืื ืฉืืืกืืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืืฃ ืืช ืฉืืืื ื ืืืืงืื. ืืืืื ืืืจืืืช ืฆืืจืืช ืืืชื ืืืืช ืฉื ืื ื ืืื, ืื ืืืืืืืช ืฉืืื ืืขืืชืื ืืืืจืื ืช ืืงืืืฆืืช ืืืืืืช. ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืง ืืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืื ืืจืืื ืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื, ืืจืื ืขืืื, ืฉืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืช, ืืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืื ืืข ืืช ืืฆื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืืชืื ืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืฉืืื ืืืจืืืืจืื ืืืืืืืืกืืื ืฉืื, ืืืืงืจืื ืงืืฆืื ืืื ืืฃ ืืืฉืืืื ืืืื. ื ืืกืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืืฉืืื ืงืืืฆื ืืืจืชืืช ืืืืื ืช, ืืืื ืืืืืืช, ืืชื ืืช ืื ืืชืืช, ื ืงืจื ืจืฆื ืขื. ืืืืฆืืช ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืืื ื-20 ืืืืข ืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืฉื ืขืฉืจืืช ืืืืืื ืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืฉื ืืื. ืืืื ืชืงืืคื ืื ืื ืืชืืคืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืืืืืกืืืช ืืขืืื: ืืืฉืจ ืืชืืืืกืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืชืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืื ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืช, ื ืืชื ืืืขืจืื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืืจืืื ืืืจืืชืืช ืืฉืืขืืจื ืคืฉืข ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืขืฉืจืืช ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืื ืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืขืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื. ืชืจืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืขืืกืงืืช ืืืืคื ืืืืจืื ืืืงืจ ืืขืืื, ืืืืคืืฉ ืืืจ ืชืื ืืืช ืืกืืืจืืืืช ืืืฆืืืืช, ืืืืืจืช ืืืข ืืืืจืืื ื, ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืืคืฉืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืื, ืืืื ืืืชื ืืืืจืืช ืืืืื. ืืืชืืืืงื ืืชืคืชืื ืืื ืืื, ืืืฉืื, ืืืืื ืืืชืืืืช ืฆืืจืืช ืืืืืืจืืืช, ืืืืจืชื ืื ืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืคืฉืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ ืืืืชืจ, ืืื ืืกืคืจืื ืืกืืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืชืจืืืืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืขืชืืงืืช, ืืื ืชืจืืืืืช ืฉืืืจ ืืืฆืจืื ืืขืชืืงื, ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืชืืืืงื ืืืจ ืืคื ื ืืืขืื ื-5,000 ืฉื ืื ืืื ืืขืงืื ืืืจ ืขืื ืืช ืืฉื ื, ืืชืื ื ืืื ื ืขื ืง ืืืขืจืื ืืืฉืืื ืืก ืืืกืืจ. ืืืงืืื ืืชืคืชืื ืืคืืืืกืืคืื ืืืงืจ ืืืงืืจืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืกืื ืืืืจื ืืื ืืฉืืช, ืืื ืงืืื, ืืฆืืืืช, ืืืืืื, ืืกืืืชืืืช. ืืืืืืงื, ืฉืืชืคืชืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืื ืืขืชืืงื, ืืื ืฉืืื ืืกืืืจืช ืืืืกืง ืืชืื ืืืข ืงืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืื ืืืงืฆืื ืืืืืงืฆืื. ืขื ืืขืช ืืืืฉื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืื ื ืืจืืจื ืืื ืืืข ืืืื ืชืืืืื ืืืืคืืืืื ืืื ืืืชืืก, ืืช, ืคืืืืกืืคืื, ืืคืกืืืื-ืืืข[ื"ื]. ืืฉืืื ืืืืขืืช ืคืืชืื ืืืืื ื ืืกืืืจืช ืฉื ืืฉืขืจืืช ืขื ืืื ืขืืืืชื ืขื ืชืืฆืืืช ื ืืกืืืื ืืืขืืื ืืชืฆืคืืืช, ืืื ืืกืื ืืืงื ืืืข ืืชืืืจืืืช ืืืขืืืช. ืืฆืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืืขืืช, ืืขืืืืช ืืืกืืก ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืจืคืืืืช ืืืืืฆืช ืฉื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช[ื"ื]. ืืืข ืืืกืืจืื ืืืื ืืืงืจ ืืช ืืืงืื, ืืคืืืืงื ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืื ืจืืื, ืืืืืืืืืื ืืช ืืื ื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ. ืืืขื ืืืืื ืืืงืจืื ืืช ืืืืื, ืืช ืืื ื ืืืืฃ ืืืืื ืืืช ืืจืคืืื. ืืืืืช ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืชืคืชืื ืื ืืืขื ืืจืื, ืืื ืืืกืืืจืื, ืืจืืืืืืืื, ืื ืชืจืืคืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืืกืืืงื, ืืืืขื ืืืืจื ืืื ืคืกืืืืืืืื, ืกืืฆืืืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืืข ืืืืื ื. ืืืื ืืชืจืืืช ืกืืคืืจืื ืขื ืืืฆื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืง ืืฉืื ืืืจืืืช ืืชืืช ืืขืืื, ืืืืชืืกืื ืืืคืืืงืืืจ ืฉื ืขืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืืืืืช ืืื ืฆืจืืช, ืขื ืคื ืืืชืื ืืกืคืจ ืืจืืฉืืช, ืืื ืืจื ืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืืฉื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืฆืืื. ืืื ืืฆืจ ืืช ืืืื ืืืืื ื"ื ืคื ืืืคืื ื ืฉืืช ืืืื". ืื ืืืกืืื ืืฉื ื ืชืืืืจ ืืืื, ืฉืื ืืืื ื ืืฆืจ ืืืืืจ ืืืืืจ ื ืชืื ืช ืฆืืจื ืื ื ืคื ืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืชื. ืืจืืืช ืื ื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืืืื, ืืืฅ ืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืื ื ืคืืฅ ืืืืชืืืืืืืช ืฉื ืขืืื ืฉืื ืื. ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืฉืืช ืจืื ืืช ืืชื ืืคืกืืช ืืืืืช ืงืื ืืช ืืืืืจ, ืืื ืืฆืื ืื ืืขืื ืื ืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืคื ืืื ืจืื ืืืื. ืืืืชืืืืืื ืืขืชืืงื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืืจืช ืืืื - ืืืืชืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืืช - ืืื ืื ืื ืืฉ ืืช ืื ื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืืืืจ ืืขืช ืฉืืื ืฉืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืืกืืจืืช ืืืืฉืืชืื ืืฆืจืืชืื ืืจืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื. ืื ืชืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉื ืืจื ืจืืฉืื โ ืืืื ืืจืกืืืช ืฉื ืืืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืื ืืื ื ืืฉ ืงืืื ืืช ืืืืฉื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืืจ ืืืื. ืืืืชืืืืืืืช ืืืจืืช ืื ื ืืื ื ืืจืื ืืืืืจืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืฉื ืืืืจืืื ืืืืชืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืืืชืืืืืื ืื ืืจืืืช ืืฆืจื ืืช ืื ื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืืขืฆืื, ืืืืืจื ืืืืชืืืืืื ืฉื ืกืืืื ืืฆืจ ืืืชื ืืชืืืขืื. ืืืคืืก ืืืจืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืฉ, ืืืืื ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืื ืชืืืืช ืืฆืจื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืคืชื ืฉื ืื ื ืืขื ืง. ืืืืชืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืคืืฆ'ืื ืืื ืืืงืืงืื ืืจื ืืช ืืขืื-ืืืืื ืืืืืจ, ืืื ืืืงืฉื ืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืฆืืจ ื ืืกืฃ ืืฉืจ ืืื ืขืืืื ืืืงืจื ืฉืืื ืื ืืืฉ ืืช ืืขืืื. ืืื ืืจื ืืช ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืจืื ืฉืืกืคื ืืืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช โ ืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืื, ืืขืฆืืืช ืืกืืขืื, ืืขืืจ ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืื ืฉืฃ ืื ืจืื ืืืื. ืืกืื ืืืจ ืฉื ืกืืคืืจื ืืจืืื, ืื ื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืื ืขืืฆืื ืืืงืืงื ืืช ืืื ืฆืืื ืืชืื ืืกืื ืจืืฉืื ื ืื ืืืืื. ืืืืชืืืืืื ืืืฆืจืืช, ืืืืื ืืืืืื, ืฉื ืื ืืืืืืจ ืืชืคื ืืช ืืืช ืืขืจืคื ืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื. ืืชืื ืืืืื, ืืื ืืืืจื, ืืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืช ืขืื ื ืจืืืช-ืืืื ืืื ืืืคืฉ ืืืจืืื. ืืฉืฉืื ืืืืชื, ืืชืจืืฉ ืืชืื ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืฉืืื. ืืืขืืชืื ืืคืืคื ืขื ืืืืื ืืืคืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื. ืืืชืืืืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืกืคืจืืช ืขื ืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืฉืืืื, ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืืื ื ืืืื ืืืชืืจื ืืืืฉืืื ืืช ื ืืกืืื ืืชืืื ืืืืงืืืื, ืชืืืคืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืื ืื ืืกืื ืืช ืืืข ืืืืื. ืืืืชืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืงื, ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืจืืงืืฆ'ื ืืจื ืชืืืื ืขืืื ืืื ืฉืืฉ, ืืจื ืืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืืฃ ืืืื ืืฆืืจืื ืขื ืงืืื, ืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืก ืืืชื ืืืืื ืฉืืฉืฉ ืืคื ืืื. ืืืงืืื ืืื ืืฆืจ ืื ื ืืื, ืื ืืขืืืจ ืืกืคืจ ืฉื ืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืืื ืฉืฉืืื ืืืชื. ืืืจื ืืืืจืื ืืืืื, ื ืืืฉ ืืืจืืงืืฆ'ื ืฉืื ืืืืืื, ืืืคืขื, ืงืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืืื, ืืื ืืจื ืืืจ, ืฉืืฉ, ืืจื ืืืืืืื. ืฉืื ืืืืฃ ืื ื ืืื ืืชืื ืืกืืข, ืืืคืขื ืืืกืืฃ ืื ืืขืื ืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืจืืื, ืืฆืืืจ ืืืจืืงืืฆ'ื ืืคื ื ืื ื ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืจื ืฉืืฉ ืืขืืื ืื ืฆื, ืื ืขืื ืื ืชืื ืืื. ืืืืจื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืขืกืงื ืชืจืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช, ืืฆืืจืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืกืคืจืืช, ืชืืืืืืื, ืืืืืืืืืื, ืคืืืืกืืคืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืข ืืฉืืืืช ืขืืืงืืช ืืืืจ ืืืข ืืืื, ืืงืืื ืืขืืื ืืืฉืืขืืช ืงืืืื. ืืชืืช ืืืืชืืืืืืืช ื ืืืืช ืืชืคืืกื ืชืืืฆื ืืจืืช ืฉืื ืชืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช (ืืืืื ืื ืืจืืื) ืฉืืจืื ืืืชื, ืืื ืื ืืชืคืชืื ืชืคืืกืืช ืื ืชืจืืคืืฆื ืืจืืืช ืืืขืืืืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืจืื[ื"ื], ืืืฃ ืืฆืืืืช ืืืชื ืืื ืฉืขืืฆื ืืช ืืื ืืืืืชื[ื"ื]. ืชืืืคืืช ืืืฆื ืืืื ืื ืขืื ืขื ืืขืื ืืืืื, ืื ืื ืื ืืืช ืืืื. ืืงืืืช ื ืืืจ ืื "ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืื", ืื ืืคื ืกืคืจ ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืฉื ืืจื "ืืฆืื ืืืืืื". ืฉืืืช ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืื, ืืืฉื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืช, ืืขืกืืงื ืืคืืกืื ืขืชืืงืื ืืขืืืืืช ืืืืืืฉ. ืืืชืจ ืืืื ืืืฉืืขืืช ืงืืืื ื ืืืื ื ืืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืกืืคืื ืืืกืคืจืืช, ืืืขืืงืจ ืื ืืื ืชืืืืืช ืืืืข ืืืืืจื ื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืชืคืชื ืืืื ื ืืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืจืื, ืขื ืืืื ืืืช ืฉืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืจืืจ, ืืืงืื ืื-ืืืืื ืืชืื ืืงืื ืขืฆืื ืืืืืื ืืขืชืืง ืืืื. ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืงืื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืืืืื ืืคืืืืกืืคื-ืงืืกืืืืืื ืืื ืืขืืงืจืื ืืงืืคืจื ืืงื ื ืืขืงืจืื ืืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืื ืืขืืงืจืื ืืื ืชืจืืคื. ืฉืืืชื ืืืคืืจืกืืช ืฉื ืืืื: "ืืืืืช, ืื ืื ืืืืืช" ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืกืื ืฆืืืืืกืืืช: ืืืืข ืขื ืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืช? ืืคืืืื ืืขื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืืจืชื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืขืช, ืืจืืกืื ืืจืก ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืคื ืื ืืืื; ืืจื ืื ืื ืชื ืืช ืืืืื ื ืงืืข ืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื ืขืื ื ืืืืฉืจ; ืืจืื"ื ืงืืข ืื ืชืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืื ืืคื ืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืขืช ืืืชื; ื'ืื-ื'ืืง ืจืืกื ืืขื ืื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืืขืืช ืงืืืื ืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืช ืืคืืื ืฆืืื ืืืืื ืื; ืืืจืื ืคืจืื ืืขื ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืชืฉืืื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืืืขืืืช ืืงืืื ืืื ืืฉื. ืฉืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืืืืืจืช ืืืฆืืจืืช ืกืคืจืืชืืืช ืืืืืื ืื ืคืืืืกืืคืื ืืชืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืฉ ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืืคืฉืืช ืืขืืฆืื ืืืจืื, ืื ืืื ืืืจื ืื ืืืืชื ืืจืืฉ ืขื ืืื ืืืืืืืช, ืขื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืงืื ืื ืขื ืืื ืืืขื ืฉื ืืืื. ืืืฆืืจืืช ืืคืืืช ืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื, ืืืืจืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืคืืก ืืืื, ืืคืืื ืืืจืื ืฉื ืฉืืืืื, ืืืืืจืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืคืช ื ืงืืข ืืจืืฉ, ืืืขืืชืื ืืืืจืข ืขื ืืื ืคืื ืืจืื ืืืืคืืื, ืื ื ืืชื ืช ืืื ืืืืจื ืืืืคื ืฉืื ืื ื ืืฉืืื ืืืจื ืื. ืืืื ืืืืืื, ืืืชืืืจ ืืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืืื, ื ืคืืฆื ืืชืคืืกื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืขื ืืืจื ืืืงืื ืืืืจื ืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืื, ืื ืืืงืืืื ืืช ืืืจืื ืืชืืื ื ืืืื ืืงืืจืื ืืืืืจื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืืืืื ืืื. ืืืจื ("ืืืจืื" ืื "ืืื") ืืืฉืชืืจืจ ืืืืืืจ ืืืืืืืื ืืืืืืข ืืืืจื ืืื ื ืืฉื ืืจืืื ืืคืืืืกืืคืืืช ืืืจืืืืช. ืฉืืื ื ืคืืฆื ืฉืืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืข ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืกืืื ืื ืจืข ืืืกืืื[ื"ื]. ืชืืืคืืช ืืืฆื ืืืื ืื ืขืื ืขื ืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืืชื ืืขื ืืขืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืกืจืืช ืืืืจืืข ืืื ืืื ืืจืข[ื"ื]. ืืฆืืจืืช ืกืคืจืืชืืืช ืจืืืช ืขืืกืงืืช ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืืจืื ืืืืจืขืชื ืืืืืืืช ืืืกืจืืืช ืืจืืช ืืืจื[ื]. ืืงืืจื ืฉื ืืจืืข ืขื ืคื ืชืคืืกืืช ื ืคืืฆืืช ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืฆืจ ืืจืข, ืืืื ืงืืืื[ื"ื], ืืืื ืขื-ืืืขื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืืจืืืกืืจืืืช ืื ืืฉืื, ืกืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืืชืืช ืืืจืืืืืช, ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืข ืขืืืจืื. ืืืืข ืืืงืจ ืืช ืฉืืืช ืืชืืจืฉื ืืื ืกืืืื โ ืืืืื ืืืื ื ืงืืข ืืืข ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืื ืื, ืื ืชืื ืืืืืจื ืืื ืคื ืืื ืื ืืืืข. ืจืื ืื ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/19_ืืืื ื] | [TOKENS: 257] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื 19 ืืืื ื 19 ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ื-170 ืืฉื ื (171 ืืฉื ื ืืขืืืจืช), ืืฉืืืข ื-25 ืืืื ืืืจืืืจืืื ื. ืขื ืืกืืื ืืฉื ื, ื ืฉืืจื ืขืื 195 ืืืื. ืืืจืืขืื ืืืกืืืจืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืคืืจื ืืืื ืืืืจืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืื Juneteenth โ ืืื ืื ืืืจืืงืื ืืฆืืื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืขืืืืช ืฉื ืืคืจื-ืืืจืืงืืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/KTVI] | [TOKENS: 5935] |
Contents KTVI KTVI (channel 2) is a television station in St. Louis, Missouri, United States, affiliated with the Fox network. It is owned by Nexstar Media Group alongside KPLR-TV (channel 11), an owned-and-operated station of The CW. The two stations share studios on Ball Drive in Maryland Heights; KTVI's transmitter is located in Sappington, Missouri. History The station first signed on the air by Signal Hill Telecasting Corporation on August 10, 1953, as WTVI, broadcasting on UHF channel 54. It was originally licensed to Belleville, Illinois (across the Mississippi River from St. Louis), and was the second television station in the St. Louis market after KSD-TV (channel 5, now KSDK) on February 8, 1947. The station's first broadcast was a baseball game between the St. Louis Browns and Cincinnati Reds, announced by Buddy Blattner, Bill Durney and Milo Hamilton. It operated as a primary CBS affiliate, and held secondary affiliations with ABC and DuMont. DuMont affiliation was agreed to in February 1953 to replace KSD-TV. The station was project to sign on May 15, 1953. The station originally operated from studios located in Alton, Illinois. The CBS affiliation moved to KWK-TV (channel 4, now KMOV) when it debuted on July 8, 1954; more or less by default, WTVI became a primary ABC affiliate. The station moved to UHF channel 36, and relocated its city of license to St. Louis on April 9, 1955, keeping the base "TVI" letters as part of its callsign while flipping the first assigned letter from "W" to "K" with this switch of sides of the Mississippi River, thus changing to the current KTVI. It moved its operations to facilities located in the Clayton-Tamm/Dogtown neighborhood in west St. Louis (off present-day I-64/US 40 at the intersection of Berthold, Oakland, and Hampton Avenues). However, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) had recently changed its regulations so that the station could have kept its license in Belleville even while moving its main studio to St. Louis. The WTVI calls are currently used by a PBS member station in Charlotte, North Carolina. The station lost DuMont programming when the network ceased operations in 1956, making KTVI an exclusive ABC affiliate. As the FCC would not require television sets to include UHF tuners until 1961, on April 15, 1957, KTVI moved to VHF channel 2, something it had attempted to do soon after moving to St. Louisโthe channel 2 allocation had been reassigned from Springfield, Illinois, under pressure from the Truman administration, originally done so as not to interfere with CBS-owned WBBM-TV in Chicago. For many years, the station was owned by the Newhouse newspaper chain (now Advance Publications), owners of the now-defunct St. Louis Globe-Democrat. In 1980, Newhouse exited from broadcasting, and sold KTVI and its other television outlets to the Los Angeles-based Times Mirror Company. In March 1993, in order for the company to concentrate on its newspaper and cable television system franchises, Times Mirror sold KTVI and its three sister stationsโfellow CBS affiliates KTBC in Austin and KDFW-TV in DallasโFort Worth and NBC affiliate WVTM-TV in Birminghamโto Argyle Television Holdings in a two-part deal for $335 million in cash and securities. Under the transaction's purchase option structure, WVTM and KTVI were the first two stations that Argyle sold to New World, which the latter purchased for a combined $80 million. (It would later respectively acquire KDFW and KTBC from the group for $335 million in cash and securities). The purchase of the entire group was completed in December of that year following securement of financing for the deal. On May 23, 1994, as part of a $500-million overall deal in which network parent News Corporation also purchased a 20% equity interest in the group, New World signed a long-term affiliation agreement with Fox to switch twelve television stationsโfive that New World had already owned and seven that the company was in the process of acquiring through separate deals with Great American Communications and Argyle Television Holdings (which New World purchased one week later in a purchase option-structured deal for $717 million), including KTVIโto the network. The stations involved in the agreementโall of which were affiliated with one of the three major broadcast networks (CBS, ABC and NBC)โwould become Fox affiliates once individual affiliation contracts with each of the stations' existing network partners had expired. (WVTM did not switch as WBRC, which was placed in a blind trust, was later sold to Fox outright as New World could not keep both due to FCC rules at the time that forbade duopolies). The deal was motivated by the National Football League (NFL)'s awarding of the rights to the National Football Conference (NFC) television package to Fox on December 18, 1993, in which the conference's broadcast television rights moved to the network effective with the 1994 NFL season, ending a 38-year relationship with CBS. ABC had a fourteen-month leeway to find a new affiliate in St. Louis, as its contract with KTVI did not expire until July 1, 1995; its affiliation contracts expired only one month after as CBS's agreement with KDFW and KTBC was scheduled to expire, giving the networks that were already affiliated with the three former Argyle stations slated to switch to Fox a longer grace period to find new affiliates than CBS, NBC and/or ABC were given in most of the other markets affected by the Fox-New World deal (ABC's affiliation contracts with WGHP and WBRC ended even later, respectively expiring in September 1995 and September 1996). Of ABC's options, four prospects were automatically eliminated: KSDK was in the middle of a long-term affiliation agreement between its owner at the time, Multimedia Broadcasting, and NBC; KMOV was under a long-term agreement between CBS and Paramount Stations Group (which was in the process of selling KMOV and its four other major network affiliates to focus on its Fox-affiliated and independent stations that were set to become charter affiliates of group parent Viacom's then-upstart United Paramount Network [UPN]); and KNLC (channel 24, now a MeTV owned-and-operated station) and WHSL (channel 46, now Ion Television O&O WRBU) were respectively owned by the locally based New Life Christian Church and the Home Shopping Network at the time, and both stations had inferior signals, even on cable, making either unlikely choices as even last-ditch options. This left independent station KPLR-TV (channel 11, now a CW owned-and-operated station) and existing Fox station KDNL-TV (channel 30) as the only viable options with which ABC could reach an affiliation agreement. The network first approached KPLR about negotiating an affiliation deal, ultimately to be turned down by its then-owner Koplar Communications. On August 25, 1994, River City Broadcasting reached an agreement with ABC to shift the network's affiliation rights to KDNL. KTVI switched to Fox on August 7, 1995, ending its relationship with ABC after 42 years; concurrently, ABC programming moved to KDNL-TV. The last ABC program to air on KTVI was an ABC Sunday Night Movie presentation of Survive the Savage Sea at 8 p.m. Central Time on August 6.[citation needed] As with most of the other New World-owned stations affected by the agreement with Fox, KTVI retained its longtime "Channel 2" branding upon the affiliation switch, with references to the Fox logo and name limited in most on-air imaging; it also retained the news branding it had been using before it joined the networkโin its case, The 2 News Team, which the station adopted in November 1990 as an ABC affiliate. In addition to expanding its local news programming at the time it joined Fox, the station replaced ABC daytime and late-night programs that migrated to KDNL with an expanded slate of syndicated talk shows as well as some documentary-based reality series and off-network sitcoms, and also acquired some syndicated film packages and first-run and off-network syndicated drama series for broadcast in weekend afternoon timeslots on weeks when Fox did not provide sports programming. On July 17, 1996, News Corporation announced that it would acquire New World in an all-stock transaction worth $2.48 billion, with the latter company's ten Fox affiliates being folded into the former's Fox Television Stations subsidiary, making them all owned-and-operated stations of the network (the New World Communications name continued as a licensing purpose corporation for KTVI and its sister stations until 2007 under Fox, and from 2009 to 2011 under Local TV ownership); upon the completion of the merger on January 22, 1997, KTVI became the first network-owned station in the St. Louis market since CBS sold KMOX-TV (which became what is now KMOV concurrent to the sale) to Viacom in 1986. Under Fox ownership, programming began to change very slightly as KTVI (through Fox) began to add stronger first-run syndicated shows as well as stronger off-network sitcoms to the programming mix. KTVI first launched its website on November 1, 1999, which featured a design similar to other sites belonging to Fox's owned-and-operated stations at the time and focused on promotional and programming content initially, but eventually incorporated news content. The website was migrated to the MyFox platform on September 14, 2006. On October 15, 2007, KTVI launched STLMoms.com, a website aimed at St. Louis area mothers, whose concept spun off from a popular blog featured on the station's main website. Subsequently, on June 2, 2008, KTVI launched GarageSaleSTL.com, a free website that primarily features a Google-based map of viewer-submitted garage sales (the site has since been discontinued). On December 22, 2007, Fox sold KTVI and seven other owned-and-operated stationsโWDAF-TV in Kansas City, WBRC in Birmingham, WGHP in GreensboroโWinston-SalemโHigh Point, WJW in Cleveland, WITI in Milwaukee, KDVR in Denver and KSTU in Salt Lake Cityโto Local TV (a broadcast holding company operated by private equity firm Oak Hill Capital Partners that was formed on May 7 of that year to assume ownership of the broadcasting division of The New York Times Company) for $1.1 billion; the sale was finalized on July 14, 2008. On February 1, 2012, WJW redesigned its web site under the new WordPress-hosted design implemented months earlier by sister stations WDAF and WITI, replacing the site design previously used for the Local TV stations that was developed by Tribune Interactive (now Tribune Digital). On July 1, 2013, the Tribune Company (which in 2008, had formed a joint management agreement involving its Tribune Broadcasting subsidiary and Local TV to operate stations owned by both companies and provide web hosting, technical and engineering services to those run by the latter group) acquired the Local TV stations for $2.75 billion; the sale was completed on December 27. On September 17, 2008, Local TV LLC entered into a local marketing agreement with Tribune Broadcasting, under which it assumed some operational responsibilities for CW affiliate KPLR-TV. The agreement, which took effect on October 1, allowed KTVI to provide advertising and promotional services as well as news operations for KPLR, while Tribune would retain responsibilities over channel 11's programming (although both stations would share certain syndicated programs), master control and production services. The LMA resulted from the formation of a "broadcast management company" that was created to provide management services to stations owned by both Tribune and Local TV. Although it was the senior partner in the agreement, KTVI vacated its longtime studios in the Clayton-Tamm/Dogtown neighborhood on St. Louis' west side and moved its operations to KPLR's facility in Maryland Heights (KPLR moved to that building, the larger of the two facilities, in 2003; whereas KTVI had been operating from the Berthold studios for nearly 50 years). On July 1, 2013, Tribune acquired KTVI and Local TV's eighteen other television stations outright for $2.75 billion; the sale received FCC approval on December 20, and was completed on December 27, creating the first legal station duopoly in the St. Louis market between KTVI and KPLR. As FCC rules prohibit the common ownership of two of the four highest-rated television stations in the same market, Tribune's direct purchase of KTVI to form a duopoly with KPLR was permissible because KPLR ranked in fifth place in total day ratings at the time of the purchase. (In recent years, KPLR and KDNL โ which ranked fourth in the ratings at that time โ have rotated between fourth and fifth place in total day viewership due to the weaker viewership of KDNL's programming since its news department was shut down by owner Sinclair Broadcast Group in 2001); St. Louis also has only nine full-power television stations, seven of which are commercial outlets, making this the only legal duopoly allowable in the market under FCC rules. Sinclairโwhich has owned KDNL-TV since the group's 1996 acquisition of its previous corporate parent River City Broadcastingโentered into an agreement to acquire Tribune Media on May 8, 2017, for $3.9 billion, plus the assumption of $2.7 billion in Tribune debt. Prohibited from owning all three stations, Sinclair would have been required to sell KPLR to a third party to comply with ownership rules and alleviate potential antitrust issues. The deal received significant scrutiny over Sinclair's forthrightness in its applications to sell certain conflict properties, prompting the FCC to designate it for hearing and leading Tribune to terminate the deal and sue Sinclair for breach of contract. Following the Sinclair deal's collapse, Nexstar Media Group of Irving, Texas, announced its purchase of Tribune Media on December 3, 2018, for $6.4 billion in cash and debt. The sale was completed on September 19, 2019. Programming KTVI currently carries the majority of the Fox network schedule; however, it delays the network's Saturday late night block (currently, as of September 2016, consisting of reruns of Fox prime time reality series) by a half-hour in order to air its 10 p.m. newscast. The station may preempt some Fox programs in order to air long-form breaking news or severe weather coverage, although live sports events may require such coverage to air simultaneously with the scheduled Fox Sports telecast. Fox prime time shows preempted or otherwise interrupted by such content may either be rebroadcast on tape delay over KTVI's main channel in place of syndicated programs normally shown during overnight timeslots. Station personnel also gives viewers who subscribe to AT&T U-verse, DirecTV, Dish Network and other pay television providers within the KTVI viewing area the option of watching the affected shows on the Fox Now streaming platforms or its cable/satellite video-on-demand service the day after their initial airing. The only two notable program preemptions that KTVI made as a Fox affiliateโoutside of those necessitated by extended breaking news or severe weather coverage, special programming, or other scheduling conflictsโhave been the brief one of the Fox Kids block and that of the secondary Sunday morning NFL pre-game show Fox NFL Kickoff, of which KTVI had declined carriage for the 2015 regular season (the program moved to Fox from Fox Sports 1 in September 2015), with the station's second digital subchannel airing it instead in its network-recommended time slot; KTVI began clearing Fox NFL Kickoff in September 2016. Unlike most of its sister stations under its former New World ownership, KTVI has carried Fox's children's programming. Upon joining the network in August 1995, it opted not to run the Fox Kids weekday afternoon and Saturday morning blocks, instead airing children's programs acquired via syndication on weekend mornings (the preemptions of Fox Kids by the New World stations led the network to change its carriage policies to allow Fox stations uninterested in carrying the block the right of first refusal to transfer the local rights to another station; by 2001, affiliates were no longer required to run the Fox Kids lineup even if Fox had not secured a substitute carrier). Fox Kids originally wanted to be broadcast locally on KPLR, but the offer was turned down by that station's then-owner Koplar Communications, because Koplar felt that "they had a strong slate of children's programming and no room for the Rangers". Fox Kids subsequently went unseen in the market, and representatives of the block faced the possibility of piping in KSMO-TV in Kansas City (which aired Fox Kids because WDAF-TV declined carriage of the block) for cable subscribers until September, when Fox Kids arranged for its programming to be aired locally on religious independent KNLC. KNLC then drew the ire of the network by asking children to write to Missouri governor Mel Carnahan to protest the planned execution of Johnny Lee Wilson, then in prison for the 1986 murder of 79-year-old Aurora resident Pauline Martz (Carnahan pardoned Wilson that same month); additionally, KNLC's poor signalโboth over the air and on cableโangered members of the largest Fox Kids Club in the nation. As a result, Fox Kids moved to KTVI in 1996. KTVI stopped carrying the Fox Kids weekday block in 1998, although the station retained its Saturday morning lineup via negotiations, although KTVI had to cut to two hours of educational-and-informational programming before cutting back to Fox Kids (this was despite the fact that Fox gave its affiliates the option to push the weekday block to an earlier afternoon timeslot at that period). Fox discontinued its weekday block nationwide on December 31, 2001, while the Saturday lineup was contracted out to 4Kids Entertainment and relaunched as FoxBox on September 14, 2002. In September 2006, KTVI aired the block (by then, renamed 4Kids TV) two hours earlier than most carrier stations to accommodate the station's Saturday morning newscast. Fox ended its network-supplied children's programming on December 28, 2008, replacing it thereafter with the paid programming block Weekend Marketplace. On September 13, 2014, KTVI began carrying Xploration Station, a live-action educational program block distributed by Steve Rotfeld Productions that is syndicated primarily to Fox stations, on Saturday mornings through an agreement involving Tribune's Fox-affiliated stations. KTVI became the official "home" station of the St. Louis Ramsโwhich had relocated to the city from Los Angeles in 1995 (with the exception of select prime time telecasts on Thursday, Sunday and Monday nights, KTVI broadcast most of the NFL franchise's road games as well as most home games against other NFC teams). The station served as the local broadcaster for the Rams' appearance in Super Bowl XXXVI. KTVI's status as the team's primary station ended after the 2015 season, as a consequence of NFL team owners voting to approve the Rams' relocation back to Los Angeles effective with the 2016 NFL season, 30โ2. Since 1996, channel 2 also airs any St. Louis Cardinals games that are broadcast via Fox's broadcast contract with Major League Baseball; this included the team's World Series victories in 2006 and 2011, and its appearances in the 2004 and 2013 World Series. KTVI presently broadcasts 68 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with 11ยฝ hours each weekday and 5ยฝ hours on Saturdays, and 5 hours on Sundays); in regards to the number of hours devoted to news programming, it is the highest local newscast output among St. Louis's broadcast television stations. KTVI's Sunday 5 p.m. newscast is subject to preemption due to network sports coverage, as is standard with Fox stations that carry early evening weekend newscasts (though the Saturday 5 p.m. newscast is usually delayed to 6 p.m. due to baseball or college football coverage). As an ABC affiliate, KTVI's newscasts usually placed third in the ratings, behind longtime leader KSDK (channel 5) and KMOV. However, for most of the 1980s and early 1990s, the station fought a spirited battle with KMOX-TV/KMOV for second place. Since 2009, the station's weekday morning newscast has placed first among the newscasts in the St. Louis market during that time period.[citation needed] One of the mainstay evening segments is "You Paid For It" (an investigative segment reported by Elliott Davis that uncovers city government tax abuse; the segment ends by giving the phone number of the office of that municipality's mayor, followed by the signoff "Call and speak your mind: after all, you paid for it"). After joining Fox in August 1995, KTVI increased its news programming output from roughly 30 hours a week to nearly 45 hours. It initially retained a news schedule similar to what it had as an ABC affiliate. All of its existing newscasts were retained, but it expanded its weekday morning newscast from one to three hours (with two hours added from 7 to 9 a.m.), and bridged the weeknight 5 and 6 p.m. newscasts into a 90-minute early evening news block (by adding a half-hour newscast at 5:30 to compensate for Fox's lack of a national news program). However, like its Austin sister station KTBC did during its first four years as a Fox station, KTVI did not initially add a prime time newscast at 9 p.m. upon switching to the network to compensate for Fox's lack of prime time network programming during that hour; instead, it filled the slot with syndicated programming from the August 1995 switch until September 1997, when it debuted a half-hour 9 p.m. newscast; it continued to air syndicated shows during the 9:30 half-hour until the prime time newscast expanded to one hour in September 1999, now leading directly into the 10 p.m. newscast (KTVI is one of several Fox stations that offer newscasts in both the final hour of prime time and the traditional late news timeslot, one of the few affiliated with the network that runs a nightly 10 p.m. (or 11 p.m.) newscast and one of the few to continue its Big Three-era 10 p.m. newscast after switching to Fox). In addition to compensating for the absence of daily national newscasts on Fox's schedule, the expansion of KTVI's news schedule also served to fill timeslots vacated by the departures of Good Morning America and World News Tonight through its discontinuance of the ABC affiliation. KTVI is able to emphasize a broad array of stories from national and local reports, to investigative stories because of its large news programming output. The station also devotes a sizeable portion of its sports coverage to local high school sports (once partnering with the St. Louis Post-Dispatch to produce the now-canceled Prep Sports Show on Saturdays) and was the home of Jeff Fisher's weekly St. Louis Rams review show on Mondays. For much of the time since it affiliated with Fox until the LMA began, KTVI's 9 p.m. newscast had beaten KPLR-TV's own prime time news program in that timeslot. Before Dick Ford retired from the station in December 2005, all four of KTVI's main male anchors (Ford, Tom O'Neal, Dan Gray and John Pertzborn) formerly served as anchors at KSDK. On April 10, 2006, KTVI debuted a new standardized graphics package, logo and news theme ("Fox Affiliate News Theme" by OSI Music) that was used by Fox's other owned-and-operated stations and select affiliates, during that evening's 9 p.m. newscast. A new set and weather center (replacing one built in 1998) was also introduced (the old news desk was donated to Southern Illinois University Carbondale, with the old weather center donated to the University of MissouriโSt. Louis). In December 2008, KPLR temporarily relocated its newscasts to KTVI's now-former Clayton-Tamm/Dogtown studios as KPLR's facility was being remodeled to accommodate both KPLR and KTVI's newscasts; KTVI moved production of its newscasts to a temporary set in January 2009, in order for crews dismantle and move the station's existing news set to KPLR's Maryland Heights facility. On February 15, 2009, KTVI began broadcasting local newscasts in high definition from its new Maryland Heights studio, accompanied by a new graphics package. The set was updated with several elements added to better fit the new graphics and due to the conversion to HD, while removing the city skyline backdrop in favor of a blue background. In January 2010, KTVI expanded its weekday morning newscast to six hours from 4 to 10 a.m. (despite the expansion, the station retained its 11 a.m. newscast). On December 23, 2011, KTVI/KPLR opened a news bureau in the newly renovated Peabody Opera House in downtown St. Louis, to better serve the downtown and eastern portion of the St. Louis metropolitan area. On January 28, 2015, both stations introduced a new combined set with LED lighting, two video walls (one replacing the weather green screen), and a new anchor desk. Both stations shared the set (but KPLR used a separate weather center). They also introduced new graphics and music package for both stations the same day. KTVI became the first station in the Central Time Zone to launch an 11 p.m. weeknight newscast Hosted by Shirley Washington and Jasmine Huda (formerly of KMOV) the show debuted on January 18, 2016. In mid-2019, both stations introduced The Power of Two: Midday, replacing Fox 2 News Midday and News 11 at Noon. The program is aired live at 11 a.m. on KTVI and KPLR. On January 30, 2020, both stations introduced a new graphics package and music package for each station. The music, titled "Beyond", was created by Stephen Arnold Music, and is largely used by Fox affiliates. In spring 2020, both stations introduced The Power of Two at 6 am, which is simulcast on KTVI and KPLR. While branded for both stations, it is largely targeted towards the KTVI audience, as it is part of Fox 2 News in The Morning. In February 2021, both stations overhauled their set again with an expansion of the physical studio space with multiple venues and a larger video wall. KPLR no longer has a separate weather center, now just appearing on the same set as KTVI. Technical information The station's digital signal is multiplexed: KTVI began carrying Antenna TV upon its launch on January 1, 2011, on digital subchannel 2.2. KTVI shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 2, on June 12, 2009, the official date on which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal continued to broadcast on its pre-transition UHF channel 43, using virtual channel 2. As part of the repacking process following the 2016-2017 FCC incentive auction, KTVI relocated to UHF channel 33 in 2020. References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืืืฉ_20_(ืืจืืฉืืื)] | [TOKENS: 1855] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืฉ 4197 ืืืืฉ 4197, ืืืกืืื ืืกืืืื ืืชืื ืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืืฉ 20,[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืืื ืืืืฉ ืจืืื ืืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืฆืคืื ืืช-ืืืจืืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื (ืืืืฉ 437 ืืืืกืื ืืืืื), ืืจื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืคืกืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืืืฉ 50 (ืฉืืจืืช ืืืื). ืงืืข ืืืืืฉ ืฉืืื ืืืช ืื ืื ื ืืขื ืืืืฉ ืืืื ื ืคืชื ืืชื ืืขื ืืืื 2013. ืขื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืฉ ืื ืื ืืงืืจืื ืขื ืชืืืื ืืืจื ืืืืืจืช ืืื ืืืคืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ื, ืฉืขืืืจืช ืืช ืงื ืคืจืฉืช ืืืื ืืืืืจืื ืืงืืืื ืื ืื ืืืจื ืืืชื ืงื ืืืจืื ืื ืื ืคืจืช ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืขืจืื ืืืืื ืฉื ื ืื ืขืืจืืช ืืืชื ืงื ืื ืื ืฉืืจืง ืืืืื ืืื ืืชืืืื. ืืืืืฉ ืืงืฉืจ ืืื ืืืฉืืื ืื ืืืื ืืคืกืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืื ืืกื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืฉืจืืืื ืืืืืื ืฆืคืืึพืืืจื. ืืืืืฉ ืืืืจ ืืื ืคืกืืช ืืื ืืืืช ืื ืื ื ืืืจื ืขืืื ื ืจืงืืก ืืช ืืืืฉ ืืืื. ืืืงืืข ืืืขืจืื ืฉื ืืืืืฉ, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืช ืื ืื ื ืืืืืฉ 50, ืชืืื ื ืืืืคืชื ืืืจ ืืจืืฉืืช 2011, ืื ืืฉื ืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืชืขืืื ืื ืืืชื ืืืื ื ืคืชื ืจืง ืืืืืฉ ืืื 2013. ืืงืืชื ืืืื ืื ืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืืจืืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืขืืืืืช ืืืงืื ืืืืขื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืืืื ืฉ"ื, ืืจืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืฉืจื ืืชืืืืจื. ืืืืืฉ ื ืกืื ืืื-ืืกืืืื ืืื-ื ืชืืื. ืืืืืฃ ืืืืืจ ืืช ืืืืฉ 4197 ืืืืืฉ 50 ื ืงืจื ืืืืฃ ืื ืฆืืื, ืขื ืฉืื ืฉื ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืื ืฆืืื ื ืชื ืืื. ืืืงืืช ืืืืืฉ ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืจืืื ื ืฉืืื ืืืขื ื ืฉืืื ืขืืืจ ืืฉืืืื ืืืขืืืช ืคืืกืืื ืืช. ืืื ืืืืื ืข ืืืคืงืขืช ืืืืืช ืืื, ื ืกืื ืืืงื ืืืขืจืื ืฉื ืืืืืฉ ืขื ืืื ืืฉืจ ืืืืจื 200 ืืืจืื, ืืฉืจ ืขืืืืื ื ืืฆืืื ืขื ืงืจืงืข ืืฉืจืืืืช ืืขื ื ืื ืขืืจืืช. ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืกื 2014 ืืืืจ ืืืจืืข ืืืืคืชื ืืจืฆืืืชื ืฉื ืฉืืืฉืช ืื ืขืจืื ืืืฉืจืืืื ืืื ืขืจ ืืคืืกืืื ื ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืจ, ืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืง ืืืืงื ืขืืืืช ืื ืชืงืืื ืืืืืืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืฉืจืืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืื ืื ืื ืขืืจ ืืืื ืืืช ืืฉืจืืืืืช ืืืื ืชืืฉืื ืืืงืื.[ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ] ืึพ2019 ื ืืืชื ืขืชืืจื ื ืื ืกืืืืช ื ืชืื ืชืืืืจื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืงืืข ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืืืฉ, ืืฉืืื ืคืกืืช ืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืฉืจื ืืงืืช ืืืืคืื ืืฆืืืช ืขื ืฉืืจืืช ืืฉื ืืืื. ืืกืืื ืืืืืฉ ืชืืืื ืืืืืฉ ืืื ืืขื ืืจืืขื ืฉืืืช: ืฉืืจืืช ืกืืืจืช ืืืืืคืช (ืืฆืืืช ืืื ืขื ืฆืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืื), ืขืืืื (ืืืื) ืคืืืืื (ืืฆืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืื ืขื ืืจื ืขืืื ื ืจืงืืก), ืืึพืืืืจ (ืืืจื ืขืืื ื ืจืงืืก ืขื ืืจืื ืืืช ืื ืื ื) ืืขืื ืืึพืืืื ืฉืืืื (ืืืจืื ืืืช ืื ืื ื ืขื ืืืืฃ ืื ืฆืืื ื ืชื ืืื). ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืื ืืจืช_ืืืจืืื?action=edit&redlink=1] | [TOKENS: 594] |
ืืฆืืจืช ืืืฃ "ืื ืืจืช ืืืจืืื" ืืืฆืืจืช ืืฃ ืืืฉ, ืืชืื ืืช ืืชืืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืืช ืืืงืกื ืืืื (ืืขืืจื ื ืืกืคืช). ืื ืืืขืชื ืืืฃ ืื ืืืขืืช, ืืืชืื ืฉืชืจืฆื ืืืืืจ ืืืืจื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืคืชืืจ Back ืืืคืืคื. ืืคื ื ืคืจืกืื ืขืจื ืืืฉ: ืืืจื ืคืจืกืื ืขืจื: ืืืืชืืื ืืืฉืื: ืขืจื ืืืฉ ืฆืจืื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืืื ืืฉืคืืื, ืืฉืืืฉืคื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืื ืืจืื ืืืืจื ืฉื ื ืืฉื ืืขืจื. ืืืงืืคืืื ืืื ื ืืืืื, ืืืฆืืคืืื ืืื ืฉืืขืจืืื ืืืืื ืืคืืืช ืงืฆืช ืืขืืจ ืืืืืจื ืืืืื ืืช. ืขืจื ืงืฆืจ ืืื ืขืืื ืืืืืืง, ืืืคืืื ืืืืืฅ ืืืฉืงืืข ืืืชืืืช ืคืกืงื ืื ืฉืชืืื ืืคืืืช. ืกืืื ื ืคืืกืืง: ึพ โ โ โฆ ืงืื ืืืงื: โข ยท [] [[]] () {{}} {{{}}} ืชืืืื ืืชืืืืื: ~ | ยฐ ยฑ โ ร ยฒ ยณ + ืชืืืื ืขืืจืืื: ืึผ ืึน ืึผ ืึท ืึธ ืึถ ืึต ืึด ืึณ ืึฒ ืึฑ ืึฐ ืึป ืฉื ืฉื ืชื ืืืืื ืืืช |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WETM-TV] | [TOKENS: 2002] |
Contents WETM-TV WETM-TV (channel 18) is a television station in Elmira, New York, United States, affiliated with NBC and owned by Nexstar Media Group. Its second subchannel serves as an owned-and-operated station of The CW (via The CW Plus), as Nexstar owns a majority stake in the network. WETM-TV's studios are located on East Water Street in downtown Elmira, and its transmitter is located on Hawley Hill in Big Flats, New York. History The first user of channel 18 in Elmira was its second station, WECT, which was operated by El-Cor Television, a joint venture of the Corning Leader and the Elmira Star-Gazette. The station only operated for less than a year, from September 30, 1953, to May 27, 1954. El-Cor surrendered the station's license in September. In late 1955, plans surfaced from two groups to reactivate channel 18 for use as a rebroadcaster of another station, one from Triangle Publications, owner of WNBF-TV of Binghamton, and one from the Newhouse group, owner of WSYR-TV of Syracuse. After WNBF-TV dropped its proposal at the end of November, WSYR-TV was granted the construction permit by the FCC on April 4, 1956, and broadcasting began on September 15 under the callsign WSYE-TV. The station telecast from the same Hawley Hill site used by WECT; like its parent, it was an NBC affiliate. While most programming came from Syracuse, the station did originate some programming from the Hawley Hill site. In 1980, Newhouse sold its entire television division, including WSYR and WSYE, to the Times Mirror Company. The new owners changed the call letters to WSTM-TV and WETM-TV, respectively. Times Mirror gradually cut the last ties between the two stations while establishing WETM-TV as a full-fledged station in its own right. It sold WETM to Smith Broadcasting in 1986. Smith moved the station's studios and sales units to a more central facility in Elmira in 1988. Under Smith's ownership, a reversal of the station's origins took place with the April 1996 launch of a cable-only Binghamton version of WETM-TV (known as "NBC 5") through a local marketing agreement with Time Warner Cable, which would displace WNYW from cable systems in that area. Set up in the wake of WICZ-TV, Binghamton's established NBC affiliate, defecting to Fox, the arrangement saw Time Warner Cable sell Binghamton-market advertising and replace syndicated programs that aired on other Binghamton stations with programming acquired by WETM-TV for the Binghamton market due to syndex laws, while WETM-TV sold regional advertising seen in both markets. In 1997, Smith bought Binghamton low-power station WBGH-LP and made it an over-the-air semi-satellite of WETM-TV; WBGH eventually split off except for simulcasting WETM-TV's newscasts. WETM-TV became the first outlet in the Elmira market with an internet presence starting in 1998. In 2000, Smith Broadcasting entered into a management agreement with The Ackerley Group to operate WETM-TV. Clear Channel Communications inherited the management agreement when it purchased Ackerley in late 2001. In 2004, Smith Broadcasting sold WETM-TV outright to Clear Channel after the death of Smith Broadcasting founder Robert Smith. On April 20, 2007, Clear Channel entered into an agreement to sell its entire television stations group to Providence Equity Partners. Newport announced on July 19, 2012, that it would sell twelve of its television stations (including WETM-TV) to Nexstar Broadcasting Group. The sale was finalized on December 3, 2012. On July 26, the station was knocked off the air by widespread power outages caused by a confirmed tornado that struck downtown Elmira during the afternoon. By the next day around mid-morning, WETM-TV had a feed restored to Time Warner Cable. WETM's second subchannel has its roots in W30AA, a translator of PBS member station WSKG-TV in Binghamton. That station closed down the translator in 2003 after concluding the expenses required to operate W30AA were not justified by its limited viewership base. WSKG subsequently sold the W30AA license to Clear Channel, which brought it back on-the-air in September 2004 as UPN affiliate WTTX-LP (identified on-air as "UPN 30"). At this point, it began to be seen through a simulcast on WETM-TV's second digital subchannel, since its analog broadcasting radius was very limited. It replaced WPIX of New York City on local cable systems. With the September 2006 merger of UPN and The WB to form The CW, WTTX competed to become the area's affiliate. Ultimately, this went to cable-only WB 100+ station "WBE", which was operated by rival ABC affiliate WENY-TV. WTTX was dealt another blow when WSKG launched full-time satellite WSKA on the channel 30 allotment, forcing Clear Channel to shut down the low-power station; it never moved to another channel, and instead its programming became a subchannel of WETM-TV, known as "WETM2". It aired coverage of local high school sports, Elmira Jackals hockey, and New York Yankees baseball. The channel started airing Antenna TV programming in 2020. The subchannel became an owned-and-operated station of The CW Plus at 6 a.m. on September 1, 2025. Antenna TV was shifted to 18.3, replacing Laff. News operation WETM-TV has traditionally been a ratings stronghold in the Central Twin Tiers area. This is because the news department at rival WENY is quite small compared with WETM-TV. In addition, WENY does not provide any newscasts in several traditional timeslots (such as a midday broadcast during the week, weeknights at 5, and weekends) despite operating three major broadcast networks (ABC, CBS, and The CW+). While serving as a semi-satellite of WSTM, WETM-TV produced separate local newscasts that were seen weeknights at 6 and 11 from its original Hawley Hill studios. There were also weekday morning news and weather cut-ins (airing at :25 and :55 past the hour) during Today (airing from 7 to 9 a.m.). The 2004 launch of WETM-DT2/WTTX-LP introduced the area's first prime time newscast at 10 which is still seen for thirty minutes on weeknights. WETM 18 News at 10 currently competes with another half-hour newscast airing on Fox affiliate WYDC, channel 48 (which is taped in advance). WETM-DT2 formerly simulcast the newscasts from the main channel before becoming an Antenna TV affiliate. On June 5, 2009, WIVT and WBGH in Binghamton announced there would be a consolidation of news operations with WETM-TV after Newport Television made across the board cuts. However, those two stations would continue to be locally operated and maintain engineer staff at their own studios in Binghamton. WIVT and WBGH began simulcasting WETM's newscasts with only regional weather coverage of the Eastern Twin Tiers and not much of a news focus. A separate newscast, specifically focusing on the Binghamton area, was brought back to those two stations on June 28, 2009, through a simulcast on both outlets. This effort originally consisted of a 6 p.m. weeknight newscast entirely produced from WETM's studios. Eventually, production of the news and sports portions of the broadcast was shifted back to Binghamton. These segments are recorded earlier in the day (usually by 5 p.m.) and feature locally based photojournalists. A repeat of the 6 p.m. newscast at 11 p.m. was subsequently added to the schedules of WIVT and WBGH. Soon after adding the hyper-local Binghamton news, WIVT ceased simulcasting WETM's newscasts making the taped weeknight program the only local news shown on the station. However, WBGH continued to air WETM's weekend 11 p.m. newscast until at some point in late 2013. WETM upgraded its local newscast production to high definition level on July 15, 2014. It is the second television station in the market to perform the change as rival WENY switched on April 23, 2012. Technical information The station's signal is multiplexed: WETM-TV became the first station in Elmira to broadcast a high definition feed in 2001 with the launch of a digital signal on VHF channel 2. The station shut down its analog signal, over UHF channel 18, at 12:01 a.m. on June 12, 2009, the official date on which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal relocated from its pre-transition VHF channel 2 to UHF channel 18. See also References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A2%D7%AA%D7%9C%D7%99%D7%94_%D7%96%D7%99%D7%9C%D7%91%D7%A8] | [TOKENS: 1185] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืขืชืืื ืืืืืจ ืขืชืืื ืืืืืจ (9 ืืืืงืืืืจ 1955 โ 29 ืืืฆืืืจ 2022) ืืืืชื ืืชืจืืืช ืืขืืจืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืฉืจืืืืช, ืืืืช ืคืจืก ืืฉืจื ืืืืืกืงื. ืืืืืจืคืื ืืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืคืจ ืืจืืื. ืืืืืืชื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืืชื ืืืืืจื "ืืืจืืช" ืืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืชืืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืจื, ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืชืืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืจืืื ืืชืืืืกื ืืฆื"ื ืืืืืชื ืืฉ"ืงืืช ืงืืฉืืจ ืืืื ื ืืจืืืืช. ืืืืืจ ืกืืืื ืชืืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืืื ืืชืืจืช ืืกืคืจืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืคืืืืกืืคืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืชื ืืืื. ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืืื ืชืขืืื ืืขืจืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจ-ืืืื ืืืื ืชืจืืื ืืขืจืืื ืืฆื ืืืฆืื ืคืืจืช. ืืจืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืช ื-80 ืชืจืืื ืืขืจืื ืกืคืจืื ืขืืืจ ืืืฆืืืช ืฉืื ืืช, ืืืจืืฉืืช ืฉื ืืช ื-90 ืืขื ืฉื ืช 2000 ืขืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืขื ืขืืื (ืืฉื ืช 1999 ืืืืจืช ืืขืจืืช). ืืืืฆืืช ืขื ืขืืื ืชืจืืื ืืขืจืื ืกืคืจืื ืืขืืงืจ ืืกืืจืช "ืืคืงืื" ืืขืจืืืชื ืฉื ืืื ืฉืืืชืืื, ืืืฉื ืช 2005 ืขืจืื ืืช ืกืืจืช "ืืคืงืื ืืืข". ืืฉื ืช 2010 ืขื ืฉื ืช 2012 ืืืืชื ืขืืจืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืฆืืช ืืชืจ. ืืฉื ืช 2013 ืืืื ืืชืจืื ืืคืจืืื ืกืจืืช ืกืคืจื ืขืืื ืืกืคืจืืช ืืคื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืืืืงืืช. ืืฉื ืช 2002 ืขื ืฉื ืช 2010 ืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืชืจืืื ืืขืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืขืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2000 ืืืชื ืืคืจืก ืืืฆืืจื ืืืชืจืืืื ืืืฉื ืช 2004 ืืคืจืก ืืฉืจื ืืืืืกืงื ืืชืจืืืื ืืืคืช. ืืืืืจ ืืืืชื ื ืฉืืื ืืืฉืืจืจ, ืขืืจื, ืกืืคืจ, ืืชืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืชืืจ ืคืจืช ืืืจื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืื. ืขื ืคืืืจืชื ืืชืืืจืจื ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืืื. ืืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉื ื ืก ืืจืื. ืกืคืจืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืงืจื_ืืืงืื ืืืื] | [TOKENS: 15287] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืงืจื ืืืงืื ืืืื ืืืืืคืจืื ืืืคื ืืช ืืืืืคืจืื ืืืคื ืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืืื ืื ืืจืืื ืื ืืืกืืจืืื ืืืกืืจืืื ื ืื ืืืื ื ื ืื ืืืื ื ืงื ืื (1921-1957) ืงื ืื ืืฆืื ืืงืืกืจื ืืืคื ื ืืืืกืืจื ืืืฉืื'ืืื ืืฆืื ืืงืืกืจื ืืืคื ื ืืืกืืื ืฆ'ื ืืฆืื ืืงืืกืจื ืืืคื ื ืืืจืืืืฆ'ื ืืืืจื ืืฆื ืืงืืกืจื ืืืคื ื ืืื ืืจื ืืืื ืืฆื ืืงืืกืจื ืืืคื ื ืงืืืื ืงืืืืจื ืืฆืื ืืืืจืืงื ื ืกืืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืงื ืจ ืืื ืื ืืชืื ืืืืจืืงื ื ืจืื ืืืืืจ ืืฆืื ืืืืจืืงื ื ื'ืืืฃ ืกืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงื ื ืฆ'ืกืืจ ื ืืืืฅ ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงื ื ืจืืืืื ื ืกืคืจืืื ืก ืืฆื ืืืืืืชื ืืจืืก ืคืจืืืืจ 117,000 ืืืืืื 183,000 ืืืืืื 110,000-95,000 ืืจืืืื10,500-7,500 ืฉืืืืื 12,520 ืืจืืืื36,631 ืคืฆืืขืื ืงืจื ืืืงืื ืืืื (ืืื ืืืืช: Battle of Okinawa, ืืืคื ืืช: ๆฒ็ธๆฆ, ื ืงืจื ืจืฉืืืช ืขื ืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืฉื ืืงืื ืืืฆืข ืืืืกืืจื, Operation Iceberg) ื ืขืจื ืืืื ืจืืืงืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืคืจืื ืืืคื ืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืคืจืื ืขื ืืืฆืข ืืื ื 1945, ืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืคืืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืจืช ืืกืื ืืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืฉืงื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉื ืืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืคืชื ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืฉืงื ืืชืงืจืื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืคื, ืืชืื ื ื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืืืงืื ืืืื, ืืจืืืง ื-550 ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืื, ืืืกืืก ืืืืืจื ืืคืขืืืืช ืขืชืืืืืช ืืืกืืจืช ืืคืืืฉื ืืฆืคืืื ืืืคื. ืืงืจื ื ืืืข ืื ืืฉื ืืืืคืื ืืคืืื ืืื ืืืืช, ืื ืืฉื ืฉื ืคืืื (้ผใฎ้จ) ืืืคื ืืช, ืืืงืืจื ืืขืฆืืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื, ืืืชืงืคืืช ืืงืืืงืื ืืจืืืช ืืืืกืคืจ ืืจื ืฉื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืฉืืจืืื ืื ืฉืืคืขืืื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืงืจื. ืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืงืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืงืจืืืช ืืืจืช ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืฉืงื. ืืฆื ืืืคื ื ื ืืจืื, ื ืฉืื ืื ืืชืืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืฃ ืืืืืื, ืืืฆื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ื ืืจืื ืื ื ืคืฆืขื ืืขื 65,000 ืืืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืืืช ืืขืฉืจืืช ืืืคืื. ืืืืช ืคืฆืฆืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืขื ื ืืกืืงื ืืืืื ืืื ืืขืช ืืคื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืืขืืช ืืืืจ ืชืื ืืงืจื. ืกืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืจืงืข ืืืืจืืงืืื ืฉืืฉืชืชืคื ืืงืจื ืืืื ืืช ืืืจืืืื ืืขืฉืืจืืช ืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืื ื ื ืื ืจื ืกืืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืงื ืจ. ืืืจืืืื ืืชืืืงื ืืฉื ื ืงืืจืคืืกืื. ืืงืืจืคืืก ืืืืคืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืื'ืืจ ืื ืจื ืจืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืชืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืฉืืฉืืช, ืืืงืืจืคืืก ื-24 ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืื'ืืจ ืื ืจื ื'ืื ืืืื' ืืื ืืืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืขืืช ืื-96. ืืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืชืื ืืฉื ืืื ืฉืืืฉื ืืื ืขืชืืื, ืืืืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช ืชืืช ืืืจืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืฆื ืืืืจ ืืงืจื. ืืกื ืืื ืื ืชื ืืืจืืืื ืืขืฉืืจืืช 102,000 ืืืืืื ื-81,000 ื ืืชืื. ืืืจืืืื ื-32 ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืืคื ื ืืงืืกืจื ืืืืชื ืืจืขืื ืืืื ื ืืื, ืืืืืื 67,000 ืืืืืื, ืืื ืกืืืขื ื-9,000 ืืืืื ืืฆื ืืงืืกืจื ืืืคื ื ืื-39,000 ืืืืืกืื ืืงืืืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืจืื ื ืืืคื ืื ืืืืืช ืืชื ืืืืช ืฉื ืชืืืืื ืืืืืช ืืื ืืื, ืฉืชืคืงืืื ืืื ืกืืืข ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช, ืืืืืืช ืืืืืช, ืืืชื ืืจืืืื ืชืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืงืืืืืช. ืชืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืืื ื-32 ืืช ืืืืืืืืืืช ืืชืฉืืขืืช, ื-24, ื-62 ืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืขืืจืืช ื-44. ืืืืืืืืื ืืชืฉืืขืืช ื ืฉืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืจื ืืคืืืฉื ืืืืืจ ืืืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืชืืื ืืืช ืืืื ื ืืืคื ืืืช. ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ื ืืขืื ืืืืขืจื ืืืจืื ืขื ืืื ืืืื ื ื ืื ืจื ืืืืกืืจื ืืืฉืื'ืืื, ืจืืฉ ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ื ื ืื ืจื ืืืกืืื ืฆ'ื, ืืจืืฉ ืืืฃ ืืืืฆืขืื ืฉืื ืงืืืื ื ืืืจืืืืฆ'ื ืืืืจื. ืืืืจื ืฆืืื ืืืกืืจืืืืช ืืื ื ื, ืืขืื ืฉืฆ'ื ืชืื ืืืกืืจืืืื ืืชืงืคืืช. ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืคื ืืื ืืฆืคืื ืคืืงื ืงืืืื ื ืงืืืืื ืืึผืืึน, ืืขื ืืืืื ืืฆื ืคืืงื ืืืืืจื-ืืฉื ื ืืื ืืจื ืืืื. ืืจืืืช ืืืืกื ืืงืจื ืืืืคืฆืืฆืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืฉืืฉืชืชืคื ืืงืจื ืืืจืืื ืื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืกืื. ืืืคื ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืชืืฉ ืืงืืืงืื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืคืจืฅ ืืืืื, ืื ืืงืจื ืื ืืคืื ืืงืืืงืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืฆืขื ืืื ื ืืฉืืขืืชื. ืืื ืจืืฉืืช ืื ืืืชืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืช ื-1 ืืืคืจืื ืขื 25 ืืืื ื ืขืจืื ืฉืืข ืืชืงืคืืช ืงืืืงืื, ืืื ืืฉืชืชืคื ื-1,500 ืืืืกืื. ืืงืจื ืื ืกืคื ืืฆื ืืืืจืืงืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืืงืจืืืช ืืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืื ืืืืืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืงืจื ืื ืืื ืืืจืืงืืื, ืกืืคืง ืืฆื ืืืจืืื ืืคืกืืคื ืืจืืข ืืืืืคืื ืืืืืืจื (450 ืืืืกืื), ืืืืฉืื ืกืคืื ืืช ืืืืื, ืืื ืฉืืข ืขืฉืจื ื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืกืื. ืืืฉืืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืืืชื ืื ืืจื ืืช ืฉืืืช ืืชืขืืคื ืืืคื ืืื ืืืื ืืกืืืื ืืืกืคืง ืืื ื ืืคื ื ืืงืืืงืื. ืงืจื ืืื ืขื ืืฆื ืืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืช ื ืืืจืื ืฉืืืช ืืชืขืืคื ืืืื ืกืงืืฉืืื, ืืืจืืืืื ืืืืงืื ืืืื. ืืืจืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืื ืืืฆืืื ืืื 26 ืืืจืฅ ื-10 ืืืคืจืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืกืืืื, ืคื ื ืืืจืืืื ืืฉืืืช ืืชืขืืคื ืืืคื ืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืืืืืื. ื-1 ืืืื ืชืงืคื ืืช ืฉืืืช ืืชืขืืคื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืจ. ืืกืคืจ ืืชืงืคืืช ืงืืืงืื ืืกืื ื ืืง ืืกืืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืจืืืืืช, ืื ืืืืจ ืืจื ืืขืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืขืฆืจ ืืช ืืืชืงืคื. ื-1,900 ืืืืกื ืงืืืงืื ืืืจืืื ืืงืืืฉื ืืืืืืืืื ืืื 6 ืืืคืจืื ื-22 ืืืื ื. ืืขืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืืขืื ืืืืจืืงืื ืืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืกืื ืืืืืืืื ืขืื ืขื 89, ืืืขืฉื ืื ื ืืื ื-700 ืืืืกืื, ืจืืื ืืคืืจืงืื ืื ืืืกืืืื ืืืื, ืืืคืืืจืื ืืื ืืืคืจืื ืืฉืื ืื ืืืขืืืจืืช. ืื ืคืืขืื ืืขืืงืจืืื ืืืชืงืคืืช ืืื ืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืงืื ืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืฉืืชืืช ืื ืืชืืช, ืื ืื ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืกืคืื ื ืืงืื. ืืฉื ืืชืืจืืืช ืงืจื ืืืงืื ืืืื, ืืืฉื ืืืืืฆืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืฉื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืืืื, ื ืืืฅ ืืืืืจื ืฆ'ืกืืจ ื ืืืืฅ ืืฉืืจืจ ืืคืจืงืื ืืช ืืคืงืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืืชืืืฉืฉ. ืืืชืื ืืื, ืืืืชืื ืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืขืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืื, ืืื ืืฆื ืืืืจืืงืื ืืช ืืงืจื ืืฆื ืืืืืฉื, ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืืจื ืจืืืืื ื ืกืคืจืืื ืก, ืืกืืื ืืืชื ืืฆื ืืฉืืืฉื, ืืคืืงืืื ืฉื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืกื. ืืืฆืข ืื-ืื ืืื ื ืืกืืื ืืชืงืคื ืฉื ืฉืืืืช ืืคื ืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืื ืืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืงืื ืืืื. ืคืงืืืช ืืงืจื ืงืจืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืคืืื ืืืืงืื ืืืื, ืืืืืฃ ืขืฆืื ืขื ืืืคื ืืื ืืืื ืืืชืื ืืฉืืฉื ืกืืืืืช ืืจืืืืจืื ืขื ืฉืืืฉืืื ืืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืฆืื ืืืื ืืืช ืืืื ืคืขืืื, ืืืื ืขื ืฆืืืชืืื ืื ืืืฉ ืืืชื ืืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืฉืืจ ืืืืืช ืืฆืื ืืืคื ื ืฉื ืืืื ืืื. ืขื ืืืช, ืืืจื ืืกืคืืงื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืข ืืืืงืื ืืืื ืืืชืจื ืืืชื ืฆืืืืืช ืืืจืืงืืืืช, ืืืืืจืืงืืื ืชืงืคื ืืืชื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืกืื. ืืชืืื ืืช ืื ืืืื ืืืคืื ืืืืืจื ืืฉืืืืช, ืขืืืื ืฉืืืชืืจื ืืืชื ืืกืจืช ืืื ื ืืืขื ืื ืื ืืืืืกืื ืืืืจืืงืืื. ืืืืกื ืืคืฆืืฆื ืืืืจืคืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืงืืืื ืืืจืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืคื ืืื ืืืื, ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืื ืืข ืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืื ืืฆืคืช ืืืืจืื ืืืืคื ืื ืืืืช. ืืชืื ืืชืงืคื ืฉื ืืฉืื ืฉืขืชืืื ืื ืืฉืชืชืคื ืืขื ืืฉืืืฉ ืืืืช ืืืืกืื ืฉืงืขื ืืืืื ื-7 ืืืคืจืื, ืืืจื ืืกืคืืงื ืืืืืข ืืืขืื. ืืืื ืืืืื, ืืืืขื ืืืืื ืืงืจื ืื ืืกืืืจืช ืืงืื "ืืืืื" ืืืจืืข ืืฉืืื ื ืืืฉืืชืืช. ืืกื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืื ื-3,700 ืืืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืคืงื ืืืื, ืืืืืจื ืกืืืืืฆ'ื ืืืื, ืืืช ืืขืืืช ืืืืื ืขืฉืจื ืืืืกืื ืืฉื ืื ืขืฉืจ ืื ืฉื ืฆืืืช ืืฆื ืืืืจืืงืื. ืืืขืจืื ืืืืฉืชืืช ืืืขืจืื ืืืืฉืชืืช ืขื ืืืงืื ืืืื ืืืื ืจืืืงืื ืืจืื 81 ืืื, ืืื ื-1 ืืืคืจืื 1945. ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืจืืฉืื ืื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืื ืจืืืงืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืืจืืืื ื-77, ืฉื ืืชื ืืืื ืงืจืื, 24 ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืงืื ืืืื ื-26 ืืืจืฅ. ืืืืจ ืืืืฉื ืืืื, ืืืกืืืข ื ืืืชืืช ื ืืกืคืืช, ืืฉืชืืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืขื ืืืืื. ืืืืืฉ ืืืืื ืกืืคืง ืืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืืขืื ืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืฆื ืืืืกื ืืช ืืืื ืกืืจืืช ืืืชืืืืืช ืืืคื ืืืช. ื-31 ืืืจืฅ ื ืืช ืืืื ื ืืชืื ืืงืืืกื ืฉืืื, ืงืืืฆืช ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืช ืฉืืื ื ืงืืืืืืจืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืจื ื ืื, ืืืืืจ ืฉืืฉืชืืื ืขืืื ืืฆืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืชืืชืื 155 ืืืืืืืจ. 12 ืืืื ืืืจื ืชืืืืช ืืงืจื, ืืขืื ืืืืืช ืืืืฉื ืืฉืื ืืืกืชืขืจืืช, ืงืืืื ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืืขื ืขื ืืืชื ืฉื ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืคืจื ืงืืื ืืืื ื ืจืืืืืื. ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืกืืื ืืื ืืฉืืืขื ืฆืคืืจืืช ืืืืื ืืืืจื. ืืช ืื ืืืชืืช ืืขืืงืจืืืช ืขืจืื ืืงืืจืคืืก ื-24 ืืืงืืจืคืืก ืืืืคืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืคื ืืืืฉื (Hagushi) ืฉืืืขืจื ืืืงืื ืืืื, ื-1 ืืืคืจืื. ืืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืชืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืฆืขื ืคืขืืืช ืืกืื ืืื ืืืคื ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืืืจื ืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืกืืืช ืืช ื ืงืืืช ืื ืืืชื ืืืืืชืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืข ืืช ืืขืืจืช ืืืืืืช ืืืคื ืื ืืฉื. ืืืจืืืื ืืขืฉืืจืืช ื ืืชื ืืืืฉื ืืช ืืจืื ืืืืืจ ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืื ืืงืืืช ืืืกืืช, ืชืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืฉืชืืืื ืขื ืืกืืกื ืืืืืืจ ืืงืื ื (Kadena) ืืืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืงืื ืืืืื ืื ืจื ืืืงื ืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืื ืืฉืื ืืฉื ื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืืืื - ืืืืืฉ ืื ืฆืคืื ืืืงืื ืืืื - ืืืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืชืื ืืฉืืฉืืช ื ืฉืืื ืืืืฆืืข ืืฉืืื ืื. ืืชื ืืื ืืืืคืืืจืคืืื ืืฆืคืื ืืื ืืื ืงืฉืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืช ืืชืจืืื ืืืฆื ืืื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืขืจื ืืื, ืฉืฉืืื ืืืืกื ืืจืื ืืืืขืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืกืืืขืื ืฉืืฆืืขื ืืืคื ืื ืืืฆืืจืื ืืืขืืื. ืืืื ืืชืื ืืืืื ืขืืงืฉืช ืืืฉื ืื ืืชืื ืืช ืืฆื ืืื ื-18 ืืืคืจืื. ืืืืชื ืขืช ืชืงืคื ืืืืืืืืื ื-77 ืืช ืืื ืฉืืื (Ie Shima) - ืื ืืฉืืื ืืงืฆื ืืืขืจืื ืฉื ืืฆื ืืื. ืืืื ืืชืงืคืืช ืงืื ืื ืฆืืื ืืืืช, ืกืคืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืชืงืคืืช ืงืืืงืื ืืืฃ ื ืชืงืื ืื ืฉืื ืืคื ืืืช ืืืืฉืืช ืืื ืืชืืช. ืืกืืคื ืฉื ืืืจ ืืืฉื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืช ืืื ืืืื ืขื 21 ืืืคืจืื ืืืืกืืก ืืืืืืจื ืฉืื ืืืคื ื ืื ืื ืืืคื ืื. ืืขืื ืฉืืืืืืืืื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืคืขืื ืืฆืคืื ืืืงืื ืืืื, ืคื ื ืืืืืืืืืช ืืจืืืื ื-96 ืืืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืชืื ืืฉืืืขืืช ืืืืืื ืืจืื, ืืืืจื ื"ืืืชื ืืื ืืฆืจืื" ืฉื ืืื. ืืืืืืืืื ื-96 ืคืืฉื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืคื ืืช ืืืขืจื ืืืืืจ ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืื, ืืขืืืืช ืืคื ืืืช ืืืืฆืจืืช ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืจ ืืืขืืืืช ืืฉืืื ื ืงืืืืืืจืื ืฆืคืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืฉืืจื, ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืืจ ืืืชืจ ืงืืื ืืช ืืืื ืื "ืจืืก ืงืงืืืก". ืืืืืืืืื ืืฉืืืขืืช ื ืชืงืื ืื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืงืฉืืื ืืืืขื ืืกืืืขืช ื-910 ืืืจืื ืืจืืืืช ืืขืจืืืช ืืืจืงืืฆ'ื. ืขื ืฉืขืืช ืืืืื ื-8 ืืืคืจืื ืืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืื ืืืกืคืจ ืขืืืืช ื ืืกืคืืช, ืื ืืืืืจ ืืื ืฉื 1,510 ืคืฆืืขืื ืืืจืืืื ืืขืืืช 4,489 ืืจืืืื ืืฉืืืฉื ืขืฉืจ ืฉืืืืื ืืฆื ืืืคื ื. ืืืื ืืืืจื ืืชืืจืจ ืฉืขืืืืช ืืื ืืื ืจืง ืืืฆืืื ืฉืืื ื ืขื ืงื ืฉืืจื, ืฉืืืืจืื ืืชืืจืื ื ืืืื ื ืืืคื ืืช ืืขืืงืจืืช. ืืืขื ืืืืจืืงืื ืืื ืืื ืจืืก ืงืงืืื (Kakazu) - ืฉืชื ืืืขืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืฃ ืฉืืื ืืืง ืืืขืจื ืืืื ื ืืืืฆืื ื ืฉื ืฉืืจื, ืืืื ืืงืืื ืืืคื ืื ืืืฆืืจืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืชื ืงืฉื, ืืืืคื ืื, ืฉืืชืืฆืจื ืืืขืจืืช, ืืกืื ืืืืืช ืจืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืจื ืืืฉื ืืืืจืื ืื ืืช ืขืืืืช ืืืืื. ืืืคื ืื ื ืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืกืคืงื, ืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืจืืื ืจืืื. ืืฉืืืืขื ืืืชืงืคื ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืขื ืจืืก ืงืงืืื ืืงืคืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉืื'ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืชืงืคื. ืืขืจื 12 ืืืคืจืื ืชืงืคื ืืืจืืืื ื-32 ืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืืืช ืืืืจื ืงื ืืืื ื. ืืืชืงืคื ืืืคื ืืช ืืืืชื ืืืื ืืืืืืงืช, ืืจืง ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืขื ืืืฆื ืฉื ืงืจืืืช ืคื ืื ืื ืคื ืื ื ืกืืื ืืชืืงืคืื, ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืชืงืคืชื ืืืืื ืฉืืืจื. ืืืชืงืคื ืืกืืคืืช ื ืขืจืื ื-14 ืืืคืจืื ืื ืืืคื ืื ืืื. ืืืฉืืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืจืืืื ืฉืืืคื ืื ื ืืฆืืื ืืขืืืช ื ืืืชืืช, ืืืืฉืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืื ื ืืืฉืช ืืืืืืช ืืช ืืขืืืืช ืืืืืฆืจืืช ืฉืืื ืืืฉืืคืชื ืืืฉ ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืืขืืืคื. ืืคืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืฉืื ืืืืืฉื ืืช ืืกืืจืืืืืช ืืืื ื ื. ืืืืืืืืื ื-27, ืฉื ืืชื ืืืคืจืื, ืืชืงืืื ืืืืฃ ืืืื ื ืฉื ืงื ืืืื ื, ืืืืจื ืืืืฃ ืืืขืจืื ืฉื ืืืงืื ืืืื. ืืืื' ืืฆืื ืฉืืืฉ ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืงื: ืืืืืืืืื ื-96 ืืืจืื, ืืฉืืืขืืช ืืืืจื, ืืืืืืจ, ื-27 ืืืขืจื, ืืฉืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืงืฆืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืฆื ืงืืืืืืจืื ืฉื ืงื ืืื ื. ืืืื' ืคืชื ืืืชืงืคื ืืฉืื ื-19 ืืืคืจืื ืขื ืืชืงืคื ืืืจืืืืจืืช ืืจืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืืืื ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืฉืงื. ืืืชืงืคื ืืงืื ืืืง 324 ืชืืชืืื, 650 ืืืืกืื, ืืื ืืืช ืืขืจืื, ืืฉืืชืืช ืืกืืืจืืช ืฉืฉืืืจื ืคืฆืฆืืช ื ืคืื, ืคืืืื ืืืฉ ืืงืืขืื ืขื ืืืืื ืื. ืืืคื ืื, ืืฆืื, ื ืกืืื ืืชืื ืืืขืจืืช ืฉืกืืคืงื ืืื ืืื ื ืืืกืืช ืืืืชืงืคืืช, ืืืกืืืื ืืฆืื ืืืจื ืคืฆืฆืืช ืืจืืื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืืชืงืืืื. ืงืจื ืืืงืขื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืื ืงืื, ืฉื ืืกื ืืืืฃ ืืช ืจืืก ืงืงืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืจืืืื ืฉืืฆื ืืช ืืจืืก, ื ืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืืจืืงืืื ืืืืื 22 ืื ืงืื. ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืื ืงื ืืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืกืคืจ ืืขืจืืช ืืืืฆืจืืช, ืื ืืฉืื ืืงืืจืคืืก ื-24 ืืชืจืื ืืฉืืขืืชื, ืืืฃ ืืืื 720 ืืืืืื. ืืืขืฉื, ืคืขืืืช ืืกืื ื ืืกืคืช ืืืืฃ ืืื ืืืื ืฉืืืฆืขื ืืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืชืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืฆื ืืช ืืืคื ืื ืืืฆืื ืืืง ืืืืืืชืืื ืืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืื ืข ืืจื ืจื ืืืชืจ ืืงืจื ืืืจืืื. ืืกืืฃ ืืคืจืื ืืืืืคื ืืืืืืืืืช ืื ืืชืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืืืืืืื ื-77 ืืช ืืืืืืืืืืช ื-27 ืืืฉืืืขืืช, ืืืชืืื. ืืฉืืืืขื ืืืืืืืืื ืืฉืืฉืืช ื ืื ืืงืืจืคืืก ืืฉืืืฉื ืืช ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืืืฃ ืืืื ื ืืืืจืืืื ืืขืฉืืจืืช ื ืืื ืืช ืืคืืงืื ืขื ืืงืจื ืืืื. ื-4 ืืืื ืฉืืืจื ืืืจืืืื ื-32 ืืชืงืคืช-ื ืื. ืืคืขื ื ืืกื ืืืฉืื'ืืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืืจื ืืื ืืช ืขืืจืฃ ืืงืืืื ืืืืจืืงืืื. ืขื ืื ืช ืืกืืืข ืืืชืงืคื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืื ืืช ืืืจืืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืืืื ืคืชืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืืืืช ืืงืืืื ืืืืจืืงืืื, ืื ืื ืืฉืฃ ืืืชื ืืืฉ ืืืืื, ืืืืืจืืงืืื ืืฆืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืจืืืืจืื ืืคื ืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ื ืืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืืฉืืื. ืืืงื ืจ ืฉืืืจ ืืชืงืคื ืืืจืืงืืืช ื ืืกืคืช ื-11 ืืืื, ืฉื ืืฉืื ืขืฉืจื ืืืื. ื-13 ืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืืื ื-96 ืืืืื ืืื ืงืื ื-763 ืืืขื ืืืืื 150 ืืืจืื ืฉืืืฉื ืขื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืฃ ืืืืจืื ืืืืืชื ืขืืื ืืืื ื ืืืคื ืืช ืืืืืจ, ืขืืื ืืื ื ืืืืฃ ืืืืืื ืืคื ืื. ืืืืชื ืขืช, ืืฆื ืืฉื ื ืฉื ืืื, ืืืฉื ืืืืืืืืื ืืฉืืฉืืช ืืช "ืืืขืช ืืจืื ืืกืืืจ". ืืืืืฉ ืฉืชื ื ืงืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืคื ืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืืช ืืฉื ื ืฆืื ืืชืื ืืืื ื ืฉื ืฉืืจื, ืืืืงื ืจ ืงืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืช ืืืชืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืคื ื ืืขืืงืจื. ืืกืืฃ ืืื ืืืื ืืจืืช ืืฉืื ืืื ืกืื ืฉืืคืื ืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืช ืืืืจื ืืืืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืฉืืงืฉื ืขื ืืืืืื. ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืช ืืงืจืงืข ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืช ืฉืืืช ืืงืจื ืฉื ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื, ืืืืืืืื ืืชืงืฉื ืืคื ืืช ืืช ืืคืฆืืขืื ืืขืืจืฃ. ื-29 ืืืื ืืืจื ืืคืงื ืืืืืืืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื, ืืืื'ืืจ ืื ืจื ืคืืจื ืื ืืืืื, ืขื ืคืืืื A ืืืจืืืื ื ืืืืืฉื ืืืืืฉ ืืช ืืฆืืืช ืฉืืจื. ืืืืืฉ ืืืฆืืื ืืื ืืื ืืกืืจืืืืช ืืคืกืืืืืืืืช ืืืคื ืื, ืืืื ืื ืงืืืช ืฆืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืื ืืงืจื. ืืื ืืืช ืืืขืจืื "ืืืกืืกืืคื" ืืคืืืื ืืช ืืืฆืืื ืืืฉื ืฉืืืฉื ืืืื ืืคื ื ืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืืช, ืืืคืืื ื ืกืืื ืืืจืืืื ื-32 ืืจืืื ืืืืชืืจื ืืช ืืืฆืืื ืื ืืชืื. ืื ืกืืื ืืืคื ืืช ื ืขืจืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืช ืืืฉืืื, ืื-30,000 ืืืืืื ื ืกืืื ืืงื ืืืื ื ืืืืจืื ืืืฆื ืืื ืงืืื (Kiyan), ืฉืขืชืื ืืื ืืืคืื ืืฉืื ืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืงืจื ืืืงืื ืืืื, ืฉืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ืจืืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืชืืฆืจื 2,000 ืืืืื ืืฆื ืืงืืกืจื ืืืคื ื ืืืคืงืืืช ืชืช-ืงืจืงืขืืืช ืฉืืฉืงืืคื ืขื ืืืกืืก ืืืื ืืืฆื ืืื ืืืจืืงื (Oroku). ื-4 ืืืื ื ืคืชืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืืชืงืคื ืืืคืืืืช ืืืฆื ืืื ืืืจืืงื, ืืืืืคื ืืช ืืืื ืื ืืืคื ืื. ืืืืจ ืขืฉืจื ืืื ืืืืื ืขืืงืฉืช, ืืืืืจ ืฉืืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืคื ืื ืืขืืืคื ืืืชืืื, ืืืื ืืคืงื ืืืืืืช ืืืคื ืื, ืืืืืจื ืืื ืืจื ืืืื, ืฉืืืื ืืชืงืืื ืื ืืฆืืื, ืื-13 ืืืื ื ืืชืืื ืืืคืงืืชื ืืืื ืขื ืงืฆืื ื ืืืื ืฉืื. ืืืคื ืื ืื ืืชืจืื ื ืกืืื ืืงืฆื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืื, ืฉื ืืชืืื ื ื ืืงืจื ืืืืจืื. ื-18 ืืืื ื ื ืืจื ืื ืจื ืืืงื ืจ ืืืฉ ืืจืืืืจืืช ืืืื ืฉืฆืคื ืืืชืงืืืืช ืืืืืชืื, ืืืช ืืงืืื ืชืคืก ืื ืจื ืจืื ืืืืืจ. ืืื ืืคื ืืืืืจ ืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืฉืคืืงื ืขื ืืืืืืช ืฆืื. ืืืืฉื ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืืืคื ืื ืจื ื'ืืืฃ ืกืืืืืื. ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืืจืืื ืขื ืชืื ืืงืจื ื-21 ืืืื ื, ืืฃ ืขื ืคื ืฉืืกืคืจ ืืืกื ืืชื ืืืืช ื ืืชืจื ืืืืืื. ืืืฉืื'ืืื ืืฆ'ื ืืืฆืขื ืกืคืืงื ืืืคืงืืชื ืืืืขื 89 ืืฉืขืืช ืืืืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืืงืจื ืืืื ืชื ืจืฉืืืช ื-22 ืืืื ื. ืืืืืช ืงืจื ืืืงืื ืืืื ืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืจืืื. ืืฆื ืืืืจืืงืื ื ืคืืขื 49,151 ืืืืืื, ืืื 12,520 ืืจืืืื ืื ื ืขืืจืื ื-36,631 ืคืฆืืขืื, ืืืื ืืื ืืงืจื ืืืงืจ ืืืืชืจ ืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืืืืื ืืคืกืืคืืช. ืืื ืืืจืืืื ืืืคืืจืกืืื ืืงืจื ืืื ืืขืืชืื ืื ืืจื ื ืคืืื, ืฉื ืืจื ืืืฉ ืืงืืขืื ืืืื ืฉืืื. ืืืฉื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืฉื ืืงืจื ืืืืื ืืืืจืืงืืื 763 ืืืืกืื, 36 ืืื ืฉืื ืืืืขื ื-368 ืืื ื ืืืืงื ืืจืืืช ืืืืจื ืฉืื ืืช. ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืงื ืจ ืืชืงืืฃ ืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืชืืจืจื ืืืืฆืืืช, ืขื ืืฃ ืืืืืืช ืืงืฉืืช ืฉืืกืื. ืืจืืขื ืืืื ืืืื ืืคื ื ืกืืฃ ืืงืจื ื ืืจื ืืืงื ืจ ืืืฉ ืืจืืืืจืื ืืคื ืืช, ืืขืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืืืชืื. ืืื ืืื ืืงืฆืื ืืขื ืืืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉื ืืจื ืืืฉ ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช. ืืื ืืืืจ ืืื ื ืืจื ืื ืจื ื ืืกืฃ - ืืจืืืืืจ ืื ืจื ืงืืืืืืืก ืืืกืื - ืืืฉ ืืงืืขืื. ืขื ืคื ืืขืจืืืช, ืืืื ืืฆื ืืืคื ื ื-110,000 ืืืืืื, ืื ืืกืฃ ืขื 7,400 ืฉืืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืืื ืืืคื ืื 1,430 ืืืืกืื, 16 ืกืคืื ืืช ืืืืขื ืืืจืืข ืกืคืื ืืช ื ืืืืงื. ืจืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืคื ืื ืืืฆืขื ืกืคืืงื ืืคื ื ืฉื ืชืคืกื, ืื ืคืืฆืฆื ืขืฆืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืจืืืื ื ืื, ืืืืคืื ืืืจืื ื ืืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืื ืืื ืืกื ืืืจืืงืืื ืืกืื ืืช ืคืชืืืื. ืืื ืื ืื ืืงืจื ืืจืืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืคืกืืคืืช ืื ื ืื ืขื ืืืคื ืืคื ืื ืื ืืงืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืืื. ืจืืื ืืืืืืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืงืื ืืืื ืฉืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืื ื ืืคื ืขืืืื ืืขื ืืคื ื ืืงืจื, ืืฉืื ืืืืจื ืืืงื ืืช ืืืงืืจืื ืช ื"ืืื-ืื ืืขื" ืฉื ืืฆืื ืืืคื ื. ืืฉืืืฉื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืช ืืื, ืืืฉื ืืืืืืื ืืืคื ืื ืืืืื ืืงืืืืื ืขื ืื ืช ืืืืืืข ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืืื ืข ืืืขืฆืจ. ืชืืฉืื ืืืงืื ืืฆืืขื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืคืชืจืื ืคืฉืื ืืืขืืืช ืืืืื ืืืืืืื: ืืฉืคื ืืืืงืื ืืืืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืฉืคื ืืืคื ืืช; ืขื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืฆืื, ืืืืงื ื ืฆืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืจืืืช ืืชืืฉืืื ืืฉืคื ืืืงืืืืช, ืืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ื ืืืชื ื ืขืฆืจื ืืืฉื ืืืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืคื ืื. ืืงืจืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืงืืื ืืก ืืฉืงื, ืืืื ืงืจื ืืืื ื'ืืื, ืื ืืื ืืขืืจืืื ืืืจืืื ืืื, ืื ืืืืงืื ืืืื ืืชืืืจืจื ืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืืคื ืืขืจืืืช ื ืข ืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืืื ืืงืจื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืจืืืช ื-42,000 ืืืจืืื, ืขื ืคื ืืขืจืืช ืืฆืื ืืืืจืืงืื, ืื-150,000, ืืคื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืจืืช. ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืืฆืื ืขืฆืื ืืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืืฆืื ืืืคื ื ื ืืฆื ืืช ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื. ืืืืืืื ืืืคื ืื ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืืืจืืื ืืชืืจ ืืื ืื ืืฉื ืื ืื ืืืืจืืงืืื, ืืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืฆืืื ืืืืจื ืืช ืืื ืฉืืกืชืืจื ืืืชื, ืคืขืืื ืฉืืืืืื ืืจืขื ืืืื ื ืืืื ืฉืืืืจืืื ื ืืืฆื ืืขืืื ืืช ืืืืกื ืฉืืื ืืืืคืืฉ ืืืจ ืืืื. ืืฉืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืจืืงืื ื ืจืื ืืืืื, ืืืฆืขื ืืืจืืื ืจืืื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืื ืืช ืืคืงืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืคื ืื, ืฉืืืจื ืืชืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืืืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืคืชืื ืืืกืขืืช ืืจื ืืืื ืก. ืืืงืื ืืืืื ืจืืื ืืืืื ื ืืชืขืืืื ืื, ืืืขืืืคื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืื ืืฉืคืืชื ืืืช ืืืืื ืืืฉืจ ืืืคืื ืืฉืื ืืืืจืืงืื. ืจืืื ืืืจื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืืื ืืงืคืืฆื ืืฆืืงืื ืื ืืื ืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืจืืืื ื ืื. ืืืจืืื ืืืืกืืืจืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืงืจื ืืื ืก ืฉืืืฆืขื ืฉื ื ืืฆืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืกืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืงืจื. ืืื ืก ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืคื ืื ืืคื ืื ืคืืฅ ืืืืืฉ ืืื ื, ืืฉืชืืืกืช ืืฆืื ืืืคื ื ื ืจืืชื ืืืืืืช. ืขื ืคื ืืขืจืืืช ื ืื ืกื ืืืขืื ืืขืฉืจืช ืืืคืื ื ืฉืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืงืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืฉื ืืงืจื. ืืืคืจ ืงืืกืืืืื ืืงืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืจืื ืฉื ืื ืืืจืื ืืงืืืฆืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืฉื ืืื, ืื ืืคื ืชืืฉืื ืืืคืจ, ืืื ืืก ืืช ืืื ืืช ืืืงืืืืืช. ืชืืฆืืืช ืืงืจื ืืืงืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืขืจืื ืืจื ืืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉืืฉืชืืฉื ืืื ืืืขืื ืืฆื, ืืืืืจ ืืชืืจืื ืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืฃ ืืฉืชืืฉื ืืฉืืืช ืืชืขืืคื ืฉืืื ืคืืืจืื ืืื. ืืืืจ ืืื ืืกืื ืืืืจืืงืืื ืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืื ืจืืืงืื, ืฉืืฉื ืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืืชื ืืืคื ื-1972. ืขื ืืืื ืืืฆื ืืืืงืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฆื ืืืจืืงืื, ืืืืกืืก ืืงืื ื ืืื ืืกืืก ืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืจืืงืื ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืกืื. ืืงืจื ืืืงืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฃ ืืฉืคืขืืช ืขื ืืืฉื ืืืืืื. ืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืขื ืคืืืฉื ืืืฉืชืืช ืืืคื ืืืืงืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืคืฆืฆืืช ืืืืื ืขื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืื ืืกืืงื ืืชืงืืื, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืฉื ืืขืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืงืจื ืืื ืืจืืจ ืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืคื ืืช ืื ื ืฉืืจื, ืืฉืื ื ืืื ืื ืชืืื ืืืืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืืจืื, ืชืื ืืกืืช ืืืืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืฆื ืืืืจืืงืื. ืืขืืืช ืืืจืืช ืฆืืคื ืฉืฆืื ืฉื ื ืืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืืคื ืืื ืืฆืืื ืจืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืื ื ืขื ืืืืืชื. ืื ืืฉืืืืฉ ืืงืืืงืื ืืืืื ืืงืจื ืืจืชืืข ืืช ืืืืจืืงืืื, ืฉืืืขื ืฉืืืคื ืืฉื ื ืืืคื ืืืืกืื ืืืืืืก ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืฉืืจื ืืืืืกื ืงืืืงืื ืชืื ืืื ืงืฆืจ ืืืืชืจ. ื-1995 ืืงืืื ืืืฉืืช ืืืงืื ืืืื ืื ืืจืื ืฉื ืงืจืื "ืืื ืืคืื ื ืืฉืืื" ืืืืื ื, ืืืืจ ืืงืจื ืืืืจืื ืืืจืื ืืืจื ืืื. ืืื ืืจืื ื ืืฉืืช ืืช ืฉืืืชืืื ืฉื ืื ืืืจืืืื ืืงืจื, ืืืืืื ืืืืจืืื ืืืื, ืืคื ืื ืืืจืื. ื ืืื ืืืื ื 2008 ืืืคืืขืื ืืื ืืจืื 240,734 ืฉืืืช. ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=%D7%90%D7%93%D7%9D&action=edit§ion=62] | [TOKENS: 197] |
ืขืจืืืช ืืืฃ "ืืื" (ืคืกืงื) ืกืืื ื ืคืืกืืง: ึพ โ โ โฆ ืงืื ืืืงื: โข ยท [] [[]] () {{}} {{{}}} ืชืืืื ืืชืืืืื: ~ | ยฐ ยฑ โ ร ยฒ ยณ + ืชืืืื ืขืืจืืื: ืึผ ืึน ืึผ ืึท ืึธ ืึถ ืึต ืึด ืึณ ืึฒ ืึฑ ืึฐ ืึป ืฉื ืฉื ืชื ืืืืื ืืืช ืืฃ ืื ืืืื ืึพ10 ืงืืืืจืืืช ืืืกืชืจืืช: |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%A7%D7%99%D7%A6%D7%95%D7%A8_%D7%AA%D7%95%D7%9C%D7%93%D7%95%D7%AA_%D7%94%D7%90%D7%A0%D7%95%D7%A9%D7%95%D7%AA] | [TOKENS: 4856] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืงืืฆืืจ ืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช ืงืืฆืืจ ืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืื ืกืคืจ ืืืช ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืื ื ื ืืจืจื ืืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื, ืืฉืืฆื ืืืืจ ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืจ ืืฉื ืช 2011. ื ืืื ืืืจืฅ 2015, ืืกืคืจ ืฉืื ืืืฆืืืจ 180 ืฉืืืขืืช ืืจืฉืืืช ืจืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืขืืชืื "ืืืจืฅ", ืืงืืืืจืืืช ืกืคืจื ืืขืืื. ืืกืคืจ ืชืืจืื ืื-40 ืฉืคืืช. ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืืคืจืกืื ืจื ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืืืืจืืจ ืืื ืืืืืก ืื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืจืง ืืืืื ืืืืืฆื ืขืืื. ืืฉื ืช 2017 ื ืจืืฉื ืืืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืืคืืง ืจืืืื ืกืงืื ("ืืืืื ืจืื ืจ") ืืืืื ืกืจืื ืืชืขืืื ืืืื ืืืืกืงืจ ืืกืืฃ ืงืคืืื ("ืืืืื"), ืฉืืชืืืื ืื ืืขืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืกืจื ืงืืื ืืข ืฉืืืงืจื "Sapiens". ืืกืคืจ ืืืืกืก ืขื ืืงืืจืก "ืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืขืืืืืช" ืืชืืืจ ืจืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช, ืืืชื ืืขืืืจื ืืชืืืื ืชืจืืกืจ ืืืจืื ืฉืื ืื, ืื ืืื ืืชืืื ืืชืืืืชื, ืืืืืื ืืฉื ืื ืืื ืืจืจื ืืืขืืืจ ืืช ืืงืืจืก ืืืื. ืื ืืืื ืืกืคืจืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืชืืจืื ืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืขืืืืืช ืืขืืงืจ ืืืืก ืืชืจืืืช ืืืขืจืืืช ืืคื ืฉืืชืคืชืื ื-5,000 ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช, ืื ืกื ืืจืจื ืืกืคืจื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืื ืืชืจืืืืืช ืืืืืจื ืื ืืชืงืืคืืช, ืืื ืืืคื ื ื-70 ืืืฃ ืฉื ื, ืืืื ืืฃ ืกืืงืจ ืืช ืืจืงืข ืฉืงืื ืืื. ืื ืืืื ืืกืคืจื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืงืืคืื ืืืงืืืืื, ืืกืคืจ ืื ืกื ืืืจืืืช ืื ืจืง ืืช ืืฉืชืืฉืืืช ืืืืจืืขืื, ืืื ืื ืืขืกืืง ืืืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืืืืืืืืืช (ืืืคืจื ืืฉืืืช ืืืืฉืจ) ืืืกืืืืืช ืืชืืืช ืืขืืืืช ืื ืืืืกืืืจืื. ืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืจืจื ืืืฆืื ืืืืจ ืืืืงืืืืจ 2020 ืืช ืกืคืจื "ืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช/ืืืกืืืจืื ืืืืืจืช" ืืฉืจ ืืืืื ืขืืืื ืขืืืืชื, ืืจืกืช ืงืืืืงืก ืืืืืืื ืืกืคืจื "ืงืืฆืืจ ืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช". ืืืืคืืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืืง ืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืขื ืคื ืฉืืืฉ ืืืคืืืช ืขืืงืจืืืช: ืชืืืช ืืจืืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืชืื ืืจืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืฉืืืืกืืืจืื ืืืื ืืคื ื 70,000 ืฉื ื ืขื ืืืืคืื ืืืฉืื ืืช. ืืืคืขืชื ืฉื ืืืืคืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืื ืืื ืืข ืืื ืืืงืืช ืชืจืืืชืืืช ืืกืื ืืืฉ โ ืืื ืืืงืืช ืืืกืืืจืืืช โ ืฉืฉืื ืืช ืืืืคื ืืืืชื ืืืืื ืืืงืืช ืืืืืืืืืืช ืฉืืคืืื ื ืืช ืืื ื ืืืื ืขื ืื ืืฉืืืคืืื ืืช ืขื ืืืื ืืช ืืชืจ ืืื ื ืืขืื ืืืืื. ืชืื ืืจืืืืช ื ืืกืคืช ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืชืื "ืกืืจ ืืืืืืื". ืืืืืจ, ืืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืืกืกืื ืขื ืืืฉืืื ืืงืืืืื ืื ืืจืง ืืืืืื ื ืืืฉืืชืฃ ืฉื ืื ื ืืืื โ ืืกืฃ, ืืืื, ืฆืืง, ืืืืืืช, ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืช, ืชืืืืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืื. ืืื ืืืื ื ืืฉืืชืคืช ืืกืืจ ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืื, ืื ื ืืชื ืืืจืื ืฉืืชืืคื ืคืขืืื ืืื ืืกืคืจืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืืื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืื ื ืืื ืืื ืืื ืกืืื ืงืืื ืืืืืืืืื ืืืชืืืืื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืคืขืืื ืขื ืืกืคืจ ืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืจืื. ืชืื ืฉืืืฉืืช ืฉืืืคืืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืงืืื ื ืืืืชืจ ืฉืื ืื-ืคืขื ืขื-ืคื ื ืืืืจ-ืืืจืฅ. ืขืื ืืชืงืืคื ืฉืืื ืืืืคืื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืื ืืืื ื-50% ืืกืืื ืืืื ืงืื ืืืืฉืชืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ, ืืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืืื ื ืืขืื ืืืื ืืืจืื. ืืืืกืืจืืื ื ืืืื 95% ืืื ืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืืืฉืช, ืืืืืจืืงื ื ืืืื 84 ืืชืื 107 (78.5%) ืกืืื ืืื ืงืื ืืืฉืชืืื ืืืืืื. ืื ืืืืื ื ืืกืฃ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืคืื ืืืงืืืืช, ืืฉืจ ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืจืืื ืฉื ืืขืื ืืืื, ืืืืื ืื ืืฉืขืืืื ืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืงืื ืฉื ืืื ืื ืืฆืจืืื ืฉื ืืืื. ืืขืื ืืืื ืืืืืชืื ืืื ื ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืืฆืืื ืืช ืืกืืจืจืช ืืืชืจืื ืืืืื ืืื, ืืืื ืืืืื ืช ืชื ืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืคืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืืืืื, ืืขืื ืืืื ืืืืืชืื ืืื ืื ืืื ืืืฆืืจืื ืืืืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืฉืืื ืื ืคืขื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ. ืืืฆืืื ืืืืืื ืืจืืช ืืืื ืืงืืืงืืืื ืืจืืื ืืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืฉื ืืคืจื. ืชืื ืจืืืขืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืฉืืืืกืืืจืื ืืฉ ืืืืื. ืืื ื ืขื ืืืืจืื ืืืฆื ืฉืื ืงืืื ืืืืืจ ืืืจืฅ ืืกืคืจ ืืืื ืืืื ืฉื ืชืจืืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืืช ืงืื ืืช, ืืืฆื ืฉืื ืงืืื ืืกืคืจ ืงืื ืฉื ืชืจืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืชืจ, ืืขื ืืืฆื ืฉืื ืชืชืงืืื ืชืจืืืช ืืืช ืืืืืืืช. ืืืขืชื ืฉื ืืจืจื, ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืื ื ืืชืคืชืืช ืืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ื ืืืื, ืืืชืจืืืืืช ืฉืื ืฆืืืช ืืืืืง ืืืืฉืจืืืช ืืื ื ืืืืจื ืืชืจืืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืชืจ ืืื ื ืืืื. ืืกืคืจ ืืืขื ืฉืืื ืืข ืืขืืงืจื ืฉื ืืืืกืืืจืื ื-500 ืืฉื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืืจืืช ืืื ืืืืข ืืืืืจื ื, ืืงืคืืืืืื ืืืืืืคืจืืืืืื ืืืืจืืคืื. ืืืืืคืจืืืืืื ืืืงืคืืืืืื ืืกืคืงืื ืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืืกืืืช ืืืืกืคืืช ืฉืืืขืืื ืืืขื ืืืชื ืืคืฉืจื ืืขืจืื ืืืงืจ ืืืขื, ืืืชืืืจื ืืืืืคืจืืืืืื ืืืงืคืืืืืื ืืืชืืืื ืืช ืืื'ื ืื ืฉื ืืืืข ืืงืืืขืื ืืืฆื ืืืฉืื ืืช ืชืืืืืชืื ืืฆืืจืช ืืื ืืืืืื. ืืืขืช ืืจืจื, ืืืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืฉื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืฉืืืฉืช ืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืื ืืงืืืื, ืฉืืืืกืก ืขื ืฉืชื ืื ืืืช: (1) ืืืข ืืื ืืื, (2) ืืฉื ื ืืืจืื ืจืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืื ืขืืืื ืื ืืืืขืื. ืืืื ื ืืืข ืฉืื ืื ื ืืืื ืืืงืจื ืืืืื ืืืข ื ืืกืฃ ืืืื ืฉืืื ืืื ืืืืืจ, ืืื ืืืืื ืืขืฉืืช ืืืจืื ืฉืืจืืข ื ืืฆืจืื ืืืืืืชื. ืืืืคื ืคืืื ืฆืืืื ืืื ืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืื ืฉืืฆืืื ืืืืจืืช. ืืืืืื ืืืืืืงืช ืืืืชืจ ืืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืจืจื ืงืืจื ืื "ืคืจืืืงื ืืืืืืฉ" โ ืื ืืกืืื ืืืืืก ืืช ืืืืงื ื ืืืืืืช ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืงืจืื ืืจืคืืื, ืืื-ืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืืฆื ืืื. ืืกืคืจ ืืฆืื ืืช ืืืขื ื ืฉืืืืกืืืจืื ืืชืงืจืืช ืืกืืคื. ืื ืืืื ืกืืคืืื ืก ืื ืืฉืืื ืืช ืขืฆืื, ืื ืืงืจืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉืืจื ืืช ืขืฆืื ืืืฉืืช ืฉืื ื ืืืืจื. ืื ื ืืชืงืจืืื ืื ืงืืื ืืืืื ื ืืคื ืืขืชืืื ืื "ืกืื ืืืืจืืื", ืฉืื ืืงืจืืก ืขืืื ืืืฉืืขืืช ืฉืื ื. ืืื ืื ื ืืืืืช ืืคืืื ืืืืืื ืืช ืื ืฉืขืฉืื ืืงืจืืช ืืืจ ืื. ืืขื ื ืืชืืืืช ืฉืืขืื ืืจืจื ืืื, ืฉืืฉ ืืืืื ืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื ืืคื ืงืจืืืจืืื ืื ืฉื ืกืื ืืืืฉืจ. ืืฉืืื, ืืื ืืกืื ืืขืืื ืืคืืช ืื ืืืื ืืชืืฆืื ืืชืืืื ืื ืืืคืื ืื ืื ืืืจืช - ืืืื ืขืืืืช ืื ืฆืจืืช ืื ืืืืคืื ืืฆืจืคืชืืช - ืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืื ืืืืชืจ ืืืื ืชื ื ืืช ืืืืกืืืจืื. ืืืขื ืช ืืจืจื, ืืื ืื ื ืขืืืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืช ืืกืื ืืืืืฉืจ, ืืืื ื ื ืืกืืืืื ืืงืืืข ืืื, ืืืฉื, ืืฉ ืคืืืช ืื ืืืชืจ ืกืื ืืขืืื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืืืฉืจ ืืคื ื 500 ืฉื ื. ืืืงืืจืืช ืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืืช ืืชืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืื ืฉ"ืกืืจ ืืืืืืื" - ืืืื ื ืืฉืืชืคืช ืฉื ืื ื ืืื - ืืื ืืจืืื ืงืจืืื ืขืืืจ ืื ืืืช ืฆืืืืืืืืฆืื ืื ืืฉืืช ืืฉืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื. ืืืชืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื "ืืืื", ืืืขื ืืจื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืจ ืืฉื "ืกืืืืฃ ืชืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช" ืฉืืจืจื ืื ืกื ืืฉืื ืข ืืช ืงืืจืืื ืืื ืฉืืกืืจ ืืืืืืืื ืืื ื ืืืืชื โ ืืืจื ืืืืื ืืืฆืืื ืืื ืืืืืช ืืืื ื ื ืคืกืืง ืืืืืื ืืืืชืืืชื ืฉื ืกืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืื ืื ื ืืื ืขืื ืืฉืชืฃ ืคืขืืื ืื ืืื ืืืจืื ืขื ืืืื ืืื ืืฉื. ืจืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/WVTM-TV] | [TOKENS: 5641] |
Contents WVTM-TV WVTM-TV (channel 13) is a television station in Birmingham, Alabama, United States, affiliated with NBC. Owned by Hearst Television, the station maintains studios and transmitter facilities atop Red Mountain, between Vulcan Trail and Valley View Drive in southeastern Birmingham, adjacent to the Vulcan Statue and next to the studios of Fox affiliate WBRC (channel 6). History The station first signed on the air on June 12, 1949, as WAFM-TV, originally carrying a limited schedule of local programming. The station began carrying select network programming on July 1, operating as a primary CBS and secondary ABC affiliate; channel 13 began carrying an expanded schedule of programming from ABC and CBS on October 1. It was originally owned by The Voice of Alabama, Inc., along with radio stations WAPI (1070 AM), and WAFM (then at 93.3, now WJOX-FM at 94.5 FM). It is the longest continuously operating television station in Alabama. During the summer of 1949, most programs aired by WAFM-TV aired during the daytime hours, allowing radio electronics and department stores to demonstrate television set receivers to potential customers. In January 1953, the Federal Communications Commission (FCC) approved an application to increase the station's transmitter power from 26,000 to 316,000 watts. In July 1953, The Birmingham News bought the Voice of Alabama and changed the station's call letters to WABT (for "Alabama's Best Television"). The following year on July 4, 1954, WABT traded primary network affiliations with WBRC-TV (channel 6) and joined NBC; however it retained a secondary affiliation with ABC as did WBRC-TV, which took over the CBS affiliation as its then-new owners, Storer Broadcasting, had a strong relationship with the network (the company's founder and chairman, George B. Storer, was a member of the board of directors at CBS). On January 26, 1956, newspaper publishing company Newhouse Newspapers (now Advance Publications) purchased the News. The station changed its call letters again in September 28, 1958, to WAPI-TV (for Alabama Polytechnic Institute [now known as Auburn University], which owned WAPI radio from 1925 to 1932) to match its sister AM radio station; WAFM-FM adopted the WAPI-FM calls at the same time, and received FCC permission to move its frequency to 94.5 FM. Channel 13 also became known for its heavy schedule of local programs during the 1950s and 1960s, most notably two popular shows aimed at younger audiences hosted by two early staples of Birmingham television. Magician Cliff Holman hosted a children's program on the station for 15 years from 1954 to 1968; originally debuting in March 1954 as The Tip Top Clubhouse (named after the Ward Baking Company's Tip Top Bread brand), the afternoon cartoon showcase featured Holmanโwho previously served as the voice and puppeteer of Mr. Bingle, a marionette character originated in 1949 by City Stores of New York, for a Loveman's-sponsored holiday series that aired on WAFM-TV in November 1950โin the persona of "Cousin Cliff" (which was given to him by Ward executives as the then-25-year-old was too young to fit the "uncle" image then common among other children's show hosts), and underwent three format and title changes between 1956 and 1958, first as Cliff's Clubhouse (after Ward Baking withdrew sponsorship due to corporate difficulties) and then as Cartoon Clubhouse and later, The Popeye Show, after WAPI acquired the local rights to the Fleischer Studios animated shorts. In 1969, Holman left WAPI after station management relegated Popeye to weekend mornings, after ratings declined following the show's move to weekday mornings and a switch to a pre-recorded format; he revived his program at WHMA-TV (channel 40, now WGWW) in Anniston later that year, as The Cousin Cliff Show. Benny Carle hosted Western Theatre, a showcase of western films interspersed with studio segments with local children as part of its studio audience that aired from 1953 to 1954, when Carle left to take over Bob Bandy's role as host the similarly formatted Circle Six Ranch on WBRC-TV, where he remained until 1964. WBRC-TV became a full-time ABC affiliate on September 7, 1961, although it continued to occasionally carry certain CBS shows that WAPI chose not to carry until 1965. The WBRC deal with ABCโwhich was also a result of the strong relations between the network and WBRC's owner, Taft Television and Radio Company, which acquired that station in 1957โforced WAPI-TV to shoehorn both NBC and CBS programs onto its programming schedule. This was rather unusual, since in most two-station markets, ABC (which would not be on equal footing with CBS and NBC until the early 1970s) was typically relegated to a secondary affiliation on either one or both of the existing television stations. The Birmingham market then (as it is now) was a fairly large market geographically, stretching across nearly the entire width of the state from near the AlabamaโMississippi state line eastward to the AlabamaโGeorgia state line. The market also has areas of fairly rugged terrainโparticularly in the eastern part of the state, which lies within the foothills of the Appalachian Mountainsโwhich often created impairment issues with the over-the-air reception of UHF television stations. Both of these factors made prospective broadcasters skittish about launching a television station on one of the available UHF allocations. Although there were two other VHF channels in the market (channels 7 and 10), both had been allocated to Alabama Educational Television (now Alabama Public Television). This came after George Storer's company donated the two frequencies and accompanying transmitters to the Alabama Educational Television Commission (which were respectively signed on WCIQ and WBIQ on those channels in 1955) in a move that may have been an attempt to forestall future commercial competition in the market. As a result, while Birmingham had been large enough in terms of population to support three full network affiliates since the 1950s, it had a long wait for full-time service from all three networks. The Birmingham market would not get a third commercial broadcast television outlet until WBMG-TV (channel 42, now WIAT) began in October 1965. Although WBMG nominally had a CBS affiliation, the network allowed WAPI-TV to continue airing its higher-rated programs. This was largely because WBMG had launched only one year after the FCC's All-Channel Receiver Act went into law, requiring that television sets manufactured from 1964 onward include all-channel tuning; relatively few households in the area at the time had sets with built-in UHF tuning capability, or expensive converter boxes that enabled older television sets to pick up UHF signals. Compounding things, channel 42 operated at a comparatively low effective radiated power, producing a signal that was considerably weaker than that of either WAPI-TV or WBRC-TV. To fill out its schedule, WBMG aired some NBC programs that WAPI-TV turned down or otherwise had no room to broadcast on its schedule (such as The Tonight Show). Both stations listed "CBS/NBC" as their affiliation, as WBMG maintained a nominal secondary affiliation with the latter network. On April 3, 1967, WAPI-TV became the first television station in Birmingham to broadcast all of its programming in color, having acquired camera, projection and slide equipment to broadcast local and acquired programming in the format, in addition to carrying NBC and CBS programs available in color.[citation needed] In May 1970, WAPI-TV became the exclusive NBC affiliate for Birmingham, simultaneously resulting in the CBS programs not already carried by that station moving to WBMG. The switch to an exclusive NBC affiliation was because two of Newhouse Broadcasting's other stations, WSTM-TV in Syracuse and WETM-TV in Elmira, New York (which were then WSYR-TV [not to be confused with the current WSYR] and WSYE-TV respectively), were already affiliated with the network; in addition, the company's chairman was alleged to not have a great personal relationship with CBS president William S. Paley.[citation needed] At the same time that WAPI and WBMG aligned with the respective networks, WCFT-TV (channel 33, now Heroes & Icons affiliate WSES) in Tuscaloosa and WHMA-TV (channel 40, later WJSU-TV and now Heroes & Icons affiliate WGWW) in Anniston, two UHF stations respectively serving the western and eastern portions of Central Alabama, also became full-time affiliates of CBS; like WBMG and WAPI prior to becoming exclusive network affiliates, WCFT and WHMAโboth of which signed on the air in the late 1960sโstarted as affiliates of both CBS and NBC. Prior to that time, the prime time schedules of the Tuscaloosa and Anniston stations virtually mirrored that of WBMG, because of WAPI's exclusive rights to network programming shown on that station for the entire viewing area. Newhouse exited the broadcasting industry in the early 1980s to focus exclusively on its newspaper holdings. In 1979, the company sold its television stations, including WAPI-TV, to the Los Angeles-based Times Mirror Company; the WAPI radio stations were sold to Dittman Broadcasting. Following the completion of the sale, the station, due to an FCC rule in place at the time that stated that TV and radio stations in the same market, but with different ownership had to have differing call letters, changed its call letters to WVTM-TV (for "Vulcan Times Mirror"; the "V" referencing both the cast-iron statue in Vulcan Statue as well as its location atop Red Mountain at Vulcan Park, where WVTM's transmitter tower was located) on March 28, 1980. In March 1993, Times Mirror sold WVTM, along with its three sister stations (ABC affiliate KTVI in St. Louis, and CBS affiliates KDFW in Dallas and KTBC in Austin, Texas) to Argyle Television Holdings in a two-part deal. Under the structure, WVTM and KTVI were the first two stations to be sold to New World, which respectively bought the stations for $45 million and $35 million; the purchase of the entire group was completed in December of that year following securement of financing for the deal. In May 1994, New World Communications, which would sign an affiliation deal with Fox on May 22, agreed to purchase the four outlets from Argyle โ in a deal structured as a purchase option โ for $717 million. However two weeks earlier on May 5, New World also decided to purchase four television stations from Great American Communications, among them WBRC, for $350 million in cash and $10 million in share warrants. New World was able to finalize its purchase of WBRC on October 12, 1994, because the transfer applications for the Argyle stations were not submitted to the FCC until after those involved in the purchase of the Citicasters (to which Great American Communications was subsequently renamed) stations was already finalized. However, WBRC and fellow ABC affiliate WGHP in High Point, North Carolina were immediately placed in an outside trust company as Citicasters restructured its plans for both stations and decided to sell them directly to Fox's owned-and-operated station group, Fox Television Stations, once it discovered New World's plan to purchase the Argyle stations (both purchases conflicted with two aspects of the FCC's media ownership regulations; the purchases of WBRC and WVTM would have violated rules that prohibited a single company from owning both the #1 and the #2 television stations in the same market, plus both group deals would have given New World three more stations than the agency allowed at the time under its 12-station national television ownership limit). In January 1995, while the group awaited the Argyle purchase to receive approval by the FCC, New World took over the operations of the Argyle stations, including WVTM, through time brokerage agreements. The transfers of WBRC and WGHP to the trust were completed on April 3, 1995, while the New World purchase of the Argyle stations closed on April 14. New World's purchase of the remaining three Argyle stations was finalized on April 18, 1995. As a result of New World's option to sell WBRC to Fox, WVTM retained its NBC affiliation (KNSD in San Diego was the only other New World station that remained with NBC, as Fox already had a VHF affiliate in San Diego at the time, XETV (which eventually became a CW affiliate but is now a Canal 5 station targeting Tijuana, Mexico), whereas KNSD broadcast on the UHF band; the group sold its only other station not affected by the Fox affiliation deal, WSBK-TV in Boston, to the Paramount Stations Group in November 1994); KTVI, KDFW and KTBC, meanwhile, all became Fox affiliates. Fox Television Stations operated WBRC as an ABC affiliate until August 31, 1996, as its contract with that network had one year left until its expiration when Fox formally purchased the station from the trust (WBRC's conversion into a Fox owned-and-operated station on September 1, 1996, led to a six-station affiliation swap in Central Alabama in which WCFT-TV and WJSU-TV became satellite stations of ABC affiliate low-power W58CK (channel 58, now WBMA-LD); Fox affiliate WNAL-TV (channel 44, now Ion Television owned-and-operated station WPXH-TV) in Gadsden took over as eastern Alabama's CBS affiliate and Fox affiliate WTTO (channel 21) and its Tuscaloosa satellite WDBB (channel 17) became independent stations). On May 22, 1996, New World Communications announced that it would sell WVTM and KNSD to NBC's owned-and-operated station group, NBC Television Stations, for $425 million. This deal came two months prior to then-Fox parent News Corporation's acquisition of New World on July 17, in an all-stock transaction worth $2.48 billion, in which it would acquire New World's remaining twelve Fox-affiliated stations (which would also become owned-and-operated stations of the network); The sale of WVTM and KNSD to NBC was finalized in July 1996. In August 1995, the station changed its on-air branding from "Alabama's 13" (which it adopted in 1991) to "NBC 13". On January 9, 2006, NBC Television Stations announced that it would place four of its smaller-market owned-and-operated stationsโWVTM, WJAR-TV in Providence, Rhode Island, WCMH-TV in Columbus, and WNCN in Raleigh, North Carolinaโup for sale. On April 6, 2006, NBC Universal and Media General announced that the latter would purchase WVTM-TV as part of a $600 million four-station deal between the two companies. Due to clauses in the FCC's regulations for television duopolies that prohibits any broadcasting company from owning two of the four highest-rated television stations within the same media market, Media General subsequently announced that it would it seek a buyer for its existing station in the BirminghamโTuscaloosaโAnniston market, WIAT (which it had owned since the group's merger with Park Communications in 1997, and was instrumental in that station becoming more competitive with WVTM and WBRC), choosing to keep WVTM, which at the time was the higher-rated of the two stations in terms of total day viewership. The FCC subsequently granted the company a temporary waiver of its ownership rules that allowed it to keep both WVTM and WIAT for six months after the purchase of the former was completed; Media General's purchase of all four stations was finalized on June 26, 2006. On August 2, Media General announced that it had sold WIAT and fellow CBS affiliate KIMT in Mason City, Iowa, to New Vision Television for $35 million; that sale was finalized on October 12, 2006. Under Media General, WVTM retained its existing "NBC 13" branding until 2010, when it restored "Alabama's 13" as its on-air branding. On March 21, 2014, LIN Media entered into an agreement to merge with Media General in a $1.6 billion deal. Because LIN already owned CBS affiliate WIAT, due to the same FCC duopoly restrictions based on total day viewership that prompted Media General to sell WIAT to New Vision eight years earlier, the companies were required to sell either WVTM-TV or WIAT to another station owner in order to comply with the agency's ownership rules; the sales that Media General and LIN voluntarily chose to conduct in that situation were also in response to planned changes to the FCC's media ownership regulations, which would prohibit sharing agreements involving two or more television stations in the same market. On August 20, 2014, Media General announced that it would reacquire WIAT and sell WVTM, along with WJCL in Savannah, Georgia, to Hearst Television. Media General completed its merger with LIN on December 19; Hearst closed on its purchase of WVTM and WJCL three days later on December 22. In March 2015, WVTM phased in Hearst's standardized station imaging, and dropped the "Alabama's 13" brand for the second time, in favor of branding by its call letters as "WVTM 13", similar to other Hearst-owned stations. Programming WVTM-TV carries the entire NBC programming schedule, although it airs the network's weekend overnight lineup on a one-hour tape delay due to paid and syndicated programming. While channel 13 tried to carry the most popular NBC and CBS shows, a lot of fairly popular programs aired by either network were never seen in the Birmingham market because of this arrangement (even though WAPI carried selected CBS and NBC network programs in a 4ยฝ-hour block preceding its late-evening newscast, which then aired at 11 p.m.), and the lack of a third station to carry the remaining programs. One of the more popular CBS shows that WAPI-TV did not air was The Ed Sullivan Show, which resulted in Central Alabama viewers missing The Beatles' debut American performance on the variety series in February 1964, unless they were lucky enough to be able to get reception of CBS' affiliates in the adjacent markets of Atlanta (WAGA-TV, now a Fox owned-and-operated station), Huntsville (WHNT) or Montgomery (WCOV-TV, now a Fox affiliate). On a similar note, one of the NBC shows that channel 13 turned down was The Tonight Show, which WBMG aired instead until WAPI began clearing the program in September 1969; even then, due to the expanded prime time scheduling under the dual-network arrangement with CBS and NBC, it delayed Tonight to 11:30 p.m. WAPI-TV strongly favored NBC for national news programming; as a byproduct of this, when CBS and NBC expanded their early-evening news programs to 30 minutes in 1963, the CBS Evening News with Walter Cronkite did not air in Birmingham for the next two years. This was due, of course, to the fact that both networks fed their newscasts to their affiliates at 5:30 p.m. Central Time (as they continue to do today). Channel 13 aired its local newscast at 6 p.m., and prior to the passage of the Prime Time Access Rule by the FCC in 1971, prime time network programming began at 6:30 p.m. Central Time. This left no available room on WAPI's schedule to allow it to air the CBS Evening News, even if station management had wanted to broadcast it, clearing only The HuntleyโBrinkley Report in its normal time slot (HuntleyโBrinkley was the only network evening newscast that was televised in Birmingham from 1963 to 1965, as WBRC-TV did not carry ABC's evening newscasts during that period). During the 1970s, WAPI ran a distant second to WBRC in local news and general viewership, but was far ahead of WBMG, which was one of the lowest-rated commercial television stations in the U.S. at the time. It was only in western and eastern Alabama that the CBS affiliates, WCFT and WHMA, were competitive against WBRC and WAPI, particularly in local newscasts designed specifically for those areas of the state. After it exclusively aligned with NBC, channel 13 chose to fill the now-vacated 10 p.m. hour with off-network syndicated reruns to serve as a lead-in to its late newscast, which itself would move to 10 p.m. in 1977; however, the station continued to delay The Tonight Show by one hour in favor of running syndicated programming until September 1993, when it moved the program to its network-standard 10:35 slot. News operation WVTM-TV presently broadcasts 44+1โ2 hours of locally produced newscasts each week (with seven hours each weekday, four hours on Saturdays and 5+1โ2 hours on Sundays). Channel 13 launched the first full-scale television news department in Alabama in 1951. For most of the last half of the 20th century, channel 13's newscasts were a solid, if usually distant, runner-up to long-dominant WBRC. This remained the case even during the second half of the 1980s, despite having the benefit of NBC's powerful prime time programming lineup of that period (which included such series as Hill Street Blues, The Cosby Show and The A-Team) as a lead-in to its 10 p.m. newscast. However, after WBMA-LP replaced WBRC as the market's ABC affiliate in September 1996, WVTM had to fend off a spirited challenge from the upstart station (to which it lost two of its well-known anchors, Pam Huff and Tracy Haynes, who were later hired to anchor that station's morning newscasts). Since the start of the new millennium, it has also had to contend with a resurgent WIAT, whose news ratings prior to the February 1998 relaunch of its news department had generally languished at a very distant fourth place for much of its history up to that point. Indeed, since 2006, WIAT has consistently beaten WVTM in the late news ratings. In contrast to WIAT's renewed performance under Media General ownership, ratings averages for WVTM's newscasts slipped to fourth place among the market's five major television news operations (ahead of WVUA-CD (channel 7) and behind WBMA-LD and WIAT) during the company's ownership of channel 13, where it remains to this day. In 2004, WVTM began utilizing a Doppler weather radar system originally branded as "Skywatch Doppler One Million" (which was later renamed "WeatherPlus Doppler One Million" and later named "Alabama's 13 Live Doppler" which is located on Bald Rock Mountain in St. Clair County; the radar provided live Doppler radar data from the Bald Rock Mountain site at a radiated power of 1 million watts, but it is no longer in use by the station. The station also utilizes data from National Weather Service radar sites nationwide. In 2017, WVTM constructed a new dual pole Doppler radar in western Tuscaloosa County in Vance, Alabama, known as "WVTM 13 Live Doppler Radar". On October 17, 2007, WVTM-TV became the first television station in the state of Alabama to begin broadcasting its local newscasts in high definition. After Hearst Television purchased the station in 2014, WVTM-TV has shifted its programming focus more heavily towards local news. First on August 18, 2014, the station expanded its weekday morning newscast to 4 a.m. and expanded its 11 a.m. newscast to one hour, canceling the Media General-mandated advertorial program Daytime Alabama in the latter part of the half-hour; Hearst generally has refused to produce advertorial lifestyle programming for any of their stations or advertisers. This was followed three weeks later on September 8 by the launch of an hour-long late afternoon newscast at 4 p.m. On April 27, 2015, the station expanded its 6 p.m. newscast to one hour, ending Alabama Tonight, another Media General-mandated program that had eventually taken on a sports focus after the failure of its original format which stunted the station's ratings leading into prime time. Technical information The station's signal is multiplexed: In September 2004, WVTM-TV launched a digital subchannel on virtual channel 13.2, as a charter affiliate of NBC Weather Plus; after the network formally ceased operations on November 30, 2008, it was replaced by NBC Plus, a localized default feed of the network that replaced Weather Plus on most of its affiliates. In January 2008, Media General reached an agreement with Equity Media Holdings to affiliate WVTM with the Retro Television Network; the station began carrying the network on its second digital subchannel on May 1, 2009. WVTM replaced the Retro Television Network with MeTV on 13.2 on September 26, 2011, as part of a groupwide affiliation agreement with Media General and Weigel Broadcasting (under that deal, MeTV replaced RTV on some Media General-owned stations in other markets). In November 2002, WVTM-TV signed on its digital television signal on UHF channel 52. The station shut down its analog signal, over VHF channel 13, on June 12, 2009, the official date on which full-power television stations in the United States transitioned from analog to digital broadcasts under federal mandate. The station's digital signal relocated from its pre-transition UHF channel 52, which was among the high band UHF channels (52โ69) that were removed from broadcasting use as a result of the transition, to its former analog-era VHF channel 13 for post-transition operations. WVTM was one of more than ten television stations around the country that requested for a power increase due to problems with the reception of VHF digital signals in areas within their markets of service following the transition. The station then moved back to channel 13 for its post-transition operations. The July 2, 2020, repack moved the station to RF channel 7. References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Spectrum_News_13] | [TOKENS: 1487] |
Contents Spectrum News 13 News 13 (also officially known as Spectrum News 13 as of September 24, 2017) is an American cable news television channel owned by Charter Communications. The channel provides 24-hour rolling news coverage focused primarily on Central Florida, specifically Brevard, Flagler, Lake, Marion, Orange, Osceola, Seminole, Sumter, and Volusia counties. History The channel originally launched in October 29, 1997 as Central Florida News 13; it was originally partnered with the Orlando Sentinel to help with 24-hour newsgathering operations and the channel was originally operated by Time Warner Cable, which relinquished cable television franchise rights in the Orlando metropolitan area to Bright House Networks in 2001. On December 14, 2010, the channel was added to Bright House's system in the Tampa Bay area, on digital channel 1213; the channel is offered in addition to the provider's local news channel in the area, Bay News 9. On November 1, 2011, Central Florida News 13 launched a high definition simulcast feed[citation needed] and began airing its newscasts in the format. As part of the upgrade, the channel installed a new master control system and unveiled a slightly modified graphics package. The channel unveiled a major branding overhaul on August 27, 2013, the most significant in the channel's history. It shortened its name from "Central Florida News 13" to simply News 13 (its website domain was accordingly changed cfnews13.com to mynews13.com); the channel also adopted a logo based on that used by its sister channel in the Tampa Bay region known as Bay News 9 and introduced a new news music ("Primetime News" by Non-Stop Music, which has been used by Bay News 9 since its September 1997 launch) and graphics package, the latter of which is designed to fit 16:9 television sets. Its longtime slogan "All Local, All The Time." was also dropped in favor of the concise "News. Weather. Now.". The logo has been designed by the network's in-house team. The network had expanded away with its newscasts with original programming. Also that day, they launched News 13 24/7, but with the name change, it kept the News 13 branding, when the network ran that channel. On April 1, 2015, Charter Communications announced that it would be acquiring Bright House Networks, alongside its merger with Time Warner Cable. The acquisition, which was valued at around $71 billion, was completed on May 18, 2016. To reflect this change in ownership, News 13 underwent another name change, going from "News 13" to Spectrum News 13. On June 12, 2016, during the Orlando nightclub shooting, News 13 received a call from the perpetrator, Omar Mateen. He told News 13 at 2:45 a.m., "I'm the shooter. It's me. I am the shooter." He then said he was carrying out the shooting on behalf of ISIL and began speaking rapidly in Arabic. Mateen also said the shooting was "triggered" by a U.S.-led bombing strike in Iraq that killed Abu Wahib, an ISIL military commander, on May 6, 2016. On February 22, 2023, News 13 journalist Dylan Lyons and photographer Jesse Walden were shot in a Pine Hills, Florida neighborhood while covering the scene of a fatal shooting that had killed a woman earlier the same day after the suspected shooter returned to the scene of the crime. Lyons died from his injuries, while Walden was hospitalized in critical condition. The suspected shooter, 19-year-old Keith Melvin Moses, who had an extensive criminal history, also fatally shot a 9-year-old girl and injured her mother shortly after attacking the news crew. On January 29, 2025, the family of Lyons filed a lawsuit against Spectrum News 13's owner, Charter Communications. The lawsuit alleged that Charter Communications had the responsibility to provide staff with proper safety equipment while working in the field and conduct an appropriate risk assessment before sending the news crew into the area while Moses was still at large. Programming The channel operates on a 24-Hour News Cycle clock and utilizes the "Wheel" format, allowing for blocks of news segments, weather and other content. Weather forecasts are carried in ten-minute intervals under the brand "Weather on the Ones" which is used by almost all Spectrum News branded channels. During severe weather or during tropical weather, such as a tropical storm or hurricane, weather can extend into "wall-to-wall" coverage. Live programming is separated by daypart: Your Morning News, News All Day, and Your Evening News. When not live, the channel operates in a wheel or jukebox format, utilizing recordings of news programming to fill in offline programming hours. Your Morning News airs live starting at 5:00 a.m. and remains live every half hour until 9 a.m. and the Morning wheel runs till Noon. News All Day airs live starting at Noon and is only live for the first ten minutes of the hour, and the wheel runs till 5 p.m. Your Evening News airs live starting at 5 p.m. and stays live through the 6 p.m. hour before returning with a refreshed wheel. Special Programming Special Programming on News 13 is offered both in weekly and nightly shows as well as daypart specific special segments. Political Connections, is a half-hour political discussion program which airs weeknights at 7 p.m. with an encore at 11:30 p.m. This program is produced in tandem with their sister station Bay News 9 and is currently hosted by Morning News anchor, Ybeth Bruzual from News 13 and Evening News anchor, Holly Gregory from Bay News 9. In Focus with Allison Walker is a half-hour public affairs program that covers Florida, and is simulcast in both markets. It is a similar program format to NY1's In Focus with Cheryl Willis. It airs Sundays at 11:30 a.m. with an encore at 8:30 p.m. There are other daypart specific offerings, such as A+ Teacher, Everyday Heroes, Pursuit Unlimited and Florida On A Tankful. Spectrum News 13 has an on air promise of broadcasting all rocket launches from the nearby Cape Canaveral Space Force Station and Kennedy Space Center. It operates under the branding Destination Space and has a dedicated Space Coast team of reporters and producers who focus strictly on spaceflight and rocket launches. Due to the rise in commercial spaceflight and SpaceX's active launch site located at Kennedy Space Center, News 13 also offers a updating list of upcoming launches. SpaceX's Falcon-9 rocket launching Starlink satellites tend to be the most common rocket launch to be able to see, but they cover all launches coming from Brevard County. Notable personalities Affiliated channels On March 11, 2011, Bright House Networks announced that it would merge Central Florida News 13 and Bay News 9's respective Spanish-language news channels into a single regional channel, InfoMรกs. The regional network was launched on July 12, 2011. See also References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Energy_policy_of_the_United_States] | [TOKENS: 8501] |
Contents Energy policy of the United States The energy policy of the United States is determined by federal, state, and local entities. It addresses issues of energy production, distribution, consumption, and modes of use, such as building codes, mileage standards, and commuting policies. Energy policy may be addressed via legislation, regulation, court decisions, public participation, and other techniques. Federal energy policy acts were passed in 1974, 1992, 2005, 2007, 2008, 2009, 2020, 2021, and 2022, although energy-related policies have appeared in many other bills. State and local energy policies typically relate to efficiency standards and/or transportation. Federal energy policies since the 1973 oil crisis have been criticized for having an alleged crisis-mentality, promoting expensive quick fixes and single-shot solutions that ignore market and technology realities. Americans constitute less than 5% of the world's population but consume 26% of the world's energy to produce 26% of the world's industrial output. Technologies such as fracking and horizontal drilling allowed the United States to become the world's top oil fossil fuel producer in 2014. In 2018, US exports of coal, natural gas, crude oil and petroleum products exceeded imports, achieving a degree of energy independence for the first time in decades. In the second half of 2019, the US was the world's top producer of oil and gas. This energy surplus ended in 2020. Various multinational groups have attempted to establish goals and timetables for energy and other climate-related policies, such as the 1997 Kyoto Protocol and the 2015 Paris Agreement. History In the early days of the Republic, energy policy allowed free use of standing timber for heating and industry. Wind and water provided energy for tasks such as milling grain. In the 19th century, coal became widely used. Whales were rendered into lamp oil. Coal gas was fractionated for use as lighting and town gas. Natural gas was first used in America for lighting in 1816. Since then, natural gas has grown in importance, especially for electricity generation. US natural gas production peaked in 1973, and the price has risen significantly since then. Coal provided the bulk of US energy needs well into the 20th century. Most urban homes had a coal bin and a coal-fired furnace. Over the years these were replaced with oil furnaces that were easier and safer to operate. From the early 1940s, the US government and the oil industry entered into a mutually beneficial collaboration to control global oil resources. By 1950, oil consumption exceeded that of coal. Abundant oil in California, Texas, Oklahoma, as well as in Canada and Mexico, coupled with its low cost, ease of transportation, high energy density, and use in internal combustion engines, led to its increasing use. Following World War II, oil heating boilers replaced coal burners along the Eastern Seaboard; diesel locomotives replaced coal-fired steam engines; oil-fired power plants dominated; petroleum-burning buses replaced electric streetcars, and citizens bought gasoline-powered cars. Interstate Highways helped make cars the major means of personal transportation. As oil imports increased, US foreign policy was drawn into Middle Eastern politics, seeking to maintain a steady supply via actions such as protecting Persian Gulf sea lanes. Hydroelectricity was the basis of Nikola Tesla's introduction of the US electricity grid, which started at Niagara Falls, New York, in 1883. Electricity generated by major dams, such as the TVA Project, Grand Coulee Dam and Hoover Dam, still produce some of the cheapest ($0.08/kWh) electricity. Rural electrification strung power lines to many more areas. A National Maximum Speed Limit of 55 mph (88 km/h) was imposed in 1974 (and repealed in 1995) to help reduce energy consumption. Corporate Average Fuel Economy (aka CAFE) standards were enacted in 1975 and progressively tightened over time to compel manufacturers to improve vehicle mileage. Year-round Daylight Saving Time was imposed in 1974 and repealed in 1975. The United States Strategic Petroleum Reserve was created in 1975. The Weatherization Assistance Program was enacted in 1977. On average, low-cost weatherization reduces heating bills by 31% and overall energy bills by $358 per year at 2012 prices. Increased energy efficiency and weatherization spending has a high return on investment. On August 4, 1977, President Jimmy Carter signed into law The Department of Energy Organization Act of 1977 (Pub. L. 95โ91, 91 Stat. 565, enacted August 4, 1977), which created the United States Department of Energy (DOE). The new agency, which began operations on October 1, 1977, consolidated the Federal Energy Administration, the Energy Research and Development Administration, the Federal Power Commission, and programs of various other agencies. Former Secretary of Defense James Schlesinger, who served under Presidents Nixon and Ford during the Vietnam War, was appointed as its first secretary. On June 30, 1980, Congress passed the Energy Security Act, which reauthorized the Defense Production Act of 1950 and enabled it to cover domestic energy supplies. It also obligated the federal government to promote and reform the Strategic Petroleum Reserve, biofuels, geothermal power, acid rain prevention, solar power, and synthetic fuel commercialization. The Defense Production Act was further reauthorized in 2009, with modifications requiring the federal government to promote renewable energy, energy efficiency, and improved grid and grid storage installations with its defense procurements. The federal government provided substantially larger subsidies to fossil fuels than to renewables in the 2002โ2008 period. Subsidies to fossil fuels totaled approximately $72 billion, a direct cost to taxpayers, over the study period. Subsidies for renewable fuels totaled $29 billion over the same period, this was also a direct cost to taxpayers. In some cases, the US used energy policy to pursue other international goals. Richard Heinberg claimed that a declassified CIA document showed that, during the Reagan administration, the US used oil prices as leverage against the Soviet Union economy by working with Saudi Arabia to keep oil prices low, thus decreasing the value of the USSR's petroleum export industry. The 2005 Energy Policy Act (EPA) addressed (1) energy efficiency; (2) renewable energy; (3) oil and gas; (4) coal; (5) tribal energy; (6) nuclear matters; (7) vehicles and motor fuels, including ethanol; (8) hydrogen; (9) electricity; (10) energy tax incentives; (11) hydropower and geothermal energy; and (12) climate change technology. The Act also started the Department of Energy's Loan Guarantee Program. The Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007 provided funding to help improve building codes and outlawed the sale of incandescent light bulbs in favor of fluorescents and LEDs. The act included a solar air conditioning program and funding to increase photovoltaics. The act also created the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant and set the CAFE standard to 35 mpg by 2020. In February 2009, the American Recovery and Reinvestment Act was passed, with an initial projection of $45 billion in funding levels going to energy. $11 billion went to the Weatherization Assistance Program, the Energy Efficiency and Conservation Block Grant, and the State Energy Program; $11 billion went to federal buildings and vehicles; $8 billion went to research and development programs; $2.4 billion went to new technology and facility development projects; $14 billion went to the electric grid; and $21 billion was projected to go to tax credits for renewable energy and electric vehicles, among other things. Due in part to the design of the tax credits, the final amount of energy spending and incentives reached over $90 billion, leveraged $150 billion in private investment, funded 180 advanced manufacturing projects, and created more than 900,000 job-years. In December 2009, the United States Patent and Trademark Office announced the Green Patent Pilot Program. The program was initiated to accelerate the examination of patent applications relating to certain green technologies, including the energy sector. The pilot program was initially designed to accommodate 3,000 applications related to certain green technology categories, and the program was originally set to expire on December 8, 2010. In May 2010, the USPTO announced that it would expand the pilot program. In 2016, federal government energy-specific subsidies and support for renewables, fossil fuels, and nuclear energy amounted to $6,682 million, $489 million and $365 million, respectively. On June 1, 2017, then-President Donald Trump announced that the U.S. would cease participation in the 2015 Paris Agreement on climate change mitigation, agreed to under the President Barack Obama administration. On November 3, 2020, incoming President Joe Biden announced that the U.S. would resume its participation. The Energy Information Administration (EIA) predicted that the reduction in energy consumption in 2020 due to the COVID-19 pandemic would take many years to recover. For many decades, the US imported much of its oil, but in 2020 it became a net exporter. In December 2020, Trump signed the Consolidated Appropriations Act, 2021, which contained the Energy Act of 2020 and was the first major revision package to U.S. energy policy in over a decade. The bill contains increased incentives for energy efficiency (particularly in federal government buildings), improved funding for weatherization assistance, standards to phase out the use of hydrofluorocarbons, plans to rebuild the nation's energy research sector including fossil fuel research, and $7 billion in demonstration projects for carbon capture and storage. Under President Joe Biden, one-third of the Strategic Petroleum Reserve was tapped to reduce energy prices during the COVID-19 pandemic. He also invoked the Defense Production Act to boost manufacturing of solar cells, renewable energy generators, fuel cells, electricity-dependent clean fuel equipment, building insulation, heat pumps, critical power grid infrastructure, and electric vehicle batteries. Biden also signed the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act to invest $73 billion in the energy sector. $11 billion of that amount will be invested in power grid infrastructure, with the first selected recipients for $3.46 billion announced in October 2023. This is the largest investment in the grid since the Recovery Act. $6 billion will go to domestic nuclear power. From the $73 billion, the IIJA will invest $45 billion in innovation and industrial policy for key emerging technologies in energy; $430 million to $21 billion in new demonstration projects at the DOE; and nearly $24 billion in onshoring, supply chain resilience, and bolstering competitive advantages in energy, divided into an $8.6 billion investment in carbon capture and storage, $3 billion in battery material reprocessing, $3 billion in battery recycling, $1 billion in rare-earth minerals stockpiling, and $8 billion in new research hubs for green hydrogen. $4.7 billion will go to plugging orphan wells abandoned by oil and gas companies. In August 2022, Biden signed the CHIPS and Science Act to boost DOE and National Science Foundation research activities by $174 billion. He also signed the Inflation Reduction Act to create assistance programs for utility cooperatives and a $27 billion green bank, which includes $6 billion to lower the cost of solar power in low-income communities and $7 billion to capitalize smaller green banks. The bill appropriates $270โ663 billion in clean energy and energy efficiency tax credits, including at least $158 billion for investments in clean energy and $36 billion for home energy upgrades from public utilities. The Biden administration itself claimed that as of January 10, 2025[update], the IIJA, CaSA, and IRA together catalyzed $1 trillion in private investment (including $449 billion in electronics and semiconductors, $184 billion in electric vehicles and batteries, $215 billion in clean power, $93 billion in clean energy tech manufacturing and infrastructure, and $51 billion in heavy industry) and over $756.2 billion in public infrastructure spending (including $99 billion in energy aside from tax credits in the IRA). Even so, the Biden administration also presided over record high oil and gas production, reaching averages of 12.9 million barrels per day nationwide in 2023, and 530,000 barrels per day from public lands since 2020 (despite a campaign pledge to halt drilling on said lands). However, growth has been driven more by Permian Basin drilling than by the administration's policies. Around spring 2024, the Biden administration announced several changes to its energy policy approach. First, the EPA issued new tailpipe emissions limits that it projected would cut emissions by 7 billion metric tons, or 56% of 2026 levels, by 2032. Second, it raised royalty rates from 12.5% to 16.7%, doubled rents and increased lease bond minimums by a factor of 15 on federal lands for oil and gas companies. Third, the EPA finalized new standards for power plant carbon emissions, projecting cuts of 65,000 tons by 2028 and 1.38 billion tons by 2047. Fourth, the DOE announced that it would assume the role of default lead agency on permitting approvals for most new power transmission projects, as well as enact a two-year deadline, require only one environmental impact statement per project, and increase transparency around the permitting process. Lastly, it issued a new rule to make large water heaters much more energy-efficient by 2029, cutting carbon emissions by a projected 332 million tons over 30 years, as part of the DOE's overall effort since 2020 to drive 2.5 billion tons in 30-year appliance emissions cuts. On January 22, 2025, U.S. President Donald Trump declared a national energy emergency, stating that increased drilling and expedited pipeline construction would necessitate court orders. However, legal experts indicated that oil and gas producers would not be permitted to bypass all environmental laws. The national emergency law could grant the president extensive powers across 150 different pieces of legislation, yet limitations on environmental laws and regulations would still apply. โIt could accelerate energy projects, but it would compromise water standards, jeopardize endangered species, and create significant gaps,โ remarked Mark Novitt, a professor at Emory University School of Law. โThereโs a reason those emergency regulations arenโt invoked on a daily basis.โ Department of Energy The Energy Department's mission statement is "to ensure America's security and prosperity by addressing its energy, environmental and nuclear challenges through transformative science and technology solutions." As of January 2023[update], its elaboration of the mission statement is as follows: Import policies The US bans energy imports from countries such as Russia (because of the Russo-Ukrainian War) and Venezuela. The US also limits exports of oil from Iran. Although it is a net exporter, the US imports energy from multiple countries, led by Canada. In May 2024, the Biden administration doubled tariffs on solar cells imported from China and more than tripled tariffs on lithium-ion electric vehicle batteries imported from China. The increased tariffs will be phased in over a period of three years. Export In 1975, the United States implemented a crude oil export ban, which limited most exports to other countries. It came two years after an OPEC oil embargo banned oil sales to the U.S. and sent gas prices skyrocketing. Newspaper photographs of long car lines outside of gas stations became a common and worrisome image. Forty years later in 2015, Congress voted to repeal its ban on exporting U.S. crude oil. Since that year, crude exports have skyrocketed nearly 600% to 3.2 million barrels per day in 2020, according to data from the U.S. Energy Information Administration. Under President Biden, the pattern continued, as hundreds of other new oil and gas projects, many of them marked for boosting exports to counter China and Russia's influence, were approved. In response to criticism from environmentalists, Biden temporarily suspended regulatory approvals for new natural gas export terminals in January 2024, but in July, Louisiana federal judge James D. Cain Jr. halted the suspension temporarily amid a lawsuit from 16 Republican-governed states. Strategic petroleum reserve The United States Strategic Petroleum Reserve stores as much as 600M barrels of oil.[needs update] Energy consumption Industry has long been the country's largest energy sector. It used 33% of total energy in 2021, most of which was divided evenly between natural gas, electricity and petroleum. A survey from 2018 estimated that the largest energy users were the chemical industry (30%), petroleum and coal processing (18%), mining (9%) and paper (9%). The most energy-intensive industry was by far petroleum and coal, at over 30 billion BTU per employee. The paper industry was second at 6.5 billion BTU per employee. Each of these handles energy sources as part of their raw materials (fossil fuels and wood). The same survey found that half of the electric use was to drive machines and about 10% each for heating, cooling and electro-chemical processes. Most of the remainder was for factory lighting and HVAC. About half of the natural gas was for process heating, and most of the rest was for boilers. Transportation used 28% of energy, almost all of which was petroleum and other fuels. Half of the combustible fuels that make up the transportation sector were gasoline, and half of the vehicle usage was for cars and small trucks. Diesel and heavier trucks each made up about a quarter of their respective categories; jet fuel and aircraft were about a tenth each. Biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel made up 5%, while natural gas was 4%. Electricity from mass transit was 0.2%; electricity for light passenger vehicles is counted in other sectors, but figures from the US Department of Energy estimate that 2.1 million electric vehicles used 6.1 TWh to travel 19 billion miles, indicating an average fuel efficiency of 3.1 miles per kWh. Over two-thirds of the energy used by homes, offices, and other commercial businesses is electric, including electric losses. Most of the energy used in homes was for space heating (34%) and water heating (19%), much more than the amount used for space cooling (16%) and refrigeration (7%). Businesses use similar percentages for space cooling and refrigeration. They use less for space and water heating but more for lighting and cooking. Most homes in the US are single-family detached, which on average use almost triple the energy of apartments in larger buildings. However, single family households have 50% more persons and triple the floor space. Usage per square foot of living space is roughly equal for most housing types except small apartment buildings and mobile homes. Small apartments are more likely to be older than other housing types, while mobile homes tend to have poor insulation. Sources In 2021, energy in the United States came mostly from fossil fuels: 36% originated from petroleum, 32% from natural gas, and 11% from coal. Renewable energy supplied the rest: hydropower, biomass, wind, geothermal, and solar supplied 12%, while nuclear supplied 8%. Utilities In the U.S., utilities are regulated at the federal level by the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission. In each state, a public utility commission (PUC) regulates electricity, gas, and other forms of power. States began deregulating electricity systems in the 1990s as a way to promote competition and lower costs. While transmission lines and distribution services are still provided by local utility companies, wholesale markets were created to enable power plant investments and allow utilities to acquire power for customers. Those wholesale markets are operated by regional transmission organizations (RTOs). Deregulation led to the creation of independent energy suppliers and allowed customers to choose their electric supplier. Energy efficiency Opportunities for increased energy efficiency are available across the economy, including buildings/appliances, transportation, and manufacturing. Some opportunities require new technology. Others require behavioral change by individuals or at the community level or above. The U.S. federal government has initiated various energy-efficiency policies, programs and legislation, including the Weatherization Assistance Program (WAP), CAFE standards for vehicle fuel efficiency, and the Energy Star program for promoting efficiency in household appliances. American governments, at all levels, have implemented various building standards to improve energy efficiency. Building-related energy efficiency innovation takes many forms, including improvements in water heaters; refrigerators and freezers; building control technologies for heating, ventilation, and cooling (HVAC); adaptive windows; building codes; and lighting. Energy-efficient technologies can enable superior performance. For example, this could include higher quality lighting, heating and cooling with greater controls, or improved reliability of service through greater ability of utilities to respond to time of peak demand. More efficient vehicles save on fuel purchases, emit fewer pollutants, improve health and save on medical costs. Heat engines are only 20% efficient at converting oil into work. However, heat pumps are highly efficient, up to 300% in some cases, at moving heat to and from outside air. Energy budget, initiatives and incentives Most energy policy incentives are financial. Examples of these include tax breaks, tax reductions, tax exemptions, rebates, loans and subsidies. The Energy Policy Act of 2005, the Energy Independence and Security Act of 2007, the Emergency Economic Stabilization Act of 2008, and the Inflation Reduction Act all provided such incentives. The US Production Tax Credit (PTC) reduces the federal income taxes of qualified owners of renewable energy projects based on grid-connected output. The Investment Tax Credit (ITC) reduces federal income taxes for qualified tax-payers based on capital investment in renewable energy projects. The Advanced Energy Manufacturing Tax Credit (MTC) awards tax credits to selected domestic manufacturing facilities that support clean energy development. The Department of Energy's Loan Guarantee Program guarantees financing up to 80% of a qualifying project's cost. In the United States, the share of renewable energy in electricity generation has grown to 21% by 2020. Oil use is expected to decline in the US because of increasing vehicle efficiency and replacement of crude oil by natural gas as a feedstock for the petrochemical sector. One forecast is that the rapid uptake of electric vehicles will reduce oil demand drastically by 80% lower in 2050 compared with today. A Renewable Portfolio Standard (RPS) is a state/local mandate that requires electricity providers to supply a minimum amount of power from renewable sources, usually defined as a percentage of total energy production. The federal government offers many programs to support the development and implementation of biofuel-based replacements for fossil fuels. Landowners and operators who establish, produce, and deliver biofuel crops may qualify for partial reimbursement of startup costs as well as for annual payments. Loan guarantees help finance development, construction, and retrofitting of commercial-scale biorefineries. Grants help build demonstration-scale biorefineries and also help scale up existing biorefineries. Loan guarantees and grants support the purchase of pumps that dispense ethanol-including fuels. Production support helps makers expand output. Tax credits support the purchase of fueling equipment (gas pumps) for specific fuels including some biofuels. Education grants support training the public about biodiesel. Research, development, and demonstration grants support feedstock development and biofuel development. Grants support research, demonstration, and deployment projects to replace buses and other petroleum-fueled vehicles with biofuel or other alternative fuel-based vehicles in addition to necessary fueling infrastructure. The 2005 Energy Policy Act offered incentives including billions in tax reductions for nuclear power, fossil fuel production, clean coal technologies, renewable electricity, and conservation and efficiency improvements. The US leases federal land to private firms for energy production. The volume of leases has varied by presidential administration. During the first 19 months of the Joe Biden administration, 130,000 acres were leased, compared to 4 million under the Donald Trump administration, 7 million under the Obama administration, and 13 million under the George W. Bush administration. The Inflation Reduction Act requires that for federal lands, oil and gas auctions be carried out before wind and solar lease consideration, even as the Act brought about royalty rate increases. Permian Basin drilling activity, some of it on federal lands, also brought about record high oil production even after the Act's signing in 2022. Net metering is a policy by many states in the United States designed to help the adoption of renewable energy. Net metering was pioneered in the United States as a way to allow solar and wind to provide electricity whenever available and allow use of that electricity whenever it was needed, beginning with utilities in Idaho in 1980, and in Arizona in 1981. In 1983, Minnesota passed the first state net metering law. As of March 2015, 44 states and Washington, D.C. have developed mandatory net metering rules for at least some utilities. However, although the states' rules are clear, few utilities actually compensate at full retail rates. Net metering policies are determined by states, which have set policies varying on a number of key dimensions. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 required state electricity regulators to "consider" (but not necessarily implement) rules that mandate public electric utilities make net metering available to their customers upon request. Several legislative bills have been proposed to institute a federal standard limit on net metering. They range from H.R. 729, which sets a net metering cap at 2% of forecasted aggregate customer peak demand, to H.R. 1945, which has no aggregate cap, but does limit residential users to 10 kW, a low limit compared to many states, such as New Mexico, with an 80,000 kW limit, or states such as Arizona, Colorado, New Jersey, and Ohio, which limit as a percentage of load. Electricity transmission and distribution Electric power transmission results in energy loss, through electrical resistance, heat generation, electromagnetic induction and less-than-perfect electrical insulation. Electric transmission (production to consumer) loses over 23% of the energy due to generation, transmission, and distribution. In 1995, long distance transmission losses were estimated at 7.2% of the power transported. Reducing transmission distances reduces these losses. For every five units of energy going into typical large fossil fuel power plants, only about one unit reaches the consumer in a usable form. A similar situation exists in natural gas transport, which requires compressor stations along pipelines that use energy to keep the gas moving. Gas liquefaction, cooling, and re-gasification in the liquified natural gas supply chain uses a substantial amount of energy. Distributed generation and distributed storage are means of reducing total and transmission losses as well as reducing costs for electricity consumers. In October 2023, the Biden administration announced the largest major investment in the grid since the Recovery Act in 2009. The Federal Energy Regulatory Commission (FERC) is the primary regulatory agency of electric power transmission and wholesale electricity sales within the United States. FERC was originally established by Congress in 1920 as the Federal Power Commission and has since undergone multiple name and responsibility modifications. Electric power distribution and the retail sale of power is under state jurisdiction. Order No. 888 was adopted by FERC on April 24, 1996. It was "designed to remove impediments to competition in the wholesale bulk power marketplace and to bring more efficient, lower cost power to the Nation's electricity consumers. The legal and policy cornerstone of these rules is to remedy undue discrimination in access to the monopoly owned transmission wires that control whether and to whom electricity can be transported in interstate commerce." The Order required all public utilities that own, control, or operate facilities used for transmitting electric energy in interstate commerce, to have open-access non-discriminatory transmission tariffs. These tariffs allow any electricity generator to utilize existing power lines to transmit the power that they generate. The Order also permits public utilities to recover the costs associated with providing their power lines as an open-access service. Order No. 889 mandated that these generators tie into transmission markets via data portals called "Open Access Same-Time Information Systems". In 2003, FERC issued Order No. 2003, which required utilities to standardize their interconnection procedures (linking power plants to the grid) and issue credits to power generators as reimbursement for upfront interconnection costs, over a long time period. The Energy Policy Act of 2005 (EPAct) expanded federal authority to regulate power transmission. EPAct gave FERC significant new responsibilities, including enforcement of electric transmission reliability standards and the establishment of rate incentives to encourage investment in electricity transmission. Historically, local governments exercised authority over the grid and maintained significant disincentives for actions that would benefit other states. Localities with cheap electricity have a disincentive for making interstate commerce in electricity trading easier, since other regions would be able to compete for that energy and drive up rates. For example, some regulators in Maine refused to address congestion problems because the congestion protects Maine rates. Local constituencies can block or slow permitting by pointing to visual impacts, as well as to environmental and health concerns. In the US, generation is growing four times faster than transmission, but transmission upgrades require the coordination of multiple jurisdictions, complex permitting, and cooperation between the many companies that collectively own the grid. The US national security interest in improving transmission was reflected in the EPAct, which gave the Department of Energy the authority to approve transmission if states refused to act. In 2010, FERC issued Order 1000, which required RTOs to create regional transmission plans and identify transmission needs based on public policy. Cost allocation reforms were included, possibly to reduce barriers faced by non-incumbent transmission developers. In February 2018, FERC issued Order 841, which required wholesale markets to open up to individual storage installations, regardless of interconnection point (transmission, distribution or behind-the-meter). The Order was challenged in court by the state public utility commissions via the National Association of Regulatory Utility Commissioners (NARUC), the American Public Power Association, and others who claimed that FERC overstepped its jurisdiction by regulating how local electric distribution and behind-the-meter facilities are administered, i.e., by not providing an opt-out of wholesale market access for energy storage facilities located at the distribution level or behind-the-meter. The D.C. Circuit Court issued an order in July 2020 that upheld Order 841 and dismissed the petitioners' complaints. FERC issued Order 2222 on September 17, 2020, enabling distributed energy resources such as batteries and demand response to participate in regional wholesale electricity markets. Market operators submitted initial compliance plans by early 2022. The Supreme Court had ruled in 2016 in FERC v. Electric Power Supply Ass'n that the agency had the authority to regulate demand response transactions. $11 billion of the $73 billion from the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act will be invested in the electrical grid's adjustment to renewable energy, with some of the money going to new loans for electric power transmission lines and required studies for future transmission needs. On October 24, 2023, the administration announced that the first $3.46 billion in grants from the Act's $11 billion grid rebuilding authorization would go to 58 projects in 44 states. 16 projects are categorized as improving grid resilience, 34 are categorized as building smart grids, and eight are categorized as pursuing grid innovation. The investment is the largest in the American grid since the Recovery Act 14 years earlier. According to Energy Secretary Jennifer Granholm, the projects could enable 35 gigawatts of renewable energy to come online by 2030 and 400 microgrids to be built. On August 6, 2024, the DOE announced the recipients of the next $2.2 billion in GRIP grants, eight grid innovation projects across 18 states adding a total of 13 gigawatts of capacity to the grid. On October 30, the DOE announced the results of a mandated triennial study that, for the first time in its history, included anticipation of future grid transmission needs; the Act had explicitly required this inclusion. The study found a decline in infrastructure investments since 2015 and consistently high prices in the Rust Belt and California since 2018. The study projected a 20 to 128 percent increase in transmission would be needed within regions, while interregional transmission would need to increase by 25 to 412 percent. The study found that the most potential was in better connecting Texas to the Southwest region, the Mississippi Delta and Midwest regions to the Great Plains region, and New York to New England. The DOE also announced the first three recipients of a new $2.5 billion loan program called the Transmission Facilitation Program (TFP), created to provide funding to help build up the interstate power grid. They are the 1.2-gigawatt Twin States Clean Energy Link between Quebec, New Hampshire and Vermont; the 1.5-gigawatt Cross-Tie Transmission Line between Utah and Nevada; and the 1-gigawatt Southline Transmission Project between Arizona and New Mexico. The following April 25, the DOE announced the TFP selection of the 2-gigawatt Southwest Intertie Project North, which effectively extends the One Nevada Transmission Line northward to Idaho. The next October, the DOE announced that four projects, the 1.2-gigawatt Aroostook Project in Maine, 1.9-gigawatt Cimarron Link in Oklahoma, 3-gigawatt Southern Spirit between Texas and Mississippi, and 1-gigawatt Southline in New Mexico, were being awarded a total of $1.5 billion under the TFP; the DOE also released its first ever National Transmission Planning Study to follow up on the Needs Study, forecasting a needed national transmission capacity increase of 2.4 to 3.5 times the 2020 level by 2050 to keep costs low and facilitate the energy transmission, with estimated cost savings ranging from $270 billion to $490 billion. The Inflation Reduction Act of the Biden administration has fast-tracked transmission projects by helping purchase $30 billion in wholesale electric transmission contracts, as well as by publishing a national transmission needs report, which had been expanded in scope by the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. The Act provides $760 million to states, tribes and localities to accelerate planning approvals for high-voltage interstate transmission lines; the first $371 million was awarded on July 24, 2024. Even with the IRA, U.S. transmission grid capacity would have to triple in order to meet the global target of net zero carbon emissions according to a Princeton University study. On July 28, 2023, the Federal Energy Regulatory Commission approved Order No. 2023, which regulates the interconnection process that ties renewables projects into the large-scale grid. Among other provisions, the rule requires transmission planners to consolidate projects into 'clusters' for regulatory approval purposes on a 'first-ready, first-served' basis that prioritizes the most well-studied and fully financed projects. It also requires transmission planners to forecast advanced technologies and allow for multiple projects to share a new single interconnection point. It "imposes firm deadlines and penalties if transmission providers fail to complete interconnection studies on time". On March 21, 2024, FERC issued Order No. 2023-A, an amendment clarifying certain provisions in the order, such as compliance filing requirements, the deadline for utilities to edit interconnect requests upon submission, the role of substation use in determining cost allocation, and the use of surety bonds in financing. The Fiscal Responsibility Act of 2023 required the federal government to implement a two-year deadline for permitting approvals for energy projects, including grid transmission, and also to designate a lead agency for such projects. On April 25, 2024, the DOE finalized a rule to implement the requirement. The rule, called Coordinated Interagency Transmission Authorizations and Permits Program (CITAP Program), stated the DOE would assume the role of default lead agency for most new power transmission projects. The rule also stated that the DOE would streamline permitting approvals, require only one environmental impact statement per project, and increase transparency around the permitting process. On the same day, the DOE authorized changes to its categorical exclusion process under the National Environmental Policy Act, allowing faster permit reviews for grid battery storage, flywheel storage, reconductoring and advanced power flow control, and midsize solar PV projects. On May 13, 2024, FERC issued Order Nos. 1920 and 1977. The former order requires utilities to plan 20 years in advance to anticipate future regional (though not interregional) transmission needs, with five-year updates, and to cooperate in creating a default cost-sharing plan to deliver to state regulators. It "provides for cost-effective expansion of transmission that is being replaced, when needed, known as 'right-sizing' transmission facilities", and it allows states more opportunities to cooperate with utility companies and energy project developers, while preventing states that benefit from regional transmission projects from not paying for them. FERC Order No. 1920-A, an amendment to it passed unanimously the following November, allows state regulators even more opportunities to provide input on interstate grid projects, adds six months to the cost allocation negotiating process, and gives utilities more leeway to forecast additional needs scenarios. The latter order affirms FERC's siting authority in National Interest Electric Transmission Corridors if a state regulatory agency denies any of its own siting responsibility thereof, thus implementing part of the Infrastructure Investment and Jobs Act. The order creates an Applicant Code of Conduct to encourage proper landowner outreach and adds air quality, environmental justice and tribal engagement reports to the list of requirements for project applicants. Greenhouse gas emissions While the United States has cumulatively emitted the most greenhouse gases of any country, it represents a declining fraction of ongoing emissions, long superseded by China. Since its peak in 1973, per capita US emissions have declined by 40%, resulting from improved technology, the shift in economic activity from manufacturing to services, changing consumer preferences and government policy. State and local government have launched initiatives. Cities in 50 states endorsed the Kyoto protocol. Northeastern US states established the Regional Greenhouse Gas Initiative (RGGI), a state-level emissions cap and trade program. On February 16, 2007, the United States, together with leaders from Canada, France, Germany, Italy, Japan, Russia, United Kingdom, Brazil, China, India, Mexico and South Africa agreed in principle on the outline of a successor to the Kyoto Protocol known as the Washington Declaration. They envisaged a global cap-and-trade system that would apply to both industrialized nations and developing countries. The system did not come to pass. Arjun Makhijani argued that in order to limit global warming to 2 ยฐC, the world would need to reduce CO2 emissions by 85% and the US by 95%. He developed a model by which such changes could occur. Effective delivered energy is modeled to increase from about 75 quadrillion BTU in 2005 to about 125 quadrillion in 2050, but due to efficiency increases, the actual energy input increases from about 99 quadrillion BTU in 2005 to about 103 quadrillion in 2010 and then will decrease to about 77 quadrillion in 2050. Petroleum use is assumed to increase until 2010 and then linearly decrease to zero by 2050. The roadmap calls for nuclear power to decrease to zero, with the reduction also beginning in 2010. Joseph Romm called for the rapid deployment of existing technologies to decrease carbon emissions. He argued that "If we are to have confidence in our ability to stabilize carbon dioxide levels below 450 p.p.m. emissions must average less than [5 billion metric tons of carbon] per year over the century. This means accelerating the deployment of the 11 wedges so they begin to take effect in 2015 and are completely operational in much less time than originally modeled by Socolow and Pacala." In 2012, the National Renewable Energy Laboratory assessed the technical potential for renewable electricity for each of the 50 states. It concluded that each state had the technical potential for renewable electricity, mostly from solar and wind, that could exceed its current electricity consumption. The report cautions: "Note that as a technical potential, rather than economic or market potential, these estimates do not consider availability of transmission infrastructure, costs, reliability or time-of-dispatch, current or future electricity loads, or relevant policies." In 2022, the EPA received funding for a green bank called the Greenhouse Gas Reduction Fund to drive down carbon dioxide emissions, as part of the Inflation Reduction Act, the largest decarbonization incentives package in U.S. history. In 2024, the Fund awarded $14 billion to three green banks nationwide for a broad variety of decarbonization investments, $6 billion to green banks in low-income and historically disadvantaged communities for similar investments, and $7 billion to 60 state and local energy funds for decentralized solar power in communities with no financing alternatives. See also References Further reading External links |
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Contents Racism against African Americans In the context of racism in the United States, racism against African Americans dates back to the colonial era, and continues to be a persistent issue in American society in the 21st century. From the arrival of the first Africans in early colonial times until after the American Civil War, most African Americans were enslaved. Even free African Americans have faced restrictions on their political, social, and economic freedoms, being subjected to lynchings, segregation, Black Codes, Jim Crow laws, and other forms of discrimination, both before and after the Civil War. Thanks to the civil rights movement, formal racial discrimination was gradually outlawed by the federal government and came to be perceived as socially and morally unacceptable by large elements of American society. Despite this, racism against Black Americans remains in the U.S., as does socioeconomic inequality between black and white Americans.[a] In 1863, two years prior to emancipation, Black people owned 0.5 percent of the national wealth, while in 2019 it is just over 1.5 percent. In recent years research has uncovered extensive evidence of racial discrimination in various sectors of modern U.S. society, including the criminal justice system, businesses, the economy, housing, health care, the media, and politics. In the view of the United Nations and the US Human Rights Network [de], "discrimination in the United States permeates all aspects of life and extends to all communities of color." Citizenship and voting rights The Naturalization Act of 1790 set the first uniform rules for the granting of United States citizenship by naturalization, which limited naturalization to "free white person[s]", thus excluding from citizenship Native Americans, indentured servants, slaves, free Blacks, and later Asians. Citizenship and the lack of it had special impact on various legal and political rights, most notably suffrage rights at both the federal and state level, as well as the right to hold certain government offices, jury duty, military service, and many other activities, besides access to government assistance and services. The second Militia Act of 1792 also provided for the conscription of every "free able-bodied white male citizen". Tennessee's 1834 Constitution included a provision: "the free white men of this State have a right to Keep and bear arms for their common defense." Citizenship, however, did not guarantee any particular rights, such as the right to vote. Black Americans, for example, who gained formal U.S. citizenship by 1870, were soon disenfranchised. For instance, after 1890, less than 9,000 of Mississippi's 147,000 eligible African-American voters were registered to vote, or about 6%. Louisiana went from 130,000 registered African-American voters in 1896 to 1,342 in 1904 (about a 99% decrease).[citation needed] They were also subjected to Black Codes and discriminated against in the Southern states by Jim Crow laws. Voter suppression efforts around the country, though mainly motivated by political considerations, often effectively disproportionately affect African Americans and other minorities. In 2016, one in 13 African-Americans of voting age was disenfranchised, more than four times greater than that of non-African-Americans. Over 7.4% of adult African-Americans were disenfranchised compared to 1.8% of non-African-Americans. Felony disenfranchisement in Florida disqualifies over 10% of its citizens for life and over 23% of its African-American citizens. Antebellum period Slavery, as a form of forced labor, has existed in many cultures, dating back to early human civilizations. Slavery is not inherently racial per se. In the United States, however, slavery, having been established in the colonial era, became racialized by the time of the American Revolution (1775โ1783), when slavery was widely institutionalized as a racial caste system which was based on African ancestry and skin color. The Atlantic slave trade prospered, with more than 470,000 persons forcibly transported from Africa between 1626 and 1860 to what is now the United States. Prior to the Civil War, eight serving presidents were slaveholders, and slavery was protected by the U.S. Constitution. Creating wealth for the White elite, approximately one in four Southern families held Black people in slavery prior to the Civil War. According to the 1860 U.S. census, there were about 385,000 slave owners out of a White population of approximately 7 million in the slave states. White European Americans who participated in the slave industry sought to justify their economic exploitation of Black people by creating a "scientific" theory of White superiority and Black inferiority. Thomas Jefferson, a slave owner himself, called for science to determine the obvious "inferiority" of Black people that is regarded as "an extremely important stage in the evolution of scientific racism." He concluded that Black people were "inferior to the whites in the endowments of body and mind." Groups of armed White men, who were called slave patrols, were formed to monitor enslaved Black people. First established in South Carolina in 1704 and later established in other slave states, their function was to police slaves, especially runaways. Slave owners feared that slaves might organize revolts or rebellions, so state militias were formed to provide a military command structure and discipline within the slave patrols so they could be used to detect, encounter, and crush any organized slave meetings which might lead to revolts or rebellions. During the 1820s and 1830s, the solution of the American Colonization Society (ACS) to the presence of free Black people was to persuade them to emigrate to Africa. In 1821, the ACS established the colony of Liberia, and persuaded thousands of former slaves and free Blacks to move there. Some slaves were manumitted (set free) on the condition that they emigrate. The slave states made no secret that they wanted to get rid of free Blacks, who they believed threatened their investment, the slaves, encouraging escapes and revolts. The support for the ACS was primarily Southern. The founder of the ACS, Henry Clay of Kentucky, stated that because of "unconquerable prejudice resulting from their color, they never could amalgamate with the free whites of this country. It was desirable, therefore, as it respected them, and the residue of the population of the country, to drain them off". Thousands of Black people were resettled in Liberia, where they formed an American English-speaking enclave which could not assimilate back into African life and as a result, most of them died of tropical diseases. White supremacist American governments emphasized the importance of the subjugation and control of other racial populations. In 1824 the Senate of South Carolina enacted a resolution echoing the wording of the Supremacy Clause of the Constitution of the United States, declaring that the paramount objective of its government was to prevent the insubordination of black citizens and any possible slave rebellions as well as any social or political causes which might instrumentally lead to such insubordination or insurrection, and declaring that this purpose was paramount over all other laws, constitutions, and domestic or international agreements: Resolved, That it is as much the duty of the state to guard against insubordination or insurrection among our colored population, or to control and regulate any cause which might excite or produce it, as to guard against any other evil, political or physical, which might assail us. This duty is paramount to all laws, all treaties, all constitutions. It arises from the supreme and permanent law of nature, the law of self-preservation; and will never, by this state, be renounced, compromised, controlled or participated with any power whatever. The importation of slaves into the United States was outlawed by federal law from 1808, but smuggling continued, the last known ship to bring enslaved Africans to the United States being the Clotilda in 1859 or 1860. The domestic trade in human beings continued to be a major economic activity. Maryland and Virginia, for example, would export surplus slaves to the south. (See Franklin and Armfield Office.) Enslaved family members could be split up (i.e., sold off) never to see or hear of each other again. Between 1830 and 1840, nearly 250,000 slaves were taken across state lines. In the 1850s, more than 193,000 were transported, and historians estimate nearly one million in total were traded. The historian Ira Berlin called this forced migration of slaves the "Second Middle Passage", because it reproduced many of the same horrors as the Middle Passage (the name given to the transportation of slaves from Africa to North America). These sales of slaves broke up many families, with Berlin writing that whether slaves were directly uprooted or lived in fear that they or their families would be involuntarily moved, "the massive deportation traumatized black people". Individuals lost their connection to families and clans. Added to the earlier colonists combining slaves from different tribes, many ethnic Africans lost their knowledge of varying tribal origins in Africa. Most were descended from families who had been in the U.S. for many generations. Civil War and emancipation During the American Civil War, the Militia Act of 1862, for the first time, allowed African Americans to serve in the Union militias as soldiers. However, Black members were discriminated against in pay, with Black members being paid half of White members. Besides discrimination in pay, colored units were often disproportionately assigned laborer work, rather than combat assignments.: 198 General Daniel Ullman, commander of the United States Colored Troops, remarked "I fear that many high officials outside of Washington have no other intention than that these men shall be used as diggers and drudges." Black members were organized into colored regiments. By the end of that war, in April 1865, 175 colored regiments were constituting about one-tenth of the Union Army. About 20 percent of colored soldiers died, their death toll being about 35 percent higher than that of white Union troops. The 1862 Militia Act, however, did not open military service to all races, only to Black Americans. In the Confederate army, non-white men were not permitted to serve as soldiers. President Abraham Lincoln's Emancipation Proclamation, which took effect on January 1, 1863, marked a change in the federal government's position on slavery. (Up to that time, the federal government had never even taken a limited pro-emancipation stance, and it could do so only in 1862 because of the 1861 departure of almost all of the Southern members of Congress). Though the proclamation was welcomed by abolitionists, its application was limited. It did not apply, for example, to the nearly 500,000 slaves in the slave-holding border states of Delaware, Kentucky, Maryland, Missouri, and the new state of West Virginia, and it also did not apply in parts of Louisiana and Virginia that were occupied by Union forces. In those states, slavery remained legal until abolished by state action or by the ratification of the Thirteenth Amendment in December 1865. While personally opposed to slavery (see Abraham Lincoln and slavery), Lincoln accepted the federal consensus that the Constitution did not give Congress the power to end it. But he was also Commander in Chief of the Army and Navy. An action based on military necessity, against states that were in rebellion, would be appropriate as a step towards their defeat. The South of course interpreted the Emancipation Proclamation as a hostile act, but it allowed Lincoln to abolish slavery to a limited extent, without igniting resistance from anti-abolitionist forces in the Union. The slaves were not immediately affected by the proclamation, but advancing Union armies freed them. About four million Black slaves were freed in 1865. Ninety-five percent of Black people lived in the South, comprising one-third of its total population, while only five percent of Black people lived in the North, comprising only one percent of its total population. Consequently, fears of eventual emancipation were much greater in the South than in the North. Based on 1860 census figures, eight percent of males who were aged 13 to 43 died in the Civil War, including six percent in the North and eighteen percent in the South. Though the Thirteenth Amendment formally abolished slavery throughout the United States, some Black Americans became subjected to revised forms of involuntary labor, particularly in the South, through the use of Black Codes that restricted African Americans' freedom and compelled them to work for low wages, and through the use of the exception in the Thirteenth Amendment, which permitted slavery "as a punishment for crime". They were also subject to White supremacist violence and selective enforcement of statutes. Land redistribution programs, such as the Homestead Acts, were most often closed to African Americans (or subject to harsh racist backlash), though some did succeed in obtaining land. From the Reconstruction Era to World War II After the Civil War, on December 6, 1865, the 13th Amendment, formally abolishing slavery, was ratified. The next year, Congress passed the Civil Rights Act of 1866, which provided a range of civil rights and granted them to all persons who were born in the United States. Despite this, the emergence of Black Codes sanctioned acts of subjugation against Black people and they also continued to bar African Americans from exercising their civil rights. The Naturalization Act of 1790 had granted U.S. citizenship only to whites, and in 1868 the effort to broaden civil rights was underscored by the passage of the 14th Amendment, which granted citizenship to "[a]ll persons born or naturalized in the United States", regardless of race. The Civil Rights Act of 1875 followed, which was eliminated in a decision that undermined federal power to thwart private racial discrimination. Nonetheless, the last of the Reconstruction Era amendments, the 15th Amendment promised voting rights to African American men (previously only white men of property could vote), and these cumulative federal efforts, African Americans began taking advantage of enfranchisement. They began voting, seeking office positions, and getting a public education. By the end of Reconstruction in the mid-1870s, violent white supremacists came to power with the assistance of paramilitary groups such as the Red Shirts and the White League and imposed Jim Crow laws which deprived African-Americans of voting rights by instituting systemic and discriminatory policies of unequal racial segregation. Segregation, which began with slavery, continued with the passage and enforcement of Jim Crow laws, along with the posting of signs which were used to show Black people where they could legally walk, talk, drink, rest, or eat. This also applied to where Black people could safely travel to by car as many had to use a Black travel guide called the Green Book. For those places that were racially mixed, non-Whites had to wait until all White customers were dealt with. Segregated facilities extended from White-only schools to White-only graveyards. Anti-miscegenation laws, which forbade marriage and even sex between whites and non-whites (which typically covered Blacks but in some cases also Indians and Asians), existed in most of the states well into the 20th century, even after emancipation and even in states that advocated the abolition of slavery. Such anti-miscegenation laws existed in many states until 1967, when the United States Supreme Court unanimously ruled in Loving v. Virginia that such laws were unconstitutional. The new century saw a hardening of institutionalized racism and legal discrimination against citizens of African descent in the United States. Throughout the post Civil War period, racial stratification was informally and systemically enforced, to solidify the pre-existing social order. Although they were technically able to vote, poll taxes, pervasive acts of terrorism such as lynchings (often perpetrated by hate groups such as the reborn Ku Klux Klan, founded in the Reconstruction South), and discriminatory laws such as grandfather clauses kept Black Americans (and many Poor Whites) disenfranchised particularly in the South. Furthermore, the discrimination was extended to state legislation which "allocated vastly unequal financial support" for Black and White schools. In addition to this, county officials sometimes redistributed resources which were earmarked for Black people to White schools, further undermining educational opportunities. In response to de jure racism, protest and lobbyist groups emerged, most notably, the NAACP (National Association for the Advancement of Colored People) in 1909. This era is sometimes referred to as the nadir of American race relations because racism, segregation, racial discrimination, and expressions of White supremacy all increased. So did anti-Black violence, including race riots such as the Atlanta race riot of 1906, the Elaine massacre of 1919, the Tulsa race massacre of 1921, and the Rosewood massacre of 1923. The Atlanta riot was characterized as a "racial massacre of negroes" by the French newspaper Le Petit Journal. The Charleston News and Courier wrote in response to the Atlanta riots: "Separation of the races is the only radical solution of the negro problem in this country. There is nothing new about it. It was the Almighty who established the bounds of the habitation of the races. The negroes were brought here by compulsion; they should be induced to leave here by persuasion." In addition, racism, which had been viewed as a problem which primarily existed in the Southern states, burst onto the nation's consciousness following the Great Migration, the relocation of millions of African Americans from their roots in the rural Southern states to the industrial centers of the North and West between 1910 and 1970, particularly in cities such as Boston, St. Louis, Chicago, Detroit, New York City (Harlem), Cleveland, Los Angeles, Oakland, Seattle, Phoenix, and Denver. Within Chicago, for example, between 1910 and 1970, the population fraction of African-Americans leapt from 2.0 percent to 32.7 percent. The demographic patterns of Black migrants and external economic conditions are largely studied stimulants regarding the Great Migration. For example, migrating Black people (between 1910 and 1920) were more likely to be literate than Blacks who remained in the South. Known economic push factors played a role in migration, such as the emergence of a split labor market and agricultural distress which resulted from the boll weevil destruction of the cotton economy. Southern migrants were often treated in accordance with pre-existing racial stratification. The rapid influx of Black people into the North and West disturbed the racial balance within cities, exacerbating hostility between both Black and White residents in the two regions. Stereotypic schemas of Southern Blacks were used to attribute issues in urban areas, such as crime and disease, to the presence of African-Americans. Overall, African-Americans in most Northern and Western cities experienced systemic discrimination in a plethora of aspects of life. Within employment, economic opportunities for Black people were routed to the lowest-status and restrictive in potential mobility. In 1900 Reverend Matthew Anderson, speaking at the annual Hampton Negro Conference in Virginia, said that "...the lines along most of the avenues of wage earning are more rigidly drawn in the North than in the South. There seems to be an apparent effort throughout the North, especially in the cities to debar the colored worker from all the avenues of higher remunerative labor, which makes it more difficult to improve his economic condition even than in the South." Within the housing market, stronger discriminatory measures were used in correlation to the influx, resulting in a mix of "targeted violence, restrictive covenants, redlining and racial steering". A club central to the Harlem Renaissance in the 1920s, the Cotton Club in Harlem, New York City, was a whites-only establishment, with Black acts allowed to perform, but to a White audience. Throughout this period, racial tensions exploded, most violently in Chicago, and lynchingsโmob-directed hangings, usually racially motivatedโincreased dramatically in the 1920s. Urban riotsโWhites attacking Blacksโbecame a northern and western problem. Many Whites defended their space with violence, intimidation, or legal tactics toward African Americans, while many other Whites migrated to more racially homogeneous suburban or exurban regions, a process known as White flight. Racially restrictive housing covenants were ruled unenforceable under the Fourteenth Amendment in the 1948 landmark Supreme Court case Shelley v. Kraemer. Elected in 1912, President Woodrow Wilson authorized the practice of racial segregation throughout the federal government's bureaucracy. In World War I, Black people who served in the United States Armed Forces served in segregated units. Black soldiers were often poorly trained and equipped, and they were often put on the frontlines and forced to go on suicide missions. The U.S. military was still heavily segregated during World War II. In addition, no African-American was awarded the Medal of Honor during the war, and sometimes, Black soldiers who traveled on trains had to give their seats up to Nazi prisoners of war. From World War II to the civil rights movement The Jim Crow laws were state and local laws which were enacted in the Southern and border states of the United States and enforced between 1876 and 1965. They mandated "separate but equal" status for Black people. In reality, this led to treatment and accommodations that were almost always inferior to those which were provided to Whites. The most important laws required that public schools, public places and public transportation, like trains and buses, have separate facilities for Whites and Blacks. State-sponsored school segregation was declared unconstitutional by the Supreme Court of the United States in 1954 in Brown v. Board of Education. One of the first federal court cases which challenged segregation in schools was Mendez v. Westminster in 1946. Access to public benefits was also a matter of concern for African Americans, who were excluded from most of the gains acquired by white Americans via programs like the G.I. Bill following World War II. During the Great Depression, Most black working women, and many black men, were likewise excluded from New Deal programs such as unemployment insurance and Social Security. By the 1950s, the Civil Rights Movement was gaining momentum. Membership in the NAACP increased in states across the U.S. A 1955 lynching that sparked public outrage about injustice was that of Emmett Till, a 14-year-old boy from Chicago. Spending the summer with his relatives in Money, Mississippi, Till was killed for allegedly having wolf-whistled at a White woman. Till had been badly beaten, one of his eyes was gouged out, and he was shot in the head before being thrown into the Tallahatchie River, his body weighed down with a 70-pound (32 kg) cotton gin fan tied around his neck with barbed wire. David Jackson writes that Mamie Till, Emmett's Mother, "brought him home to Chicago and insisted on an open casket. Tens of thousands filed past Till's remains, but it was the publication of the searing funeral image in Jet, with a stoic Mamie gazing at her murdered child's ravaged body, that forced the world to reckon with the brutality of American racism." News photographs were circulated around the country, and they drew an intense public reaction. The visceral response to his mother's decision to have an open-casket funeral mobilized the Black community throughout the U.S. Vann R. Newkirk wrote "the trial of his killers became a pageant illuminating the tyranny of White supremacy". The state of Mississippi tried two defendants, Roy Bryant and J.W. Milam, but they were speedily acquitted by an all-White jury. In response to heightening discrimination and violence, non-violent acts of protest began to occur. For example, in February 1960, in Greensboro, North Carolina, four young African American college students entered a Woolworth store and sat down at the counter but were refused service. The men had learned about non-violent protest in college, and continued to sit peacefully as Whites tormented them at the counter, pouring ketchup on their heads and burning them with cigarettes. The Greensboro sit-ins contributed to the formation of the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee. Many more sit-ins took place to non-violently protest against racism and inequality. Sit-ins continued throughout the South and spread to other areas. Eventually, after many sit-ins and other non-violent protests, including marches and boycotts, places began to agree to desegregate. In June 1963, civil rights activist and NAACP member Medgar Evers was assassinated by Byron De La Beckwith, a member of the White Citizens' Council. In his trials for murder De La Beckwith evaded conviction via all-White juries (both trials ended with hung juries). The 16th Street Baptist Church bombing marked a turning point during the civil rights era. On Sunday, September 15, 1963, with a stack of dynamite hidden on an outside staircase, Ku Klux Klansmen destroyed one side of the Birmingham church. The bomb exploded in proximity to twenty-six children who were preparing for choir practice in the basement assembly room. The explosion killed four Black girls, Carole Robertson (14), Cynthia Wesley (14), Denise McNair (11) and Addie Mae Collins (14). With the bombing occurring only a couple of weeks after Martin Luther King Jr.'s March on Washington for Jobs and Freedom, it became an integral aspect of transformed perceptions of conditions for Black people in America. It influenced the passage of the Civil Rights Act of 1964 (that banned discrimination in public accommodations, employment, and labor unions) and Voting Rights Act of 1965 which overruled remaining Jim Crow laws. Nonetheless, neither had been implemented by the end of the 1960s as civil rights leaders continued to strive for political and social freedom. The first anti-miscegenation law was passed by the Maryland General Assembly in 1691, criminalizing interracial marriage. By the late 1800s, 38 US states had anti-miscegenation statutes, and by 1924 it was still in force in 29 states. In 1958, officers in Virginia entered the home of Richard and Mildred Loving and dragged them out of bed for living together as an interracial couple, on the basis that "any white person intermarry with a colored person"โ or vice versaโeach party "shall be guilty of a felony" and face prison terms of five years. The law was ruled unconstitutional in 1967 by the U.S. Supreme Court in Loving v. Virginia. Segregation continued even after the demise of the Jim Crow laws. Data on house prices and attitudes towards integration suggest that in the mid-20th century, segregation was a product of collective actions taken by Whites to exclude Black people from their neighborhoods. Segregation also took the form of redlining, the practice of denying or increasing the cost of services, such as banking, insurance, access to jobs, access to health care, or even supermarkets to residents in certain, often racially determined, areas. Although in the U.S. informal discrimination and segregation have always existed, redlining began with the National Housing Act of 1934, which established the Federal Housing Administration (FHA). The practice was fought first through passage of the Fair Housing Act of 1968 (which prevents redlining when the criteria for redlining are based on race, religion, gender, familial status, disability, or ethnic origin), and later through the Community Reinvestment Act of 1977, which requires banks to apply the same lending criteria in all communities. Although redlining is illegal some argue that it continues to exist in other forms. Up until the 1940s, the full revenue potential of what was called "the Negro market" was largely ignored by White-owned manufacturers in the U.S. with advertising focused on Whites. Black people were also denied commercial deals. On his decision to take part in exhibition races against racehorses in order to earn money, Olympic champion Jesse Owens stated, "People say that it was degrading for an Olympic champion to run against a horse, but what was I supposed to do? I had four gold medals, but you can't eat four gold medals." On the lack of opportunities, Owens added, "There was no television, no big advertising, no endorsements then. Not for a black man, anyway." In the reception to honor his Olympic success Owens was not permitted to enter through the main doors of the Waldorf Astoria New York and instead forced to travel up to the event in a freight elevator. The first Black Academy Award recipient Hattie McDaniel was not permitted to attend the premiere of Gone with the Wind with Georgia being racially segregated, and at the Oscars ceremony in Los Angeles she was required to sit at a segregated table at the far wall of the room; the hotel had a strict no-Blacks policy, but allowed McDaniel in as a favor. Her final wish to be buried in Hollywood Cemetery was denied because the graveyard was restricted to Whites only. As the civil rights movement and the dismantling of Jim Crow laws in the 1950s and 1960s deepened existing racial tensions in much of the Southern U.S., a Republican Party electoral strategyโthe Southern strategyโwas enacted to increase political support among White voters in the South by appealing to racism against African Americans. Republican politicians such as presidential candidate Richard Nixon and Senator Barry Goldwater developed strategies that successfully contributed to the political realignment of many White, conservative voters in the South who had traditionally supported the Democratic Party rather than the Republican Party. In 1971, angered by African delegates at the UN siding against the U.S. in a vote to admit China and expel Taiwan, then Governor of California Ronald Reagan stated in a phone call to president Nixon, "To see those... those monkeys from those African countries โ damn them, they're still uncomfortable wearing shoes!" Nixon adopted Reagan's offensive language to complain about "cannibals jumping up and down" after the vote passed. Recorded conversations from Nixon's time in office further revealed his bigoted views of minorities, commenting on African Americans: "I know they're not going to make it for 500 years. They aren't. You know it, too. The Mexicans are a different cup of tea. They have a heritage. At the present time they steal, they're dishonest, but they do have some concept of family life. They don't live like a bunch of dogs, which the Negroes do live like." The perception that the Republican Party had served as the "vehicle of white supremacy in the South", particularly post 1964, made it difficult for the Party to win back the support of Black voters in the South in later years. In 1973, African American baseball legend Hank Aaron received hundreds of thousands of hate mail letters from fans, angry at him for trying to break the all-time homerun record at the time set by Babe Ruth. Aaron would eventually break Ruth's homerun record by hitting his 715th homerun on April 8, 1974. That same year, the U.S. Postal Service confirmed that Hank Aaron set the Guinness World Record for most mail received by any private citizen in one year, receiving over 900,000 letters with a third of them being letters of hate. From the 1980s to the 2000s While substantial gains were made in the succeeding decades through middle class advancement and public employment, Black poverty and lack of education continued in the context of de-industrialization. Despite gains made after the 16th Street Baptist Church bombing, some violence against Black churches has also continuedโ145 fires were set to churches around the South in the 1990s, and a mass shooting in Charleston, South Carolina was committed in 2015 at the historic Mother Emanuel Church. From 1981 to 1997, the United States Department of Agriculture discriminated against tens of thousands of Black American farmers, denying loans that were provided to White farmers in similar circumstances. The discrimination was the subject of the Pigford v. Glickman lawsuit brought by members of the National Black Farmers Association, which resulted in two settlement agreements of $1.06 billion in 1999 and of $1.25 billion in 2009. Numerous authors, academics, and historians have asserted that the war on drugs has been racially and politically motivated. As the crack epidemic spread across the country in the mid-1980s, Congress would pass the Anti-Drug Abuse Act of 1986. Under these sentencing guidelines, five grams of crack cocaine, often sold by and to African-Americans, carried a mandatory five-year prison sentence. However, for powder cocaine, often sold by and to White Americans, it would take one hundred times that amount, or 500 grams, for the same sentence, leading many to criticize the law as discriminatory. The 100:1 sentencing disparity was reduced to 18:1 in 2010 by the Fair Sentencing Act. According to the National Security Archive, during the 1980s, US officials, including Oliver North, collaborated with and protected known drug traffickers as part of efforts to fund the Central Intelligence Agency funded right-wing Contras in Nicaragua. In 1989, the Kerry Committee report concluded the Contra drug links included... "Payments to drug traffickers by the U.S. State Department of funds authorized by the Congress for humanitarian assistance to the Contras, in some cases after the traffickers had been indicted by federal law enforcement agencies on drug charges, in others while traffickers were under active investigation by these same agencies". In 1996, journalist Gary Webb wrote the Dark Alliance series for the San Jose Mercury News where he asserted that the CIA-backed Contras played a major role in the crack epidemic. The series caused outrage in the African-American community, particularly in South Central Los Angeles, where Congresswoman Maxine Waters served, and subsequently praised the series. During the 1980s and 1990s, a number of riots occurred that were related to longstanding racial tensions between police and minority communities. The 1980 Miami riots were catalyzed by the killing of an African-American motorist by four White Miami-Dade Police officers. They were subsequently acquitted on charges of manslaughter and evidence tampering. Similarly, the six-day 1992 Los Angeles riots erupted after the acquittal of four White LAPD officers who had been filmed beating Rodney King, an African-American motorist. Khalil Gibran Muhammad, the Director of the Harlem-based Schomburg Center for Research in Black Culture has identified more than 100 instances of mass racial violence in the United States since 1935 and has noted that almost every instance was precipitated by a police incident. The curriculum in U.S. schools has also contained racism against non-white Americans, including Native Americans, African Americans, Mexican Americans, and Asian Americans. Particularly during the 19th and early 20th centuries, school textbooks and other teaching materials emphasized the biological and social inferiority of Black Americans, consistently portraying Black people as simple, irresponsible, and oftentimes, in situations of suffering that were implied to be their fault (and not the effects of slavery and other oppression). Black Americans were also depicted as expendable and their suffering as commonplace, as evidenced by a poem about "Ten Little Nigger Boys" dying off one by one that was circulated as a children's counting exercise from 1875 to the mid-1900s. Historian Carter G. Woodson analyzed the American curriculum as completely lacking any mention of Black Americans' merits in the early 20th century. Based on his observations of the time, he wrote that American students, including Black students, who went through U.S. schooling would come out believing that Black people had no significant history and had contributed nothing to human civilization. From 2008 to the present Some Americans saw the presidential candidacy of Barack Obama, who served as president of the United States from 2009 to 2017 and was the nation's first Black president, as a sign that the nation had entered a new, post-racial era. The election of President Donald Trump in 2016, who was a chief proponent of the racist birther movement in the U.S. (which argued that Obama was not born in the United States) and ran a racially tinged campaign, has been viewed by some commentators as a racist backlash against the election of Barack Obama. Both before and after the election, Trump's speeches and actions have widely been considered either racist or racially charged. During the mid-2010s, American society has been impacted by a resurgence of high levels of racism and discrimination. One new phenomenon has been the rise of the "alt-right" movement: a White nationalist coalition which advocates the expulsion of sexual and racial minorities from the United States. Since the mid-2010s, the Department of Homeland Security and the Federal Bureau of Investigation have identified White supremacist violence as the leading threat of domestic terrorism in the United States. Many Americans cite the 2008 United States presidential election as a step forward in race relations: White Americans played a role in the election of Barack Obama, the country's first Black president. In fact, Obama received a greater percentage of the White vote (43%), than did the previous Democratic candidate, John Kerry (41%). Racial divisions persisted throughout the election; wide margins of Black voters gave Obama an edge during the presidential primary, where 8 out of 10 African-Americans voted for him in the primaries, and an MSNBC poll found that race was a key factor in whether a candidate was perceived as being ready for office. In South Carolina, for instance, "Whites were far likelier to name Clinton than Obama as being most qualified to be commander in chief, likeliest to unite the country and most apt to capture the White House in November. Black people named Obama over Clinton by even stronger marginsโtwo- and three-to oneโin all three areas." In 2013, sociologist Russ Long stated that there is now a more subtle form of racism that associates a specific race with a specific characteristic. In a 1993 study conducted by Katz and Braly, it was presented that "blacks and whites hold a variety of stereotypes towards each other, often negative". The Katz and Braley study also found that African-Americans and Whites view the traits that they identify each other with as threatening, interracial communication between the two is likely to be "hesitant, reserved, and concealing". Interracial communication is guided by stereotypes; stereotypes are transferred into personality and character traits which then have an effect on communication. Multiple factors go into how stereotypes are established, such as age and the setting in which they are being applied. For example, in a study done by the Entman-Rojecki Index of Race and Media in 2014, 89% of Black women in movies are shown swearing and exhibiting offensive behavior while only 17% of White women are portrayed in this manner. In 2012, Trayvon Martin, a seventeen-year-old teenager, was fatally shot by George Zimmerman in Sanford, Florida. Zimmerman, a neighborhood-watch volunteer, claimed that Martin was being suspicious and called the Sanford police to report him. While on the call to police, Zimmerman began following Martin. Between ending his call with police and their arrival, Zimmerman fatally shot Martin outside of the townhouse he was staying at following an altercation. Zimmerman was injured in the altercation and claimed self-defense. The incident caused national outrage after Zimmerman was not charged over the shooting. The national coverage of the incident lead Sandford police to arrest Zimmerman and charge him with second-degree murder, but he was found not guilty at trial. Public outcry followed the acquittal, leading to the creation of the Black Lives Matter movement. In 2014, the police shooting of Michael Brown, an African American, in Ferguson, Missouri led to widespread unrest in the town. In the years following, mass media has followed other high-profile police shootings of African-Americans, often with video evidence from police body-worn cameras. Amongst 15 high-profile police shooting deaths of African-Americans, only one officer faced prison time. The U.S. Justice Department launched the National Center for Building Community Trust and Justice in 2014. This program collects data concerning racial profiling to create change in the criminal justice system concerning implicit and explicit racial bias towards African-Americans as well as other minorities. In August 2017, the UN Committee on the Elimination of Racial Discrimination issued a rare warning to the US and its leadership to "unequivocally and unconditionally" condemn racist speech and crime, following violence in Charlottesville during a rally organized by White nationalists, White supremacists, Klansmen, neo-Nazis and various right-wing militias in August. On June 17, 2015, a white man killed nine people during a Bible study at Emanuel African Methodist Episcopal Church in Charleston, South Carolina. All victims were African Americans, including senior pastor and state senator Clementa C. Pinckney. The perpetrator later confessed that he committed the shooting in hopes of igniting a race war. White women calling the police on Black people has become more publicized in recent years. In a 2020 article in The New York Times titled How White Women Use Themselves as Instruments of Terror, Black columnist Charles M. Blow wrote, "historically, White women have used the violence of White men and the institutions these men control as their own muscle. Untold numbers of lynchings were executed because White women had claimed that a black man raped, assaulted, talked to or glanced at them. This exercise in racial extremism has been dragged into the modern era through the weaponizing of 9-1-1, often by White women, to invoke the power and force of the police who they are fully aware are hostile to black men". White women in the U.S. who used their White privilege as a weapon have been given a different name over the centuries by Black people, with Karen a contemporary name. In May 2020, a White woman calling the police on a Black man bird-watching in Central Park, New York received wide publicity after it was caught on film. After he had asked her to put her dog on a leash (as per the rules in an area of the park to protect other wildlife), she approached him, to which he responded "Please don't come close to me", before she yelled, "I'm taking a picture and calling the cops. I'm going to tell them there's an African American man threatening my life." During her phone call, with the man standing a distance away from her and recording her, she spoke in an audibly distraught voice, "There's a man, African American, he is.. threatening me and my dog. Please send the cops immediately!". Other examples of White women calling the police on Black people include reporting an eight-year-old girl for selling bottles of water without a permit in San Francisco, reporting a Black family barbecuing in a park in Oakland, California, blocking a Black man from entering an apartment building in St. Louis, Missouri where he is a resident before calling the police, and a woman accusing a boy of groping her in a store in Brooklyn, New York, which was disproven by surveillance. On May 25, 2020, George Floyd, a 46-year-old Black man, was murdered by a White Minneapolis Police Department officer, Derek Chauvin, who forced his knee on Floyd's neck for a total of 9 minutes and 29 seconds.[b] All four police officers present were fired the next day, and later arrested. Chauvin was charged with and later convicted of second-degree murder, and the other three officers were charged with aiding and abetting second-degree murder. Floyd's murder sparked a wave of protests across the United States and worldwide. A white male gunman who was identified as Payton S. Gendron of Conklin, New York shot and killed 10 black people in the 2022 Buffalo shooting. He believed that White Americans were being replaced by Black people. In 2023, a white man shot and killed 3 black people inside a Dollar General in Jacksonville, Florida. He shot them to death with a Glock handgun and an AR-15 semi-automatic rifle. A swastika was painted on one of the guns. According to a Gallup poll, 64% of Hispanics and 61% non-Hispanic Whites agree that racism against black individuals is prevalent and widespread in the United States. African American expats have been moving to countries such as Thailand, the United Arab Emirates, Ghana, Portugal, South Africa, Costa Rica, Mexico and Colombia to escape the widespread anti-black racism in the United States. Many blacks are relocating to Africa to flee white supremacy due to Trump's racist policies and Trump's resurgence of white supremacy. White supremacist GypsyCrusader is known for making anti-black remarks on Omegle. President Donald Trump has made anti-black policies and criticized the Black Lives Matter movement. Trumpism has increased hate crimes against African Americans, Mexicans and other minorities. In February 2026, a racist AI video depicting Barack Obama and Michelle Obama as apes was posted on Trumpโs Truth Social account. Trump later refused to apologize for the racist video. Trump also attacked the Haitian community and called Minnesotaโs Somali community โgarbageโ. See also Notes References Further reading |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/%D7%94%D7%95%D7%A6%D7%90%D7%AA_%D7%93%D7%91%D7%99%D7%A8] | [TOKENS: 5221] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืจ (ืืืฆืืช ืกืคืจืื) ืืืืจ ืืื ืืืฆืืช ืกืคืจืื ืืกืคืจืืช ืขืืจืืช, ืืฉืืจื ืืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืืฆืืช "ืืืจืื" ืืจืืกืื ืืืืฆืื ื ืืกืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืืกื ืืฉื ืช 1901 ืขื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืืง, ืฉ. ืื ืฆืืื, ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืืฃ, ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืื ืกืงื ืืืืืฉืข ืื ื ืจืื ืืฆืงื ืชืืช ืืฉื "ืืืจืื". ืกืคืจื ืืืืฆืื ืืืื ืืช ืืืกื ืืกืคืจืืืช ืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืขืืจื ืืืืืจื ื ืขื ืืื ืืกืคืงืช ืกืคืจื ืืืืื ืืกืคืจื ืืกืื ืืืงืฆืืขืืช ืืขืืจืืช ืืืืงืจื ืืขืืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืงืื ืฉื ืกืืคืืจื ืื"ื ืืืฆืืจืืช ืืชืงืืคืช ืืื ืืืื ืืื. ืืืฆืืช "ืืืืจ" ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืืคืืช ืืืงืืืืจ ื ืกืืจื ืืืืฆืื ืืจืืกืื ืขืงื ืืืืกืืจ ืฉื ืืฉืืืื ืขื ืืืฆืืช ืกืคืจืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืื ืกืคืจื ืงืืืฉ. ืืืฉ ืืขืกืงืื ืืืืื ืคืืื ืกืื, ืืืืืกืื ืืืช ืืืจืืฉืช "ืฉืื" ืืงืฆืื ืกืืื ืืกืฃ ื ืืื ืืื ืืกืืืข ืืืืฆืื ืืืชืืกืก ืืืจืืื ืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืฆืื ืืืืคืชื ืืืืฉ ื-1919, ืขื ืืื ืืืชื ืืืฉืื. ืืืฉื ืืืฆื ืฉื ื ืืืฆืืื ืืืืฆืื ืกืคืจืื ืชืืช ืืฉืืืช "ืืืจืื" ื"ืืืืจ" ืืืฉื ืช 1920 ืชืืช ืืฉื "ืืืืจ" ืืืื, ืชืื ืืืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืื ืืกืื ืฉื "ืืืจืื" ื"ืืืืจ". ืืืืื ืืขืืงืจื ืืื "ืืืจืื" ื"ืืืืจ" ืืื ืฉืืืฆืืช ืืืจืื ืคื ืชื ืืชืืื ืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืืืืื ืขืืืจ ืชืืืืืื ืืขืื ืฉ"ืืืืจ" ืืชืืงืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืฆืืจืืช ืฉืืืืช ืืงืื ืืืืืจ ("ืืขื"), ืืชืืื ืืืืจื ืืชื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืชืื ืื ืขื ืกืคืจื "ืืืจืื". ืืฉื ืช 1923 ืืื ืืฆืืช ืื ื"ืืืกืฃ ืืขืชื" (ืืชื ืขืช) ืืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื "ืืืืจ". ืืจืื ืืืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืชืื ืืจืื ืืื ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืืง ืฉืื ืกืคืจืื ืืฆืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืจ. ืกืืคืจืื ืืืืืืื ื ืืกืคืื ืืืืฆืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉ, ื"ื ืคืจืฅ, ื"ื ืืจืงืืืืฅ', ืืื ืคืจืืฉืื, ืืจืฉืื ืฉืืคืื ืืขืื. ืืืฉืืจืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืฉืจื ืืืืืกืงื, ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืืขืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืืืฆืืื ืืืืฆืื ืกืืจืืช ืกืคืจืื ืขื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืขื ืืฉืจืื ืืขืจืืืช ืฉืืขืื ืืืื ืื. ืืฉืืืช ืืืจืืื ืืืืืจื ืืจืืฉ ืืืื ืืช, ืขื ืฉืืืงืื ืืชืฉืชืืืช ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืืกืฃ ืืืืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืืขืืจืชื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื. ืืืื ืืฉื ืช 1924 ืขืืจื ืืืืฆืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืื ืืืจื ืืืขืจืืช ืฉืื ื ืืกืคื ืืกืืคืจืื ืืื ืืขื, ืฉืืจืืื ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืจ (ืืจืืืืกืงื), ืืืืชืจ ืืจืืืื ืื ืขื ืืฆื ืืคืื ื ืกื ืืืคืงื ืืฆืืง ืืืืืืจื. ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืืื ืฉืคืงื ืืช ืืืจืฅ ืืืขืืื ืืฉื ืืช ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืืืืืช ืืขืืื ืืฉื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืืื ืืืืืจืืช ืืืฆืืืจื ืืืืจื ืฉื ืืืืืช. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืขืืืื ืืชืืื ืฉื ืืืืฆืื ืืืื ืืขืืืื. ืืืื ื ืืื ืืืืืืง ื ืคืืจ ื-1934 ืืจืื ืืฆืงื ื-1944. ืืืืจ ืืืชื ืฉื ืจืื ืืฆืงื, ื ืชืื ื ืฉืืืื ืคืจืืื ืืขืืจื ืืจืืฉื ืฉื ืืืืฆืื. ืืืืฆืื ืืชืืงืื ืื ืืกื ืืขืืจ, ื-1,400 ืืืชืจืื ืฉืืืฆืืื ืืขืืจ ืืืืฉืืื ืืืืฆืื. ืื ืืกืฃ ืจืืฉื ืืืืฆืื ืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืกืคืจื ืืืฆืืช ืชืจืฉืืฉ ืฉืืื ืชืจืืืืื ืืืืื ืืกืคืจืืช ืืขืืืืืช. ืืืขืืืช ืขื ืืืืฆืื ืืชืืืงื ืืื ืืกืคืจ ืืืจืืื, ืืื ืืื ืืืจืฉืื ืฉื ืฉืืจืืื ืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืขืกืงืื ืืฉืจ ืจืฉืฃ (ืืืืื ืฉื ืจืคื ืืฆืื ืจืฉืฃ). ืฉืื ืฉื ืืืืฆืื ืืคื ืืฉื ื ืจืืฃ ืืขืืื ืืืืฉื ืืื ืจืืืื ืื [ืืจืืฉ ืืงืืจ]. ืืฉื ืช 1969 ืืื ืืชืจืืืืื ืืืชืื ืืืืืื ื ืคืจืืื ืฉืืฆืื ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืจ ืืคืจืก ืืฉืจื ืืืืืกืงื. ืืืจืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืืืืจืชื ืืืจืช ืืืืฆืื ืขื ืืืืกืื ืืืืชื "ืื ืื ืืืืื ืืชืืงื ืขื ืืกืืืืช ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื" ืืืืช ืขื ืืื ืคืจืกืื ืกืคืจืืช ืืงืืจืืช, ืืืืฉ ืขื ืกืคืจืื ืืขืื ืชืืื ืืื ืืื ืืืื ืืก ืืกืคืจืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืืชืื ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืจืช ืืื ืืืื ืืื. ืืืืชืื ืฉื ืืืืืืง ืืืื ื"ื ืืืืืจ ืชืจืค"ื (ืืื 1923) ืืขืืจืื "ืืืืกืฃ ืืขืชื" "ืืืืจ" ื ืืชื ืืจืืืช ืืช ื"ืื ื ืืืืื" ืฉืื ืืชืคืงืืื ืฉื ืืืฆืืช ืืกืคืจืื ืืืื: ืขืชื, ืืืจืชื ืืืื, ืืฉ ืชืงืื ืื "ืืืืช ืืฉืจืื" ืชึตืขืฉื ืืืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืื ืืจืืืืช ืืคืืืืช. ืืฉืืื ืืืชืืืจ ืืจื ืืืฉืื ืืืงืืจ ืืืฆืืจื ืืืื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืื, ืชืฉืื ืืชืืื ืื ืืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืื. ืื ืืืฉ ืืจืื ื ืืื ืืืืื ืื, ืืฉืื ืืืจืืืฉื ืืืืื ืืช ืืคืืงืช ืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืืืืชืื ืืืืืืื ืืื ืขืืืื. ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืื ืืืฉื ืืืจืื ืืืขืื ืืืื ืืืืขื ืืืคืืืช ืืื ืขืืงืจ ืืืื ืืคื, ืืื ืืงืง ืกืคืจืื ืืืื ืืืจ ืืฆืืจื. ืืืืจ ืืงืืช ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื ืจืืชื ืขืฆืื ืืืฆืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืืืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืช ืืกืคืจืืช ืืืืงืจืืช ืื ืืจืฉืช ืืชืืืืื ืืืืกื, ืื ืคืจื ืขืื ืฉื ืืืงืจื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืื ืกืคืจื ืขืืจ ืืชืืืืืื. ืืืื, ืืืืืชื ืขืกืง ืคืจืื ืฉืื ืจืื ืจืืื ืืืืฆืืช ืกืืื ืื ืฉื ืกืคืจืืช ืืงืื ืืขื ืฆืจ, ืืชืืงืื ืืฆื ืืคืืคืืืจื ืืืชืจ ืฉืืฉืืื ืืขืืกืืง ืืืืขื ืืืืชืืจื ืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืืืขืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืขืฆืื. ืืื ืื ืืขืงืจืื ืืช ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืืืจ ืืื ืื-ืืชืคืฉืจืืช ืขื ืืืืืช ืืืืืจืื (ื ืืืจ, ืืจืืื, ืืคืืก ืืืืืื). ืืืืฆืื ืืฆืื ืกืคืจืื ืืคืืจืื ืืืื, ืขื ืืื ื ืืืจ ืืืืืชื ืืืืจืืืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ืืคืขืื ืืืื ืืก ืืืืืืื (ืืืื ืกืคืจ ืืืืื) ืืฆืื ืืืกืคืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืืืื. ืืืืจ ืืืื ืืฉืงืขืช ืืกืคืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืชืืื ืืืืืจื ืืืืืจืืช. ืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืืืงืืจืช ืืืฆืืช ืืืืจ ืจืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืืช ืืฉืืืฉืื ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืื ืืกืืคืจืื ืืืขืืงืจ ืืืฉืืจืจืื ืืฆืขืืจืื (ืืื) ืฉื ืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืจ ืืชืืืื ืืืืืจืช "ืืืืื", ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ื ืืชื ืืื ืืช ืืช ื ืชื ืืืชืจืื, ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืกืงื, ืืขืงื ืืืจืืืืฅ ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืจื. ืืขื ืชื ืืขืืงืจืืช ืืืืชื ืฉืืืืฆืื ืืืฉืืื ืืชืืงืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืืชืื "ืืฉืืจืจืื ืืชืื" ืืืชืขืืืช ืืืืฆืืจื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืืฉื. ืืชืืืืช ื ืื ืงืื ืืืฆืืช "ืืืืื" ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืฆืืช ืืืืจืืช ืืกืคืจืืช ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืจื. ืืืืื ืขื ืืืฆืืช ืืืืจื-ืืืชื ืืฉื ืช 1986 ืจืืฉ ืืื ืืืืจื, ืฉืืชืฃ ืืืืจ ืืืืฆืืช "ืืืืจื-ืืืชื" ืืื ื ืฉื ืืชื ืืื ืืชืงืืฃ ืฉื "ืืืืจ", ืืฉืจืื ืืืืจื, ืืช ืืืฆืืช ืืืืจ. ืืืื ืืืก ื ืืกืืืื ื ืจืืฉ ืขื ืจืืืฉืช ืืืืจ ืงืืืื ืขื ืง ืฉื ืืืืืืช ("ืืงืืืกื" ืืืฉืื ืืืืฆืื ืืืืจ) ืืชืืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืฉืืจืฉืืช. ืืืงืจ ืืกืคืจืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืืืฅ ืืชื: ืจืืืฉืช ืืืืจ ืขื ืืื ืืืืจื-ืืืชื ื ืจืืืช ืืืื ืจืืฉืื (ืืฉื ื ืืฉืืืฉื) ืืืืืืืืช. ืืฆื ืืื, ืืืฆืื ืขื ืืื ืืืื, ืขืืจ ืืคืืืจ ืืจืฉืืืช ืงืืืื ืฉืืืขื ืืื ืืืืืืชื ืืกืคืจืืช ืืขืืจืืช... ืืฆื ืฉื ื, ืืืฆืื ื ืืจืฆืช ืฉืืฉ ืื ืชืืืืช ืืกืืจืืช ... ืื ืืืืื ืื ืืืฆืื ืืกืืจืืช ืืืื. ืืฉื ืืช ื-90 ืืืื ืืืืจ ืืืืฆืื ืืืืจ ืืช ืกืืจืช "ืื? ืืข!", ืกืืจืช ืกืคืจื ืืืข ืคืืคืืืจื. ืืฉื ืช 2005, ืืืืืช 70 ืฉื ื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืืืง, ืคื ืชืืงืฃ ืืืืืืช ืืืืฆืจืื ืขื ืืฆืืจืชื, ื ืืก ืืฉืื ืฉื "ืืืืจ". ืืืจืืช ืืืช ืืฆืื ืืืืจ ืืืืืจืืช ืืืฉืืช ืฉื ืงืืืฅ ืืฉืืจืื ืืงืืืฅ ืืกืืคืืจืื ืฉื ืืืืืืง. ืืฉื ืช 2009, ืืฉืืงื ืืืืจ ืฉืืจืืช ืืคืืก ืืืืืืื ืฉืืืคืฉืจ ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืจื ื ืกืคืจืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืคื ืืจืืฉื. ืื ืฉืืกืคืจ ืืืืืงืฉ ืืืืคืก ืืืืืื ืขืืืจ ืืืืืื, ืืืื ืืขืืืคื ืืืงืืจืืช. ืืฉื ืช 2012, ืืงืจืืช ืืื ืืฉืืื, ืจืื ืืืจ ืืืืฆืืช ืืืืจ ืืกืคืจ "ืื ื ืคืจื ืง - ืืื ืืืืื ืืชืืื ืืช", ืฉืขืืงืจื ืชืฆืืืืื ืืืืื ืฉื ืื ื ืคืจื ืง ืืฆื ืืืชืืืื, ืฆืืืืืื ืืขืืืืืช ืื ืืกืจืืช ืืงืฆืจื. ืืืฆืืช ืืกืคืจืื ืืืฉืืื ืืืืฆืื ืชืืช ืืืืชื "ืืืืจ" ืืช ืกืคืจื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืืจืื ืืื ืฉืืงืืืก ืืคืืื ืงืืจ, ืืชืื ืฉืืื ืขืืืื ืืกืืจืช ืกืคืจื ืืืืกืืืจืื ืฉื ืฆืื ืืขืืฅ ืืกืคืจืื ื ืืกืคืื. ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Bay_News_9] | [TOKENS: 2582] |
Contents Bay News 9 Spectrum Bay News 9 (also known as Bay News 9) is a cable news television network located in St. Petersburg, Florida. Owned by Charter Communications, it currently serves the Tampa Bay area including Hillsborough, Pinellas, Manatee, Polk, Pasco, Hernando, and Citrus counties. The station, which is exclusive to Spectrum customers, provides rolling news programming 24 hours a day, with the exception of some special programming, including a weekly political program, Political Connections. The station was created by Elliott Wiser, who was hired as General Manager by Time Warner Cable in May 1997. At that time, TWC was building a similar news channel in Orlando; that channel now is known as Spectrum News 13. Wiser later created Bay News 9 en Espaรฑol, Tampa Bay on Demand, and Spectrum Sports. History The station began operating on September 24, 1997, and gives weather updates every 10 minutes "on the nines" and more frequently during serious weather conditions. In 2002, Bay News 9 was the first TV station in the area to provide a VIPIR Doppler weather radar system. In 2007, Bay News 9 became the first station in Florida, and one of only a handful of stations, to provide a Dual-Pole Doppler Radar system.[promotion?] On Monday, January 5, 2009, Bay News 9 launched its upgraded doppler radar system called Klystron 9.[promotion?] This new system is capable of seeing weather features in greater detail than other Doppler radar systems.[promotion?] Klystron 9 combines, for the first time in history, a dual Polarimetry radar, Klystron tube, Pulse compression technology and a 1.25-million watt transmitter. That combination of technology makes Klystron 9 the most powerful television radar in the world.[promotion?] Klystron 9 has the ability to see storms other radars can't see and see deeper into those storms. The Klystron 9's dual-pole technology even tells meteorologists the sizes and shape of raindrops and makes the distinction between rain and ice.[promotion?] Two original anchors remain with the station: meteorologists Mike Clay and Alan Winfield. Winfield only works during hurricanes after leaving the station full-time in 2006 to join a religious ministry. In December 2008, Jen Holloway left the station to join the parent company, Bright House Networks, as a marketing spokesperson. Weekend morning anchor Erica Riggins replaced her spot. Bay News 9 was originally seen on channel 9 on all systems, except for Pasco County, where it was seen on channel 6. On August 7, 2013, Bright House Networks moved Bay News 9 to channel 9 in Pasco County, making Bay News 9 available on all of Bright House's cable systems in the Tampa Bay area. The newscasts (with the exception of Your Morning News) are recorded for repeat broadcasts with breaking news and weather forecasts inserted almost hourly. Veronica Cintron was the 5pm-5am solo anchor for ten years straight. Veronica worked a 12-hour shift. News operation Bay News 9 maintains content partnerships with several local radio stations as well as various Bay Area newspapers including the Tampa Bay Business Journal, the Citrus County Chronicle, and The Bradenton Herald. The channel also operates news bureaus in Tampa, Bradenton, New Port Richey and Spring Hill; as well as at the offices of the Citrus County Chronicle in Crystal River and The Ledger in Lakeland. The channel also produces feature reports for Orlando-based sister channel News 13 (Bright House began carrying that channel in the Tampa market on digital channel 1213 in December 2010, with Bay News 9 conversely being added to the provider's Central Florida systems on digital channel 1209). In 1999, Bay News 9 introduced "Health Team 9," a team of practicing doctors (Steven Seltzer, Robert DiMasi, Jacentha Buggs and Linda McClintock) and a licensed psychologist (Steve O'Brien) employed by the channel to serve as experts reporting on a variety of medical issues. The channel ran a regular medical news segment during the morning newscast called "Health Team 9 Health Watch", as well as a segment during the primetime newscast called "Health Team 9 Medical Beat" (which was conducted by the anchor of that night's broadcast). In June 2011, the "Medical Beat" segment was replaced with "Priority Health," in which Dr. Randy Shuck answers health questions sent in by viewers via email; the "Health Watch" segment was also replaced with "Health Headlines," focusing on the day's medical news headlines. Dr. Steve O'Brien remains with Bay News 9 as its mental health expert. The channel operates on a news "wheel" format, offering blocks of news segments, weather forecasts and feature reports in regular intervals; regular weather segments are broadcast in 10-minute intervals "on the nines," with more frequent updates during severe weather events and wall-to-wall coverage whenever hurricanes or tropical storms affect the channel's service area. Its programming is presented live, although a digital video "jukebox" is used to recycle segments (except for those aired during Your Morning News block) for broadcast at other times and to provide loops of newscasts originally broadcast live in certain timeslots (particularly during the overnight hours). Producers update the wheel throughout the day, inserting new material as stories are filed and updated information becomes available; coverage of breaking news events are also inserted as warranted. In March 2008, Bay News 9 revamped its news cycle, eliminating the "Beyond the Bay" segment at 42 minutes past the hour and replacing it with the Extra segment that aired at 23 minutes past the hour, which was in turn replaced by local news segments. In recent years, traffic segments on weekends have also been eliminated to allow for additional local news coverage. The format returns to the "original" news cycle, with "Extra" segments appearing at 23 and 53 minutes past the hour during the primetime and overnight newscasts. Bay News 9 also is an affiliate of the national and international video news service CNN Newsource. In addition, Bay News 9 produces the half-hour political discussion program Political Connections (airing Sundays at 11:00 a.m., with an encore at 8:00 p.m.); the program, which is currently hosted by weekday afternoon anchor Al Ruechel debuted in 2005 as part of a partnership between Bay News 9 and the Tampa Bay Times. Upon the channel's launch, Bay News 9 began producing the nightly half-hour sports highlight program Toyota Sports Connection (it originally aired at 10:30 p.m., before moving to 11:00 p.m. in 2001), which focused mainly on local sports as well as major national sports headlines. It was originally hosted by former Tampa Bay Buccaneer defensive lineman David Logan until his death in 1999, with Rock Riley assuming hosting duties thereafter (the channel has since begun awarding a scholarship to high school athletes named in Logan's honor, The David Logan Scholarship). The program was moved to Bright House Sports Network (now known as Spectrum Sports) in 2010, retaining its 11:00 p.m. timeslot (the regional sports network repeats the program throughout the following day after the initial broadcast). Bay News 9 maintains a program, "Project Weather," which tours hurricane expos and schools in Tampa Bay area communities providing weather safety information to area students. They do SKYPE sessions with local schools called Weather Wednesdays, where students can SKYPE with a meteorologist. The channel distributes science kits to all 6th grade public school teachers in the channel's seven-county viewing area and "Project Weather Activity Books" for preschool and elementary school-aged children at community events. The channel also has an interactive exhibit called "Bay News 9 Rain or Shine" at the Glazer Children's Museum in Tampa, a news and weather exhibit at the Explorations V Children's Museum in Lakeland, a news and weather exhibit at Great Explorations Children's Museum in St. Petersburg, and an exhibit at the Clearwater Marine Aquarium in Clearwater. Affiliated channels Bay News 9 HD is a high definition simulcast feed of Bay News 9 that broadcasts in the 1080i resolution format. The HD feed is carried on Charter Spectrum digital channels 1009 and 1209; it was launched in the spring of 2006, which resulted in the debut of an extensive graphical overhaul to Bay News 9. Newscasts airing on the feed were not originally produced in HD, airing instead in the 480i format (with stylized pillarboxing) and upconverted to 1080i. On October 20, 2011, Bay News 9 and sister network InfoMรกs began broadcasting their news programming in high definition, with programming being upgraded to the 16:9 aspect ratio and the introduction of a revised graphics package. InfoMรกs was a Spanish language regional news channel operated through a partnership between Bay News 9 and Orlando-based sister network News 13. The channel was the first 24-hour Spanish language regional news channel in the United States; in addition to providing normal rolling news coverage, the channel also carried exclusive stories tailored to Tampa's Hispanic and Latin American population. Originally carried on digital channel 139, Bay News 9 en Espaรฑol was later moved to Spectrum digital channel 900. In 2010, the channel began Spanish language game telecasts from the Tampa Bay Rays and Miami Marlins Major League Baseball, and Orlando Magic NBA franchises. The service originated as a separate 24-hour Spanish news channel focused solely on the Tampa Bay area called "Bay News 9 en Espaรฑol,". Created by Elliott Wiser, the channel launched in March 2002, becoming the countryโs first local news channel in Spanish[citation needed]. On March 11, 2011, Bright House Networks announced that it would merge Bay News 9 and Central Florida News 13's respective Spanish-language news channels into a single regional channel, InfoMรกs. The regional network was launched on July 12, 2011.However, soon after Charter assumed control of the company, InfoMรกs was discontinued on November 20, 2017, due to most of the Hispanic population in the area watching Bay News 9's English coverage. Spectrum Travel Weather Now was a 24-hour weather service, which broadcasts on Bright House digital channel 109 and on analog channel 2 (WCLF is digital-only). The channel was launched in 1999 as Bay News 9 Weather Now, and originally provided local forecasts 24 hours a day. In 2004, the channel was relaunched as Bay News 9 Travel Weather Now, reformatted as a 24-hour weather network geared primarily towards business travelers. In October 2009, Bright House Networks revised the channel's name to Bright House Networks Travel Weather Now, with on-air advertisements acknowledging that is content is provided by Bay News 9. After Bright House Networks became Charter Spectrum, Travel Weather Now has been replaced by TV Guide in the bottom screen and a simulcast of Bay News 9 on top. Tampa Bay on Demand is a video on demand service which offers local entertainment programming, and is carried on Charter Spectrum digital channel 340. It features segments conducted by Bay News 9 reporter Virginia Johnson, which focuses on people and places within the Tampa Bay entertainment scene, as well as cooking segments (hosted by Roy DeJesus), restaurant and wine reviews, celebrity interviews, and holiday features. The wine review program, Vino Vino, hosted by Elliott Wiser, was nominated for a Cable FAX Award (an awards ceremony presented by industry trade publication Cable FAX) for "Best Video on Demand Program" in August 2012. Bay News 9 also operates a news-focused VOD service Bay News 9 on Demand, which features long-form news content such as press conferences. In popular culture The 2011 film Dolphin Tale and its 2014 sequel Dolphin Tale 2 featured scenes filmed at Bay News 9's St. Petersburg studio facility. Bay News 9 previously used to operate a webcam in which visitors to the channel's website could watch Winter, the real-life dolphin whose rescue inspired the first film, from her home at the Clearwater Marine Aquarium until her death in 2021. See also References External links |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/15_ืืืืืืกื] | [TOKENS: 190] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื 15 ืืืืืืกื 15 ืืืืืืกื ืืื ืืืื ื-227 ืืฉื ื (228 ืืฉื ื ืืขืืืจืช) ืืืื ืืืจืืืจืืื ื. ืขื ืืกืืื ืืฉื ื ื ืฉืืจื ืขืื 138 ืืืื. ืืืจืืขืื ืืืกืืืจืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืคืืจื ืืืื ืืืืจืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/ืืืืงืื_ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื] | [TOKENS: 22940] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื ืืืืงืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืงืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื (ื ืืื ืื"ื ืืกืืืื ื'ืชืฉ"ื, 13 ืืืื ื 1947) ืืื ืืฉืคืื ืืฉืจืืื ืืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืฉืงืืื ืืื ืืคืจืื 2025. ืืื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื. ืืืื 2004 ืืืฉืืข ืืฉืืคื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืขื ืืื ื 2017. ืืืื ืื ืืื"ืจ ืืขืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืชืฉืข ืขืฉืจื. ืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ื ืืื ืืชื ืืืื ื-1947, ืื ืืืืจ ืืืื, ืื ื ืฉื ืืจืืื ืืฉืคืจื. ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืจืืกืื, ืขืืชื ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืชื, ืืืืชื ืืืืจืช ืืืื ืกืื ืืจืฆืืื ืืชื ืืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืืืจืืงืืืช ืืืืืจืืช. ืืืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืฉืืจืืชื ืืจืคืืื ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืฉื ืขืืจืืืช ืชื ืืืื ืืืืจื ืงืจืื ืืืจืืขืื ืฉื ื. ืืชืื ืื ืืืืชื ืืืจืช ืืืฉืืืช ืฉืฉืืืจ ืืฆืื ืืืจืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืืืืจืืฆืืืก ืืจืฆื (1945) ืืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืืืื ืชื-ืืฉืืืจ (ืฉืืื) ืืืืช ืืืืื ืฆืืื ืืชืฉ"ื. ืืืื ืืื ื ืืฆืื ืืฉืืื ืฉืืืืก ื-1939 ืืฆืื ืืคืืื ื ืื ืคื ืืฉืื ืืจืืกื, ืืืจ ืืืืืก ืืฆืื ืืคืืื ื (ืฆืื ืื ืืจืก) ืืืืืข ืืืจืฅ ืืฉืจืื ื-1943. ืืืจืื ืืงืจืืื ืืฉืคืืชื ืฉื ืืืื ื ืกืคื ืืฉืืื. ืืืื ืคืขื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืจืืื ืฉืจืืื ืื ืืฆืืืื ืื ื ืขืืืจืชื, ืืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ื ืื ืืืชืืืืช ืืืื ืืื ืกืื ืื ืืฉื. ืืื ืืจืืื ืืื ืื ืคืขืื ืฆืืืืจ ืืืื ืื ืืืชื ืื"ืืืื" ืืืืขืชืืื ืืขื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืื ืกืช ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืืืชื ืืชื "ืืืื ืื". ืืื ืืืขืฅ ืืืก ืฉื ืืชืืืืืช ืืืืืจืื. ืืืืงืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืืขืชืืื, ืืื ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืกืืื "ืืืื ืื", ืืืืื 11 ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืืื ืืชื "ื ืืืืืื ืฉืืืจืื ืขื ืืื "ืืืจ ืืืืืื". ืืชืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืกืคืจ ืฆืืืืืื ืืชื ืืืื, ืืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืช. ืืืืจ ืฉืงืคืฅ ืืืชื, ืกืืื ืืช ืืชืืืื ืืืจ ืืืื 16 ืืืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืฉืคื ืืกืคืจืืช ืขืจืืืช ืืืฉืื ืขืืจืืช. ืืฉื ื ืืืืจืื ื ืืืืืืื ืืชืืืจ ืืจืืฉืื ืืื ืืืงืืื ืฉื ื ืจืืฉืื ื ืืืฉืคืืื. ืืื ืกืืื ืืช ืืชืืืจ ืืจืืฉืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืืชืืืืก ืืฆื"ื ืืขืืืจ ืืขืืจื "ืืขืจืืืช", ืืขืกืง ืืขืจืืื ืืืชืจืืื ืฉื ืกืคืจืืช ืฆืืืืช ืืืืจืื ืืช ืืื ืกืคืจืืช ืื ืืฉืื ืืจืืื (ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืขืืืจ ืืืืืฃ ืืืืฉืคื ืืจืืื), ืืืชืื ืืืจืืื ืืขืจืืืช, ืืกืื ืืช, ืืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืงืืื ืืช (ืืื ืืืืช ืืขืจืืืช). ืืืงืืื ืืฉืืจืืชื ืืฆืืื ืกืืื ืืช ืืืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื ืืืฆืืืื ืืช ืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืืืื ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืืื, ืืฉื ืช 1969. ืืช ืืืชืืืืช ืขืฉื ืืฆื ืืฉืืคื ืืขืงื ืืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืชื ืืืื, ืืฆื ืคืืืื ืืืืง ืืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืฆื ืืืกืฃ ืฆ'ืื ืืืจ, ืฉืืื ืืืขืฅ ืืฉืคืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื, ืืืืกืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืื ืืฉื ืช 1972. ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืชืืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืืืืืื ืกืืืข ืืืื ืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืขืืช ืืืงืืจื ืืขื ืืื ื ืชืืื ื ืคื. ืืืงืืื ืืื ืืชืืืจ ืืืกืื ืืืืืืช ืืื ื ื ืืฉืืืฉ ืืืืืืืื ืืฉืืคื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืฆืืื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืจืื. ืขืฉืืจืื ืจืืฉืื ืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืคืืจืื ืืืจ ืืขืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืฉืคืืืช ืืืฉืจื ืืืืืืื, ืืืงืจืืช ืืืื ื ืืขืืช ืืืจื ื ืกืืืข ืืืื ืช ืชืืง ืืืขืื ืื ืฉื ืฉืจ ืืืืืืื, ืืฉื ืืืื, ืืื ืขื ื ืืืจื ืืจื ื ืืืคืืงืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืกืฃ ืฆ'ืื ืืืจ. ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืื ืืืฉืืืื ืืื ื ืืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืื ื ืขืฉืจื ืืื ืืื ื ืืจืืฉ ืืฉืืชื. ืืืกืืจืช ืชืคืงืืื ืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืฆืจืื ืืืืขืืืช ืงืืค ืืืืืืื, ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืกืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืฆืจืื (1978โ1979). ืืืืจ ืชืงืืคื ืืืืงืจ ืืืจื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจืืืืจื ืืื ื ื-1981 ืืืืขืฅ ืืฉืคืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ, ืืืชืืงื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืฉืคืืืื ืืงืฉืืจืื ืืืืกื ืืฉืจืื-ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืืืกื ืืฉืจืื-ืขืจื. ืื ืืืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ ืืกืื ื"ื ืืชืคืงืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืกืื ื"ื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืฉืืื. ืืฉื ืื ืก ืืฆืืง ืฉืืืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ ืืื ืืฉืืืจ ืืฆืืื ืืช ืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืกืฃ ืฆ'ืื ืืืจ, ื ืคืชืื ืืืื ืืืช ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื, ืฉืกืืืข ืืฉืืืจ ืืืืื ืก ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืฉืจื. ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืคืืฉืืื ืื ืืขืื ืืืื"ืฉ ืืขื ืื ืืจืืืืืฆืื ืขื ืืฆืจืื (1982-1979) ืืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืงืืช ืืื ืืืฉืงืืคืื ืืจื-ืืืืื. ืืืืืืช ืืื ืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืืืืฉ ืืกืื ืืฉืจืื-ืืื ืื 1983. ืืขืืชืื ืืช ืฉื ืืชืงืืคื ืชืืืจ ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ื"ืขืืืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืื ืืช". ืืฆืืง ืฉืืืจ ืืืงืฉ ืืื ืืชื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืืช ืืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืชืงื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืื ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ ืฉืืขื ื ื ืื ืืืกืจ ื ืืกืืื ื, ืืชืคืงืื ื ืืกืจ ืืืงืื ืืืช ืืื ืืืื ื ืชื ืืื, ืฉืืืืืฅ ืขื ืืื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืฉื ืืจื ืก, ืืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ื ืืืงืื ื ืชื ืืื ืืฆืืจ ืืืื ื ืฉื ืืฉืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืชืคืงืื ืื ืืืื ืืฉื ืื 1985โ1986. ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืชื ืืฆืืจ ืืืื ื ืืืกืคืจ 2 ืืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื, ื-21 ืื ืืืืืจ 1985, ื ืขืฆืจื ืืื ืชื ืคืืืืจื ืืจืขืืืชื ืืฉืขืจื ืืฉืืจืืจืืช ืขื ืืื ืฉืืืื ืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืืืจ ืฉื ืื ืกื ืืืืื ืืชื ืืืชืื ืืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืืืฆืื ืืื ื. ืืืืชื ืืื ืืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ื ืขื ืืฉืืจืืจืืช, ืืืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืืืจ ืจืืื. ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช ื ืืขื ืืืืฆืขื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืฆืืชื ืื ืืฉืืจืืจืืช. ืื ืืืืจืง ืฉืฉืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืคืืจืกื ืืืชืื ืฉื ืจืื ื ืืจืืื ื-2009 ืขืืื, ืื ืืื ืฉืืข ืขื ืืืฆืืชื ืืืืจ ืืขืฉื. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืงืืื ืืืืื ืขื ืืืืจืืข ืืงืฆืื ืืืืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืจืืจืืช ืกืืื ืืืืจ ื ืืกืืื ืืื ืืกื ืฉื ืคืืืืจื ืืืฉืชื ืืฉืืจืืจืืช. ืืขืงืืืช ืงืืืช ืืืืืื ืฉืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืจืง ืืืื ืืื ื"ื ืืืืฉื ื ืืื ื"ื. ืืืื, 12:00 21 ื ืืืืืจ 1985 ืื:ืื ื"ื, ืืื ื"ื - ืืืืืชืืื ืืืื ืืขืฆืจ ืืฉืขืจ ืืฉืืจืืจืืช. ื. ืงื"ื ืืฉืืจืืจืืช ืืืจืืง ืืืื"ื[ื] ืขื ืืืจืืข ืฉื ืืขืฆืจ ืืฉืขืจ ืืฉืืจืืจืืช ืฉื ืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืขื ืืื ืจืฉืืืืช ืืืืคืช ืืืืง ืืืืจืืงืืืช. ื. ืืกืืคืืจ, ืขืืื ืฉืืขืชื ืืืืจ ืืขืฉื, ืขืืื ืืืชืคืชื ืืืขืื ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืืื ืื ืืืจืื, ืืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืคืจืกืื. ื. ืื"ื ืืื ืื ืืืืขื ืขื ืจืงืข ืืืฉืื ืืืืจืื. ื. ืืฆืืื ื ืกืืืื ื ืืืฉืื, ืื ืืืืจ ืืชืคืจืกื, ืื ืืื ืื ื ืืืืขื ืขื ืื. ืืืืื ืขืกืง ืืืืืืชื ืืืฉื ืฉื ืื ืืืืืฆืื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืื ืชื ืืื ืคืืืืจื, ืืื ืืืืฉื, ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืืจืืื ืืืืืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช. ืื ืคืืืืจื ืฉืืืจืจื ืืืืื ืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืืฆืื ืืื, ืื ืื ืื ื ืฉืื ืคืจื ืืืืชื ืฉื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืชื ืคืืืืจื ืขืฆืื. ืขื ืืืจืช ืืฆืืง ืฉืืืจ ืืชืคืงืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืขืฉืจืื ืืฉืชืืื, ืืขืงืืืช ืงืืื ืืกืื ืืจืืืฆืื, ื ืชืื ื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉืื. ืชืคืงืื ืื ืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืจ ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืฉื ืชืืื ื ืืกืคืืช ืืืงืฉืชื ืฉื ืืฆืืง ืจืืื, ืฉืืืืืจ ืืืชื ืืชืคืงืื ืื ืืื ืืืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื. ืืกื ืืื ืืืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืื 1986 ื-1994. ืืชืคืงืืื ืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืื ืื ืืืื ืืื ืขื ืืฆืจืื, ืืจืื ืืืคืืกืืื ืื. ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืขืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื (1991โ1993) ืืจืืฉ ืืฉืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืจืื ืืช-ืคืืกืืื ืืช, ืฉืืืืฆืื ืืงืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืช ืงืื ืกืืจืืงืืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืืฉืื ืขื ืืื ืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืกืื. ืืื ืจืืฉ ืืฉืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืจืื (1993โ1994), ืฉืื ืื ืืช ืืกืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืื, ืืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืืช ืืืกืืื ืืืืฉืื ืฉื ืืืื ืืฉืืื (1994โ1995). ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืืกืืืจ, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืช ืืืื ืืฉืจืื-ืืจืื. ืืืื ืื ืื ืกืืื ืืขืืื (ืืืขื ืงืืข ืงืื ืืืจืืื) ืืืชืืกืก ืขื ืืืืจืืช ืื ืืืืจืืืช ืชืืืจืืืช. ืืฉื ืืช ืืฉืืขืื ืขืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืขืจืื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืฉืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืืช ืืืืจื ืืงื ืฉืืืชืช ืื ืฉืง. ืืืืื ืืฉืืื, ืขื ืืื ืืืืืคื ืฉืื, ืืืื ืกื ืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืืขื ืืกืืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืฆืืคืจ ืืื ืืจืืื. ืืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืืืื ืืขืืืจ ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื (1994โ1995), ืืืืจ ืืื ืฉืืคื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืื (1995โ1997). ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืื"ืจ ืืืืืกื ืืจืฉืืช ืืืืืื ืืกืืื (1988โ1992), ืืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืงืืช ืืงืืืืืช ืืืืคืืืืืช ืืืืืฉืืข ืฉืืืืืืข ืืืืื ืืช ืฉืืฉืจืื. ืขืื ืืจืืฉ ืืคืืจืื ืืืืฉืืชื ืืืขืงื ืืืจ ืชืืคืขืืช ืืื ืืืฉืืืืช ืืืชื ืืกื (1987โ1994). ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืฉืืชืืฃ ืืกืืจืืื ืขื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช (1982โ1995) ืืืื ืื"ืจ ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืืืจ ืืืกืืจืืื ืขื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช (1988) ืฉืืื. ืืืืืจ ื ืืชื ืืืื ืืขืฆืืืืช ื-40 ืืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืขืื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉ ืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืคืจืฉืช ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืฉื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืืืจ ืฉืคืจืฆื ื-1986, ืืืืคื ืืื ืขื ืืืืืฃ ืจืคืื ืืจืื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืกืื ืขื ืืืืฉื ืืืงืื ืืจืก, ืืจืืืช ืืกืืืื ืขื ืืงืื ืืจืก ืืืชืืืข ืืืืืื. ืืืื ืชื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืืจ ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืื ืจืื ื ืืจ-ืืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ื ืงืจื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืช ืืชืคืงืื ืืืื ืืืื ืื ื-12 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1997 ืขื 31 ืืืฆืืืจ 2003. ืืฉื ืื ืืื ืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืกืืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืฉืคืจืืกืืืื (1999โ2000) ืืืืืขืืืช ืงืืค-ืืืืืืื ืขื ืืคืืกืืื ืื (2000). ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืขืืจื ืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืฉืืจืืจ ืกืืื ื "ืืืืกื" ืฉื ืขืฆืจื ืืืืื ืืช ืืจืืช ืืขืช ืืืืื ืชืคืงืืื, ืื ืืฉืืืืืฅ, ืืงืคืจืืกืื ืืืืจืื. ืืชืงืืคืช ืืืื ืชื ื ืคืชืื (ืื ืกืืจื) ืืกืคืจ ืืงืืจืืช ื ืื ืืืืจื ืืืขืจืืช ืืคืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืื. ืืืง ืืืืืืืชืื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืื ืกืคืื ืืืงืืจืช ืืืืจืืื ืคืืืืืืื ืืชืงืฉืืจืชืืื, ืืืขื ื ืฉืืื ืืืฉืคืข ืืฉืืงืืืื ืคืืืืืืื ืืืืืฆืื ืืืืคืขืืื ืขืืื. ืืื ืฉืืขื ื ืื ืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืื ืืชื ืืืืชื ืืกืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืขืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืืืจืื ืืืืฉื ืชืจืื ืืืชืืืจืืช ืืฉืืืชืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืช ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืืจืื ืืขื ื ืืืืืืืช ืืชืจ ืืืขืืื ืืืื ืืืขืื ืื ืืื. ืืื ืืคืจืฉืืช ืืื ืขืกืง: ืืืืช ืืขืชื ืื ืืืขืช ืืืงืืจืช ืืืื ืืช ืกืชืจ ืฉืืืฆืขื ืืืฉืืจื ("ืคืจืฉืช ืืืจืื") ืืืฉืจื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื, ืืคืกืง ืืื ืืคื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืื ืืฆื, ืืืกืืืช ืืฉืืคืืื ืืขืงื ืืืจืงื ืืืจืื ื ืืืจ. ืืื ืืืจืขืืชืื ืืืฆืื ืืืืืืช ืื ืืืงืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืชืงืฉืืจืช "ืืื ืฆืืืืจื". ืืืืขืฅ ืืฉืคืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืงืืข ืื ืืกืืจ ืืงืืื ืฉืืจืืช ืจืคืืื ืคืจืื (ืฉืจ"ืค) ืืืชื ืืืืืื ืืืืฉืืชืืื. ืื ืืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืจืืฉืื ืฉืืืืข ืืคื ื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืขืืื ืืืืจืืืช ืืืืก ืืืืืช ืืืืช ืืืืื, ืืืืขืฉื ืงืืข ืื ืืฉืืืื ืืกืจื ืืืขื ืฆืืืื ืืืืคืื ืืฆืื ืืืื - ืื ืืื ืขื ืืจืืคื ืืืื ืืฉืคืืืช ืืืคื ืื, ืืืคืืื ืื ืืืื ืืจืืคื ืฉืืขืืื ืื ืื ืฆืคืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืจืืืช ืืืืช, ืื ืืจืืื, ืืืืื. ืืืืื ืชื ืืืืฉื ืืืืจ ืฉื ืื ืจืืืช ืื ืืืืช ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืืืช ืงืืืืก ืืืืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืื ืืืชืจ ื ืขืฉื ืคืขืืืืช ืืืฉืจ ืืฉืืืื ื ืฉืื, ืื ื ืืืขืืืื ืืืขืื ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืฆืืืืจื. ืืื ืจืื ืืฉืืืืช ืืกืืืข ืืืืจื ืืืชืืฉื ืืคืื ื ืื ืืื ืืฉืืืื ืืช, ืืื ืืกืืืข ืืกื ืืืืจืื ืืฆืืืืจืืช ืฉืื ืขืชื ืงืื. ืืื ืืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืคื ื ืงืืืื ืฉืื ืื, ืืืืืื ืฉืืืฉ ืืืขื ืืกืคืจ ืืคื ืืืช ืืืฉืืช ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื. ืืงืจืืช ืืืืืจืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืื ืืืื ืืจืง ืืืจืืื ืฉืจืื ืืชืืืืช ืฉื ืช 2001 ืงืืข ืืืืืช ืืขืช ืื ืืื ืื ืืกืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืฉืืช ืืขืืจ ืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืื ื. ืืืืจ ืฉืืืืช ืืืขืช ืคืืจืกืื, ืืื ื ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืฉืจืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืชื ืขื ืืื ืืจืง ืืฉืจืื. ืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืชืืืื ืืฉืืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืฉื ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืฉื ืงืจืื ืืจืืข ืืื, ืืื ืืฉื ืช 1977 ืืขื ืฉื ืช 2000. ืืื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฉืจืื ืฉืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืฉืืื ืืืชื ืื ืืื ืืืืจืืช ืกืืื ืืฉืจืื - ืืฆืจืื, ืืื ืื, ืืจืื, ืกืืจืื ืืืคืืกืืื ืื. ืจืืฉืืช ืืืืจืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืฆืจืื. ืืื ืืื ืืื ืืขืืืจ ืฉืจ ืืืืฅ ืืฉื ืืืื (ืืชืืืจ ืื ืื ืืฉืืช ืืฉืจ ืืืืขืฅ ืืฉืจ) ืืืื ื 1977 ืืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืขืืจื ืืืืขืื ืขื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืฉืืืงืื ืื ืื ืืกืืื ืืืื ืืก ืืขืืืช ื'ื ืื, ืืืืฉื ืืืืขืืื ืืืื ืื ืื ืขื ืฉื ืืงืื ืืื ืืกื, ื-1973. ืืืืขืื ืงืืืื ืชืืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืืืื-ืืืืืกื 1977, ืืืืจ ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืื ืืืจืง ืืกืคืืืืจ-ืืืงืืืืจ 1977. ื-19 ืื ืืืืืจ 1977 ืืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื (ืืคื ืืืื ืช ืืืื) ืืื ืืงืืื ืคื ืื ืฉื ืื ืฉืื ืืืฆืจื ืื ืืืจ ืกืืืืช ืื ืื ืืชืขืืคื ืื-ืืืจืืื. ืืืฆืืืจ 1977 ืืชืืืื ืืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืจืืงื ืืืกืืช ืืืื ืืกื, ืขื ืืกื ืชืืืืื ืฉืืื ืื ืฉืื ืกืืืืช. ืืืืฉื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืฆืจืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืฉืืจ ืขื ืืืฆืจืื ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช (ืืืจืช ืืืืก ืืืจืืื ืื, ืืืื 1978). ืืื ืืืจ ืืฉืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืขืืืช ืงืืค ืืืืืืื ืืกืคืืืืจ 1978, ืืืืืฉื, ืืืจ ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืขืืืช ืืืืจ ืืืืก ืืืืฉืื ืืืื (ืืืงืืืืจ-ื ืืืืืจ 1978) ืืืืชื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืืืืืืช ืืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืืืฆื ืืืืฉื (ืืืื "ืงืืค ืืืืืืื" 2 ืืคืืจืืืจ 1979) ืขื ืืืฉืืช ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืฆืจืื ืืืจืฅ 1979. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืืืฉืืืช ืืืงืก ืืืชืืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ื-26.3.79, ืืืงืจืืชื ืขืกืง ืื ืืืืืจ ืืืกืืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืฉื ืืชื ืืืืืืง ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืื ืืชืืืชื. ืืืืฉื ืคืขื ืืืื ืื ืกืืืืืช ืืืืกื ืืฉืจืื-ืืฆืจืื ืืกืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ ืืชืคืงืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืจ ืื ืืกืื ื"ื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืฆืจืื, ืืื ืืืจ 1980. ืืื ืงืืื ืืช ืคื ืื ืฉื ืืฉืืจืืจ ืืืฆืจื ืืจืืฉืื ืกืขื ืืืจืชืื ืืคืืจืืืจ 1980, ืืืื ืืืฉ ืืงืฉืจ ืฉืื ืืืืฉื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืชื, ืืืืจ ืื ืืื ืืจืืฉื ืฆืืืช ืืืืืื ืืฉืืืืช ืื ืืจืืืืืฆืื ืขื ืืฆืจืื, ืชืืืื ืืืืขืืช ืืืืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืฉืจื ืืืืืืื ืื ืฆืื, ืืืืืจ ืฉื ืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ, ืืืืืื โ ืืืื 1980 โ ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ, ืืื ืขื ืคืื ืื ืกืื ื ืืกืืคื ืืืคืจืื 1982, ืืืกืืจืช ืืืช - ืืงืืฅ 1981 ืืืืขืฅ ืืฉืคืื ืืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ - ืขืกืง ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืื ืืฉืื ืื ืขื ืืกืืื ืื ืืจืืืืืฆืื, ืืืื ืืจืืฉื ืืืืืื. ืืืฉืื ืขืฉืจืืช ืจืืืช ืฉื ืืกืืืื ืืืืืื ืชืืืืื, ืฉืื ืืืื ืงืืืื, ืืืืงื ืงืืืื ืืืงืืช. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืชืคืงืื ืขืืงืจื ืืื ืฉืืกืืื ื ืืจืืืืืฆืื ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืืจืืฉืืื ืืืืชืื ืื ืชืื ืืืืืจ ืืจืืฉืืื ืขื ืฉื ืืืืื (ืืื ืฉืืืฆืจืื ืืืืื ืืืืจ ืฉืืื ืื ืืืขืจื ืืื ืืืืจื ืืจืืฉืืื). ืืื ืืืกืืืื ืจืืืื ืืฆืืื, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืฉืืช ืืืกืื ื-1982 ืืืงืืช ืืืจืื ืืืงืืื ืืืฉืจืืื ืืงืืืจ, ืฉืขืื ืืชืืืจืืช ืืขืชืื. ืืืงืืื ืืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ื-1980 ืืืจ ืืฆืืืช ืืฉืืืืช ืืืืืื ืืืื ืขื ืืฆืจืื ืืจืืฉืืช ืืืื ืงืืืจืกืงื, ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืคื ืื, ืืืืช ืขื ืืคืกืงืชื ืืืืฆืข 1982. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืืืืจ ืืฆืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืกืื ืขื ืืื ืื, ืืฉืืืืช ืฉืงืืืื ืื'ืืืื (ืืื ืืืจืืช) ืืืงืจืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืื ื ืืืืืจ 1982 ืืืื 1983. ืืืกืื, ืฉืืื ืืืืืชื ืงืจืื ืืืกืื ืฉืืื ืืชืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืกืื ืืื-ืฆืืืืื, ืื ืืืชืจืชื ืืืืชื "ืืกืื" ืืจืืื, ื ืืชื ื-17 ืืืื 1983 ืืฉื ื ืืงืกืื ืื'ืืืื ืืงืจืืช ืฉืืื ื, ืืืืฉืจืจ ืืืฉืจืื ืืืืื ืื, ืื ืืืจืคื ืขื ืืื ืืกืืจืื ืฉืืชืืืงื ืืืืจ ืชืงืืคืช ืืืืฉื. ืืืกืื ืืืฉื ืืกืืืข ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืืจืืืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ื'ืืจื' ืฉืืืฅ. ืืจืืฉ ืืฉืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืขืื ื"ืจ ืืื ืงืืื, ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ, ืืจืืฉ ืืฉืืืช ืืื ืื ืืื ื"ืจ ืื ืืืื ืคืชืื, ืืฉืขืืจ ืื ื"ื ืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ. ืืืขื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืืฆืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืฉืืจืืจืื ืคืืืืค ืืืื ืืืืจืืก ืืจืืืคืจ. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืจ ืฆืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืจืืฉืืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืฆืืง ืฉืืืจ ืืืื ืืก ืืขืืืช ืืืจืื, ืืื ื ืชืื ืกื โ ืืืืจ ืกืืื ืืืงืืจ ืจืืื ืฉื ืืืืืจ ืืืืื ื ื'ืื ืืืืงืจ ืืื ืืชืื ืืืืืช ืืืคืจืฅ ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืืจืฅ 1991 ืืขื ืืืงืืืืจ 1991. ืืื ืืืฉืื ืืฉืจืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืฉืืืช ืืจืื ืืช-ืคืืกืืื ืืช ืืฉืืชืคืช, ืืจืืฉื ืืฉืจืืืืช ืฉื ืชืงืืื ืืขืช ืืืื, ืืื ื ืฆืืืื ืคืืกืืื ืื ืืื"ืฉ ืืขืื ืืืื, ืืื ืืฉืชืชืคืืชื ืฉื ืืฉ"ืฃ (ืืืจืืช ืฉืืฉืจืื ืืืขื ืฉืืืง ืืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืฉืืืช ืืชืืืขืฆืื ืขื ืืฉ"ืฃ). ืืกืืืืืืื, ืืชื ืื ืืืืืชื ื ืืชื ื ืืกืืช ืืืืจืื ืืื ืขื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ื ืชืืขื ืืืกืืืื ืืืืฉ ืืืกืื ืืืคืืืืืืื ืขื ืืฉืจืื. ืืื ืื ืื ืชื ืื ืืื ืื ืฉืืืงืฉื ืืืืฉื ืืืฆืืจืฃ ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืจื ืฆืืื, ืืืื ื ืืืื ืืืื ืืกืื. ืืขืืืช ืืืจืื ืืชืื ืกื ืืืืืืชื ืื ืคืขืืืช ืืืฉืชืชืคื ืื ืกืืจืื, ืืื ืื ืืื ืืฆืจืื ืืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืื-ืฆืืื. ืืืืจืื ืืืืชื ืืืืฆืช ืืื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืื ืืจืื ื, ืคืืกืืื ื ืืืฉืจืืื โ ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืขื ืืฉืจืื, ื"ืจ ืขืื ืื-ืกืืื ืื'ืืื ืืืจืื ื ืื"ืจ ืืืืจ ืขืื ืื-ืฉืืคื ืืคืืกืืื ื. ืืื ืืืืจืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืขืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฉื ืื 1991โ1993 ืืจืืฉ ืืฉืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืคืืกืืื ืื. ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืฆืืืจ 1991 ื"ืฉืืืืช ืืกืคื", ืฉืืื ืืืฉื ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืืขืืช ืืชื ืืื ืฉืืืืช ืขื ืืืกืืจืช ืืืืื ืืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื, ืืฉืจ ืืืจื ืืฉืืื ืกืืจืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืืื ืก ืืืืื ืืืืื ืื ืืขืืื ืขื ืืคืจืื ืืื ืืื. ืกืืฃ ืืืจ ืฉืืืฉืื ืืื ืืืจ 1992 ืืกืืื ืขื ืฉื ื ืขืจืืฆื ืฉืืืืช, ืืขืจืืฅ ืืืจืื ื ืืื ืชืฉืขื ืืจืื ืื ืืฉื ื ืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืขืจืืฅ ืืคืืกืืื ื ืืื ืชืฉืขื ืคืืกืืื ืื ืืฉื ื ืืจืื ืื, ืืื ืคืืจืื ืจืื ืฉื ืงืจื "ืืคืืืฉื ืืืืืืช". ืขื ืืืืืคื ืืืืฉื ืืืฉืจืื ืืืื ื 1992 ืืชืืงืฉ ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืขื ืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืืฉ-ืืฉื ืืฆืืง ืจืืื ืข"ื ืืืืืจ ืืชืคืงืื ืื ืืื, ืืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืงืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืื ื ืืืืืืจ ืืืืฉืื ืืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื. ืืืืฉื ืืืฉื (ื ืืืืืจ 1992) "ืืกืื ืกืืจ ืืืื" ืขื ืืจืื, ืฉืงืืข ืืช ืืชืืื ืืืืฉื ืื ืงืืืืช ืืขืืงืจืืืช ืืืจื ืืืฉืืช ืืกืื ืฉืืื. ืืืกืื ื ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืืจืืฉื ืชืืืืช, ืืจืง ืืื ืืืจื ืฉื ืืชื ืืกืื ืืืกืื, ืืฉืจ ื ืขืฉื ืืืขืงืฃ ืืืฉืืืช ืืฉืจืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืืขืชื, ื ืืชื ืืกืื ืกืืจ-ืืืื ื-14.9.93 ืืืงืก ืฆื ืืข ืืืืืงืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ืืฆืืื ืื ืืืืื ืชืงืืคืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืฉืืืืชื ืืื ืื ืกืืืืช ืืขื ืคื ืืืจืืืช ืืืืืืืืืช ืืืืืงืืช ืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืจืืื, ืืืฉืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืื ืจืืื, ืืชืงืืืืช ืืกืืืืช ืืกืืืข ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช, ืื ืืืืื ืืืืจืจ ืื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืื ืงืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืืกืื, ืฉื ืขืฉื ืืืืจื ืืฉืื ืืืฉืืชืืฃ ืืฉ"ืฃ, ืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืช ืฉื ืืชื ื ืืืฉืืืช ืืืืฉืื ืืืื. ืืืกืื ืืืกืื ื ืืืื ื ืืฉืืื ืฉืืื "ืืืื" ืืคื ืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉืื ืืืื, ืืื ืืจืืฉืืื ืื ืืฉื ืืืฉื ืืืชื, ืืืฉืจ ืืืฉืจื ืืื ืฉื ืืืกืื. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืขืื ืืจืืฉ ืืฉืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืืืืจื ืื ืืืจื, ืืืืจืื ื-1991 ืขื ืืืชืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืขืจืื ื-1994, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืืช ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืืกืืื ืืืืฉืื, ืขื ืฉืืืืื 1995 ืืชืื ื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืืืืื. ืืฆืืื ืื ืขืื ืืื ืืืืื 1991, ืืขืืงืจ ืืื ืขื ืืคืจืื ืืืื, ืื ืืืฉื ื ืืจืืฉ ืืืืกื, ืืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืงืืจืื ืืฉืืืื ืืืจืื ืฉืื ืืื ืชืฉืชืืช ืืืืกืื. ืืฆืืื ืื ืืืคืืฉืื ืืฉืืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืขืื ื-1986, ืืขืช ืืชืื ืืชื ืืืืื ืช ืืืืืจ ืืืืฉืื, ืืจืืืช ืืคืืืฉืืช ืจืืฉื ืืืืฉืื ืฉืืืจ ืืจืืื ืขื ืืืื ืืืกืื ืืืืื ืื ืกืื ืืกื. ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืจืื ืฉื ืืชื ื-26.10.94 ืืื, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ืืืจืืืช ืืืืจ ืืืจื ืืืืืช, ืืื ืื ืืืกืื ืคืืจืืืืื ืืืจื ืฉืืจืืจืืืืช ืชืืฉืืืช, ืืกืืจื ืืืืืื ืืฉืืจืื ืืื ืจืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืืื ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืืฆืจืื, ืืืกืื ืื-ืฆืืืืื. ืจืืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืืืืืื ืืื ืงืืืขืช ืืืืื ืืื ืฉืชื ืืืืื ืืช ืืืกืืจื ืืื. ืืืืื ืขื ืืจืื ื ืงืืข ืืืกืืกื ืขื ืกืื ืืืืจื ืืืืืืืช ืืจืืฉืืช ืืื ืื ืืืจืืื ื-1922, ืืงืืืขืช ืื "ืืืจ ืืืื ืืืืขืฆืชื ืขื ืคืืฉืชืื ื (ื"ื) 1922 ืื ืืืื ืขื ืืฉืื ืื ืืฆื ืืืจืื ืืงื ืืืืฆื ืื ืงืืื ืืืช ืื ืืฆืืช ืฉื ื ืืืืื ืืขืจืื ืืขืืจ ืขืงืื ืืืคืจืฅ ืขืงืื (ืขืฆืืื ืืืจ) ืืขืืื ืืจื ืืจืื ืืืื ืขืจืื, ืื ืืืื ืื ืืจ ืืืจืื, ืขื ืืืืขื ืืืงืื ืืืฆืืืืืช ืืื ืืจืื ืื ืืจ ืืืจืืื; ืืฉื, ืืจื ืืจืื ืื ืืจ ืืจืืื ืขื ืืืืื ืืกืืจื". ืืืื ืื ืื ืกืืื ืคืจื ื-4 ืง"ื ืืืจืื ื-1946, ืืื ืืืืชื ืืืืจืช-ืืฉื ื ืื ืืืืจืืช ื ืืกืคืช ืฉืงืืขื ืืช "ืงื ืื ืงืืืืช ืื ืืืืืช". ืืืฉื-ืืืชื ืืื ืืจืืฉ ืืจืืฉืื ื ืฉืืืืช ืืืจืืืืช ืืงืฉืืจืืช ืืืืืจืช "ืืืฆืข ืืืื ืขืจืื" โ ืืื ืืืื ืื, ืืื ืคืืจืืฉื ื ืื ืืืฉืื โ ืื ืืคืืขื ืืื ื ืื ืืื, ืื ืื ื ืื ืืืื, ืืืืืจ ืืื ืืืฃ ืืคืจืฅ ืืืืช-ืขืงืื ืืื ืืืื; ืื ืฉืื ืขืืง ืืขืจืื, ืืืฉืืขืืช ืจืืื ืืืชืจ, ืฉื ืืฉืืจ ืืกืืจื-ืืคืจืืงืื. ืจืืืคื ืืืื ืขื ืคื ื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืฉืืืช ืืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืขืจืื, ืฉืืื ืฉื ืืช ืืฉืืขืื ืืื ืืืงื, ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืฉืืืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืจื ืืงื ืฉืืืชืช ืื ืฉืง, ืืฉืจ ืืืจืื ืื ืจืื ืื ืืืืืฉ ืืืืืจื ื-1922. ืขืจื ืืกืื ืืฉืืื ืืื 50% ืืืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืืืืฉืืืื ืืฆื ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืงื ืฉืืืชืช ืื ืฉืง. ืืืืจ ืืฉื ืืืชื ืืืจืื, ืฉืงืืืฆื ืืงืฆืืขืืช ืฉื ืืฉืจืืืื โ ืืื ืืจืื ืื โ ืืฉืชืชืคื ืื. ืืืกืื, ืจืืฉืืช, ืขื ืืืืืคื ืฉืืืื ืฉื ื-40 ืงื"ืจ ืืืืคื ืฉืื ืืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืฉื ืืืฉืืื ืืขืจืื, ืืืขื ืฆืืคืจ, ืืขืืจื ืืจืืืื ืืช ืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืขืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืงืืื ืฉืืื ืืจืฉืื ืืืื ืืื ืืขืจืื. ืืืืคื ืื ืืืื ืืืจืื ืื ืืงืื ืืืจื ืืืืงื ืืงื ืฉืืืชืช ืื ืฉืง 300 ืงื"ืจ, ืืคืจืืกื ืืืืจื ืงื ืืืืื ืืืจืื (ืืจืืฉืชื ืืืืชื ื-380 ืงื"ืจ) ืืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืขืจืื ืฉืืจื ืขื ืืืืืช ืืขืืืื ืืจืืืื ืืชื ื. ืฉื ืืช, ืืืื ืฆืืคืจ ืืืฉื ืืกืื ืืืฉืืจ ืืืืื ืฉื 25 ืฉื ื, ืื ืืชื ืืืืจืื ืืืกืืื ืืืืืช ืืชืื ืืชืงืืคื. ืืืช, ืืืืื ืืืกืืจ ืืื ืืืื ื ืืจืืื ืฉืืฆืคืื. ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืื ืืืฉื ืืกืื ืืืจืื ืฉืืื ืืกืคืงืช ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืื, ืืขืืงืจ ืืฆืคืื, ืชืื "ืงืืืื" ืืืจืื. ืืขื ืืื ื ืืืืืื ืืืกืืจืื ืืืืกืื, ืืืืืจ, ืืืืจื ืืฉืืจ ืืื ืฉืชื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืื "ืชืืืื" ืืื ืืืืื ืืกืื ืืืฉืื. ืื ืืืืื ืืื ืกืช ืืืืฉืืจ ืืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืชืืืช ืืืืื ืืขืจืื ืฆืืื ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืจืืื, ืืชืื ืื ืฉื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืฆืืืืจื ืืช ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืช ืืคืจืื ืืืื, ืฉืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืืื ืืืื ืืืกืื. ืืืืื 2000 ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื, ืืคื ืืืื ืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืจืง, ืืืืขืืืช ืงืืค ืืืืืืื ืขื ืืคืืกืืื ืื, ืืฉืจ ื ืฉืื ืืจืฆืืช ืืืจืืช ืืื ืงืืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืก ืืฉื ื ืืกืืื ืืืกืื ืืื ืืฉืจืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื, ืืืฉืชืชืคืืช ืืืื ืืจืง, ืจืืฉ ืืืฉืืช ืืฉืจืื, ืืืืกืจ ืขืจืคืืช ืืื ืืื ืืคืืกืืื ื. ืืืืขืืื ื ืืฉืื ื-15 ืืื, ืืื ืืืืชืจื ืืืฆืืื. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืฉื ืืืืขืฅ ืืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืืื ืขืืื ืขื ืืชืจ ืืขืกืืง ืื ืืฉื ืืคืืืืื, ืฉืืืืื ืืืขืืชื ืืคืฉืจืืช ืืืชืืื ืืคืืจื, "ืืืืื" ืืื ืืืืืืช ืืืฉืจืืืืช ืฉืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืช ืืืืช ืืฉืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื, ืื ืืฉ ืื ืคืชืจืื ืืช ืืกืคืืื ืืขืืงืจ; ืื ืืืื ืื ืื ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช ืขืจื, ื ืืฉื ืฉืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืื ืืื ืืงืืืื. ืืคืืกืืื ืื ืื ืืกืืืื ืืื ืืกืื. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฉืชืชืฃ ืื ืืืฉื ืืืชื ืขื ืกืืจืื ืืืคืืฉื ืืืฉืื ืืืื (1999) ืืฉืคืจืืกืืืื (2000) ืืจืืฉืืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืืื ืืจืง, ืืืืืจ ืืคืืฉืื ืืื ืืืืื ืขืฆืืื. ืืืจื ืืื, ืืขืืืื ืขื ืืืจืืื ืขืจืืืื ืืชืงืืคืืช ืืฉืื ืืช ืืื ืืืกืืก ืืฉืื ืขืืื ืืืืข ืืืืฉื, ืฉืืื ืืช ืจืืื ืืืืื, ืืืฉืื ืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืืจื ื. ืืืฉืืืช ืืกืืจืืช ื ืืชื ื, ืื ืจืื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืฉืื ืืืืจ ืขื ืืืฉืจืืืื ืืื ืืืืฆืขืืช ืืืืจืืงื ืื. ืืืืคื ืฉื ืืืจืื ืชืืขื ืื, ืืื ืืฉืืจ, ื ืชื ืื ืืื ืจืช ืืืืฆืืื ืื ืืงื ืืืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืงืื 4 ืืืื ื 1967, ืฉืืื ื ืืืื ืืื. ืื ืืื ืงื ืืืื ืืืืื ืช ืจืืฉ ืืืืฉืื ืืจืง โ ืืืืขืช ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฆืืง. ืืืื ืชื ืืฉืืคื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ื-24 ืืืื 2004 ืืื ื ืืืืื ืช ืฉืืคื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื. ืืื ืื ืืืจ 2015 ืืื ืืืฉื ื ืื ืฉืืืช ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืจืื ื ืืืจ, ืืืืจ ืคืจืืฉืช ืื ืฉืื ืืงืืื ืืฉืืคื ืืฉืจ ืืจืื ืืก. ื-13 ืืืื ื 2017, ืืืืืขื ืืืื 70, ืคืจืฉ ืืืืืืืช. ืืฉืืคื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืจืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืชืืืืก ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืงื ื ืืฉืคื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืืงืฉ ืืืฆืื ืืื ืืื ืขืืจืืื ืืืืืื ืืืขืืืืช ืืืคืกืงื ืืื ื ืืื ืืฆืืื ืืช ืืกืขืืคืื ืืืืชืืืช ืขืืจืืืช ืืื ืืกืคืจืืช. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืื ื ืืื ืืืชืจ ืืจืื ืขืืืชืื ืืฉืชืฃ ืืช ืงืืจืื ืคืกืงื ืืื ื ืืืชืืืืืืืชืื. ืืืงืจื ืืื ืืชื: "ืืืจืขื ืื ื ืืชื ืช ืืืืจืืง ืฉืื ืืื." ืืืื ืืคืกืงื ืืื ื ืืขืื ืขื ืขืฆืื: "ื ืืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืืื ืืืืืฉืืช ืืืืคืฉืจืช "ืืจืื ืืืฆืข" ืืื ืคืชืจืื ืืช ืฉื ืฉืืืจ ืืืื". ืืฆืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื, ืืืืืืื ืืจืฉืืืืช ืฆืืืืจืืืช, ืืื ืืืืืฅ "ืืืืืื ืืืฆืขืืช ืคืฉืจื ืฉืืฆืืข ืืืช ืืฉืคื ... ืืืืขืืืช ืืืืจ ืืชืืืขืฆืืช ืืขืืื" ืืื ืืืืืฅ ืฉื ืฆืื ืืืกืื ืฉื ืจืฉืืืืช ืฆืืืืจืืืช ืืืืข ืืืืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืื ืืืชืจืฉื ืืืืืื, ืืืืื ืืื ืืจืื ื ืืื ืืืืืืื ืืืฆืขืืช ืคืฉืจื ืืืชืื. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฉื ืจืืืช ืืฉืืคื ืืืจืืืื ืฉืื ื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืืื ื, ืืชืจืืข ืขื ืงืืงืืืื ืืืจืฉ ืืช ืชืืงืื ื. ืืืงืจื ืืื ืืชื ืืืคื ืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื: ืืื ืืืืข ืืขืชื ืฉ:"ืืืขืื, ืืฉ ืืืขืืืช ืขื ื ืก ืืช ืืืืชื ืืืืืืจืช ืฉื ืืืืื ื, ืืืื ืืืชืจ ืืื ืืขื ืืื ืืืจ, ืืืืื ืืช ืืืคื ืืืืืช, ืืืคื ืืืื ืขืืื, ืืืืืืื ืืืคื ืืืชืงืฉืจ ืขืื ืืืกืื. ืืื ืืื ืืื "ืฉืืงื" ืืืืจืฉื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื; ืื ืืขืืื ืืืฆืจื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืจืื, ืืืืช ืขืืื ืืืืืช ืืืืฃ ืืฆืืืืจื" ื"ืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืืื ืืช ืืชืจื ืืืชื ืืืืชื ืืื ืืจืืื ืืจืืจื ืืืืื ืืฉืืฉ ืืฆืืจื ืืืื, ืขื ืื ืืื ื ืืขืื ื ืืกืืืชืืืช". ืืืชืื ืืื ืืื ืืืืข ืืขืช ืืืขืื, ืฉืื ื ืชืงืืื, ืืขื ืงืืืช ืจืฉืืช ืขืจืขืืจ ืืชืืงืื ืคืกืง ืืืจืจ ืืืชืื ืืชืงื ืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืืื ืฉืืืืื ื ืืชืจืฉืื ืืืืืืข ืืืจื ืฉื ืืฉื ืืืืจื ืขื ืืืขืืืชืืืช ืืืฆืขืชื ืืืืื ืช ืขืืืื ืืืจืืฉืืช ืืชืื ืื. ืขื ืืืกืจ ืฉืืืขืืช ืจืฆืื ื ืืื ืชืืงืื ืืืจืื ืืกืืืืื ื ืืชื ืืืืื ืืืืจืื: ืืืงืจื ืืืจ ืืชื: ืืืงืจื ื ืืกืฃ ืืชื: ืืืจืืช ืืืช, ืืื ืืืืข ืขืืืืช ืืขื ืืจืืืช ืคืขืืืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ื ืืชืืืื ืืืื ืจืืื. ืืืฉื, ืืื ืืืืข ืขืืื ืืขื ืืืง ืืืกืืจ ืขื ืื ืืช ืืืืืข ืืกืชืืืืืช ืืื ืฉื ืจืื ืื ืืฆืขื ืฉื ืืคืจืืชื ืฉื ืืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืฆื, ืืืืืื "ืืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืจืื". ืืื ืืืืข ืืชื ืืืืช ืืืื ืื ืคืจืื ืืืืืืื ืืืืื ืืช "ืืคืจืืช ืืืชืจ ื[ื]ืืืืืืืฆืื, ืืืืจืกืืช ืงืฉื ืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืืืืืชืืืช ืืืื ืื". ืืืงืจื ืืืจ ืืชื: "ืืฉืืขืฆืื ืกืืจืชื ืืื ืืื ืืืคืื, ืื ืืคืฉืจ ืฉืืืืื ื ืืจืืืงื ืืืช ืืชืจ ืขื ืืืืื ืืืคืจืืืช ืืืื ืืื, ืืืืืชื ืืืืืืช ืฉื ืขื ืืงืฆื ืืงืฆื, ืจืืื ืื ืฉืชื ืื ืืืงืืื ืืจืืื, ืืืืฆืข". ืขื ืืืงื ืืื ืืชื: "ืืฉืืขืฆืื, ืืขืงืืืช ื ืืกืืื ืืฆืืืจ ืืืขืจืืช ืืืืฉื, ืกืืืจื ื ืื ืืืืื ืจืืืื ืืงืืงืช ืืืงืื ืืืืื ืืื ืืข ืืคืืื ืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืืขืืคื ืืชืงื ืช. ืืืืชืืืื ื ืืชื ืืื ืืกืืืจ, ืฉื ืืชื ืืืฉืื ืชืืงืื ืื ืจืืืืื ืขื ืืื ืืขืจืืืช ืืืืฉื ืืืฆืืืืจ ืื ืืจืฆืื ืืื; ืื ืืฉื ืื ืืืืืื ื, ืฉืืฃ ืื ืื ืืื ืขื ืืื, ืืืืื, "ืืฆืจ ืื ืืืื ืจืข ืื ืขืืจืื" (ืืจืืฉืืช, ื', ื"ื), ืืื ืืงืื ืืืฆืืืืช ืืื ืืฉืืช ืืชืืจื ืืฉืืงืืืื ืืืืืืื ืืฉืืงืืื ื ืืืืช ืืืจืื ืืืืืจ, ืืขื ืื ืืฉ ืฆืืจื ืืืชืืจื ืืงืืงืชืืช ืืฉืืืื ืืื ืืืขืืคื ืืชืงื ืช" ืืืฉืจ ืืืืจ ืืจืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืจืืฉืื ื ืืฉืืืื ืื ืืื ืืื ืฉื ืขืจืื ืืืืฅ ืืืฉืจืื, ืืชื ืื ืืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืขืช ืืืื ืืื ืืขืชื ืฉื ืฉืืฉื ืฉืืคืืื ืืืจืื. ืืื ืืชื ืฉืืื ืื ืชืคืงืืื ืฉื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืชืช "ืืืฉืคื ืงื ืจืฉืืืช ืฉื ืืืืืื ืืืฆืืจืช ืชื ืืฉืคืืชื, ืืืืืจ ืจืง ืืืืขืื ืงืื ืืืืื ืืช ืชืื". ืขื ืืืช, ืืื ืฆืืื ืื ืืฉ "ืืืื ืืช ืื ืืฉืืช ืืืฉืคืืืช" ืืืขื ืงืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืืืช ืืืืจืชืืืช ืืืืืืช ืืืืืกืงืกืืืืื. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืฆืืจืฃ ืืขืืืช ืืจืื ืฉืคืกืื ืืช "ืืืง ืื" ืืงืืขื ืฉืืื ื ืืืงืชื. ืืื ืืชื ืื ืืืง ืืืฉ ืฉืืกืืืจ ืืช ืืืืก ืืืจืืื ืืฆืืจื ืืืืฅ ืืืฆืขืื ืืฉืืขืืชืืื ืืืจืื, ืืืขืื ืืช ืืืคืฉืจืืช ืฉื ืืืกืืช ืฉืืืืืื ืืช ืืกืคืจ ืืคืืืจืื ืืืืืก ืืืขืื ืืืืื ืชืืจื. ืืคืกืืงืชื ืื, ืืื ืืจืื ืคืกืืงืืชืื ืืืืจืืช, ืฉืืื ื ืืืืงืื ืจืืื ืืืืงืืจืืช ืืืืืงืื ืืช ืขืืืชื. ืืื ืืฃ ืืชื ืื ืืืืืืชืื ืืืืฉืืืช ืืืชืคืื ืืืืช ืื ืกืช ืฉืื ืจืืื ืืงืืฆื ืื ืืืืช ืื ื ืืฆืืืืจ ืืืจืื, ืืืืืืช ืืืชื ืขื ืืืฆืืงื ืฉืืืื ืืืืื ืืกืืจ ืืืืืก ืืช ืืฆืืืืจ ืืื. ืืื ื ืื ื ืขื ืืฉืืคืืื ืฉืืืฉืจื, ืขื ืืืื ืฉื ืงืื ืืื, ืืช ืืืง ืืืืจืืืช ืืืื ืืกื ืืืฉืจืื, ืืืืคืฉืจ ืืื ืืข ืืืืจืืื ืืฉืจืืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืช ืื ื ืืืื ืืคืืกืืื ืื. ืืืืคื ืืืื, ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืกืืจ ืฉ"ืืฉ ืืงืื ืืฉื ืืช ืื "ืืืืฉื ืืืฆืืฆืืช ืื ืืืข ืืืชืขืจืืืชื ืฉื ืืชื ืืืฉืคื ืืคืกืงื ืืืจืจืืช" - ืืื ืงืื ืืืืฉื ืืืืคืฉืจืช ืืืชื ืืืฉืคื ืืชืงื ืืขืืืืช ืืกืืืื ืืกืืืืื ืืคืกืงื ืืืจืจืืช", ืขืืื ืื ืืฆืืช ืืืืขืื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื. ืฉืืคื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืกืืื ื'ืืืจืื ื ืื ืข ืืืฉืืจ ืืช "ืืชืงืืื" ืืขืช ืืฉืืขืช ื ืฉืื ืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืฉืจ ืืจืื ืืก ืืคืืจืืืจ 2012. ืืืืจ ืขืืจืจ ืืืงืืจืช ืจืื, ืื ืืขืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืฆื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืชื, ืืืืืชื ืฉืฉืื ืืื ืืฉืืคืืื ืืืจืฅ ืืชื ืื ืืื ืืืืื ืืืจืืื ืขืจืืื ืืฉืืจืช ืืืื ืื ืฉืืื ื ืืฉืงืฃ ืืช ืฉืืจืฉืืื, ืื ืื ืืฉ ืืฉืื ืื ืืืขืืืื ืฉืืืืื ืืฉืืจ ืืช ืืืื ืื. ืืืืจ ืคืจืืฉืชื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื ืืฉื ืช 2018 ืืื ื ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืจ ืืืกืืื ืื ืืืื ืืืืืงื ืืืืข ืืืืื ื ืืืืืช ืืกืคืจ ืคืืจืื ืืืืื ืืืช ืฆืืืืจืืช ืืืืฉื ืฉื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช ืืืจืืฉืืื. ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืื ืืคืจืืคืกืืจ ืืืจื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืืจื ืื ืื ืืืจืง ืืืืืืืช ืฉืขืจื ืืฉืคื. ืืกืคืืืืจ 2022 ื ืชื ืืกืืืชื ืืฉืืฉ ืืืื ืื ืืื ื ืืืืฉื ืจืืฉ ืืืืขืื ืืืืืขืฆืช ืืืื ืื ืืืืจืื ืืฉืืจืืช ืืืืื ื, ืืื ืืืื ืืืื ืืื ืฉื ืืจืฆื ืืืื ืืจืืื"ื. ื-2024 ืืืืืฃ ืืืฉืจ ืืจืื ืืก. ืื ืืกืฃ, ืืื ืคืจืืฉืชื ื ืฉื ืืชืคืงืืืื ืืืืื: ืื ืืกืฃ ืืื ืืขื ืืืจ ื"ืืืืขืืช ืืืจืื ืืช" ืืขื ืืื ื ืืฉืคื ืื ืืฉืืื ืืืจืื ืืืื ืืจืฆื ืืืชื ืืืืช ืืืงืืืืช ืจืืื ืขื ื ืืฉืื ืืฉืคื ืืชืืืื ืืฉืืื. ืืืคืจืื 2025 ืืื ื ืืืื ืื ืฉืื ืืืืืื ืืืงืืืืช ืืฉืงืืื. ืืืงืจื ืืชื "ืคืจืก ืืฉืืื" ืฉื ืงืจื ืืืจืืื ืฉืจืืืจ ืขื ืืืงื ืืฉืืื ืขื ืืจืื. ืงืืื ืชืืืจ ื"ืจ ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืฉืืื ืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืื ืื ืืืจืง, ืืืกืืื ืจ ืืชืืืืืื ืืืืืื ืื ืื ืืืจืง ืืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืืจ-ืืืื. ืืชื ืคืจืก ืืืื ืืจืฆืื, ืืืชื ืงืืื ืืืืืืกื 2018. ืืคืจืก ืืืขื ืง ืืืช ืืฉื ืชืืื ืขื ืชืจืืื ืืืืืืืช ืืืืื ืช ืืฉืจืื. ืืื ืืชืืืจ "ืืืืจ ืืืืืช ืืฉืืืื" ืืฉื ืช 2019 ืืงืืืืจืืืช ืืจืฉืืช ืืฉืืคืืช. ืืฉื ืช 2021 ืืฆื ืืืืจ ืืืืฆืืช ื ืื "ืกืคืจ ืืืืงืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื", ืืกืืคืช ืืืืจืื ืฉื ืืฉืคืื ืื ืืฉืจืืืื ืืืืืื ืฉื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื, ืืขืจืืืช ืืืจื ืืจืง, ืืจืื ืืจืงืืืืฅ-ืืืืื, ืืืืื ืคืจืืงืฆ'ืื ืืจืื ืช ืกืืคืจ. ืืงืืจ ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืจื ืฉื ืืฉืืช ืขืืจืื ืืืื (ืชืฉืข"ื โ 2017) ืืชื ืคืจืก Chromy 2018 ืขื ืชืจืืื ืืฉืืื ืืืืฉืคื ืขืืืืจ ืคืื ืืืจืืก ืฉื ืจืืืจื ืืขืืืื ืืจืืืจื ืืฉืจืื (2022) ื"ืจ ืืฉื ืืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืืช ืื-ืืืจืืื (2023) ืืงืืจ ืืคืงืืืื ืืืฉืคืืื ืืืื ืืืจืกืืื ืืขืืจืืช (ืชืฉืค"ื-2023) ืืืชืื ืืืงืจื ืืืช ืืฉื ืืืื, ืื ืื ืืืื, ืืฆืืง ืจืืื ืืืฆืืง ืฉืืืจ: ืืฉืคืืชื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ื ืฉืื ืืืจืื, ืืฉืขืืจ ืืืฉื ื ืืคืจืงืืื ืืืืื ื ืืขื ืืื ืื ืืืจืืืื ืืื ืืืช ืืืืืงื ืืืืจืืืช ืืคืจืงืืืืืช ืืืืื ื. ืืขืช ืืื ืืื ืืืืขืฅ ืืฉืคืื ืืืืฉืื, ืืืงืฉ ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืื ืชืชืงืื ืืืืืช ืืืฉืื ืขื "ืืคืจืืช ืืืืืช" ืืื ื ืืืื ืจืขืืชื. ืืืื ืชืืื ืืคืืคื ืืคืจืงืืืืช ืืืืื ื ืืืื. ืืื ื ืืืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืจืืข ืื ืืช. ืืืช ืืื, ืฉืจื, ืขืืจืืช ืืื ืฉืขืกืงื ืืืขื ืืฉืจื ืืืืฅ ืื ืืฉืื ืคืืืืื, ื ืคืืจื ื-26 ืืืืงืืืืจ 2016. ืืืื ืืฆืขืืจ, ืืื, ืืื ืจืืคื ื ืืืจืืืืจืืจื, ืฉืคื ื ืืขืกืืง ืืขืจืืืช ืืื ืืชืืื ืจืฉืื ืืช ืจืคืืืืช. ืืฉื ืช 2022 ืจืื ืืืจ ืืกืคืจ ืฉืืชื "ืื ืืชืื ืืฆืืื, ืืืืื ืืช" (ืืืจ), ืฉืขืกืง ืืืงืจืื ืืืืืื ืืื ื ืชืงื ืืฉืื ืืจืคืืื-ืืฉืคืื. ืกืคืจืื ืืืืืจืื ืจืืืื ืฉืืืื ืืืืจ ืกืคืจืื ืืืืืจืื ืืขื ืืื ื ืืฉืคื ืืืืฉื ืืืกืืกืื ืืขืจืื-ืืฉืจืืื: ืืงืจืืื ื ืืกืคืช ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื ืขื ืคืจืืฉืชื ืืืืช ืืืฉืคื ืืขืืืื: ืืืชืืื ืืืจืฆืืืชืื: ืืืืืจืื ืืขืจืืช ืฉืืืืื |
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[SOURCE: https://he.wikipedia.org/wiki/6_ืืืืืืกื] | [TOKENS: 199] |
ืชืืื ืขื ืืื ืื 6 ืืืืืืกื 6 ืืืืืืกื ืืื ืืืื ื-218 ืืฉื ื (219 ืืฉื ื ืืขืืืจืช) ืืฉืืืข ื-32 ืืืื ืืืจืืืจืืื ื. ืขื ืืกืืื ืืฉื ื, ื ืฉืืจื ืขืื 147 ืืืื. ืืืจืืขืื ืืืกืืืจืืื ืืืื ืื ื ืืืื ื ืคืืจื ืืืื ืืืืจืืขืื ืืืืื ืืืื ืื ืงืืฉืืจืื ืืืฆืื ืืื |
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