text stringlengths 1 22.8M |
|---|
The Solon people () are a subgroup of the Ewenki (Evenk) people of northeastern Asia. They live in China's Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region and Heilongjiang Province, and constitute the majority of China's Ewenki.
Terminology and classification
The Ewenki (also spelled Evenki) people are spread throughout the taiga forests of much of northeastern Asia, including most of Eastern Siberia and parts of Northeastern China. According to Juha Janhunen's classification, the Ewenki people found in China can be classified into three subethnic groups:
The Solon (, "Solon Ewenki")
The Oroqen
The "Manchurian Reindeer Tungus" - a small group which are known to the Chinese as the "Yakut" (, "Yakut Ewenki"). They are the only group in China engaged in reindeer herding.
Another subethnic group in China's Inner Mongolia, the Khamnigan are bilingual, speaking the Ewenki language along with a Mongolian dialect. Janhunen believes that their primary ethnic affiliation is Mongolian rather than Ewenki, and does not include them into his classification of China's Ewenki.
The above classification is different from the PRC's official classification, according to which the Oroqen are considered a separate ethnic group, while the official Ewenki ethnic group of China includes not only the Solons and the "Manchurian Reindeer Tungus", but also the Khamnigan (or, officially, the "Tungus Ewenki", ).
As both the "Manchurian Reindeer Tungus" and the Khamnigans are quite small groups (perhaps around 200 persons in the former, and under 2,000 in the latter, as of the 1990s), the majority of the people classified as "Ewenki" in China are Solons. The Solon population was estimated as 7,200 in 1957, 18,000 in 1982, and 25,000 in 1990.
According to Janhunen's analysis, the Oroqen are in fact much closer to the "Ewenki proper" (i.e., the Evenks of Siberia) than the Solon are. The Solon are characterized by their close association with the Daur people. The Solons reside in the same areas where Daur do, in particular, in Evenk Autonomous Banner of Inner Mongolia, and elsewhere throughout the prefecture-level city of Hulunbuir. While the Solon language itself is a dialect of the Evenki language, most of the Solons are also bilingual in the Mongolic Daur language.
History
Aiman was the word Manchus used for the north Tungusic tribes of the Ewenki and Orochen which the Manchus incorporated into the Manchu banner system. The Kiler Ewenki had allied with the Cossack Russians unlike other Ewenki such as the Solon Ewenki under Qing rule. The Cossacks had hunted Aiman women as concubines and had children with them at Yaksa. The mixed children numbered 13 girls and 3 boys out of a total of 19 girls and 20 boys. There were 16 women and 155 men. In 1685 the Qing captured the mixed Cossack-Aiman children as well as the Cossacks, their Kiler Ewenki allies and some Orochen and incorporated them into the Ewenki and Oroqen banners.
The Albazinians were told to marry Solon Evenki widows by the Board of Rites.
The Solons were ordered by the Qianlong emperor to stop using rifles and instead practice traditional archery issuing an edict for silver taels to be issued for guns to be turned over to the government.
During 1900-1931 many Han Chinese merchants came to Heilongjiang where Solon lived. Solon women were raped by Han merchants and Solon men were enslaved by the Han Chinese merchant creditors after Solons went into debt to them while trading furs on credit for guns, liquor and tobacco from the Han Chinese merchants from Zhili and Shanxi.
In Xinjiang
In 1763, a number of Solon bannermen, along with their Daur and Xibe comrades-in-arms were resettled from Manchuria (Northeastern China) to the frontier regions of the recently conquered Xinjiang (see Dzungar–Qing Wars). These Solon became also known as the "Ongkor Solon". The presence of the Solons in the region is attested in numerous Russian accounts, in particular from the time of the Muslim minorities' war and its aftermath.
Unlike Xinjiang's Xibe, who preserve their ethnic identity into the 21st century, the less numerous Solon settlers gradually assimilated to the Dagur and Xibe. While over 100 Solons still lived in Xinjiang in 1905–1908, less than 20 people identified as Solon in the region in 1991. In 1990, only one Solon speaker remained in Xinjiang; he was 79 years old.
Penal servitude to Solon
The Qing dynasty often sent women and children of rebels as slaves to Solon (Evenks, Daur people, Oroqen people) garrisons in Ningguta in the Amur river drainage region of Heilongjiang and the Solin garrison in Ili (or Yili) in Dzungaria, Xinjiang. Muslim Uyghur women and children of rebels from a revolt in Uq Turpan were sent to Ili as slaves in 1765 after all the Uyghur male rebels were killed. A shrine in Uq turpan originally claimed to be of daughters of the prophet Sulayman during the Qing later in the 20th century was attributed to 7 Uyghur girls from 1765. Uyghur women and children were also given to Solon after a revolt in Kashgar in 1826. Uyghurs had a tale of a Uyghur woman named Nuzugum who was taken as a slave by an "infidel" Solon soldier in Ili from 1826 in an account recorded in 1882 by Bilal Nazim. Muslim Salar women and children were sent to Yili and Manchuria as slaves after a war in 1781. Eunuchs and slaves who committed infractions like theft and murder, who escaped multiple times or who were deemed to be uncontrollable were also sent to Ningguta as slaves of the Solon. Male slaves who committed robbery and murder or escaped multiple times were considered to difficult to control and were assigned to Oroqen. A eunuch stole the clothes of Lady Niohuru (Concubine Cheng (Qianlong)) in 1759 and was sent to Ningguta as punishment.
When the Qing forces under Zuo Zongtang put down the Dungan Revolt, the sons of Muslim Hui and Salar rebel leaders like Ma Benyuan (马本源) and Ma Guiyuan (马桂源) in Ningxia, Gansu and Qinghai were castrated by the Qing Imperial Household Department once they became 11 years old and were sent to work as eunuch slaves for Qing garrisons in Xinjiang and the wives of the rebel leaders were also enslaved. Among the Muslim boys were Ma Sanhe (马三和), Ma Qishizi (马七十子), Ma Shaqiang (马沙枪), Ma Suo (马锁), Ma Youzong (马由宗), Ma Feifei (马飞飞), Ma Wushijiu (马五十九), Ma Wushiliu (马五十六). Ma Jincheng, a son of the Hui Naqshbandi leader Ma Hualong was also castrated after being held in jail in Xi'an until he was 11 years old. The Imperial Household Department immediately castrated the 9 sons of Ma Guiyuan since they already reached age 12 and were enslave as eunuchs to Qing soldiers in Xinjiang. Ma Zhenyuan (马侦源), Ma Benyuan (马本源) and Ma Guiyuan's (马桂源) wives were all enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons after the husbands were executed. Ma Yulong (马玉龙) was the father of the boys Ma Sanhe (马三和) and Ma Jibang (继邦). Ma Dingbang (马定邦) was the father of Ma Qishi (马七十), Ma Shaba (马沙把), Ma Suo (马锁) and Ma Youzong (;马由宗). Ma Chenglong (马成龙) was the father of Ma Feifei (马飞). Their sons were all sentenced to castration. The Muslim rebels themselves were subjected to execution by lingchi (slow slicing) while their sons were castrated and their female relatives enslaved to soldiers and officials in provincial garrisons. The children of the Muslim rebels who were under ten included 6 year old Ga Liu (尕六), 8 year old Ga Quan (尕全) and Ma Xier (马希儿) who were imprisoned until they reached 11 and then castrated by the Imperial Household Department.
Yaqub Beg and his son Ishana's corpses were "burned to cinders" in full public view. This angered the population in Kashgar, but Qing troops quashed a rebellious plot by Hakim Khan. Surviving members of Yaqub Beg's family included his four sons, four grandchildren (two grandsons and two granddaughters), and four wives. They either died in prison in Lanzhou, Gansu or were killed by the Qing government. His sons Yima Kuli, K'ati Kuli, Maiti Kuli, and grandson Aisan Ahung were the only survivors alive in 1879. They were all underage children at that time. They were put on trial and sentenced to an agonizing death if they were found to be complicit in their father's rebellious "sedition". If they were innocent, they were to be sentenced to castration and servitude as eunuch slaves to the Qing troops on the Amur frontier in Heilongjiang. Afterwards, when they reached the age of 11 years, they would be handed over to the Imperial Household to be executed or castrated. In 1879, it was confirmed that the sentence of castration was carried out, Yaqub Beg's son and grandsons were castrated by the Chinese court in 1879 and turned into eunuchs to work in the Imperial Palace. Yaqub Beg's sons and grandsons who were captured were under 10 years old Aisin Ahongju (爱散阿洪俱), Kadihuli (卡底胡里) and 10 year old Imahuli (依玛胡里).
Shamanism
There are few sources on the shamanism of the Ewenki peoples below the Amur/Helongkiang river in Northern China. There is a brief report of fieldwork conducted by Richard Noll and Kun Shi in 1994 of the life of the shamaness Dula'r (Ewenki name), also known as Ao Yun Hua (her Han Chinese name). She was born in 1920 and was living in the village of Yiming Gatsa in the Ewenki Banner (county) of the Hulunbuir Prefecture, in the Inner Mongolian Autonomous Region. While not a particularly good informant, she described her initiatory illness, her multiyear apprenticeship with a Mongol shaman before being allowed to heal at the age of 25 or 26, and the torments she experienced during the Cultural Revolution in the 1960s when most of her shamanic paraphernalia was destroyed. Mongol and Buddhist Lamaist influences on her indigenous practice of shamansim was evident. She hid her prize possession—an Abagaldi (bear spirit) shaman mask, which has also been documented among the Mongol and Daur peoples in the region. The field report and color photographs of this shaman are available online.
Language
According to Janhunen's research, the numerous dialects of the Ewenki language can be divided into two major groups: those of the Solons (which he labels "Solon Ewenki") and those of the Ewenki of Siberia (as well as the Oroqen and the "Manchurian Reindeer Tungus" of China), which he calls "Siberian Evenki". The Ewenki dialects of the bilingual Khamnigan show features characteristic of both "Manchurian" and "Siberian" groups, as well as peculiar Khamnigan innovations.
The Solon being closely associated with the Daur, many (around half of them, according to Janhunen's field research in the 1990s) Solon people are bilingual in the Daur language. During the Qing Empire, many Solon (as well as members of many other native groups of Manchuria) were able to speak Manchu, while in modern China Mandarin Chinese is universally taught.
See also
Solun, Horqin Right Front Banner
Qing Regulation of Solon Gun Ownership, by David Porter, Harvard University
Notes
References
Tungusic peoples
Ethnic groups in China
Evenks |
Raúl Baptista (born 29 July 1911) was a Portuguese footballer who played as a half-back.
Starting at Barreirense, where he spent seven years, Baptista achieved recognition at Benfica, appearing in nearly 100 games and winning four major titles.
Career
Baptista arrived at Benfica in 1935 after seven seasons with Barreirense. He made his debut on 24 November, against Belenenses. With competition from João Correia, Albino and Gaspar Pinto, he only racked up 9 appearances, two in the Primeira Liga, allowing him to win his first league title. In the following year, he displaced Correia out of the first team and played 25 games on the way to back-to-back league titles. A year later, he completed a championship three-peat as regular first team, playing in all the league games and making 28 appearances in total.
In 1938–39, the breakthrough of Francisco Ferreira made a negative impact in his career, and he saw his playing time drop, to just 11 games. However, Baptista recovered his place in the first team in 1939–40, playing 20 games and winning the 1939–40 Taça de Portugal. The following year, he only played twice as Alcobia took his place in the starting eleven. He left Benfica with 95 appearances and four major wins.
Honours
Benfica
Primeira Divisão: 1935–36, 1936–37, 1937–38
Taça de Portugal: 1939–40
References
General
Specific
1911 births
Year of death unknown
Portuguese men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
Primeira Liga players
F.C. Barreirense players
S.L. Benfica footballers |
Groton High School, officially Groton Junior/Senior High School, is the only high school in the Groton Central School District. It serves the Village and Town of Groton, Tompkins County, New York, and extending into areas of Cortland and Cayuga Counties. Its previous building is now listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
Notable alumni
Ann Cody, three-time U.S. Paralympian and disability rights advocate
Julian B. Erway, lawyer and politician who served several terms in the New York State Senate
References
Public high schools in New York (state)
Schools in Tompkins County, New York |
Tenafly () is a borough in Bergen County, in the U.S. state of New Jersey. As of the 2020 United States census, the borough's population was 15,409, an increase of 921 (+6.4%) from the 2010 census count of 14,488, which in turn reflected an increase of 682 (+4.9%) from the 13,806 counted in the 2000 census. Tenafly is a suburb of New York City.
The first European settlers in Tenafly were Dutch immigrants, who began to populate the area during the late 17th century. The name "Tenafly" is of Dutch language origin. Some historical references cite a Dutch language connection to its location on or at "a meadow." Other derivations cite the early-modern Dutch phrase "Tiene Vly" or "Ten Swamps" which was given by Dutch settlers in 1688.
The borough has been one of the state's highest-income communities. Based on data from the American Community Survey for 2013–2017, Tenafly residents had a median household income of $153,381, ranked 13th in the state among municipalities with more than 10,000 residents, more than double the statewide median of $76,475.
Tenafly was incorporated as a borough on January 24, 1894, by an act of the New Jersey Legislature from portions of the now-defunct Palisades Township, based on the results of a referendum held the previous day. The borough was the first formed during the "Boroughitis" phenomenon then sweeping through Bergen County, in which 26 boroughs were formed in the county in 1894 alone. Portions of Palisades Township were acquired based on legislation approved on April 8, 1897.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the borough had a total area of 5.16 square miles (13.38 km2), including 4.59 square miles (11.88 km2) of land and 0.58 square miles (1.50 km2) of water (11.20%).
The borough borders the municipalities of Alpine, Bergenfield, Cresskill, Englewood and Englewood Cliffs in Bergen County, as well as the Bronx in New York City across the Hudson River.
Tenafly's street plan and overall development were largely determined by its hills and valleys. The eastern part of the borough is referred to as the "East Hill" for its higher elevation in relation to the rest of the borough. There, the terrain rises dramatically to the east of the downtown area, terminating at the New Jersey Palisades, overlooking the Hudson River. Nearby is the Tenafly Nature Center, located at 313 Hudson Avenue.
Demographics
2010 census
The 2010 United States census counted 14,488 people, 4,766 households, and 3,956 families in the borough. The population density was . There were 4,980 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup was 69.31% (10,041) White, 0.88% (128) Black or African American, 0.03% (5) Native American, 26.22% (3,799) Asian, 0.00% (0) Pacific Islander, 1.23% (178) from other races, and 2.33% (337) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 5.36% (776) of the population. Korean Americans accounted for 15.4% of the population in 2010.
Of the 4,766 households, 49.1% had children under the age of 18; 72.7% were married couples living together; 8.2% had a female householder with no husband present and 17.0% were non-families. Of all households, 15.3% were made up of individuals and 8.7% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 3.02 and the average family size was 3.36.
31.2% of the population were under the age of 18, 5.0% from 18 to 24, 20.2% from 25 to 44, 30.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.5% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41.8 years. For every 100 females, the population had 93.4 males. For every 100 females ages 18 and older there were 87.6 males.
The Census Bureau's 2006–2010 American Community Survey showed that (in 2010 inflation-adjusted dollars) median household income was $125,865 (with a margin of error of +/− $23,612) and the median family income was $140,100 (+/− $26,372). Males had a median income of $102,645 (+/− $7,373) versus $60,871 (+/− $9,308) for females. The per capita income for the borough was $60,557 (+/− $5,176). About 1.8% of families and 2.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 1.4% of those under age 18 and 2.2% of those age 65 or over.
2000 census
As of the 2000 United States census there were 13,806 people, 4,774 households, and 3,866 families residing in the borough. The population density was . There were 4,897 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the borough was 76.79% White, 0.96% African American, 0.09% Native American, 19.08% Asian, 0.02% Pacific Islander, 1.40% from other races, and 1.67% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 4.65% of the population. 11.1% of residents reported that they were of Irish, 8.7% Russian, 8.6% Italian, 7.9% American, 7.8% German and 6.2% Polish ancestry according to Census 2000. Among residents, 64.0% spoke English at home, while 8.7% spoke Korean, 5.0% Spanish, 4.5% Chinese or Mandarin and 3.1% Hebrew.
There were 4,774 households, out of which 43.9% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 70.6% were married couples living together, 8.1% had a female householder with no husband present, and 19.0% were non-families. 16.8% of all households were made up of individuals, and 9.3% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.86 and the average family size was 3.21.
In the borough the age distribution of the population shows 28.3% under the age of 18, 4.7% from 18 to 24, 25.4% from 25 to 44, 26.4% from 45 to 64, and 15.2% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 92.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 87.5 males.
2007 estimates state that the median income for a household in the borough was $109,887, and the median income for a family was $124,656. Males had a median income of $92,678 versus $61,990 for females. The per capita income for the borough was $62,230. About 2.3% of families and 3.1% of the population were below the poverty line, including 4.7% of those under age 18 and 3.3% of those age 65 or over.
Government
Local government
Tenafly is governed under a special charter granted by the New Jersey Legislature. This charter retains most aspects of the borough form of government, with the addition of initiative, referendum, and recall features. The borough is one of 11 municipalities (of the 564) statewide that use a state-granted special charter. The governing body comprises a mayor and a borough council comprising six council members, with all positions elected at-large on a partisan basis as part of the November general election. A mayor is elected directly by the voters to a four-year term of office, and is eligible for re-election. The borough council comprises six members elected to serve three-year terms on a staggered basis, with two seats coming up for election each year in a three-year cycle. As the legislative body, the borough council adopts ordinances and resolutions, decides on appropriations, approves appointments made by the mayor, determines policy, and establishes the functions of the various departments of the local government. Each council member is chairperson of one of six standing committees. The mayor presides over council meetings, but only votes in case of a tie, and can cast a veto which can be overridden by a two-thirds vote of the council.
, the mayor of Tenafly is Democrat Mark Zinna, whose term ends on December 31, 2023. Members of the Tenafly Borough Council are Lauren M. Dayton (D, 2023), Jeffrey D. Grossman (D, 2023), Venugopal Menon (D, 2024), Adam Michaels (D, 2025), Julie O'Connor (D, 2024) and Daniel Park (D, 2025).
In January 2020, the borough council appointed Julie O'Connor to fill the remainder of the term expiring in December 2021 that had been held by Mark Zinna until he stepped down earlier that month to take office as mayor.
In 2000, the local government of Tenafly sought to ban the erection of eruvs in their community. The eruv association filed a lawsuit in response to the borough's action. After six years of litigation in the federal courts, Tenafly settled by keeping the eruvs intact and paid $325,000 of the plaintiff's legal fees.
Federal, state, and county representation
Tenafly is located in the 5th Congressional District and is part of New Jersey's 37th state legislative district.
Prior to the 2010 Census, Tenafly had been part of the , a change made by the New Jersey Redistricting Commission that took effect in January 2013, based on the results of the November 2012 general elections. In redistricting following the 2010 census, the borough was in the 9th congressional district, which was in effect from 2013 to 2022.
Politics
As of March 2011, there were a total of 8,709 registered voters in Tenafly, of whom 3,082 (35.4% vs. 31.7% countywide) were registered as Democrats, 1,445 (16.6% vs. 21.1%) were registered as Republicans and 4,181 (48.0% vs. 47.1%) were registered as Unaffiliated. There was one voter registered to another party. Among the borough's 2010 Census population, 60.1% (vs. 57.1% in Bergen County) were registered to vote, including 87.3% of those aged 18 and over (vs. 73.7% countywide).
In the 2012 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 3,694 votes (58.8% vs. 54.8% countywide), ahead of Republican Mitt Romney with 2,489 votes (39.6% vs. 43.5%) and other candidates with 62 votes (1.0% vs. 0.9%), among the 6,281 ballots cast by the borough's 9,322 registered voters, for a turnout of 67.4% (vs. 70.4% in Bergen County). In the 2008 presidential election, Democrat Barack Obama received 4,285 votes (63.3% vs. 53.9% countywide), ahead of Republican John McCain with 2,376 votes (35.1% vs. 44.5%) and other candidates with 54 votes (0.8% vs. 0.8%), among the 6,773 ballots cast by the borough's 9,002 registered voters, for a turnout of 75.2% (vs. 76.8% in Bergen County). In the 2004 presidential election, Democrat John Kerry received 4,195 votes (61.3% vs. 51.7% countywide), ahead of Republican George W. Bush with 2,569 votes (37.5% vs. 47.2%) and other candidates with 53 votes (0.8% vs. 0.7%), among the 6,848 ballots cast by the borough's 8,871 registered voters, for a turnout of 77.2% (vs. 76.9% in the whole county).
In the 2013 gubernatorial election, Republican Chris Christie received 57.3% of the vote (2,046 cast), ahead of Democrat Barbara Buono with 42.2% (1,505 votes), and other candidates with 0.5% (18 votes), among the 3,667 ballots cast by the borough's 8,800 registered voters (98 ballots were spoiled), for a turnout of 41.7%. In the 2009 gubernatorial election, Democrat Jon Corzine received 2,454 ballots cast (55.8% vs. 48.0% countywide), ahead of Republican Chris Christie with 1,701 votes (38.7% vs. 45.8%), Independent Chris Daggett with 189 votes (4.3% vs. 4.7%) and other candidates with 17 votes (0.4% vs. 0.5%), among the 4,401 ballots cast by the borough's 8,782 registered voters, yielding a 50.1% turnout (vs. 50.0% in the county).
Education
The Tenafly Public Schools serve students from pre-kindergarten through twelfth grade. As of the 2020–21 school year, the district, comprised of six schools, had an enrollment of 3,582 students and 305.2 classroom teachers (on an FTE basis), for a student–teacher ratio of 11.7:1. Schools in the district (with 2020–21 enrollment data from the National Center for Education Statistics) are
Malcolm S. Mackay Elementary School with 344 students in grades K-5,
Ralph S. Maugham Elementary School with 364 students in grades K-5,
J. Spencer Smith Elementary School with 350 students in grades K-5,
Walter Stillman Elementary School with 334 students in grades K-5,
Tenafly Middle School with 889 students in grades 6-8 and
Tenafly High School with 1,231 students in grades 9-12. Students from Alpine attend Tenafly High School as part of a sending/receiving relationship.
The United States Department of Education awarded Tenafly High School the National Blue Ribbon School Award of Excellence at a special assembly to the Tenafly High School community on September 20, 2005. Tenafly was the only high school in New Jersey and one of 38 public high schools in the U.S. to receive the 2005 Blue Ribbon School Award.
The school was the third-ranked public high school in New Jersey out of 328 schools statewide in New Jersey Monthly magazine's September 2012 cover story on the state's "Top Public High Schools", after also being ranked third in 2010 out of 322 schools listed. Schooldigger.com ranked the school as tied for 26th out of 376 public high schools statewide in its 2010 rankings (unchanged from the 2009 rank) which were based on the combined percentage of students classified as proficient or above proficient on the language arts literacy and mathematics components of the High School Proficiency Assessment (HSPA).
Tenafly High School had the 16th highest SAT scores in the state among students in the class of 2017.
Public school students from the borough, and all of Bergen County, are eligible to attend the secondary education programs offered by the Bergen County Technical Schools, which include the Bergen County Academies in Hackensack, and the Bergen Tech campus in Teterboro or Paramus. The district offers programs on a shared-time or full-time basis, with admission based on a selective application process and tuition covered by the student's home school district.
Academy of Our Lady of Mount Carmel, which operates under the supervision of the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Newark, was recognized in 2012 by the National Blue Ribbon Schools Program of the United States Department of Education, one of 15 public and private schools in the state to be honored that year.
Transportation
, the borough had a total of of roadways, of which were maintained by the municipality, by Bergen County, by the New Jersey Department of Transportation and by the Palisades Interstate Park Commission.
County Route 501, U.S. Route 9W and the Palisades Interstate Parkway all pass through Tenafly.
The Palisades Interstate Parkway runs above the Hudson River from Englewood Cliffs north towards Alpine. There are no exits on the parkway in Tenafly; the nearest interchanges are Exit 1 in Englewood Cliffs to the south, and Exit 2 in Alpine in the north.
U.S. Route 9W adjoins and runs parallel to the Palisades Interstate Parkway.
Public transportation
Local and express bus service to and from New York City is available via NJ Transit bus route 166 to and from the Port Authority Bus Terminal in Midtown Manhattan.
Rockland Coaches provides services to the Port Authority Bus Terminal on Route 14ET from Montvale, New Jersey, the 9/9A/9T/9TA from Stony Point, New York, and the 20/20T routes from West Nyack, New York.
Saddle River Tours/Ameribus provides a rush hour service to the George Washington Bridge Bus Station on the 20/84 route.
From the mid-1850s until September 1966, Tenafly was served by rail along the Northern Branch, originally to Pavonia Terminal, and later to Hoboken Terminal. CSX now provides freight service along the line. The former Tenafly Station, currently a restaurant, was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1979; it is one of four surviving stations on the Northern Branch.
The Northern Branch Corridor Project, a proposal by New Jersey Transit to extend the Hudson Bergen Light Rail for nine stops and northward from its current terminus in North Bergen to two stations in Tenafly, the last of which would be a new terminus near the Cresskill town line, met with mixed reactions. Many residents and officials believed that the negative consequences for the borough in terms of traffic and noise outweighed the benefits. In November 2010, voters rejected the plan to re-establish a rail service to the town by a nearly 2–1 ratio in a non-binding referendum, with all of the borough council candidates opposing the restoration of commuter train service. There is continued resistance to New Jersey Transit's preferred alternative as described in the plan's December 2011 announcement. Despite local opposition, officials in Bergen County asked the North Jersey Transportation Planning Authority to support the proposal. In 2013, New Jersey Transit announced that the line would end in Englewood, after Tenafly officials estimated that as much as $8 million in commercial property valuation would be lost and residents raised strong objections.
Historic places
Historic locations in Tenafly include:
Christie-Parsels House, 195 Jefferson Avenue.
Cotswold Mansion, 1 Byrne Lane.
Demarest-Lyle House, 91 West Clinton Avenue.
Elizabeth Cady Stanton House, 135 Highwood Avenue, home of the women's rights activist from 1868 to 1887. Stanton unsuccessfully attempted to vote in the borough in 1880.
Roelof Westervelt House, 81 Westervelt Avenue.
Sickles-Melbourne House, 48 Knoll Road.
Tenafly Railroad Station, 1 Piermont Road, a former railroad station that operated from the mid-1800s until 1966.
Theodore Roosevelt Monument, Roosevelt Common, Riveredge Road.
Notable people
People who were born in, residents of, or otherwise associated with Tenafly include:
Edie Adams (1927–2008), entertainer
Emin Agalarov (born 1979), Azerbaijani-Russian singer and businessman, who writes and performs songs in English and Russian and has been popular in both Azerbaijan and Russia
Dean Amadon (1912–2003), ornithologist and an authority on birds of prey
Dave Anderson (1929–2018), sportswriter for The New York Times who won the 1981 Pulitzer Prize for distinguished commentary on sporting events
Hiroaki Aoki (1938–2008), founder of Benihana Japanese restaurant chain and father of DJ Steve Aoki lived in Tenafly during his Powerboating years
Mark Attanasio (born 1957), investment banker and owner of the Milwaukee Brewers
Peter Balakian (born 1951), Pulitzer Prize-winning poet and author
Jesse Barfield (born 1959), Toronto Blue Jays and New York Yankees outfielder, lived in Tenafly during part of his career as a Yankee
Mike Becker (born 1943), contract bridge player and official
Gregg Berhalter (born 1973), head coach of the United States men's national soccer team
Yogi Berra (1925–2015), player and manager for the New York Yankees
Edna Libby Beutenmüller (1872–1934), scientific illustrator notable for her work in publications including those published by the American Museum of Natural History
William Beutenmuller (1864–1934), entomologist who was curator of entomology at the American Museum of Natural History
Matt Brown, collegiate ice hockey left winger at Boston University
Verona Burkhard (1910–2004), artist, known for her murals painted for the U.S. Treasury Department
Albert Burstein (born 1922), former member of the New Jersey General Assembly who served as Majority Leader of the Assembly before being appointed to serve on the New Jersey Election Law Enforcement Commission
Jonathan Carney, appointed concertmaster of the Baltimore Symphony Orchestra in 2002
Orestes Cleveland (1829–1896), Mayor of Jersey City 1864–1867; 1886–1892, member of the U.S. House of Representatives from New Jersey's 5th congressional district from 1869 to 1871
John S. Conway (1852–1925), artist and sculptor
Herbert Dardik (1935–2020), vascular surgeon who served as the chief of vascular surgery at Englewood Hospital and Medical Center
Hope Davis (born 1964), actress
Jimmy Dean (1928–2010), singer turned breakfast meat entrepreneur
Clifford Demarest (1874–1946), organist and composer
Tate Donovan (born 1963), actor
Alex Dezen (born 1978), platinum-selling songwriter and producer
Eric J (born 1975), Emmy and Grammy award winning music producer
Jeannine Edwards (born 1964), former ESPN/ABC sportscaster focusing on college football, college basketball and horse racing
Victor Farris (1910–1985), inventor and businessman who has been credited with invention of the paper milk carton
Fat Joe (stage name of Joseph Antonio Cartagena, born 1970), rapper
Siggy Flicker (born 1967), cast member on the seventh season of Bravo's reality television series The Real Housewives of New Jersey
Danny Forster (born 1977), television host, film/television producer and director, best known as the host of the Science Channel series Build It Bigger
Bill Foxen (1879–1937), pitcher who played in Major League Baseball from 1908 to 1911 for the Chicago Cubs and Philadelphia Phillies
Reuven Frank (1920–2006), former NBC News president and pioneer of Vietnam War-era news coverage
Ralph Fuller (1890–1963), cartoonist best known for his long running comic strip Oaky Doaks
Eran Ganot (born ), head coach of the Hawaii Rainbow Warriors basketball team
Richard A. Gardner (1931–2003), child psychiatrist who coined the term "Parental Alienation Syndrome"
Alan Geisler (–2009), food chemist best known for creating the red onion sauce most often used as a condiment topping on hot dogs sold by street vendors in New York City
Alexander Gemignani (born 1979), Broadway performer
Alexie Gilmore (born 1976), actress who starred in the short-lived television series New Amsterdam
Leon Goldensohn (1911–1961), psychiatrist who monitored the mental health of the 21 Nazi defendants awaiting trial at Nuremberg in 1946
Lesley Gore (1946–2015), singer
Nakia Griffin-Stewart, American football tight end for the Kansas City Chiefs of the NFL
Rusty Hamer (1947–1990), actor
Big Bank Hank (born Henry Lee Jackson, 1957–2014), old school rapper and manager who was a member of The Sugarhill Gang, the first hip hop act to have a hit with the 1979 cross-over single "Rapper's Delight"
Ed Harris (born 1950), actor. Grew up in the borough and attended Tenafly High School
Jon-Erik Hexum (1957–1984), actor
Jack Hobens (1880–1944), Scottish-American professional golfer who made the first ever U.S. Open hole-in-one at the 147-yard 10th hole in the second round of the 1907 U.S. Open
Jay Huguley (born 1966), TV, film and theater actor, best known for starring as Whit Peyton in Brothers & Sisters
John Huyler (1808–1870), represented in the United States House of Representatives from 1857 to 1859
Bill Hwang, hedge fund manager
Ron Insana (born 1961), CNBC anchor and senior analyst
Margaret Josephs (born 1967), fashion designer, entrepreneur and television lifestyle expert who is the owner, founder and designer of a lifestyle brand called the Macbeth Collection
Irv Koons (1922–2017), graphic artist, industrial designer, and illustrator who was one of the leading consumer package designers of the 20th century
Shlomit Levi (born 1983), Yemeni-Israeli singer who is a former touring member of the folk metal group Orphaned Land
Ross Levinsohn (born ), interim CEO of Yahoo!
Sarah Lewitinn (born 1980), alias Ultragrrrl, author, Spin assistant editor, blogger, downtown socialite
Charles S. Lieber (1931–2009), clinical nutritionist who established that excess alcohol consumption can cause cirrhosis of the liver, even in subjects with an adequate diet
Ignatius Lissner (1867–1948), French-born Catholic priest who was instrumental in developing the ministry of the Catholic Church in the United States to the African American population through the Society of African Missions
Baby M (born 1986), subject of noted custody case between the egg donor/surrogate mother and the child's biological father
Tino Martinez (born 1967), first baseman who played for the New York Yankees
Don Mattingly (born 1961), New York Yankees
Gil McDougald (1928–2010), American League Rookie of the Year winner in 1951, who played his entire career with the New York Yankees, appearing in 53 World Series games
Richard P. McCormick (1916–2006), historian and professor, who was president of the New Jersey Historical Society
Lea Michele (born 1986), actress best known for starring in the Fox TV show Glee as Rachel Berry
Edward Miguel (born 1974), Professor of Environmental and Resource Economics at the University of California, Berkeley
Glenn Miller (1904–1944), bandleader
Ray Morgan (1913–1975), radio and television announcer
David Nelson (1936–2011), actor, director, and producer
Don Nelson (1927–2013), screenwriter, film producer and jazz musician, best known for his work on the sitcom The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet
Ricky Nelson (1940–1985), actor, musician, and singer-songwriter, who from the age of eight, starred alongside his family in the radio and television series The Adventures of Ozzie and Harriet
Josette Norris (born 1995), middle to long distance runner
Frank C. Osmers Jr. (1907–1977), represented New Jersey's 9th congressional district from 1939 to 1943 and 1951–1965
Barbara Pariente (born 1948), former chief justice of the Florida Supreme Court
Carol Potter (born 1948), stage and television actress best known as Cindy Walsh on Beverly Hills, 90210
George Price (1901–1995), cartoonist best known for his work for The New Yorker
Tom Rinaldi, reporter for ESPN and ABC
Seth Roland (born 1957), former soccer player who has been coach of the Fairleigh Dickinson Knights men's soccer team.
Adam Rothenberg (born 1975), stage and movie actor, Mad Money
Steve Rothman, (born 1952), Congressman
Peter Secchia (1937–2020), businessman who served as the United States Ambassador to Italy and San Marino from 1989 to 1993
Gareb Shamus (born 1968), connectivist artist who works primarily as a painter
David Shepard (1940–2017), film preservationist whose company, Film Preservation Associates, is responsible for many high-quality video versions of silent films
Brandon Silverstein (born 1991), entrepreneur and entertainment industry executive
Michael Sorvino (born 1977), actor and voice actor
Mira Sorvino (born 1967), actress who won the Academy Award for Best Supporting Actress for her performance in Woody Allen's Mighty Aphrodite
Paul Sorvino (1939-2022), actor
Elizabeth Cady Stanton (1815–1902), leading figure in the early women's rights movement
William Lee Stoddart (1868–1940), architect noted for hotels of the pre-World War II era along the East Coast of the United States
Lori Stokes (born 1962), morning anchorwoman for WABC-TV
George Tanham (1922–2003), international security expert who was an executive with the RAND Corporation
Henry Taub (1927–2011), businessman and philanthropist who co-founded ADP
Joe Taub (1929–2017), businessman who joined his brother Henry Taub and Frank Lautenberg in building the payroll company Automatic Data Processing and later was part of an investment group that acquired the New Jersey Nets
Thomas D. Thacher (1881–1950), one-time Solicitor General of the United States
Caren Turner (born 1957), infamous for her role in the "Tenafly Traffic Stop Incident" which forced her to resign from her career
Trish Van Devere (born 1941), actress
Huyler Westervelt (1869–1949), pitcher who had a 7–10 record in his single MLB season with the New York Giants
Jacob Aaron Westervelt (1800–1879), shipbuilder in the mid-19th century and Mayor of New York City (1853–1855)
Tracy Wolfson (born 1975), sportscaster for CBS Sports
Sofie Zamchick (born 1994), folk-pop singer-songwriter and actress, best known as the voice of Linny the Guinea Pig on the animated children's television series, Wonder Pets
Milan Zeleny (born 1942), economist
References
Bibliography
Municipal Incorporations of the State of New Jersey (according to Counties) prepared by the Division of Local Government, Department of the Treasury (New Jersey); December 1, 1958.
Clayton, W. Woodford; and Nelson, William. History of Bergen and Passaic Counties, New Jersey, with Biographical Sketches of Many of its Pioneers and Prominent Men., Philadelphia: Everts and Peck, 1882.
Harvey, Cornelius Burnham (ed.), Genealogical History of Hudson and Bergen Counties, New Jersey. New York: New Jersey Genealogical Publishing Co., 1900.
Rigney, Alice Renner; and Stefanowicz, Paul J. Images of America: Tenafly, Arcadia Publishing, 2009. .
Van Valen, James M. History of Bergen County, New Jersey. New York: New Jersey Publishing and Engraving Co., 1900.
Westervelt, Frances A. (Frances Augusta), 1858–1942, History of Bergen County, New Jersey, 1630–1923, Lewis Historical Publishing Company, 1923.
External links
Official website of Tenafly
1894 establishments in New Jersey
Boroughs in Bergen County, New Jersey
Dutch-American culture in New Jersey
Populated places established in 1894
New Jersey populated places on the Hudson River
Special charters in New Jersey |
Rethen (Leine) is a part of the town of Laatzen in the district of Hanover, in Lower Saxony, Germany. It is situated south of both Hanover and the center of Laatzen.
History
The name derives probably from the middle low German language and means "House of the Reed (Reed)" or "Reed home" ("Ret" = Reed; "Hen" = home).
Rethen was first mentioned in 1250 as a district of Gleidingen. The first chapel of the bishopric of Hildesheim was built 1448.
In 1523, Rethen coincided with the Koldingen Office to the Duchy of Calenberg. In 1592, a school was established in Rethen. The construction of the railway line Hanover-Kassel (operation 1853) brought a significant upswing, which intensified again from March 22, 1899, by the inclusion of the tram from Hanover to Hildesheim. The modern transportation promoted several industrial settlements, including the sugar factory in 1876, which had a long time national significance.
In 1974 Rethen lost its independency and was merged with the towns of Gleidingen, Grasdorf, Alt-Laatzen, Laatzen Mitte and Ingeln-Oesselse to the city of Laatzen.
See also
Metropolitan region Hannover-Braunschweig-Göttingen-Wolfsburg
Laatzen
References
External links
Official site of Laatzen (German)
Villages in Lower Saxony |
```css
@keyframes elementor-animation-bob{0%{transform:translateY(-8px)}50%{transform:translateY(-4px)}100%{transform:translateY(-8px)}}@keyframes elementor-animation-bob-float{100%{transform:translateY(-8px)}}.elementor-animation-bob:active,.elementor-animation-bob:focus,.elementor-animation-bob:hover{animation-name:elementor-animation-bob-float,elementor-animation-bob;animation-duration:.3s,1.5s;animation-delay:0s,.3s;animation-timing-function:ease-out,ease-in-out;animation-iteration-count:1,infinite;animation-fill-mode:forwards;animation-direction:normal,alternate}
``` |
```objective-c
/*
* PROGRAM: JRD Access Method
* MODULE: flu_proto.h
* DESCRIPTION: Prototype header file for flu.cpp, functions.cpp,
* builtin.cpp and qatest.cpp
*
* The contents of this file are subject to the Interbase Public
*
* "AS IS" basis, WITHOUT WARRANTY OF ANY KIND, either express
*
* The Original Code was created by Inprise Corporation
* and its predecessors. Portions created by Inprise Corporation are
*
* All Rights Reserved.
* Contributor(s): ______________________________________.
*/
#ifndef JRD_FLU_PROTO_H
#define JRD_FLU_PROTO_H
FPTR_INT BUILTIN_entrypoint(const TEXT*, const TEXT*);
FPTR_INT FUNCTIONS_entrypoint(const char*, const char*);
#endif // JRD_FLU_PROTO_H
``` |
Lithuanian law allows firearm possession on a shall-issue basis. With approximately 13.6 civilian firearms per 100 people, Lithuania is 58th most armed country in the world.
History
When Lithuania was part of the Soviet Union, firearm possession was tightly controlled and most citizens were not allowed to keep firearms. In 1990, Mikhail Gorbachev ordered confiscation of all weapons in Lithuania.
In 1993 Lithuania allowed possession of firearms for purposes of self-defense on a may-issue basis – the applicant needed to demonstrate a danger to one's life. In 1997 this requirement was abolished, making the process shall-issue. In 2002 Lithuania passed new firearm law which is still in force today with some amendments. Since then number of legal firearms began to rise, doubling from 61,544 in 2002 to 127,984 in 2017.
Current law
Lithuanian law allows firearm possession for the following purposes:
Hunting;
Sport shooting;
Self-defense;
Professional activities;
Collection;
Training;
Scientific research;
Other (at discretion of police).
The minimum age to own firearms is 23 for self-defense handguns, 21 for semi-automatic rifles, 18 years for semi-automatic shotguns and smooth-bore self-defense weapons and 16 years for sporting firearms. Every permanent resident of Lithuania of minimum age who passes the examination has the right to possess firearms for self-defense purposes. Article 12(5) forbids police from refusing granting license without valid reason. Any such refusal may be appealed in court.
Carrying firearms is allowed with a permit to carry. Police also must have good reason to refuse such permit as per Article 40.6. There should be no round in the chamber while carrying, except revolvers, which should not be cocked with the exception of direct threat to the person’s health or life.
Explosive missiles, mortars and flame throwers are prohibited.
Firearm possession
As of 2019 there are 173,680 (or 6 per 100 people) registered firearms in Lithuania owned by 94,352 people including 37,473 rifles, 47,796 smoothbore long guns, 34,016 gas handguns, 30,165 pistols, 19,684 revolvers and 4,564 other kinds of firearms.
Gun crime
Between 1995 and 2018 number of homicides using firearms has fallen by more than 98% from 252 to four, while overall number of homicides has fallen by 85% from 505 to 72.
See also
Overview of gun laws by nation
References
External links
Footnotes
Lithuania
Law of Lithuania |
The 1902 Syracuse Orangemen football team represented Syracuse University during the 1902 college football season. The head coach was Edwin Sweetland, coaching his third season with the Orangemen.
Schedule
References
Syracuse
Syracuse Orange football seasons
Syracuse Orangemen football |
```javascript
Type of the Children props
componentWillReceiveProps Not Triggered After Mounting
Use **React** with other libraries
Server-side rendering
Enhanced Prop Validation
``` |
A pollen core is a core sample of a medium containing a stratigraphic sequence of pollen. Analysis of the type and frequency of the pollen in each layer is used to study changes in climate or land use using regional vegetation as a proxy. This analysis is conceptually comparable to the study of ice cores.
Methods
Cores are obtained from deposits where pollen is likely to have been trapped. Cores are generally obtained from lacustrine sediments and peat bogs although soil sediments may also be obtained. Degradation of the pollen exine and bioturbation may reduce the quality of the pollen grains and stratigraphy of the core so researchers frequently select locations where the sediments are under anaerobic conditions.
The cores are then subjected to pollen analysis by palynologists who are able to infer the proportions of major plant types from the concentrations of different pollen types found in the cores.
Coring equipment
There are a number of tools used for coring, often with specialized uses:
Core samplers
Glew corer: A gravity corer used for lake surface sediments to capture the water-sediment interface. Similar to the Kajak-Brinkhurst sampler.
Brown corer:
Frozen finger: A tube is placed into the sediment and then filled with liquid nitrogen causing the sediment around the tube to freeze solid, preserving fine scale structure.
Livingstone piston corer: A long metal tube with a piston at the lower end. Once the core tube is at the desired depth the piston is released and the barrel can be pushed downwards into the sediment. Generally used for lake sediments.
Russian: A chamber corer used to sample peats.
Grab samplers
Ekman grab sampler:
Petersen grab:
Ponar grab:
Pollination
Palynology |
Costapex martinorum is a species of sea snail, a marine gastropod mollusk, in the family Costellariidae, the ribbed miters.
References
Costellariidae
Taxa named by Walter Olivier Cernohorsky |
```python
import unittest
import resource
import random
import struct
import errno
import math
import time
import sys
from pyverbs.providers.mlx5.mlx5dv import Mlx5Context, Mlx5DVContextAttr, \
Mlx5DVQPInitAttr, Mlx5QP, Mlx5DVDCInitAttr, Mlx5DCIStreamInitAttr, \
Mlx5DevxObj, Mlx5UMEM, Mlx5UAR, WqeDataSeg, WqeCtrlSeg, Wqe, Mlx5Cqe64, \
Mlx5DVCQInitAttr, Mlx5CQ
from tests.base import RoCETrafficResources, set_rnr_attributes, DCT_KEY, \
RDMATestCase, PyverbsAPITestCase, RDMACMBaseTest, BaseResources, PATH_MTU, \
RNR_RETRY, RETRY_CNT, MIN_RNR_TIMER, TIMEOUT, MAX_RDMA_ATOMIC, RCResources, \
is_gid_available
from pyverbs.pyverbs_error import PyverbsRDMAError, PyverbsUserError, \
PyverbsError
from pyverbs.providers.mlx5.mlx5dv_objects import Mlx5DvObj
from pyverbs.qp import QPCap, QPInitAttrEx, QPAttr
import pyverbs.providers.mlx5.mlx5_enums as dve
from pyverbs.addr import AHAttr, GlobalRoute
from pyverbs.cq import CqInitAttrEx
import pyverbs.mem_alloc as mem
import pyverbs.dma_util as dma
import pyverbs.device as d
from pyverbs.pd import PD
import pyverbs.enums as e
from pyverbs.mr import MR
import tests.utils
MLX5_CQ_SET_CI = 0
POLL_CQ_TIMEOUT = 5 # In seconds
PORT_STATE_TIMEOUT = 20 # In seconds
MELLANOX_VENDOR_ID = 0x02c9
MLX5_DEVS = {
0x1011, # MT4113 Connect-IB
0x1012, # Connect-IB Virtual Function
0x1013, # ConnectX-4
0x1014, # ConnectX-4 Virtual Function
0x1015, # ConnectX-4LX
0x1016, # ConnectX-4LX Virtual Function
0x1017, # ConnectX-5, PCIe 3.0
0x1018, # ConnectX-5 Virtual Function
0x1019, # ConnectX-5 Ex
0x101a, # ConnectX-5 Ex VF
0x101b, # ConnectX-6
0x101c, # ConnectX-6 VF
0x101d, # ConnectX-6 DX
0x101e, # ConnectX family mlx5Gen Virtual Function
0x101f, # ConnectX-6 LX
0x1021, # ConnectX-7
0x1023, # ConnectX-8
0xa2d2, # BlueField integrated ConnectX-5 network controller
0xa2d3, # BlueField integrated ConnectX-5 network controller VF
0xa2d6, # BlueField-2 integrated ConnectX-6 Dx network controller
0xa2dc, # BlueField-3 integrated ConnectX-7 network controller
0xa2df, # BlueField-4 integrated ConnectX-8 network controller
}
DCI_TEST_GOOD_FLOW = 0
DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITH_RESET = 1
DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITHOUT_RESET = 2
IB_SMP_ATTR_PORT_INFO = 0x0015
IB_MGMT_CLASS_SUBN_LID_ROUTED = 0x01
IB_MGMT_METHOD_GET = 0x01
DB_BF_DBR_LESS_BUF_OFFSET = 0x600
class PortStatus:
MLX5_PORT_UP = 1
MLX5_PORT_DOWN = 2
class PortState:
NO_STATE_CHANGE = 0
DOWN = 1
INIT = 2
ARMED = 3
ACTIVE = 4
def is_mlx5_dev(ctx):
dev_attrs = ctx.query_device()
return dev_attrs.vendor_id == MELLANOX_VENDOR_ID and \
dev_attrs.vendor_part_id in MLX5_DEVS
def skip_if_not_mlx5_dev(ctx):
if not is_mlx5_dev(ctx):
raise unittest.SkipTest('Can not run the test over non MLX5 device')
class Mlx5PyverbsAPITestCase(PyverbsAPITestCase):
def setUp(self):
super().setUp()
skip_if_not_mlx5_dev(self.ctx)
class Mlx5RDMATestCase(RDMATestCase):
def setUp(self):
super().setUp()
skip_if_not_mlx5_dev(d.Context(name=self.dev_name))
class Mlx5RDMACMBaseTest(RDMACMBaseTest):
def setUp(self):
super().setUp()
skip_if_not_mlx5_dev(d.Context(name=self.dev_name))
class Mlx5DcResources(RoCETrafficResources):
def __init__(self, dev_name, ib_port, gid_index, send_ops_flags,
qp_count=1, create_flags=0):
self.send_ops_flags = send_ops_flags
self.create_flags = create_flags
super().__init__(dev_name, ib_port, gid_index, with_srq=True,
qp_count=qp_count)
def to_rts(self):
attr = self.create_qp_attr()
for i in range(self.qp_count):
self.qps[i].to_rts(attr)
self.dct_qp.to_rtr(attr)
def create_context(self):
mlx5dv_attr = Mlx5DVContextAttr()
try:
self.ctx = Mlx5Context(mlx5dv_attr, name=self.dev_name)
except PyverbsUserError as ex:
raise unittest.SkipTest(f'Could not open mlx5 context ({ex})')
except PyverbsRDMAError:
raise unittest.SkipTest('Opening mlx5 context is not supported')
def create_mr(self):
access = e.IBV_ACCESS_REMOTE_WRITE | e.IBV_ACCESS_LOCAL_WRITE | \
e.IBV_ACCESS_REMOTE_ATOMIC | e.IBV_ACCESS_REMOTE_READ
self.mr = MR(self.pd, self.msg_size, access)
def create_qp_cap(self):
return QPCap(100, 0, 1, 0)
def create_qp_attr(self):
qp_attr = QPAttr(port_num=self.ib_port)
set_rnr_attributes(qp_attr)
qp_access = e.IBV_ACCESS_LOCAL_WRITE | e.IBV_ACCESS_REMOTE_WRITE | \
e.IBV_ACCESS_REMOTE_ATOMIC | e.IBV_ACCESS_REMOTE_READ
qp_attr.qp_access_flags = qp_access
gr = GlobalRoute(dgid=self.ctx.query_gid(self.ib_port, self.gid_index),
sgid_index=self.gid_index)
ah_attr = AHAttr(port_num=self.ib_port, is_global=1, gr=gr,
dlid=self.port_attr.lid)
qp_attr.ah_attr = ah_attr
return qp_attr
def create_qp_init_attr(self, send_ops_flags=0):
comp_mask = e.IBV_QP_INIT_ATTR_PD
if send_ops_flags:
comp_mask |= e.IBV_QP_INIT_ATTR_SEND_OPS_FLAGS
return QPInitAttrEx(cap=self.create_qp_cap(), pd=self.pd, scq=self.cq,
rcq=self.cq, srq=self.srq, qp_type=e.IBV_QPT_DRIVER,
send_ops_flags=send_ops_flags, comp_mask=comp_mask,
sq_sig_all=1)
def create_qps(self):
# Create the DCI QPs.
qp_init_attr = self.create_qp_init_attr(self.send_ops_flags)
try:
for _ in range(self.qp_count):
comp_mask = dve.MLX5DV_QP_INIT_ATTR_MASK_DC
if self.create_flags:
comp_mask |= dve.MLX5DV_QP_INIT_ATTR_MASK_QP_CREATE_FLAGS
attr = Mlx5DVQPInitAttr(comp_mask=comp_mask,
create_flags=self.create_flags,
dc_init_attr=Mlx5DVDCInitAttr())
qp = Mlx5QP(self.ctx, qp_init_attr, attr)
self.qps.append(qp)
self.qps_num.append(qp.qp_num)
self.psns.append(random.getrandbits(24))
# Create the DCT QP.
qp_init_attr = self.create_qp_init_attr()
dc_attr = Mlx5DVDCInitAttr(dc_type=dve.MLX5DV_DCTYPE_DCT,
dct_access_key=DCT_KEY)
attr = Mlx5DVQPInitAttr(comp_mask=dve.MLX5DV_QP_INIT_ATTR_MASK_DC,
dc_init_attr=dc_attr)
self.dct_qp = Mlx5QP(self.ctx, qp_init_attr, attr)
except PyverbsRDMAError as ex:
if ex.error_code == errno.EOPNOTSUPP:
raise unittest.SkipTest(f'Create DC QP is not supported')
raise ex
class Mlx5DcStreamsRes(Mlx5DcResources):
def __init__(self, dev_name, ib_port, gid_index, send_ops_flags,
qp_count=1, create_flags=0):
self.bad_flow = 0
self.mr_bad_flow = False
self.stream_check = False
super().__init__(dev_name, ib_port, gid_index, send_ops_flags,
qp_count, create_flags)
def reset_qp(self, qp_idx):
qp_attr = QPAttr(qp_state=e.IBV_QPS_RESET)
self.qps[qp_idx].modify(qp_attr, e.IBV_QP_STATE)
self.qps[qp_idx].to_rts(qp_attr)
self.qp_stream_errors[qp_idx][0] = 0
def get_stream_id(self, qp_idx):
return self.current_qp_stream_id[qp_idx]
def generate_stream_id(self, qp_idx):
self.current_qp_stream_id[qp_idx] += 1
# Reset stream id to check double-usage
if self.current_qp_stream_id[qp_idx] > self.dcis[qp_idx]['stream']+2:
self.current_qp_stream_id[qp_idx] = 1
return self.current_qp_stream_id[qp_idx]
def dci_reset_stream_id(self, qp_idx):
stream_id = self.get_stream_id(qp_idx)
Mlx5QP.modify_dci_stream_channel_id(self.qps[qp_idx], stream_id)
# Check once if error raised when reset wrong stream id
if self.stream_check:
try:
Mlx5QP.modify_dci_stream_channel_id(self.qps[qp_idx],
stream_id+1)
except PyverbsRDMAError as ex:
self.stream_check = False
def bad_flow_handler_qp(self, qp_idx, status, reset=False):
str_id = self.get_stream_id(qp_idx)
bt_stream = (1 << str_id)
if status == e.IBV_WC_LOC_PROT_ERR:
self.qp_stream_errors[qp_idx][1] += 1
if (self.qp_stream_errors[qp_idx][0] & bt_stream) != 0:
raise PyverbsError(f'Dublicate error from stream id {str_id}')
self.qp_stream_errors[qp_idx][0] |= bt_stream
if status == e.IBV_WC_WR_FLUSH_ERR:
qp_attr, _ = self.qps[qp_idx].query(e.IBV_QP_STATE)
if qp_attr.cur_qp_state == e.IBV_QPS_ERR and reset:
if self.qp_stream_errors[qp_idx][1] != self.dcis[qp_idx]['errored']:
msg = f'QP {qp_idx} in ERR state with wrong number of counter'
raise PyverbsError(msg)
self.reset_qp(qp_idx)
self.qp_stream_errors[qp_idx][2] = True
return True
def bad_flow_handling(self, qp_idx, status, reset=False):
if self.bad_flow == DCI_TEST_GOOD_FLOW:
return False
if self.bad_flow == DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITH_RESET:
self.qp_stream_errors[qp_idx][1] += 1
if reset:
self.dci_reset_stream_id(qp_idx)
return True
if self.bad_flow == DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITHOUT_RESET:
return self.bad_flow_handler_qp(qp_idx, status, reset)
return False
def set_bad_flow(self, bad_flow):
self.bad_flow = bad_flow
if self.bad_flow:
if bad_flow == DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITH_RESET and self.log_dci_errored == 0:
raise unittest.SkipTest('DCS test of bad flow with reset is not '
'supported when HCA_CAP.log_dci_errored is 0')
self.pd_bad = PD(self.ctx)
self.mr_bad_flow = False
if bad_flow == DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITH_RESET:
self.stream_check = True
def is_bad_flow(self, qp_idx):
cnt = self.get_stream_id(qp_idx)
if self.bad_flow == DCI_TEST_GOOD_FLOW:
return False
if self.bad_flow == DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITH_RESET:
if (cnt % 3) != 0:
return False
self.qp_stream_errors[qp_idx][0] += 1
if self.bad_flow == DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITHOUT_RESET:
if self.qp_stream_errors[qp_idx][2]:
return False
return True
def check_bad_flow(self, qp_idx):
change_mr = False
if self.is_bad_flow(qp_idx):
if not self.mr_bad_flow:
self.mr_bad_flow = True
pd = self.pd_bad
change_mr = True
else:
if self.mr_bad_flow:
self.mr_bad_flow = False
pd = self.pd
change_mr = True
if change_mr:
self.mr.rereg(flags=e.IBV_REREG_MR_CHANGE_PD, pd=pd,
addr=0, length=0, access=0)
def check_after_traffic(self):
if self.bad_flow == DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITH_RESET:
for errs in self.qp_stream_errors:
if errs[0] != errs[1]:
msg = f'Number of qp_stream_errors {errs[0]} not same '\
f'as number of catches {errs[1]}'
raise PyverbsError(msg)
if self.stream_check:
msg = 'Reset of good stream id does not create exception'
raise PyverbsError(msg)
def generate_dci_attr(self, qpn):
# This array contains current number of log_dci_streams
# and log_dci_errored values per qp. For 1-st qp number
# of streams greater than number of errored and vice-versa
# for the 2nd qp.
qp_arr = {0: [3, 2], 1: [2, 3]}
try:
dci_caps = self.ctx.query_mlx5_device().dci_streams_caps
except PyverbsRDMAError as ex:
if ex.error_code in [errno.EOPNOTSUPP, errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT]:
raise unittest.SkipTest('Get DCI caps is not supported')
raise ex
if not dci_caps or dci_caps['max_log_num_concurent'] == 0:
raise unittest.SkipTest('DCI caps is not supported by HW')
self.log_dci_streams = min(qp_arr.get(qpn, [1,1])[0],
dci_caps['max_log_num_concurent'])
self.log_dci_errored = min(qp_arr.get(qpn, [1,1])[1],
dci_caps['max_log_num_errored'])
def create_qps(self):
# Create the DCI QPs.
qp_init_attr = self.create_qp_init_attr(self.send_ops_flags)
self.dcis = {}
# This array contains current stream id
self.current_qp_stream_id = {}
# This array counts different errors in bad_flow
self.qp_stream_errors = []
comp_mask = dve.MLX5DV_QP_INIT_ATTR_MASK_DC | \
dve.MLX5DV_QP_INIT_ATTR_MASK_DCI_STREAMS
try:
for qpn in range(self.qp_count):
if self.create_flags:
comp_mask |= dve.MLX5DV_QP_INIT_ATTR_MASK_QP_CREATE_FLAGS
self.generate_dci_attr(qpn)
stream_ctx = Mlx5DCIStreamInitAttr(self.log_dci_streams,
self.log_dci_errored)
self.dcis[qpn] = {'stream': 1 << self.log_dci_streams,
'errored': 1 << self.log_dci_errored}
attr = Mlx5DVQPInitAttr(comp_mask=comp_mask,
create_flags=self.create_flags,
dc_init_attr=Mlx5DVDCInitAttr(dci_streams=stream_ctx))
qp = Mlx5QP(self.ctx, qp_init_attr, attr)
self.qps.append(qp)
# Different values for start point of stream id per qp
self.current_qp_stream_id[qpn] = qpn
# Array of errors for bad_flow
# For DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITH_RESET
# First element - number of injected bad flows
# Second element - number of exceptions from bad flows
# For DCI_TEST_BAD_FLOW_WITHOUT_RESET
# First element - bitmap of bad flow streams
# Second element - number of exceptions from bad flows
# Third element - flag if reset of qp been executed
self.qp_stream_errors.append([0, 0, False])
self.qps_num.append(qp.qp_num)
self.psns.append(random.getrandbits(24))
# Create the DCT QP.
qp_init_attr = self.create_qp_init_attr()
dc_attr = Mlx5DVDCInitAttr(dc_type=dve.MLX5DV_DCTYPE_DCT,
dct_access_key=DCT_KEY)
attr = Mlx5DVQPInitAttr(comp_mask=dve.MLX5DV_QP_INIT_ATTR_MASK_DC,
dc_init_attr=dc_attr)
self.dct_qp = Mlx5QP(self.ctx, qp_init_attr, attr)
except PyverbsRDMAError as ex:
if ex.error_code in [errno.EOPNOTSUPP, errno.EPROTONOSUPPORT]:
raise unittest.SkipTest('Create DC QP is not supported')
raise ex
@staticmethod
def traffic_with_bad_flow(client, server, iters, gid_idx, port):
"""
Runs basic traffic with bad flow between two sides
:param client: client side, clients base class is BaseTraffic
:param server: server side, servers base class is BaseTraffic
:param iters: number of traffic iterations
:param gid_idx: local gid index
:param port: IB port
:return: None
"""
import tests.utils as u
send_op = e.IBV_WR_SEND
ah_client = u.get_global_ah(client, gid_idx, port)
s_recv_wr = u.get_recv_wr(server)
c_recv_wr = u.get_recv_wr(client)
for qp_idx in range(server.qp_count):
# Prepare the receive queue with RecvWR
u.post_recv(client, c_recv_wr, qp_idx=qp_idx)
u.post_recv(server, s_recv_wr, qp_idx=qp_idx)
read_offset = 0
for _ in range(iters):
for qp_idx in range(server.qp_count):
_, c_send_object = u.get_send_elements(client, False)
u.send(client, c_send_object, send_op, True, qp_idx,
ah_client, False)
try:
wcs = u._poll_cq(client.cq)
except PyverbsError as ex:
if client.bad_flow_handling(qp_idx, e.IBV_WC_SUCCESS, True):
continue
raise ex
else:
if wcs[0].status != e.IBV_WC_SUCCESS and \
client.bad_flow_handling(qp_idx, wcs[0].status, True):
continue
u.poll_cq(server.cq)
u.post_recv(server, s_recv_wr, qp_idx=qp_idx)
msg_received = server.mr.read(server.msg_size, read_offset)
u.validate(msg_received, True, server.msg_size)
client.check_after_traffic()
class WqAttrs:
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
self.wqe_num = 0
self.wqe_size = 0
self.wq_size = 0
self.head = 0
self.post_idx = 0
self.wqe_shift = 0
self.offset = 0
def __str__(self):
return str(vars(self))
def __format__(self, format_spec):
return str(self).__format__(format_spec)
class CqAttrs:
def __init__(self):
super().__init__()
self.cons_idx = 0
self.cqe_size = 64
self.ncqes = 256
def __str__(self):
return str(vars(self))
def __format__(self, format_spec):
return str(self).__format__(format_spec)
class QueueAttrs:
def __init__(self):
self.rq = WqAttrs()
self.sq = WqAttrs()
self.cq = CqAttrs()
def __str__(self):
print_format = '{}:\n\t{}\n'
return print_format.format('RQ Attributes', self.rq) + \
print_format.format('SQ Attributes', self.sq) + \
print_format.format('CQ Attributes', self.cq)
class Mlx5DevxRcResources(BaseResources):
"""
Creates all the DevX resources needed for a traffic-ready RC DevX QP,
including methods to transit the WQs into RTS state.
It also includes traffic methods for post send/receive and poll.
The class currently supports post send with immediate, but can be
easily extended to support other opcodes in the future.
"""
def __init__(self, dev_name, ib_port, gid_index, msg_size=1024, activate_port_state=False,
send_dbr_mode=0):
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import SendDbrMode
super().__init__(dev_name, ib_port, gid_index)
self.umems = {}
self.send_dbr_mode = send_dbr_mode
self.msg_size = msg_size
self.num_msgs = 1000
self.imm = 0x03020100
self.uar = {}
self.max_recv_sge = 1
self.eqn = None
self.pd = None
self.dv_pd = None
self.mr = None
self.msi_vector = None
self.eq = None
self.cq = None
self.qp = None
self.qpn = None
self.psn = None
self.lid = None
self.gid = [0, 0, 0, 0]
# Remote attrs
self.rqpn = None
self.rpsn = None
self.rlid = None
self.rgid = [0, 0, 0, 0]
self.rmac = None
self.devx_objs = []
self.qattr = QueueAttrs()
if activate_port_state:
start_state_t = time.perf_counter()
self.change_port_state_with_registers(PortStatus.MLX5_PORT_UP)
admin_status, oper_status = self.query_port_state_with_registers()
while admin_status != PortStatus.MLX5_PORT_UP or oper_status != PortStatus.MLX5_PORT_UP:
if time.perf_counter() - start_state_t >= PORT_STATE_TIMEOUT:
raise PyverbsRDMAError('Could not change the port state to UP')
self.change_port_state_with_registers(PortStatus.MLX5_PORT_UP)
admin_status, oper_status = self.query_port_state_with_registers()
time.sleep(1)
mad_port_state = self.query_port_state_with_mads(ib_port)
while mad_port_state < PortState.ACTIVE:
if time.perf_counter() - start_state_t >= PORT_STATE_TIMEOUT:
raise PyverbsRDMAError('Could not change the port state to UP')
time.sleep(1)
mad_port_state = self.query_port_state_with_mads(ib_port)
if self.send_dbr_mode != SendDbrMode.DBR_VALID:
self.check_cap_send_dbr_mode()
self.init_resources()
def get_wqe_data_segment(self):
return WqeDataSeg(self.mr.length, self.mr.lkey, self.mr.buf)
def change_port_state_with_registers(self, state):
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import PaosReg
paos_in = PaosReg(local_port=self.ib_port, admin_status=state, ase=1)
self.access_paos_register(paos_in)
def query_port_state_with_registers(self):
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import PaosReg
paos_in = PaosReg(local_port=self.ib_port)
paos_out = self.access_paos_register(paos_in)
return paos_out.admin_status, paos_out.oper_status
def access_paos_register(self, paos_in, op_mod=0): # op_mod: 0 - write / 1 - read
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import AccessPaosRegisterIn, \
AccessPaosRegisterOut, DevxOps
paos_reg_in = AccessPaosRegisterIn(op_mod=op_mod,
register_id=DevxOps.MLX5_CMD_OP_ACCESS_REGISTER_PAOS,
data=paos_in)
cmd_out = self.ctx.devx_general_cmd(paos_reg_in, len(AccessPaosRegisterOut()))
paos_reg_out = AccessPaosRegisterOut(cmd_out)
if paos_reg_out.status:
raise PyverbsRDMAError(f'Failed to access PAOS register ({paos_reg_out.syndrome})')
return paos_reg_out.data
def query_port_state_with_mads(self, ib_port):
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import IbSmp
in_mad = IbSmp(base_version=1, mgmt_class=IB_MGMT_CLASS_SUBN_LID_ROUTED,
class_version=1, method=IB_MGMT_METHOD_GET,
attr_id=IB_SMP_ATTR_PORT_INFO, attr_mod=ib_port)
ib_smp_out = IbSmp(self._send_mad_cmd(ib_port, in_mad, 0x3))
return ib_smp_out.data[32] & 0xf
def _send_mad_cmd(self, ib_port, in_mad, op_mod):
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import MadIfcIn, MadIfcOut
mad_ifc_in = MadIfcIn(op_mod=op_mod, port=ib_port, mad=in_mad)
cmd_out = self.ctx.devx_general_cmd(mad_ifc_in, len(MadIfcOut()))
mad_ifc_out = MadIfcOut(cmd_out)
if mad_ifc_out.status:
raise PyverbsRDMAError(f'Failed to send MAD with syndrome ({mad_ifc_out.syndrome})')
return mad_ifc_out.mad
def check_cap_send_dbr_mode(self):
"""
Check the capability of the dbr less.
If the HCA cap have HCA cap 2, check if in HCA cap2 0x20(HCA CAP 2) + 0x1(current)
have the send_dbr_mode_no_dbr_ext.
"""
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import QueryCmdHcaCap2Out, \
QueryHcaCapIn, QueryCmdHcaCapOut, QueryHcaCapOp, QueryHcaCapMod, SendDbrMode
self.create_context()
query_cap_in = QueryHcaCapIn(op_mod=0x1)
query_cap_out = QueryCmdHcaCapOut(self.ctx.devx_general_cmd(
query_cap_in, len(QueryCmdHcaCapOut())))
if query_cap_out.status:
raise PyverbsRDMAError('Failed to query general HCA CAPs with syndrome '
f'({query_cap_out.syndrome}')
if not query_cap_out.capability.hca_cap_2:
raise unittest.SkipTest("The device doesn't support general HCA CAPs 2")
query_cap2_in = QueryHcaCapIn(op_mod=(QueryHcaCapOp.HCA_CAP_2 << 0x1) | \
QueryHcaCapMod.CURRENT)
query_cap2_out = QueryCmdHcaCap2Out(self.ctx.devx_general_cmd(
query_cap2_in, len(QueryCmdHcaCap2Out())))
if self.send_dbr_mode == SendDbrMode.NO_DBR_EXT and \
not query_cap2_out.capability.send_dbr_mode_no_dbr_ext:
raise unittest.SkipTest("The device doesn't support send_dbr_mode_no_dbr_ext cap")
if self.send_dbr_mode == SendDbrMode.NO_DBR_INT and \
not query_cap2_out.capability.send_dbr_mode_no_dbr_int:
raise unittest.SkipTest("The device doesn't support send_dbr_mode_no_dbr_int cap")
def init_resources(self):
if not self.is_eth():
self.query_lid()
else:
is_gid_available(self.gid_index)
self.query_gid()
self.create_pd()
self.create_mr()
self.query_eqn()
self.create_uar()
self.create_queue_attrs()
self.create_eq()
self.create_cq()
self.create_qp()
# Objects closure order is important, and must be done manually in DevX
self.devx_objs = [self.qp, self.cq] + list(self.uar.values()) + list(self.umems.values()) + [self.msi_vector, self.eq]
def query_lid(self):
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import QueryHcaVportContextIn, \
QueryHcaVportContextOut, QueryHcaCapIn, QueryCmdHcaCapOut
query_cap_in = QueryHcaCapIn(op_mod=0x1)
query_cap_out = QueryCmdHcaCapOut(self.ctx.devx_general_cmd(
query_cap_in, len(QueryCmdHcaCapOut())))
if query_cap_out.status:
raise PyverbsRDMAError('Failed to query general HCA CAPs with syndrome '
f'({query_cap_out.syndrome}')
port_num = self.ib_port if query_cap_out.capability.num_ports >= 2 else 0
query_port_in = QueryHcaVportContextIn(port_num=port_num)
query_port_out = QueryHcaVportContextOut(self.ctx.devx_general_cmd(
query_port_in, len(QueryHcaVportContextOut())))
if query_port_out.status:
raise PyverbsRDMAError('Failed to query vport with syndrome '
f'({query_port_out.syndrome})')
self.lid = query_port_out.hca_vport_context.lid
def query_gid(self):
gid = self.ctx.query_gid(self.ib_port, self.gid_index).gid.split(':')
for i in range(0, len(gid), 2):
self.gid[int(i/2)] = int(gid[i] + gid[i+1], 16)
def is_eth(self):
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import QueryHcaCapIn, \
QueryCmdHcaCapOut
query_cap_in = QueryHcaCapIn(op_mod=0x1)
query_cap_out = QueryCmdHcaCapOut(self.ctx.devx_general_cmd(
query_cap_in, len(QueryCmdHcaCapOut())))
if query_cap_out.status:
raise PyverbsRDMAError('Failed to query general HCA CAPs with syndrome '
f'({query_cap_out.syndrome})')
return query_cap_out.capability.port_type # 0:IB, 1:ETH
@staticmethod
def roundup_pow_of_two(val):
return pow(2, math.ceil(math.log2(val)))
def create_queue_attrs(self):
# RQ calculations
wqe_size = WqeDataSeg.sizeof() * self.max_recv_sge
self.qattr.rq.wqe_size = self.roundup_pow_of_two(wqe_size)
max_recv_wr = self.roundup_pow_of_two(self.num_msgs)
self.qattr.rq.wq_size = max(self.qattr.rq.wqe_size * max_recv_wr,
dve.MLX5_SEND_WQE_BB)
self.qattr.rq.wqe_num = math.ceil(self.qattr.rq.wq_size / self.qattr.rq.wqe_size)
self.qattr.rq.wqe_shift = int(math.log2(self.qattr.rq.wqe_size - 1)) + 1
# SQ calculations
self.qattr.sq.offset = self.qattr.rq.wq_size
# 192 = max overhead size of all structs needed for all operations in RC
wqe_size = 192 + WqeDataSeg.sizeof()
# Align wqe size to MLX5_SEND_WQE_BB
self.qattr.sq.wqe_size = (wqe_size + dve.MLX5_SEND_WQE_BB - 1) & ~(dve.MLX5_SEND_WQE_BB - 1)
self.qattr.sq.wq_size = self.roundup_pow_of_two(self.qattr.sq.wqe_size * self.num_msgs)
self.qattr.sq.wqe_num = math.ceil(self.qattr.sq.wq_size / dve.MLX5_SEND_WQE_BB)
self.qattr.sq.wqe_shift = int(math.log2(dve.MLX5_SEND_WQE_BB))
def create_context(self):
try:
attr = Mlx5DVContextAttr(dve.MLX5DV_CONTEXT_FLAGS_DEVX)
self.ctx = Mlx5Context(attr, self.dev_name)
except PyverbsUserError as ex:
raise unittest.SkipTest(f'Could not open mlx5 context ({ex})')
except PyverbsRDMAError:
raise unittest.SkipTest('Opening mlx5 DevX context is not supported')
def create_pd(self):
self.pd = PD(self.ctx)
self.dv_pd = Mlx5DvObj(dve.MLX5DV_OBJ_PD, pd=self.pd).dvpd
def create_mr(self):
access = e.IBV_ACCESS_REMOTE_WRITE | e.IBV_ACCESS_LOCAL_WRITE | \
e.IBV_ACCESS_REMOTE_READ
self.mr = MR(self.pd, self.msg_size, access)
def create_umem(self, size,
access=e.IBV_ACCESS_LOCAL_WRITE,
alignment=resource.getpagesize()):
return Mlx5UMEM(self.ctx, size=size, alignment=alignment, access=access)
def create_uar(self):
self.uar['qp'] = Mlx5UAR(self.ctx, dve._MLX5DV_UAR_ALLOC_TYPE_NC)
self.uar['cq'] = Mlx5UAR(self.ctx, dve._MLX5DV_UAR_ALLOC_TYPE_NC)
if not self.uar['cq'].page_id or not self.uar['qp'].page_id:
raise PyverbsRDMAError('Failed to allocate UAR')
def query_eqn(self):
self.eqn = self.ctx.devx_query_eqn(0)
def create_cq(self):
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import CreateCqIn, SwCqc, CreateCqOut
cq_size = self.roundup_pow_of_two(self.qattr.cq.cqe_size * self.qattr.cq.ncqes)
# Align to page size
pg_size = resource.getpagesize()
cq_size = (cq_size + pg_size - 1) & ~(pg_size - 1)
self.umems['cq'] = self.create_umem(size=cq_size)
self.umems['cq_dbr'] = self.create_umem(size=8, alignment=8)
log_cq_size = math.ceil(math.log2(self.qattr.cq.ncqes))
cmd_in = CreateCqIn(cq_umem_valid=1, cq_umem_id=self.umems['cq'].umem_id,
sw_cqc=SwCqc(c_eqn=self.eqn, uar_page=self.uar['cq'].page_id,
log_cq_size=log_cq_size, dbr_umem_valid=1,
dbr_umem_id=self.umems['cq_dbr'].umem_id))
self.cq = Mlx5DevxObj(self.ctx, cmd_in, len(CreateCqOut()))
def create_qp(self):
self.psn = random.getrandbits(24)
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import SwQpc, CreateQpIn, DevxOps,\
CreateQpOut, CreateCqOut
self.psn = random.getrandbits(24)
qp_size = self.roundup_pow_of_two(self.qattr.rq.wq_size + self.qattr.sq.wq_size)
# Align to page size
pg_size = resource.getpagesize()
qp_size = (qp_size + pg_size - 1) & ~(pg_size - 1)
self.umems['qp'] = self.create_umem(size=qp_size)
self.umems['qp_dbr'] = self.create_umem(size=8, alignment=8)
log_rq_size = int(math.log2(self.qattr.rq.wqe_num - 1)) + 1
# Size of a receive WQE is 16*pow(2, log_rq_stride)
log_rq_stride = self.qattr.rq.wqe_shift - 4
log_sq_size = int(math.log2(self.qattr.sq.wqe_num - 1)) + 1
cqn = CreateCqOut(self.cq.out_view).cqn
qpc = SwQpc(st=DevxOps.MLX5_QPC_ST_RC, pd=self.dv_pd.pdn,
pm_state=DevxOps.MLX5_QPC_PM_STATE_MIGRATED,
log_rq_size=log_rq_size, log_sq_size=log_sq_size, ts_format=0x1,
log_rq_stride=log_rq_stride, uar_page=self.uar['qp'].page_id,
cqn_snd=cqn, cqn_rcv=cqn, dbr_umem_id=self.umems['qp_dbr'].umem_id,
dbr_umem_valid=1, send_dbr_mode=self.send_dbr_mode)
cmd_in = CreateQpIn(sw_qpc=qpc, wq_umem_id=self.umems['qp'].umem_id,
wq_umem_valid=1)
self.qp = Mlx5DevxObj(self.ctx, cmd_in, len(CreateQpOut()))
self.qpn = CreateQpOut(self.qp.out_view).qpn
def create_eq(self):
pass
def to_rts(self):
"""
Moves the created QP to RTS state by modifying it using DevX through all
the needed states with all the required attributes.
rlid, rpsn, rqpn and rgid (when valid) must be already updated before
calling this method.
"""
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import DevxOps, ModifyQpIn, ModifyQpOut,\
CreateQpOut, SwQpc
cmd_out_len = len(ModifyQpOut())
# RST2INIT
qpn = CreateQpOut(self.qp.out_view).qpn
swqpc = SwQpc(rre=1, rwe=1)
swqpc.primary_address_path.vhca_port_num = self.ib_port
cmd_in = ModifyQpIn(opcode=DevxOps.MLX5_CMD_OP_RST2INIT_QP, qpn=qpn,
sw_qpc=swqpc)
self.qp.modify(cmd_in, cmd_out_len)
# INIT2RTR
swqpc = SwQpc(mtu=PATH_MTU, log_msg_max=20, remote_qpn=self.rqpn,
min_rnr_nak=MIN_RNR_TIMER, next_rcv_psn=self.rpsn)
swqpc.primary_address_path.vhca_port_num = self.ib_port
swqpc.primary_address_path.rlid = self.rlid
if self.is_eth():
# GID field is a must for Eth (or if GRH is set in IB)
swqpc.primary_address_path.rgid_rip = self.rgid
swqpc.primary_address_path.rmac = self.rmac
swqpc.primary_address_path.src_addr_index = self.gid_index
swqpc.primary_address_path.hop_limit = tests.utils.PacketConsts.TTL_HOP_LIMIT
# UDP sport must be reserved for roce v1 and v1.5
if self.ctx.query_gid_type(self.ib_port, self.gid_index) == e.IBV_GID_TYPE_SYSFS_ROCE_V2:
swqpc.primary_address_path.udp_sport = 0xdcba
else:
swqpc.primary_address_path.rlid = self.rlid
cmd_in = ModifyQpIn(opcode=DevxOps.MLX5_CMD_OP_INIT2RTR_QP, qpn=qpn,
sw_qpc=swqpc)
self.qp.modify(cmd_in, cmd_out_len)
# RTR2RTS
swqpc = SwQpc(retry_count=RETRY_CNT, rnr_retry=RNR_RETRY,
next_send_psn=self.psn, log_sra_max=MAX_RDMA_ATOMIC)
swqpc.primary_address_path.vhca_port_num = self.ib_port
swqpc.primary_address_path.ack_timeout = TIMEOUT
cmd_in = ModifyQpIn(opcode=DevxOps.MLX5_CMD_OP_RTR2RTS_QP, qpn=qpn,
sw_qpc=swqpc)
self.qp.modify(cmd_in, cmd_out_len)
def pre_run(self, rpsn, rqpn, rgid=0, rlid=0, rmac=0):
"""
Configure Resources before running traffic
:param rpsns: Remote PSN (packet serial number)
:param rqpn: Remote QP number
:param rgid: Remote GID
:param rlid: Remote LID
:param rmac: Remote MAC (valid for RoCE)
:return: None
"""
self.rpsn = rpsn
self.rqpn = rqpn
self.rgid = rgid
self.rlid = rlid
self.rmac = rmac
self.to_rts()
def post_send(self):
"""
Posts one send WQE to the SQ by doing all the required work such as
building the control/data segments, updating and ringing the dbr,
updating the producer indexes, etc.
"""
from tests.mlx5_prm_structs import SendDbrMode
buffer_address = self.uar['qp'].reg_addr
if self.send_dbr_mode == SendDbrMode.NO_DBR_EXT:
# Address of DB blueflame register
buffer_address = self.uar['qp'].base_addr + DB_BF_DBR_LESS_BUF_OFFSET
idx = self.qattr.sq.post_idx if self.qattr.sq.post_idx < self.qattr.sq.wqe_num else 0
buf_offset = self.qattr.sq.offset + (idx << dve.MLX5_SEND_WQE_SHIFT)
# Prepare WQE
imm_be32 = struct.unpack("<I", struct.pack(">I", self.imm + self.qattr.sq.post_idx))[0]
ctrl_seg = WqeCtrlSeg(imm=imm_be32, fm_ce_se=dve.MLX5_WQE_CTRL_CQ_UPDATE)
data_seg = self.get_wqe_data_segment()
ctrl_seg.opmod_idx_opcode = (self.qattr.sq.post_idx & 0xffff) << 8 | dve.MLX5_OPCODE_SEND_IMM
size_in_octowords = int((ctrl_seg.sizeof() + data_seg.sizeof()) / 16)
ctrl_seg.qpn_ds = self.qpn << 8 | size_in_octowords
Wqe([ctrl_seg, data_seg], self.umems['qp'].umem_addr + buf_offset)
self.qattr.sq.post_idx += int((size_in_octowords * 16 +
dve.MLX5_SEND_WQE_BB - 1) / dve.MLX5_SEND_WQE_BB)
# Make sure descriptors are written
dma.udma_to_dev_barrier()
if not self.send_dbr_mode:
# Update the doorbell record
mem.writebe32(self.umems['qp_dbr'].umem_addr,
self.qattr.sq.post_idx & 0xffff, dve.MLX5_SND_DBR)
dma.udma_to_dev_barrier()
# Ring the doorbell and post the WQE
dma.mmio_write64_as_be(buffer_address, mem.read64(ctrl_seg.addr))
def post_recv(self):
"""
Posts one receive WQE to the RQ by doing all the required work such as
building the control/data segments, updating the dbr and the producer
indexes.
"""
buf_offset = self.qattr.rq.offset + self.qattr.rq.wqe_size * self.qattr.rq.head
# Prepare WQE
data_seg = self.get_wqe_data_segment()
Wqe([data_seg], self.umems['qp'].umem_addr + buf_offset)
# Update indexes
self.qattr.rq.post_idx += 1
self.qattr.rq.head = self.qattr.rq.head + 1 if self.qattr.rq.head + 1 < self.qattr.rq.wqe_num else 0
# Update the doorbell record
dma.udma_to_dev_barrier()
mem.writebe32(self.umems['qp_dbr'].umem_addr,
self.qattr.rq.post_idx & 0xffff, dve.MLX5_RCV_DBR)
def poll_cq(self):
"""
Polls the CQ once and updates the consumer index upon success.
The CQE opcode and owner bit are checked and verified.
This method does busy-waiting as long as it gets an empty CQE, until a
timeout of POLL_CQ_TIMEOUT seconds.
"""
idx = self.qattr.cq.cons_idx % self.qattr.cq.ncqes
cq_owner_flip = not(not(self.qattr.cq.cons_idx & self.qattr.cq.ncqes))
cqe_start_addr = self.umems['cq'].umem_addr + (idx * self.qattr.cq.cqe_size)
cqe = None
start_poll_t = time.perf_counter()
while cqe is None:
cqe = Mlx5Cqe64(cqe_start_addr)
if (cqe.opcode == dve.MLX5_CQE_INVALID) or \
(cqe.owner ^ cq_owner_flip) or cqe.is_empty():
if time.perf_counter() - start_poll_t >= POLL_CQ_TIMEOUT:
raise PyverbsRDMAError(f'CQE #{self.qattr.cq.cons_idx} '
f'is empty or invalid:\n{cqe.dump()}')
cqe = None
# After CQE ownership check, must do memory barrier and re-read the CQE.
dma.udma_from_dev_barrier()
cqe = Mlx5Cqe64(cqe_start_addr)
if cqe.opcode == dve.MLX5_CQE_RESP_ERR:
raise PyverbsRDMAError(f'Got a CQE #{self.qattr.cq.cons_idx} '
f'with responder error:\n{cqe.dump()}')
elif cqe.opcode == dve.MLX5_CQE_REQ_ERR:
raise PyverbsRDMAError(f'Got a CQE #{self.qattr.cq.cons_idx} '
f'with requester error:\n{cqe.dump()}')
self.qattr.cq.cons_idx += 1
mem.writebe32(self.umems['cq_dbr'].umem_addr,
self.qattr.cq.cons_idx & 0xffffff, MLX5_CQ_SET_CI)
return cqe
def close_resources(self):
for obj in self.devx_objs:
if obj:
obj.close()
class Mlx5DevxTrafficBase(Mlx5RDMATestCase):
"""
A base class for mlx5 DevX traffic tests.
This class does not include any tests, but provides quick players (client,
server) creation and provides a traffic method.
"""
def tearDown(self):
if self.server:
self.server.close_resources()
if self.client:
self.client.close_resources()
super().tearDown()
def create_players(self, resources, **resource_arg):
"""
Initialize tests resources.
:param resources: The RDMA resources to use.
:param resource_arg: Dictionary of args that specify the resources
specific attributes.
:return: None
"""
self.server = resources(**self.dev_info, **resource_arg)
self.client = resources(**self.dev_info, **resource_arg)
self.pre_run()
def pre_run(self):
self.server.pre_run(self.client.psn, self.client.qpn, self.client.gid,
self.client.lid, self.mac_addr)
self.client.pre_run(self.server.psn, self.server.qpn, self.server.gid,
self.server.lid, self.mac_addr)
def send_imm_traffic(self):
self.client.mem_write('c' * self.client.msg_size, self.client.msg_size)
for _ in range(self.client.num_msgs):
cons_idx = self.client.qattr.cq.cons_idx
self.server.post_recv()
self.client.post_send()
# Poll client and verify received cqe opcode
send_cqe = self.client.poll_cq()
self.assertEqual(send_cqe.opcode, dve.MLX5_CQE_REQ,
'Unexpected CQE opcode')
# Poll server and verify received cqe opcode
recv_cqe = self.server.poll_cq()
self.assertEqual(recv_cqe.opcode, dve.MLX5_CQE_RESP_SEND_IMM,
'Unexpected CQE opcode')
msg_received = self.server.mem_read()
# Validate data (of received message and immediate value)
tests.utils.validate(msg_received, True, self.server.msg_size)
imm_inval_pkey = recv_cqe.imm_inval_pkey
if sys.byteorder == 'big':
imm_inval_pkey = int.from_bytes(
imm_inval_pkey.to_bytes(4, byteorder='big'), 'little')
self.assertEqual(imm_inval_pkey, self.client.imm + cons_idx)
self.server.mem_write('s' * self.server.msg_size, self.server.msg_size)
class Mlx5RcResources(RCResources):
def __init__(self, dev_name, ib_port, gid_index, **kwargs):
self.dv_send_ops_flags = 0
self.send_ops_flags = 0
self.create_send_ops_flags()
super().__init__(dev_name, ib_port, gid_index, **kwargs)
def create_send_ops_flags(self):
self.dv_send_ops_flags = 0
self.send_ops_flags = e.IBV_QP_EX_WITH_SEND
def create_context(self):
mlx5dv_attr = Mlx5DVContextAttr()
try:
self.ctx = Mlx5Context(mlx5dv_attr, name=self.dev_name)
except PyverbsUserError as ex:
raise unittest.SkipTest(f'Could not open mlx5 context ({ex})')
except PyverbsRDMAError:
raise unittest.SkipTest('Opening mlx5 context is not supported')
def create_qp_init_attr(self):
comp_mask = e.IBV_QP_INIT_ATTR_PD | e.IBV_QP_INIT_ATTR_SEND_OPS_FLAGS
return QPInitAttrEx(cap=self.create_qp_cap(), pd=self.pd, scq=self.cq,
rcq=self.cq, qp_type=e.IBV_QPT_RC,
send_ops_flags=self.send_ops_flags,
comp_mask=comp_mask)
def create_qps(self):
try:
qp_init_attr = self.create_qp_init_attr()
comp_mask = dve.MLX5DV_QP_INIT_ATTR_MASK_QP_CREATE_FLAGS
if self.dv_send_ops_flags:
comp_mask |= dve.MLX5DV_QP_INIT_ATTR_MASK_SEND_OPS_FLAGS
attr = Mlx5DVQPInitAttr(comp_mask=comp_mask,
send_ops_flags=self.dv_send_ops_flags)
qp = Mlx5QP(self.ctx, qp_init_attr, attr)
self.qps.append(qp)
self.qps_num.append(qp.qp_num)
self.psns.append(random.getrandbits(24))
except PyverbsRDMAError as ex:
if ex.error_code == errno.EOPNOTSUPP:
raise unittest.SkipTest('Create Mlx5DV QP is not supported')
raise ex
def create_cq(self):
"""
Initializes self.cq with a dv_cq
:return: None
"""
dvcq_init_attr = Mlx5DVCQInitAttr()
try:
self.cq = Mlx5CQ(self.ctx, CqInitAttrEx(), dvcq_init_attr)
except PyverbsRDMAError as ex:
if ex.error_code == errno.EOPNOTSUPP:
raise unittest.SkipTest('Create Mlx5DV CQ is not supported')
raise ex
``` |
The British Federation of Roller Skating is a roller skating organisation in the United Kingdom.
The Federation organizes regular training courses and registers teachers. At least two major coaching seminars are held in Europe each year.
History
The DLFC club & corporation was founded in 2009.
The current national governing body for all roller sports in the United Kingdom is the British Roller Sports Federation.
The British Roller Sports Federation Limited (also known as the BRSF) was a UK limited company, registered at the Companies House on 3 August 1999.
The Federation is recognized and acknowledged by United Kingdom, European and International organisations as the national governing body for all roller sports in the United Kingdom.
External links
BRSF's official site
Roller skating in the United Kingdom
Sports organisations of the United Kingdom |
Telos (; ) is a term used by philosopher Aristotle to refer to the final cause of a natural organ or entity, or of human art. Telos is the root of the modern term teleology, the study of purposiveness or of objects with a view to their aims, purposes, or intentions. Teleology is central in Aristotle's work on plant and animal biology, and human ethics, through his theory of the four causes. Aristotle's notion that everything has a telos also gave rise to epistemology.
In Aristotle
Telos has been consistently used in the writings of Aristotle, in which the term, on several occasions, denotes 'goal'. It is considered synonymous to teleute ('end'), particularly in Aristotle's discourse about the plot-structure in Poetics. The philosopher went as far as to say that telos can encompass all forms of human activity. One can say, for instance, that the telos of warfare is victory, or the telos of business is the creation of wealth. Within this conceptualization, there are telos that are subordinate to other telos, as all activities have their own, respective goals.
For Aristotle, these subordinate telos can become the means to achieve more fundamental telos. Through this concept, for instance, the philosopher underscored the importance of politics and that all other fields are subservient to it. He explained that the telos of the blacksmith is the production of a sword, while that of the swordsman's, which uses the weapon as a tool, is to kill or incapacitate an enemy. On the other hand, the telos of these occupations are merely part of the purpose of a ruler, who must oversee the direction and well-being of a state.
Moreover, it can be understood as the "supreme end of man's endeavour".
Telos vs techne
Telos is associated with the concept called techne, which is the rational method involved in producing an object or accomplishing a goal or objective. In the Theuth/Thamus myth, for instance, the section covering techne referred to telos and techne together. The two methods are, however, not mutually exclusive in principle. These are demonstrated in the cases of writing and seeing, as explained by Martin Heidegger: the former is considered a form of techne, as the end product lies beyond (para) the activity of producing; whereas, in seeing, there is no remainder outside of or beyond the activity itself at the moment it is accomplished. Aristotle, for his part, simply designated sophia (also referred to as the arete or excellence of philosophical reflection) as the consummation or the final cause (telos) of techne. Heidegger attempted to explain the Aristotelian conceptualization outlined in the Nicomachean Ethics, where the eidosthe soul of the makerwas treated as the arche of the thing made (ergon). In this analogy, the telos constitutes the arche but in a certain degree not at the disposition of techne.
In modern philosophy
The notion of purpose, or telos, has formed the foundation of cybernetics, and is now part of the modern analysis of social media platforms as intelligent social machines.
Action theory also makes essential use of teleological vocabulary. From Donald Davidson's perspective, an action is just something an agent does with an intentioni.e., looking forward to some end to be achieved by the action. Action is considered just a step that is necessary to fulfill human telos, as it leads to habits.
According to the Marxist perspective, historical change is dictated by socio-economic structures (or "laws"), which are simultaneously preconditions and limitations of the realization of the telos of the class struggle.
See also
Conatus
Dysteleology
Metaphysics
Plato
Polytely
Teleological argument
Teleonomy
References
External links
Teleological Notions in Biology, Stanford Encyclopedia of Philosophy
Alexander, Victoria N. Narrative Telos: The Ordering Tendencies of Chance. Dactyl Foundation.
Action (philosophy)
Aristotelianism
Concepts in ancient Greek metaphysics
Concepts in social philosophy
Philosophy of Aristotle
Teleology |
Wowowin is a Philippine television variety show broadcast by GMA Network and All TV. Hosted by Willie Revillame, it premiered on May 10, 2015 on GMA Network. The show aired its final broadcast on GMA Network on February 11, 2022. The show premiered on All TV on September 13, 2022. The show concluded on April 5, 2023.
Overview
Originally produced by Willie Revillame's WBR Entertainment Productions Inc., it served as a blocktimer on GMA Network. Randy Santiago originally served as the show's director. The show's theme song was composed by Lito Camo and arranged by Albert Tamayo. In late 2015, the show became a co-production between GMA Entertainment Group and WBR Entertainment Productions Inc. On February 1, 2016, the show joined the network's Telebabad line up.
In June 2017, co-host Super Tekla was fired from the show. On September 30, 2019, Sugar Mercado and comedian Donita Nose returned to the show.
The show's Saturday edition, Wowowin Primetime premiered on February 15, 2020, on the network's Sabado Star Power sa Gabi line up replacing Daddy's Gurl. Gab Valenciano, who was hired in January 2020 served as the director. In March 2020, the admission of a live audience in the studio and production were suspended due to the enhanced community quarantine in Luzon caused by the COVID-19 pandemic. The show resumed its programming on April 13, 2020.
The show ended on GMA Network on February 11, 2022, as Revillame's contract with the network expired in the same month.
The show resumed through livestreaming on YouTube and Facebook on March 15, 2022. On July 15, 2022, it was announced that the show would return to television, this time on All TV, on September 13, after Revillame signed a contract with AMBS. After its broadcast in All TV received low ratings, online livestreaming was ceased on September 26, 2022, to encourage the viewers to watch it on All TV.
The show aired its final live broadcast on February 10, 2023 and concluded on All TV on April 5, 2023.
Cast
Willie Revillame
Former hosts
Yvette Corral
Janelle "Kim Chi" Tee
Donita Nose
Jennifer "DJ JL" Lee
Super Tekla
Amal Rosaroso
Ashley Ortega
Ariella Arida
Sugar Mercado
Camille Canlas
Jannie Alipo-on
Patricia Tumulak
Nelda Ibe
Kim Idol
Petite
Le Chazz
Halimatu Yushawu
Elaine Timbol
Almira Teng
Valerie Concepcion
Boobsie Wonderland
Herlene Budol
Dancers
Karen Ortua
April "Congratulations" Gustillo
Joyce Burgos
Samantha Flores
Yvette Corral
Monique "Pak" Natada
Chiastine Faye Perez
Bea Marie Holmes
Samantha Page
Lalaine Haddad
Karen Vicente
Ley Lopez
Honey Nicerio
Sharlyn Dizon
Zandra Faye Gonzalez
Patricia Reyes
Jho Ann Sotelo
Kristine Joy Paras
Kay Shivaun
Mabelle Rico
Princess "Upnek" Lerio
Clarisse Mae Chua
Ynna Marie Bayot
Tezza Santos
Burn Sanchez
Jules Cruz
Janine “Shin” Pasciolco
Geneva "Baby Gene" Reyes
Glory Mae Camu
Ann Duque
Kathleen "Cookie" Bueno
Lyca Makino
Grace Buenconsejo
Nikkie Millares
Jovie "Baby Girl" Bautista
Mabelle Portez
Angel Gavilan
Jannah Dazo
Fey Dela Peña
Princess Gregorio
Yannah Hernandez
Yam Masangkay
Sandy "Liwayway" Tolentino
Joy Basa
Mae Bejar
Lana Palting (2019)
Kayeann Picache
Melanie Grace Umali
Yhanna Whiwit
Jaye Anne Balangue
Alex Manla
Chinkee "Chinkeenini" Brice
Lhia "Ligaya" De Guzman
Aika Hernandez
Jhovielyn "Jovy" Bernal
Ayrra Averilla
Sheryl "Love Yah" Moñeno
Precious Quirino
Jonalyn Flores
Jeraldine "Lawin" Faustino
Erica "The Mabalaquena" Macapagal
Controversies
In January 2019, one person from the audience died on the set of Wowowin, and one person was injured due to an accident. On July 24, 2019, host Willie Revillame disqualified a group of contestants for modus operandi.
Ratings
According to AGB Nielsen Philippines' Mega Manila household television ratings, the pilot episode of Wowowin earned a 22.1% rating. While the premiere episode of Wowowin Primetime scored an 11.5% rating, according to AGB Nielsen Philippines' Nationwide Urban Television Audience Measurement People in television homes.
Based on Nielsen Philippines' National Urban TV Audience Measurement people data, the premiere of Wowowin on All TV scored a 0% rating.
Accolades
References
External links
2015 Philippine television series debuts
2023 Philippine television series endings
Filipino-language television shows
All TV (Philippines) original programming
GMA Network original programming
Philippine variety television shows
Television productions suspended due to the COVID-19 pandemic
Willie Revillame
Television controversies in the Philippines |
```php
<?php
/*
*
*
* path_to_url
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. See the
*/
namespace Google\Service\Dfareporting;
class MobileCarrier extends \Google\Model
{
/**
* @var string
*/
public $countryCode;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $countryDartId;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $id;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $kind;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $name;
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setCountryCode($countryCode)
{
$this->countryCode = $countryCode;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getCountryCode()
{
return $this->countryCode;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setCountryDartId($countryDartId)
{
$this->countryDartId = $countryDartId;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getCountryDartId()
{
return $this->countryDartId;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setId($id)
{
$this->id = $id;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getId()
{
return $this->id;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setKind($kind)
{
$this->kind = $kind;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getKind()
{
return $this->kind;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setName($name)
{
$this->name = $name;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getName()
{
return $this->name;
}
}
// Adding a class alias for backwards compatibility with the previous class name.
class_alias(MobileCarrier::class, 'Google_Service_Dfareporting_MobileCarrier');
``` |
The 1948 North Carolina Tar Heels football team represented the University of North Carolina during the 1948 college football season. The Tar Heels were led by sixth-year head coach Carl Snavely and played their home games at Kenan Memorial Stadium. The team finished the regular season undefeated with a record of 9–0–1, and outscored their opponents 261–94. North Carolina was ranked third in the final AP Poll of the season (conducted before bowl season), which is to date the highest finish in school history. They were invited to the 1949 Sugar Bowl, where they lost to Big 7 Conference champion Oklahoma.
Halfback Charlie Justice was a consensus first-team All-American, and finished second in the voting for the Heisman Trophy. He led the team in rushing, passing, and punting, with 766 rushing yards, 854 passing yards, and 20 total touchdowns. End Art Weiner was also named an All-American, including first-team by the Football Writers Association of America and the New York Sun.
Schedule
References
North Carolina
North Carolina Tar Heels football seasons
North Carolina Tar Heels football |
The Criminal Investigation Task Force (CITF) is an organization created in early 2002 by the United States Department of Defense to conduct investigations of detainees captured in the War on Terrorism. It was envisioned that certain captured individuals would be tried by a military tribunal for war crimes and/or acts of terrorism.
CITF was initially activated in February 2002 under a mandate from the Secretary of Defense addressed to the Secretary of the Army. The Secretary of the Army formally tasked the US Army Criminal Investigation Command (CID), and CID activated the Criminal Investigation Task Force solely for the purpose of conducting criminal investigations against suspected terrorists detained by US forces. Under the Secretary of Defense directive, the Army was directed to maximize the capabilities of all the Services, and therefore coordinated with the US Air Force and US Navy to assist. The CITF included members from four of five of the branches of the U.S. armed forces; Army Criminal Investigation Division (CID), the Naval Criminal Investigative Service (NCIS), the United States Marine Corps Criminal Investigation Division (USMC CID), and the Air Force Office of Special Investigations (AFOSI). Other personnel for the CITF came from military intelligence and support organizations. From time to time, liaison personnel and others from Federal Law Enforcement and other government agencies were attached to the CITF. An element from the CITF was initially deployed to Afghanistan with the goal of identifying captured terrorists, and to collect evidence for use in Military Commissions. Suspected terrorists were temporarily held at the Kandahar or Bagram Detention Facilities. Another element of the CITF was deployed to US Naval Base, Guantanamo Bay, Cuba. After the invasion of Iraq, CITF deployed yet another element to Iraq, initially to prepare for the possible transfer of detainees in Iraq to Guantanamo. Later, CITF began to collect evidence for use in the Central Criminal Court of Iraq. CITF also maintained its role in military operations by assisting Special Operations Command (SOCOM) with forensic evidence collection. In military, and law enforcement agencies, "Task Forces" are temporary organizations created to conduct a specialized mission or task. Members of "Joint Task Forces" are drawn from many different units. However, the CITF was never formally given the designation of a "Joint Task Force."
The CITF has operated worldwide and by 2005 had conducted over 1500 investigations and 10,000 interviews, and collected large amounts of evidence both in places where persons were captured and elsewhere. The results of CITF investigations has been used in military commissions (tribunals) at the Guantánamo Bay detainment camp and other legal proceedings in Afghanistan and Iraq.. The CITF has provided evidence to Iraqi Courts to prosecute insurgents and foreign fighters captured in Iraq for crimes there, and has assisted other US and international law enforcement agencies.
As a result of widespread criticism of reported human rights abuses at Guantanamo and in Afghanistan, Iraq, and elsewhere, most notably the Iraq prison abuse scandals, including torture and abuse at Abu Ghraib and Bagram, a great deal of media and public attention was given to the methods used by the CITF and other U.S. military and civilian agencies in interrogations and other activities.
Senior law enforcement agents with the CITF told NBC News in 2006 that they began to complain to Department of Defense officials in 2002 that the interrogation tactics used by a separate team of intelligence investigators were unproductive, not likely to produce reliable information, and probably illegal. Unable to achieve a satisfactory response from the U.S. Army commanders in charge of the detainee camp, they took their concerns to both the Army Criminal Investigation Command under General Donald Ryder, and the Naval Criminal Investigative Service under David Brant. Brant alerted Alberto J. Mora, the general counsel for the Navy. The first commander of the CITF was Colonel (now retired) Brittain Mallow, and his Deputy was Special Agent Mark Fallon. Their names have been in several articles and also mentioned during Congressional testimony.
Some copies of government documents detailing CITF policies and practices have become publicly available through after the American Civil Liberties Union filed a Freedom of Information Act request and subsequently a lawsuit. There have been numerous discussions in congress and in the press and online regarding the differences between the CITF and other law enforcement methods, and those of the intelligence organizations involved with detainees. The CITF staff by all reports appear to have used only non-coercive, non-torturous methods in questioning detainees.
External links
Bill Dedman, Gitmo interrogations spark battle over tactics: The inside story of criminal investigators who tried to stop abuse, NBC News
Bill Dedman, Can the ‘20th hijacker’ of Sept. 11 stand trial? Aggressive interrogation at Guantanamo may prevent his prosecution, NBC News
United States Department of Defense agencies
War on terror
Criminal investigation |
```html
<!DOCTYPE HTML PUBLIC "-//W3C//DTD HTML 4.01 Transitional//EN">
<HTML>
<HEAD>
<TITLE>Lua 5.4 Reference Manual</TITLE>
<LINK REL="stylesheet" TYPE="text/css" HREF="lua.css">
<LINK REL="stylesheet" TYPE="text/css" HREF="manual.css">
<META HTTP-EQUIV="content-type" CONTENT="text/html; charset=iso-8859-1">
</HEAD>
<BODY>
<H1>
<A HREF="path_to_url"><IMG SRC="logo.gif" ALT="Lua"></A>
Lua 5.4 Reference Manual
</H1>
<P>
by Roberto Ierusalimschy, Luiz Henrique de Figueiredo, Waldemar Celes
<P>
<SMALL>
Freely available under the terms of the
<a href="path_to_url">Lua license</a>.
</SMALL>
<DIV CLASS="menubar">
<A HREF="contents.html#contents">contents</A>
·
<A HREF="contents.html#index">index</A>
·
<A HREF="path_to_url">other versions</A>
</DIV>
<!-- ====================================================================== -->
<p>
<!-- $Id: manual.of $ -->
<h1>1 – <a name="1">Introduction</a></h1>
<p>
Lua is a powerful, efficient, lightweight, embeddable scripting language.
It supports procedural programming,
object-oriented programming, functional programming,
data-driven programming, and data description.
<p>
Lua combines simple procedural syntax with powerful data description
constructs based on associative arrays and extensible semantics.
Lua is dynamically typed,
runs by interpreting bytecode with a register-based
virtual machine,
and has automatic memory management with
a generational garbage collection,
making it ideal for configuration, scripting,
and rapid prototyping.
<p>
Lua is implemented as a library, written in <em>clean C</em>,
the common subset of Standard C and C++.
The Lua distribution includes a host program called <code>lua</code>,
which uses the Lua library to offer a complete,
standalone Lua interpreter,
for interactive or batch use.
Lua is intended to be used both as a powerful, lightweight,
embeddable scripting language for any program that needs one,
and as a powerful but lightweight and efficient stand-alone language.
<p>
As an extension language, Lua has no notion of a "main" program:
it works <em>embedded</em> in a host client,
called the <em>embedding program</em> or simply the <em>host</em>.
(Frequently, this host is the stand-alone <code>lua</code> program.)
The host program can invoke functions to execute a piece of Lua code,
can write and read Lua variables,
and can register C functions to be called by Lua code.
Through the use of C functions, Lua can be augmented to cope with
a wide range of different domains,
thus creating customized programming languages sharing a syntactical framework.
<p>
Lua is free software,
and is provided as usual with no guarantees,
as stated in its license.
The implementation described in this manual is available
at Lua's official web site, <code>www.lua.org</code>.
<p>
Like any other reference manual,
this document is dry in places.
For a discussion of the decisions behind the design of Lua,
see the technical papers available at Lua's web site.
For a detailed introduction to programming in Lua,
see Roberto's book, <em>Programming in Lua</em>.
<h1>2 – <a name="2">Basic Concepts</a></h1>
<p>
This section describes the basic concepts of the language.
<h2>2.1 – <a name="2.1">Values and Types</a></h2>
<p>
Lua is a dynamically typed language.
This means that
variables do not have types; only values do.
There are no type definitions in the language.
All values carry their own type.
<p>
All values in Lua are first-class values.
This means that all values can be stored in variables,
passed as arguments to other functions, and returned as results.
<p>
There are eight basic types in Lua:
<em>nil</em>, <em>boolean</em>, <em>number</em>,
<em>string</em>, <em>function</em>, <em>userdata</em>,
<em>thread</em>, and <em>table</em>.
The type <em>nil</em> has one single value, <b>nil</b>,
whose main property is to be different from any other value;
it often represents the absence of a useful value.
The type <em>boolean</em> has two values, <b>false</b> and <b>true</b>.
Both <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b> make a condition false;
they are collectively called <em>false values</em>.
Any other value makes a condition true.
Despite its name,
<b>false</b> is frequently used as an alternative to <b>nil</b>,
with the key difference that <b>false</b> behaves
like a regular value in a table,
while a <b>nil</b> in a table represents an absent key.
<p>
The type <em>number</em> represents both
integer numbers and real (floating-point) numbers,
using two subtypes: <em>integer</em> and <em>float</em>.
Standard Lua uses 64-bit integers and double-precision (64-bit) floats,
but you can also compile Lua so that it
uses 32-bit integers and/or single-precision (32-bit) floats.
The option with 32 bits for both integers and floats
is particularly attractive
for small machines and embedded systems.
(See macro <code>LUA_32BITS</code> in file <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
<p>
Unless stated otherwise,
any overflow when manipulating integer values <em>wrap around</em>,
according to the usual rules of two-complement arithmetic.
(In other words,
the actual result is the unique representable integer
that is equal modulo <em>2<sup>n</sup></em> to the mathematical result,
where <em>n</em> is the number of bits of the integer type.)
<p>
Lua has explicit rules about when each subtype is used,
but it also converts between them automatically as needed (see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>).
Therefore,
the programmer may choose to mostly ignore the difference
between integers and floats
or to assume complete control over the representation of each number.
<p>
The type <em>string</em> represents immutable sequences of bytes.
Lua is 8-bit clean:
strings can contain any 8-bit value,
including embedded zeros ('<code>\0</code>').
Lua is also encoding-agnostic;
it makes no assumptions about the contents of a string.
The length of any string in Lua must fit in a Lua integer.
<p>
Lua can call (and manipulate) functions written in Lua and
functions written in C (see <a href="#3.4.10">§3.4.10</a>).
Both are represented by the type <em>function</em>.
<p>
The type <em>userdata</em> is provided to allow arbitrary C data to
be stored in Lua variables.
A userdata value represents a block of raw memory.
There are two kinds of userdata:
<em>full userdata</em>,
which is an object with a block of memory managed by Lua,
and <em>light userdata</em>,
which is simply a C pointer value.
Userdata has no predefined operations in Lua,
except assignment and identity test.
By using <em>metatables</em>,
the programmer can define operations for full userdata values
(see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
Userdata values cannot be created or modified in Lua,
only through the C API.
This guarantees the integrity of data owned by
the host program and C libraries.
<p>
The type <em>thread</em> represents independent threads of execution
and it is used to implement coroutines (see <a href="#2.6">§2.6</a>).
Lua threads are not related to operating-system threads.
Lua supports coroutines on all systems,
even those that do not support threads natively.
<p>
The type <em>table</em> implements associative arrays,
that is, arrays that can have as indices not only numbers,
but any Lua value except <b>nil</b> and NaN.
(<em>Not a Number</em> is a special floating-point value
used by the IEEE 754 standard to represent
undefined numerical results, such as <code>0/0</code>.)
Tables can be <em>heterogeneous</em>;
that is, they can contain values of all types (except <b>nil</b>).
Any key associated to the value <b>nil</b> is not considered part of the table.
Conversely, any key that is not part of a table has
an associated value <b>nil</b>.
<p>
Tables are the sole data-structuring mechanism in Lua;
they can be used to represent ordinary arrays, lists,
symbol tables, sets, records, graphs, trees, etc.
To represent records, Lua uses the field name as an index.
The language supports this representation by
providing <code>a.name</code> as syntactic sugar for <code>a["name"]</code>.
There are several convenient ways to create tables in Lua
(see <a href="#3.4.9">§3.4.9</a>).
<p>
Like indices,
the values of table fields can be of any type.
In particular,
because functions are first-class values,
table fields can contain functions.
Thus tables can also carry <em>methods</em> (see <a href="#3.4.11">§3.4.11</a>).
<p>
The indexing of tables follows
the definition of raw equality in the language.
The expressions <code>a[i]</code> and <code>a[j]</code>
denote the same table element
if and only if <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> are raw equal
(that is, equal without metamethods).
In particular, floats with integral values
are equal to their respective integers
(e.g., <code>1.0 == 1</code>).
To avoid ambiguities,
any float used as a key that is equal to an integer
is converted to that integer.
For instance, if you write <code>a[2.0] = true</code>,
the actual key inserted into the table will be the integer <code>2</code>.
<p>
Tables, functions, threads, and (full) userdata values are <em>objects</em>:
variables do not actually <em>contain</em> these values,
only <em>references</em> to them.
Assignment, parameter passing, and function returns
always manipulate references to such values;
these operations do not imply any kind of copy.
<p>
The library function <a href="#pdf-type"><code>type</code></a> returns a string describing the type
of a given value (see <a href="#pdf-type"><code>type</code></a>).
<h2>2.2 – <a name="2.2">Environments and the Global Environment</a></h2>
<p>
As we will discuss further in <a href="#3.2">§3.2</a> and <a href="#3.3.3">§3.3.3</a>,
any reference to a free name
(that is, a name not bound to any declaration) <code>var</code>
is syntactically translated to <code>_ENV.var</code>.
Moreover, every chunk is compiled in the scope of
an external local variable named <code>_ENV</code> (see <a href="#3.3.2">§3.3.2</a>),
so <code>_ENV</code> itself is never a free name in a chunk.
<p>
Despite the existence of this external <code>_ENV</code> variable and
the translation of free names,
<code>_ENV</code> is a completely regular name.
In particular,
you can define new variables and parameters with that name.
Each reference to a free name uses the <code>_ENV</code> that is
visible at that point in the program,
following the usual visibility rules of Lua (see <a href="#3.5">§3.5</a>).
<p>
Any table used as the value of <code>_ENV</code> is called an <em>environment</em>.
<p>
Lua keeps a distinguished environment called the <em>global environment</em>.
This value is kept at a special index in the C registry (see <a href="#4.3">§4.3</a>).
In Lua, the global variable <a href="#pdf-_G"><code>_G</code></a> is initialized with this same value.
(<a href="#pdf-_G"><code>_G</code></a> is never used internally,
so changing its value will affect only your own code.)
<p>
When Lua loads a chunk,
the default value for its <code>_ENV</code> variable
is the global environment (see <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>).
Therefore, by default,
free names in Lua code refer to entries in the global environment
and, therefore, they are also called <em>global variables</em>.
Moreover, all standard libraries are loaded in the global environment
and some functions there operate on that environment.
You can use <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a> (or <a href="#pdf-loadfile"><code>loadfile</code></a>)
to load a chunk with a different environment.
(In C, you have to load the chunk and then change the value
of its first upvalue; see <a href="#lua_setupvalue"><code>lua_setupvalue</code></a>.)
<h2>2.3 – <a name="2.3">Error Handling</a></h2>
<p>
Several operations in Lua can <em>raise</em> an error.
An error interrupts the normal flow of the program,
which can continue by <em>catching</em> the error.
<p>
Lua code can explicitly raise an error by calling the
<a href="#pdf-error"><code>error</code></a> function.
(This function never returns.)
<p>
To catch errors in Lua,
you can do a <em>protected call</em>,
using <a href="#pdf-pcall"><code>pcall</code></a> (or <a href="#pdf-xpcall"><code>xpcall</code></a>).
The function <a href="#pdf-pcall"><code>pcall</code></a> calls a given function in <em>protected mode</em>.
Any error while running the function stops its execution,
and control returns immediately to <code>pcall</code>,
which returns a status code.
<p>
Because Lua is an embedded extension language,
Lua code starts running by a call
from C code in the host program.
(When you use Lua standalone,
the <code>lua</code> application is the host program.)
Usually, this call is protected;
so, when an otherwise unprotected error occurs during
the compilation or execution of a Lua chunk,
control returns to the host,
which can take appropriate measures,
such as printing an error message.
<p>
Whenever there is an error,
an <em>error object</em>
is propagated with information about the error.
Lua itself only generates errors whose error object is a string,
but programs may generate errors with
any value as the error object.
It is up to the Lua program or its host to handle such error objects.
For historical reasons,
an error object is often called an <em>error message</em>,
even though it does not have to be a string.
<p>
When you use <a href="#pdf-xpcall"><code>xpcall</code></a> (or <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>, in C)
you may give a <em>message handler</em>
to be called in case of errors.
This function is called with the original error object
and returns a new error object.
It is called before the error unwinds the stack,
so that it can gather more information about the error,
for instance by inspecting the stack and creating a stack traceback.
This message handler is still protected by the protected call;
so, an error inside the message handler
will call the message handler again.
If this loop goes on for too long,
Lua breaks it and returns an appropriate message.
The message handler is called only for regular runtime errors.
It is not called for memory-allocation errors
nor for errors while running finalizers or other message handlers.
<p>
Lua also offers a system of <em>warnings</em> (see <a href="#pdf-warn"><code>warn</code></a>).
Unlike errors, warnings do not interfere
in any way with program execution.
They typically only generate a message to the user,
although this behavior can be adapted from C (see <a href="#lua_setwarnf"><code>lua_setwarnf</code></a>).
<h2>2.4 – <a name="2.4">Metatables and Metamethods</a></h2>
<p>
Every value in Lua can have a <em>metatable</em>.
This <em>metatable</em> is an ordinary Lua table
that defines the behavior of the original value
under certain events.
You can change several aspects of the behavior
of a value by setting specific fields in its metatable.
For instance, when a non-numeric value is the operand of an addition,
Lua checks for a function in the field <code>__add</code> of the value's metatable.
If it finds one,
Lua calls this function to perform the addition.
<p>
The key for each event in a metatable is a string
with the event name prefixed by two underscores;
the corresponding value is called a <em>metavalue</em>.
For most events, the metavalue must be a function,
which is then called a <em>metamethod</em>.
In the previous example, the key is the string "<code>__add</code>"
and the metamethod is the function that performs the addition.
Unless stated otherwise,
a metamethod may in fact be any callable value,
which is either a function or a value with a <code>__call</code> metamethod.
<p>
You can query the metatable of any value
using the <a href="#pdf-getmetatable"><code>getmetatable</code></a> function.
Lua queries metamethods in metatables using a raw access (see <a href="#pdf-rawget"><code>rawget</code></a>).
<p>
You can replace the metatable of tables
using the <a href="#pdf-setmetatable"><code>setmetatable</code></a> function.
You cannot change the metatable of other types from Lua code,
except by using the debug library (<a href="#6.10">§6.10</a>).
<p>
Tables and full userdata have individual metatables,
although multiple tables and userdata can share their metatables.
Values of all other types share one single metatable per type;
that is, there is one single metatable for all numbers,
one for all strings, etc.
By default, a value has no metatable,
but the string library sets a metatable for the string type (see <a href="#6.4">§6.4</a>).
<p>
A detailed list of operations controlled by metatables is given next.
Each event is identified by its corresponding key.
By convention, all metatable keys used by Lua are composed by
two underscores followed by lowercase Latin letters.
<ul>
<li><b><code>__add</code>: </b>
the addition (<code>+</code>) operation.
If any operand for an addition is not a number,
Lua will try to call a metamethod.
It starts by checking the first operand (even if it is a number);
if that operand does not define a metamethod for <code>__add</code>,
then Lua will check the second operand.
If Lua can find a metamethod,
it calls the metamethod with the two operands as arguments,
and the result of the call
(adjusted to one value)
is the result of the operation.
Otherwise, if no metamethod is found,
Lua raises an error.
</li>
<li><b><code>__sub</code>: </b>
the subtraction (<code>-</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__mul</code>: </b>
the multiplication (<code>*</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__div</code>: </b>
the division (<code>/</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__mod</code>: </b>
the modulo (<code>%</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__pow</code>: </b>
the exponentiation (<code>^</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__unm</code>: </b>
the negation (unary <code>-</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__idiv</code>: </b>
the floor division (<code>//</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__band</code>: </b>
the bitwise AND (<code>&</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation,
except that Lua will try a metamethod
if any operand is neither an integer
nor a float coercible to an integer (see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>).
</li>
<li><b><code>__bor</code>: </b>
the bitwise OR (<code>|</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the bitwise AND operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__bxor</code>: </b>
the bitwise exclusive OR (binary <code>~</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the bitwise AND operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__bnot</code>: </b>
the bitwise NOT (unary <code>~</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the bitwise AND operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__shl</code>: </b>
the bitwise left shift (<code><<</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the bitwise AND operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__shr</code>: </b>
the bitwise right shift (<code>>></code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the bitwise AND operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__concat</code>: </b>
the concatenation (<code>..</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation,
except that Lua will try a metamethod
if any operand is neither a string nor a number
(which is always coercible to a string).
</li>
<li><b><code>__len</code>: </b>
the length (<code>#</code>) operation.
If the object is not a string,
Lua will try its metamethod.
If there is a metamethod,
Lua calls it with the object as argument,
and the result of the call
(always adjusted to one value)
is the result of the operation.
If there is no metamethod but the object is a table,
then Lua uses the table length operation (see <a href="#3.4.7">§3.4.7</a>).
Otherwise, Lua raises an error.
</li>
<li><b><code>__eq</code>: </b>
the equal (<code>==</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation,
except that Lua will try a metamethod only when the values
being compared are either both tables or both full userdata
and they are not primitively equal.
The result of the call is always converted to a boolean.
</li>
<li><b><code>__lt</code>: </b>
the less than (<code><</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the addition operation,
except that Lua will try a metamethod only when the values
being compared are neither both numbers nor both strings.
Moreover, the result of the call is always converted to a boolean.
</li>
<li><b><code>__le</code>: </b>
the less equal (<code><=</code>) operation.
Behavior similar to the less than operation.
</li>
<li><b><code>__index</code>: </b>
The indexing access operation <code>table[key]</code>.
This event happens when <code>table</code> is not a table or
when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>.
The metavalue is looked up in the metatable of <code>table</code>.
<p>
The metavalue for this event can be either a function, a table,
or any value with an <code>__index</code> metavalue.
If it is a function,
it is called with <code>table</code> and <code>key</code> as arguments,
and the result of the call
(adjusted to one value)
is the result of the operation.
Otherwise,
the final result is the result of indexing this metavalue with <code>key</code>.
This indexing is regular, not raw,
and therefore can trigger another <code>__index</code> metavalue.
</li>
<li><b><code>__newindex</code>: </b>
The indexing assignment <code>table[key] = value</code>.
Like the index event,
this event happens when <code>table</code> is not a table or
when <code>key</code> is not present in <code>table</code>.
The metavalue is looked up in the metatable of <code>table</code>.
<p>
Like with indexing,
the metavalue for this event can be either a function, a table,
or any value with an <code>__newindex</code> metavalue.
If it is a function,
it is called with <code>table</code>, <code>key</code>, and <code>value</code> as arguments.
Otherwise,
Lua repeats the indexing assignment over this metavalue
with the same key and value.
This assignment is regular, not raw,
and therefore can trigger another <code>__newindex</code> metavalue.
<p>
Whenever a <code>__newindex</code> metavalue is invoked,
Lua does not perform the primitive assignment.
If needed,
the metamethod itself can call <a href="#pdf-rawset"><code>rawset</code></a>
to do the assignment.
</li>
<li><b><code>__call</code>: </b>
The call operation <code>func(args)</code>.
This event happens when Lua tries to call a non-function value
(that is, <code>func</code> is not a function).
The metamethod is looked up in <code>func</code>.
If present,
the metamethod is called with <code>func</code> as its first argument,
followed by the arguments of the original call (<code>args</code>).
All results of the call
are the results of the operation.
This is the only metamethod that allows multiple results.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
In addition to the previous list,
the interpreter also respects the following keys in metatables:
<code>__gc</code> (see <a href="#2.5.3">§2.5.3</a>),
<code>__close</code> (see <a href="#3.3.8">§3.3.8</a>),
<code>__mode</code> (see <a href="#2.5.4">§2.5.4</a>),
and <code>__name</code>.
(The entry <code>__name</code>,
when it contains a string,
may be used by <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a> and in error messages.)
<p>
For the unary operators (negation, length, and bitwise NOT),
the metamethod is computed and called with a dummy second operand,
equal to the first one.
This extra operand is only to simplify Lua's internals
(by making these operators behave like a binary operation)
and may be removed in future versions.
For most uses this extra operand is irrelevant.
<p>
Because metatables are regular tables,
they can contain arbitrary fields,
not only the event names defined above.
Some functions in the standard library
(e.g., <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a>)
use other fields in metatables for their own purposes.
<p>
It is a good practice to add all needed metamethods to a table
before setting it as a metatable of some object.
In particular, the <code>__gc</code> metamethod works only when this order
is followed (see <a href="#2.5.3">§2.5.3</a>).
It is also a good practice to set the metatable of an object
right after its creation.
<h2>2.5 – <a name="2.5">Garbage Collection</a></h2>
<p>
Lua performs automatic memory management.
This means that
you do not have to worry about allocating memory for new objects
or freeing it when the objects are no longer needed.
Lua manages memory automatically by running
a <em>garbage collector</em> to collect all <em>dead</em> objects.
All memory used by Lua is subject to automatic management:
strings, tables, userdata, functions, threads, internal structures, etc.
<p>
An object is considered <em>dead</em>
as soon as the collector can be sure the object
will not be accessed again in the normal execution of the program.
("Normal execution" here excludes finalizers,
which can resurrect dead objects (see <a href="#2.5.3">§2.5.3</a>),
and excludes also operations using the debug library.)
Note that the time when the collector can be sure that an object
is dead may not coincide with the programmer's expectations.
The only guarantees are that Lua will not collect an object
that may still be accessed in the normal execution of the program,
and it will eventually collect an object
that is inaccessible from Lua.
(Here,
<em>inaccessible from Lua</em> means that neither a variable nor
another live object refer to the object.)
Because Lua has no knowledge about C code,
it never collects objects accessible through the registry (see <a href="#4.3">§4.3</a>),
which includes the global environment (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
<p>
The garbage collector (GC) in Lua can work in two modes:
incremental and generational.
<p>
The default GC mode with the default parameters
are adequate for most uses.
However, programs that waste a large proportion of their time
allocating and freeing memory can benefit from other settings.
Keep in mind that the GC behavior is non-portable
both across platforms and across different Lua releases;
therefore, optimal settings are also non-portable.
<p>
You can change the GC mode and parameters by calling
<a href="#lua_gc"><code>lua_gc</code></a> in C
or <a href="#pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage</code></a> in Lua.
You can also use these functions to control
the collector directly (e.g., to stop and restart it).
<h3>2.5.1 – <a name="2.5.1">Incremental Garbage Collection</a></h3>
<p>
In incremental mode,
each GC cycle performs a mark-and-sweep collection in small steps
interleaved with the program's execution.
In this mode,
the collector uses three numbers to control its garbage-collection cycles:
the <em>garbage-collector pause</em>,
the <em>garbage-collector step multiplier</em>,
and the <em>garbage-collector step size</em>.
<p>
The garbage-collector pause
controls how long the collector waits before starting a new cycle.
The collector starts a new cycle when the use of memory
hits <em>n%</em> of the use after the previous collection.
Larger values make the collector less aggressive.
Values equal to or less than 100 mean the collector will not wait to
start a new cycle.
A value of 200 means that the collector waits for the total memory in use
to double before starting a new cycle.
The default value is 200; the maximum value is 1000.
<p>
The garbage-collector step multiplier
controls the speed of the collector relative to
memory allocation,
that is,
how many elements it marks or sweeps for each
kilobyte of memory allocated.
Larger values make the collector more aggressive but also increase
the size of each incremental step.
You should not use values less than 100,
because they make the collector too slow and
can result in the collector never finishing a cycle.
The default value is 100; the maximum value is 1000.
<p>
The garbage-collector step size controls the
size of each incremental step,
specifically how many bytes the interpreter allocates
before performing a step.
This parameter is logarithmic:
A value of <em>n</em> means the interpreter will allocate <em>2<sup>n</sup></em>
bytes between steps and perform equivalent work during the step.
A large value (e.g., 60) makes the collector a stop-the-world
(non-incremental) collector.
The default value is 13,
which means steps of approximately 8 Kbytes.
<h3>2.5.2 – <a name="2.5.2">Generational Garbage Collection</a></h3>
<p>
In generational mode,
the collector does frequent <em>minor</em> collections,
which traverses only objects recently created.
If after a minor collection the use of memory is still above a limit,
the collector does a stop-the-world <em>major</em> collection,
which traverses all objects.
The generational mode uses two parameters:
the <em>minor multiplier</em> and the <em>the major multiplier</em>.
<p>
The minor multiplier controls the frequency of minor collections.
For a minor multiplier <em>x</em>,
a new minor collection will be done when memory
grows <em>x%</em> larger than the memory in use after the previous major
collection.
For instance, for a multiplier of 20,
the collector will do a minor collection when the use of memory
gets 20% larger than the use after the previous major collection.
The default value is 20; the maximum value is 200.
<p>
The major multiplier controls the frequency of major collections.
For a major multiplier <em>x</em>,
a new major collection will be done when memory
grows <em>x%</em> larger than the memory in use after the previous major
collection.
For instance, for a multiplier of 100,
the collector will do a major collection when the use of memory
gets larger than twice the use after the previous collection.
The default value is 100; the maximum value is 1000.
<h3>2.5.3 – <a name="2.5.3">Garbage-Collection Metamethods</a></h3>
<p>
You can set garbage-collector metamethods for tables
and, using the C API,
for full userdata (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
These metamethods, called <em>finalizers</em>,
are called when the garbage collector detects that the
corresponding table or userdata is dead.
Finalizers allow you to coordinate Lua's garbage collection
with external resource management such as closing files,
network or database connections,
or freeing your own memory.
<p>
For an object (table or userdata) to be finalized when collected,
you must <em>mark</em> it for finalization.
You mark an object for finalization when you set its metatable
and the metatable has a <code>__gc</code> metamethod.
Note that if you set a metatable without a <code>__gc</code> field
and later create that field in the metatable,
the object will not be marked for finalization.
<p>
When a marked object becomes dead,
it is not collected immediately by the garbage collector.
Instead, Lua puts it in a list.
After the collection,
Lua goes through that list.
For each object in the list,
it checks the object's <code>__gc</code> metamethod:
If it is present,
Lua calls it with the object as its single argument.
<p>
At the end of each garbage-collection cycle,
the finalizers are called in
the reverse order that the objects were marked for finalization,
among those collected in that cycle;
that is, the first finalizer to be called is the one associated
with the object marked last in the program.
The execution of each finalizer may occur at any point during
the execution of the regular code.
<p>
Because the object being collected must still be used by the finalizer,
that object (and other objects accessible only through it)
must be <em>resurrected</em> by Lua.
Usually, this resurrection is transient,
and the object memory is freed in the next garbage-collection cycle.
However, if the finalizer stores the object in some global place
(e.g., a global variable),
then the resurrection is permanent.
Moreover, if the finalizer marks a finalizing object for finalization again,
its finalizer will be called again in the next cycle where the
object is dead.
In any case,
the object memory is freed only in a GC cycle where
the object is dead and not marked for finalization.
<p>
When you close a state (see <a href="#lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a>),
Lua calls the finalizers of all objects marked for finalization,
following the reverse order that they were marked.
If any finalizer marks objects for collection during that phase,
these marks have no effect.
<p>
Finalizers cannot yield.
Except for that, they can do anything,
such as raise errors, create new objects,
or even run the garbage collector.
However, because they can run in unpredictable times,
it is good practice to restrict each finalizer
to the minimum necessary to properly release
its associated resource.
<p>
Any error while running a finalizer generates a warning;
the error is not propagated.
<h3>2.5.4 – <a name="2.5.4">Weak Tables</a></h3>
<p>
A <em>weak table</em> is a table whose elements are
<em>weak references</em>.
A weak reference is ignored by the garbage collector.
In other words,
if the only references to an object are weak references,
then the garbage collector will collect that object.
<p>
A weak table can have weak keys, weak values, or both.
A table with weak values allows the collection of its values,
but prevents the collection of its keys.
A table with both weak keys and weak values allows the collection of
both keys and values.
In any case, if either the key or the value is collected,
the whole pair is removed from the table.
The weakness of a table is controlled by the
<code>__mode</code> field of its metatable.
This metavalue, if present, must be one of the following strings:
"<code>k</code>", for a table with weak keys;
"<code>v</code>", for a table with weak values;
or "<code>kv</code>", for a table with both weak keys and values.
<p>
A table with weak keys and strong values
is also called an <em>ephemeron table</em>.
In an ephemeron table,
a value is considered reachable only if its key is reachable.
In particular,
if the only reference to a key comes through its value,
the pair is removed.
<p>
Any change in the weakness of a table may take effect only
at the next collect cycle.
In particular, if you change the weakness to a stronger mode,
Lua may still collect some items from that table
before the change takes effect.
<p>
Only objects that have an explicit construction
are removed from weak tables.
Values, such as numbers and light C functions,
are not subject to garbage collection,
and therefore are not removed from weak tables
(unless their associated values are collected).
Although strings are subject to garbage collection,
they do not have an explicit construction and
their equality is by value;
they behave more like values than like objects.
Therefore, they are not removed from weak tables.
<p>
Resurrected objects
(that is, objects being finalized
and objects accessible only through objects being finalized)
have a special behavior in weak tables.
They are removed from weak values before running their finalizers,
but are removed from weak keys only in the next collection
after running their finalizers, when such objects are actually freed.
This behavior allows the finalizer to access properties
associated with the object through weak tables.
<p>
If a weak table is among the resurrected objects in a collection cycle,
it may not be properly cleared until the next cycle.
<h2>2.6 – <a name="2.6">Coroutines</a></h2>
<p>
Lua supports coroutines,
also called <em>collaborative multithreading</em>.
A coroutine in Lua represents an independent thread of execution.
Unlike threads in multithread systems, however,
a coroutine only suspends its execution by explicitly calling
a yield function.
<p>
You create a coroutine by calling <a href="#pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create</code></a>.
Its sole argument is a function
that is the main function of the coroutine.
The <code>create</code> function only creates a new coroutine and
returns a handle to it (an object of type <em>thread</em>);
it does not start the coroutine.
<p>
You execute a coroutine by calling <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>.
When you first call <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>,
passing as its first argument
a thread returned by <a href="#pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create</code></a>,
the coroutine starts its execution by
calling its main function.
Extra arguments passed to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> are passed
as arguments to that function.
After the coroutine starts running,
it runs until it terminates or <em>yields</em>.
<p>
A coroutine can terminate its execution in two ways:
normally, when its main function returns
(explicitly or implicitly, after the last instruction);
and abnormally, if there is an unprotected error.
In case of normal termination,
<a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> returns <b>true</b>,
plus any values returned by the coroutine main function.
In case of errors, <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> returns <b>false</b>
plus the error object.
In this case, the coroutine does not unwind its stack,
so that it is possible to inspect it after the error
with the debug API.
<p>
A coroutine yields by calling <a href="#pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield</code></a>.
When a coroutine yields,
the corresponding <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> returns immediately,
even if the yield happens inside nested function calls
(that is, not in the main function,
but in a function directly or indirectly called by the main function).
In the case of a yield, <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a> also returns <b>true</b>,
plus any values passed to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield</code></a>.
The next time you resume the same coroutine,
it continues its execution from the point where it yielded,
with the call to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield</code></a> returning any extra
arguments passed to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>.
<p>
Like <a href="#pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create</code></a>,
the <a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a> function also creates a coroutine,
but instead of returning the coroutine itself,
it returns a function that, when called, resumes the coroutine.
Any arguments passed to this function
go as extra arguments to <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>.
<a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a> returns all the values returned by <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>,
except the first one (the boolean error code).
Unlike <a href="#pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume</code></a>,
the function created by <a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a>
propagates any error to the caller.
In this case,
the function also closes the coroutine (see <a href="#pdf-coroutine.close"><code>coroutine.close</code></a>).
<p>
As an example of how coroutines work,
consider the following code:
<pre>
function foo (a)
print("foo", a)
return coroutine.yield(2*a)
end
co = coroutine.create(function (a,b)
print("co-body", a, b)
local r = foo(a+1)
print("co-body", r)
local r, s = coroutine.yield(a+b, a-b)
print("co-body", r, s)
return b, "end"
end)
print("main", coroutine.resume(co, 1, 10))
print("main", coroutine.resume(co, "r"))
print("main", coroutine.resume(co, "x", "y"))
print("main", coroutine.resume(co, "x", "y"))
</pre><p>
When you run it, it produces the following output:
<pre>
co-body 1 10
foo 2
main true 4
co-body r
main true 11 -9
co-body x y
main true 10 end
main false cannot resume dead coroutine
</pre>
<p>
You can also create and manipulate coroutines through the C API:
see functions <a href="#lua_newthread"><code>lua_newthread</code></a>, <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>,
and <a href="#lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a>.
<h1>3 – <a name="3">The Language</a></h1>
<p>
This section describes the lexis, the syntax, and the semantics of Lua.
In other words,
this section describes
which tokens are valid,
how they can be combined,
and what their combinations mean.
<p>
Language constructs will be explained using the usual extended BNF notation,
in which
{<em>a</em>} means 0 or more <em>a</em>'s, and
[<em>a</em>] means an optional <em>a</em>.
Non-terminals are shown like non-terminal,
keywords are shown like <b>kword</b>,
and other terminal symbols are shown like ‘<b>=</b>’.
The complete syntax of Lua can be found in <a href="#9">§9</a>
at the end of this manual.
<h2>3.1 – <a name="3.1">Lexical Conventions</a></h2>
<p>
Lua is a free-form language.
It ignores spaces and comments between lexical elements (tokens),
except as delimiters between two tokens.
In source code,
Lua recognizes as spaces the standard ASCII whitespace
characters space, form feed, newline,
carriage return, horizontal tab, and vertical tab.
<p>
<em>Names</em>
(also called <em>identifiers</em>)
in Lua can be any string of Latin letters,
Arabic-Indic digits, and underscores,
not beginning with a digit and
not being a reserved word.
Identifiers are used to name variables, table fields, and labels.
<p>
The following <em>keywords</em> are reserved
and cannot be used as names:
<pre>
and break do else elseif end
false for function goto if in
local nil not or repeat return
then true until while
</pre>
<p>
Lua is a case-sensitive language:
<code>and</code> is a reserved word, but <code>And</code> and <code>AND</code>
are two different, valid names.
As a convention,
programs should avoid creating
names that start with an underscore followed by
one or more uppercase letters (such as <a href="#pdf-_VERSION"><code>_VERSION</code></a>).
<p>
The following strings denote other tokens:
<pre>
+ - * / % ^ #
& ~ | << >> //
== ~= <= >= < > =
( ) { } [ ] ::
; : , . .. ...
</pre>
<p>
A <em>short literal string</em>
can be delimited by matching single or double quotes,
and can contain the following C-like escape sequences:
'<code>\a</code>' (bell),
'<code>\b</code>' (backspace),
'<code>\f</code>' (form feed),
'<code>\n</code>' (newline),
'<code>\r</code>' (carriage return),
'<code>\t</code>' (horizontal tab),
'<code>\v</code>' (vertical tab),
'<code>\\</code>' (backslash),
'<code>\"</code>' (quotation mark [double quote]),
and '<code>\'</code>' (apostrophe [single quote]).
A backslash followed by a line break
results in a newline in the string.
The escape sequence '<code>\z</code>' skips the following span
of whitespace characters,
including line breaks;
it is particularly useful to break and indent a long literal string
into multiple lines without adding the newlines and spaces
into the string contents.
A short literal string cannot contain unescaped line breaks
nor escapes not forming a valid escape sequence.
<p>
We can specify any byte in a short literal string,
including embedded zeros,
by its numeric value.
This can be done
with the escape sequence <code>\x<em>XX</em></code>,
where <em>XX</em> is a sequence of exactly two hexadecimal digits,
or with the escape sequence <code>\<em>ddd</em></code>,
where <em>ddd</em> is a sequence of up to three decimal digits.
(Note that if a decimal escape sequence is to be followed by a digit,
it must be expressed using exactly three digits.)
<p>
The UTF-8 encoding of a Unicode character
can be inserted in a literal string with
the escape sequence <code>\u{<em>XXX</em>}</code>
(with mandatory enclosing braces),
where <em>XXX</em> is a sequence of one or more hexadecimal digits
representing the character code point.
This code point can be any value less than <em>2<sup>31</sup></em>.
(Lua uses the original UTF-8 specification here,
which is not restricted to valid Unicode code points.)
<p>
Literal strings can also be defined using a long format
enclosed by <em>long brackets</em>.
We define an <em>opening long bracket of level <em>n</em></em> as an opening
square bracket followed by <em>n</em> equal signs followed by another
opening square bracket.
So, an opening long bracket of level 0 is written as <code>[[</code>,
an opening long bracket of level 1 is written as <code>[=[</code>,
and so on.
A <em>closing long bracket</em> is defined similarly;
for instance,
a closing long bracket of level 4 is written as <code>]====]</code>.
A <em>long literal</em> starts with an opening long bracket of any level and
ends at the first closing long bracket of the same level.
It can contain any text except a closing bracket of the same level.
Literals in this bracketed form can run for several lines,
do not interpret any escape sequences,
and ignore long brackets of any other level.
Any kind of end-of-line sequence
(carriage return, newline, carriage return followed by newline,
or newline followed by carriage return)
is converted to a simple newline.
When the opening long bracket is immediately followed by a newline,
the newline is not included in the string.
<p>
As an example, in a system using ASCII
(in which '<code>a</code>' is coded as 97,
newline is coded as 10, and '<code>1</code>' is coded as 49),
the five literal strings below denote the same string:
<pre>
a = 'alo\n123"'
a = "alo\n123\""
a = '\97lo\10\04923"'
a = [[alo
123"]]
a = [==[
alo
123"]==]
</pre>
<p>
Any byte in a literal string not
explicitly affected by the previous rules represents itself.
However, Lua opens files for parsing in text mode,
and the system's file functions may have problems with
some control characters.
So, it is safer to represent
binary data as a quoted literal with
explicit escape sequences for the non-text characters.
<p>
A <em>numeric constant</em> (or <em>numeral</em>)
can be written with an optional fractional part
and an optional decimal exponent,
marked by a letter '<code>e</code>' or '<code>E</code>'.
Lua also accepts hexadecimal constants,
which start with <code>0x</code> or <code>0X</code>.
Hexadecimal constants also accept an optional fractional part
plus an optional binary exponent,
marked by a letter '<code>p</code>' or '<code>P</code>'.
<p>
A numeric constant with a radix point or an exponent
denotes a float;
otherwise,
if its value fits in an integer or it is a hexadecimal constant,
it denotes an integer;
otherwise (that is, a decimal integer numeral that overflows),
it denotes a float.
Hexadecimal numerals with neither a radix point nor an exponent
always denote an integer value;
if the value overflows, it <em>wraps around</em>
to fit into a valid integer.
<p>
Examples of valid integer constants are
<pre>
3 345 0xff 0xBEBADA
</pre><p>
Examples of valid float constants are
<pre>
3.0 3.1416 314.16e-2 0.31416E1 34e1
0x0.1E 0xA23p-4 0X1.921FB54442D18P+1
</pre>
<p>
A <em>comment</em> starts with a double hyphen (<code>--</code>)
anywhere outside a string.
If the text immediately after <code>--</code> is not an opening long bracket,
the comment is a <em>short comment</em>,
which runs until the end of the line.
Otherwise, it is a <em>long comment</em>,
which runs until the corresponding closing long bracket.
<h2>3.2 – <a name="3.2">Variables</a></h2>
<p>
Variables are places that store values.
There are three kinds of variables in Lua:
global variables, local variables, and table fields.
<p>
A single name can denote a global variable or a local variable
(or a function's formal parameter,
which is a particular kind of local variable):
<pre>
var ::= Name
</pre><p>
Name denotes identifiers (see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>).
<p>
Any variable name is assumed to be global unless explicitly declared
as a local (see <a href="#3.3.7">§3.3.7</a>).
Local variables are <em>lexically scoped</em>:
local variables can be freely accessed by functions
defined inside their scope (see <a href="#3.5">§3.5</a>).
<p>
Before the first assignment to a variable, its value is <b>nil</b>.
<p>
Square brackets are used to index a table:
<pre>
var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’
</pre><p>
The meaning of accesses to table fields can be changed via metatables
(see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
The syntax <code>var.Name</code> is just syntactic sugar for
<code>var["Name"]</code>:
<pre>
var ::= prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name
</pre>
<p>
An access to a global variable <code>x</code>
is equivalent to <code>_ENV.x</code>.
Due to the way that chunks are compiled,
the variable <code>_ENV</code> itself is never global (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
<h2>3.3 – <a name="3.3">Statements</a></h2>
<p>
Lua supports an almost conventional set of statements,
similar to those in other conventional languages.
This set includes
blocks, assignments, control structures, function calls,
and variable declarations.
<h3>3.3.1 – <a name="3.3.1">Blocks</a></h3>
<p>
A block is a list of statements,
which are executed sequentially:
<pre>
block ::= {stat}
</pre><p>
Lua has <em>empty statements</em>
that allow you to separate statements with semicolons,
start a block with a semicolon
or write two semicolons in sequence:
<pre>
stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’
</pre>
<p>
Both function calls and assignments
can start with an open parenthesis.
This possibility leads to an ambiguity in Lua's grammar.
Consider the following fragment:
<pre>
a = b + c
(print or io.write)('done')
</pre><p>
The grammar could see this fragment in two ways:
<pre>
a = b + c(print or io.write)('done')
a = b + c; (print or io.write)('done')
</pre><p>
The current parser always sees such constructions
in the first way,
interpreting the open parenthesis
as the start of the arguments to a call.
To avoid this ambiguity,
it is a good practice to always precede with a semicolon
statements that start with a parenthesis:
<pre>
;(print or io.write)('done')
</pre>
<p>
A block can be explicitly delimited to produce a single statement:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
</pre><p>
Explicit blocks are useful
to control the scope of variable declarations.
Explicit blocks are also sometimes used to
add a <b>return</b> statement in the middle
of another block (see <a href="#3.3.4">§3.3.4</a>).
<h3>3.3.2 – <a name="3.3.2">Chunks</a></h3>
<p>
The unit of compilation of Lua is called a <em>chunk</em>.
Syntactically,
a chunk is simply a block:
<pre>
chunk ::= block
</pre>
<p>
Lua handles a chunk as the body of an anonymous function
with a variable number of arguments
(see <a href="#3.4.11">§3.4.11</a>).
As such, chunks can define local variables,
receive arguments, and return values.
Moreover, such anonymous function is compiled as in the
scope of an external local variable called <code>_ENV</code> (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
The resulting function always has <code>_ENV</code> as its only external variable,
even if it does not use that variable.
<p>
A chunk can be stored in a file or in a string inside the host program.
To execute a chunk,
Lua first <em>loads</em> it,
precompiling the chunk's code into instructions for a virtual machine,
and then Lua executes the compiled code
with an interpreter for the virtual machine.
<p>
Chunks can also be precompiled into binary form;
see the program <code>luac</code> and the function <a href="#pdf-string.dump"><code>string.dump</code></a> for details.
Programs in source and compiled forms are interchangeable;
Lua automatically detects the file type and acts accordingly (see <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>).
<h3>3.3.3 – <a name="3.3.3">Assignment</a></h3>
<p>
Lua allows multiple assignments.
Therefore, the syntax for assignment
defines a list of variables on the left side
and a list of expressions on the right side.
The elements in both lists are separated by commas:
<pre>
stat ::= varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist
varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var}
explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp}
</pre><p>
Expressions are discussed in <a href="#3.4">§3.4</a>.
<p>
Before the assignment,
the list of values is <em>adjusted</em> to the length of
the list of variables.
If there are more values than needed,
the excess values are thrown away.
If there are fewer values than needed,
the list is extended with <b>nil</b>'s.
If the list of expressions ends with a function call,
then all values returned by that call enter the list of values,
before the adjustment
(except when the call is enclosed in parentheses; see <a href="#3.4">§3.4</a>).
<p>
The assignment statement first evaluates all its expressions
and only then the assignments are performed.
Thus the code
<pre>
i = 3
i, a[i] = i+1, 20
</pre><p>
sets <code>a[3]</code> to 20, without affecting <code>a[4]</code>
because the <code>i</code> in <code>a[i]</code> is evaluated (to 3)
before it is assigned 4.
Similarly, the line
<pre>
x, y = y, x
</pre><p>
exchanges the values of <code>x</code> and <code>y</code>,
and
<pre>
x, y, z = y, z, x
</pre><p>
cyclically permutes the values of <code>x</code>, <code>y</code>, and <code>z</code>.
<p>
An assignment to a global name <code>x = val</code>
is equivalent to the assignment
<code>_ENV.x = val</code> (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
<p>
The meaning of assignments to table fields and
global variables (which are actually table fields, too)
can be changed via metatables (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<h3>3.3.4 – <a name="3.3.4">Control Structures</a></h3><p>
The control structures
<b>if</b>, <b>while</b>, and <b>repeat</b> have the usual meaning and
familiar syntax:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
stat ::= <b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp
stat ::= <b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] <b>end</b>
</pre><p>
Lua also has a <b>for</b> statement, in two flavors (see <a href="#3.3.5">§3.3.5</a>).
<p>
The condition expression of a
control structure can return any value.
Both <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b> test false.
All values different from <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b> test true.
In particular, the number 0 and the empty string also test true.
<p>
In the <b>repeat</b>–<b>until</b> loop,
the inner block does not end at the <b>until</b> keyword,
but only after the condition.
So, the condition can refer to local variables
declared inside the loop block.
<p>
The <b>goto</b> statement transfers the program control to a label.
For syntactical reasons,
labels in Lua are considered statements too:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>goto</b> Name
stat ::= label
label ::= ‘<b>::</b>’ Name ‘<b>::</b>’
</pre>
<p>
A label is visible in the entire block where it is defined,
except inside nested functions.
A goto may jump to any visible label as long as it does not
enter into the scope of a local variable.
A label should not be declared
where a label with the same name is visible,
even if this other label has been declared in an enclosing block.
<p>
Labels and empty statements are called <em>void statements</em>,
as they perform no actions.
<p>
The <b>break</b> statement terminates the execution of a
<b>while</b>, <b>repeat</b>, or <b>for</b> loop,
skipping to the next statement after the loop:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>break</b>
</pre><p>
A <b>break</b> ends the innermost enclosing loop.
<p>
The <b>return</b> statement is used to return values
from a function or a chunk
(which is handled as an anonymous function).
Functions can return more than one value,
so the syntax for the <b>return</b> statement is
<pre>
stat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’]
</pre>
<p>
The <b>return</b> statement can only be written
as the last statement of a block.
If it is necessary to <b>return</b> in the middle of a block,
then an explicit inner block can be used,
as in the idiom <code>do return end</code>,
because now <b>return</b> is the last statement in its (inner) block.
<h3>3.3.5 – <a name="3.3.5">For Statement</a></h3>
<p>
The <b>for</b> statement has two forms:
one numerical and one generic.
<h4>The numerical <b>for</b> loop</h4>
<p>
The numerical <b>for</b> loop repeats a block of code while a
control variable goes through an arithmetic progression.
It has the following syntax:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>for</b> Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp ‘<b>,</b>’ exp [‘<b>,</b>’ exp] <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
</pre><p>
The given identifier (Name) defines the control variable,
which is a new variable local to the loop body (<em>block</em>).
<p>
The loop starts by evaluating once the three control expressions.
Their values are called respectively
the <em>initial value</em>, the <em>limit</em>, and the <em>step</em>.
If the step is absent, it defaults to 1.
<p>
If both the initial value and the step are integers,
the loop is done with integers;
note that the limit may not be an integer.
Otherwise, the three values are converted to
floats and the loop is done with floats.
Beware of floating-point accuracy in this case.
<p>
After that initialization,
the loop body is repeated with the value of the control variable
going through an arithmetic progression,
starting at the initial value,
with a common difference given by the step.
A negative step makes a decreasing sequence;
a step equal to zero raises an error.
The loop continues while the value is less than
or equal to the limit
(greater than or equal to for a negative step).
If the initial value is already greater than the limit
(or less than, if the step is negative),
the body is not executed.
<p>
For integer loops,
the control variable never wraps around;
instead, the loop ends in case of an overflow.
<p>
You should not change the value of the control variable
during the loop.
If you need its value after the loop,
assign it to another variable before exiting the loop.
<h4>The generic <b>for</b> loop</h4>
<p>
The generic <b>for</b> statement works over functions,
called <em>iterators</em>.
On each iteration, the iterator function is called to produce a new value,
stopping when this new value is <b>nil</b>.
The generic <b>for</b> loop has the following syntax:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> explist <b>do</b> block <b>end</b>
namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name}
</pre><p>
A <b>for</b> statement like
<pre>
for <em>var_1</em>, ···, <em>var_n</em> in <em>explist</em> do <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
works as follows.
<p>
The names <em>var_i</em> declare loop variables local to the loop body.
The first of these variables is the <em>control variable</em>.
<p>
The loop starts by evaluating <em>explist</em>
to produce four values:
an <em>iterator function</em>,
a <em>state</em>,
an initial value for the control variable,
and a <em>closing value</em>.
<p>
Then, at each iteration,
Lua calls the iterator function with two arguments:
the state and the control variable.
The results from this call are then assigned to the loop variables,
following the rules of multiple assignments (see <a href="#3.3.3">§3.3.3</a>).
If the control variable becomes <b>nil</b>,
the loop terminates.
Otherwise, the body is executed and the loop goes
to the next iteration.
<p>
The closing value behaves like a
to-be-closed variable (see <a href="#3.3.8">§3.3.8</a>),
which can be used to release resources when the loop ends.
Otherwise, it does not interfere with the loop.
<p>
You should not change the value of the control variable
during the loop.
<h3>3.3.6 – <a name="3.3.6">Function Calls as Statements</a></h3><p>
To allow possible side-effects,
function calls can be executed as statements:
<pre>
stat ::= functioncall
</pre><p>
In this case, all returned values are thrown away.
Function calls are explained in <a href="#3.4.10">§3.4.10</a>.
<h3>3.3.7 – <a name="3.3.7">Local Declarations</a></h3><p>
Local variables can be declared anywhere inside a block.
The declaration can include an initialization:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>local</b> attnamelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist]
attnamelist ::= Name attrib {‘<b>,</b>’ Name attrib}
</pre><p>
If present, an initial assignment has the same semantics
of a multiple assignment (see <a href="#3.3.3">§3.3.3</a>).
Otherwise, all variables are initialized with <b>nil</b>.
<p>
Each variable name may be postfixed by an attribute
(a name between angle brackets):
<pre>
attrib ::= [‘<b><</b>’ Name ‘<b>></b>’]
</pre><p>
There are two possible attributes:
<code>const</code>, which declares a constant variable,
that is, a variable that cannot be assigned to
after its initialization;
and <code>close</code>, which declares a to-be-closed variable (see <a href="#3.3.8">§3.3.8</a>).
A list of variables can contain at most one to-be-closed variable.
<p>
A chunk is also a block (see <a href="#3.3.2">§3.3.2</a>),
and so local variables can be declared in a chunk outside any explicit block.
<p>
The visibility rules for local variables are explained in <a href="#3.5">§3.5</a>.
<h3>3.3.8 – <a name="3.3.8">To-be-closed Variables</a></h3>
<p>
A to-be-closed variable behaves like a constant local variable,
except that its value is <em>closed</em> whenever the variable
goes out of scope, including normal block termination,
exiting its block by <b>break</b>/<b>goto</b>/<b>return</b>,
or exiting by an error.
<p>
Here, to <em>close</em> a value means
to call its <code>__close</code> metamethod.
When calling the metamethod,
the value itself is passed as the first argument
and the error object that caused the exit (if any)
is passed as a second argument;
if there was no error, the second argument is <b>nil</b>.
<p>
The value assigned to a to-be-closed variable
must have a <code>__close</code> metamethod
or be a false value.
(<b>nil</b> and <b>false</b> are ignored as to-be-closed values.)
<p>
If several to-be-closed variables go out of scope at the same event,
they are closed in the reverse order that they were declared.
<p>
If there is any error while running a closing method,
that error is handled like an error in the regular code
where the variable was defined.
After an error,
the other pending closing methods will still be called.
<p>
If a coroutine yields and is never resumed again,
some variables may never go out of scope,
and therefore they will never be closed.
(These variables are the ones created inside the coroutine
and in scope at the point where the coroutine yielded.)
Similarly, if a coroutine ends with an error,
it does not unwind its stack,
so it does not close any variable.
In both cases,
you can either use finalizers
or call <a href="#pdf-coroutine.close"><code>coroutine.close</code></a> to close the variables.
However, if the coroutine was created
through <a href="#pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap</code></a>,
then its corresponding function will close the coroutine
in case of errors.
<h2>3.4 – <a name="3.4">Expressions</a></h2>
<p>
The basic expressions in Lua are the following:
<pre>
exp ::= prefixexp
exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b>
exp ::= Numeral
exp ::= LiteralString
exp ::= functiondef
exp ::= tableconstructor
exp ::= ‘<b>...</b>’
exp ::= exp binop exp
exp ::= unop exp
prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’
</pre>
<p>
Numerals and literal strings are explained in <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>;
variables are explained in <a href="#3.2">§3.2</a>;
function definitions are explained in <a href="#3.4.11">§3.4.11</a>;
function calls are explained in <a href="#3.4.10">§3.4.10</a>;
table constructors are explained in <a href="#3.4.9">§3.4.9</a>.
Vararg expressions,
denoted by three dots ('<code>...</code>'), can only be used when
directly inside a vararg function;
they are explained in <a href="#3.4.11">§3.4.11</a>.
<p>
Binary operators comprise arithmetic operators (see <a href="#3.4.1">§3.4.1</a>),
bitwise operators (see <a href="#3.4.2">§3.4.2</a>),
relational operators (see <a href="#3.4.4">§3.4.4</a>), logical operators (see <a href="#3.4.5">§3.4.5</a>),
and the concatenation operator (see <a href="#3.4.6">§3.4.6</a>).
Unary operators comprise the unary minus (see <a href="#3.4.1">§3.4.1</a>),
the unary bitwise NOT (see <a href="#3.4.2">§3.4.2</a>),
the unary logical <b>not</b> (see <a href="#3.4.5">§3.4.5</a>),
and the unary <em>length operator</em> (see <a href="#3.4.7">§3.4.7</a>).
<p>
Both function calls and vararg expressions can result in multiple values.
If a function call is used as a statement (see <a href="#3.3.6">§3.3.6</a>),
then its return list is adjusted to zero elements,
thus discarding all returned values.
If an expression is used as the last (or the only) element
of a list of expressions,
then no adjustment is made
(unless the expression is enclosed in parentheses).
In all other contexts,
Lua adjusts the result list to one element,
either discarding all values except the first one
or adding a single <b>nil</b> if there are no values.
<p>
Here are some examples:
<pre>
f() -- adjusted to 0 results
g(f(), x) -- f() is adjusted to 1 result
g(x, f()) -- g gets x plus all results from f()
a,b,c = f(), x -- f() is adjusted to 1 result (c gets nil)
a,b = ... -- a gets the first vararg argument, b gets
-- the second (both a and b can get nil if there
-- is no corresponding vararg argument)
a,b,c = x, f() -- f() is adjusted to 2 results
a,b,c = f() -- f() is adjusted to 3 results
return f() -- returns all results from f()
return ... -- returns all received vararg arguments
return x,y,f() -- returns x, y, and all results from f()
{f()} -- creates a list with all results from f()
{...} -- creates a list with all vararg arguments
{f(), nil} -- f() is adjusted to 1 result
</pre>
<p>
Any expression enclosed in parentheses always results in only one value.
Thus,
<code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is always a single value,
even if <code>f</code> returns several values.
(The value of <code>(f(x,y,z))</code> is the first value returned by <code>f</code>
or <b>nil</b> if <code>f</code> does not return any values.)
<h3>3.4.1 – <a name="3.4.1">Arithmetic Operators</a></h3><p>
Lua supports the following arithmetic operators:
<ul>
<li><b><code>+</code>: </b>addition</li>
<li><b><code>-</code>: </b>subtraction</li>
<li><b><code>*</code>: </b>multiplication</li>
<li><b><code>/</code>: </b>float division</li>
<li><b><code>//</code>: </b>floor division</li>
<li><b><code>%</code>: </b>modulo</li>
<li><b><code>^</code>: </b>exponentiation</li>
<li><b><code>-</code>: </b>unary minus</li>
</ul>
<p>
With the exception of exponentiation and float division,
the arithmetic operators work as follows:
If both operands are integers,
the operation is performed over integers and the result is an integer.
Otherwise, if both operands are numbers,
then they are converted to floats,
the operation is performed following the machine's rules
for floating-point arithmetic
(usually the IEEE 754 standard),
and the result is a float.
(The string library coerces strings to numbers in
arithmetic operations; see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a> for details.)
<p>
Exponentiation and float division (<code>/</code>)
always convert their operands to floats
and the result is always a float.
Exponentiation uses the ISO C function <code>pow</code>,
so that it works for non-integer exponents too.
<p>
Floor division (<code>//</code>) is a division
that rounds the quotient towards minus infinity,
resulting in the floor of the division of its operands.
<p>
Modulo is defined as the remainder of a division
that rounds the quotient towards minus infinity (floor division).
<p>
In case of overflows in integer arithmetic,
all operations <em>wrap around</em>.
<h3>3.4.2 – <a name="3.4.2">Bitwise Operators</a></h3><p>
Lua supports the following bitwise operators:
<ul>
<li><b><code>&</code>: </b>bitwise AND</li>
<li><b><code>|</code>: </b>bitwise OR</li>
<li><b><code>~</code>: </b>bitwise exclusive OR</li>
<li><b><code>>></code>: </b>right shift</li>
<li><b><code><<</code>: </b>left shift</li>
<li><b><code>~</code>: </b>unary bitwise NOT</li>
</ul>
<p>
All bitwise operations convert its operands to integers
(see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>),
operate on all bits of those integers,
and result in an integer.
<p>
Both right and left shifts fill the vacant bits with zeros.
Negative displacements shift to the other direction;
displacements with absolute values equal to or higher than
the number of bits in an integer
result in zero (as all bits are shifted out).
<h3>3.4.3 – <a name="3.4.3">Coercions and Conversions</a></h3><p>
Lua provides some automatic conversions between some
types and representations at run time.
Bitwise operators always convert float operands to integers.
Exponentiation and float division
always convert integer operands to floats.
All other arithmetic operations applied to mixed numbers
(integers and floats) convert the integer operand to a float.
The C API also converts both integers to floats and
floats to integers, as needed.
Moreover, string concatenation accepts numbers as arguments,
besides strings.
<p>
In a conversion from integer to float,
if the integer value has an exact representation as a float,
that is the result.
Otherwise,
the conversion gets the nearest higher or
the nearest lower representable value.
This kind of conversion never fails.
<p>
The conversion from float to integer
checks whether the float has an exact representation as an integer
(that is, the float has an integral value and
it is in the range of integer representation).
If it does, that representation is the result.
Otherwise, the conversion fails.
<p>
Several places in Lua coerce strings to numbers when necessary.
In particular,
the string library sets metamethods that try to coerce
strings to numbers in all arithmetic operations.
If the conversion fails,
the library calls the metamethod of the other operand
(if present) or it raises an error.
Note that bitwise operators do not do this coercion.
<p>
Nonetheless, it is always a good practice not to rely on these
implicit coercions, as they are not always applied;
in particular, <code>"1"==1</code> is false and <code>"1"<1</code> raises an error
(see <a href="#3.4.4">§3.4.4</a>).
These coercions exist mainly for compatibility and may be removed
in future versions of the language.
<p>
A string is converted to an integer or a float
following its syntax and the rules of the Lua lexer.
The string may have also leading and trailing whitespaces and a sign.
All conversions from strings to numbers
accept both a dot and the current locale mark
as the radix character.
(The Lua lexer, however, accepts only a dot.)
If the string is not a valid numeral,
the conversion fails.
If necessary, the result of this first step is then converted
to a specific number subtype following the previous rules
for conversions between floats and integers.
<p>
The conversion from numbers to strings uses a
non-specified human-readable format.
To convert numbers to strings in any specific way,
use the function <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a>.
<h3>3.4.4 – <a name="3.4.4">Relational Operators</a></h3><p>
Lua supports the following relational operators:
<ul>
<li><b><code>==</code>: </b>equality</li>
<li><b><code>~=</code>: </b>inequality</li>
<li><b><code><</code>: </b>less than</li>
<li><b><code>></code>: </b>greater than</li>
<li><b><code><=</code>: </b>less or equal</li>
<li><b><code>>=</code>: </b>greater or equal</li>
</ul><p>
These operators always result in <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>.
<p>
Equality (<code>==</code>) first compares the type of its operands.
If the types are different, then the result is <b>false</b>.
Otherwise, the values of the operands are compared.
Strings are equal if they have the same byte content.
Numbers are equal if they denote the same mathematical value.
<p>
Tables, userdata, and threads
are compared by reference:
two objects are considered equal only if they are the same object.
Every time you create a new object
(a table, a userdata, or a thread),
this new object is different from any previously existing object.
A function is always equal to itself.
Functions with any detectable difference
(different behavior, different definition) are always different.
Functions created at different times but with no detectable differences
may be classified as equal or not
(depending on internal caching details).
<p>
You can change the way that Lua compares tables and userdata
by using the <code>__eq</code> metamethod (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
Equality comparisons do not convert strings to numbers
or vice versa.
Thus, <code>"0"==0</code> evaluates to <b>false</b>,
and <code>t[0]</code> and <code>t["0"]</code> denote different
entries in a table.
<p>
The operator <code>~=</code> is exactly the negation of equality (<code>==</code>).
<p>
The order operators work as follows.
If both arguments are numbers,
then they are compared according to their mathematical values,
regardless of their subtypes.
Otherwise, if both arguments are strings,
then their values are compared according to the current locale.
Otherwise, Lua tries to call the <code>__lt</code> or the <code>__le</code>
metamethod (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
A comparison <code>a > b</code> is translated to <code>b < a</code>
and <code>a >= b</code> is translated to <code>b <= a</code>.
<p>
Following the IEEE 754 standard,
the special value NaN is considered neither less than,
nor equal to, nor greater than any value, including itself.
<h3>3.4.5 – <a name="3.4.5">Logical Operators</a></h3><p>
The logical operators in Lua are
<b>and</b>, <b>or</b>, and <b>not</b>.
Like the control structures (see <a href="#3.3.4">§3.3.4</a>),
all logical operators consider both <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b> as false
and anything else as true.
<p>
The negation operator <b>not</b> always returns <b>false</b> or <b>true</b>.
The conjunction operator <b>and</b> returns its first argument
if this value is <b>false</b> or <b>nil</b>;
otherwise, <b>and</b> returns its second argument.
The disjunction operator <b>or</b> returns its first argument
if this value is different from <b>nil</b> and <b>false</b>;
otherwise, <b>or</b> returns its second argument.
Both <b>and</b> and <b>or</b> use short-circuit evaluation;
that is,
the second operand is evaluated only if necessary.
Here are some examples:
<pre>
10 or 20 --> 10
10 or error() --> 10
nil or "a" --> "a"
nil and 10 --> nil
false and error() --> false
false and nil --> false
false or nil --> nil
10 and 20 --> 20
</pre>
<h3>3.4.6 – <a name="3.4.6">Concatenation</a></h3><p>
The string concatenation operator in Lua is
denoted by two dots ('<code>..</code>').
If both operands are strings or numbers,
then the numbers are converted to strings
in a non-specified format (see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>).
Otherwise, the <code>__concat</code> metamethod is called (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<h3>3.4.7 – <a name="3.4.7">The Length Operator</a></h3>
<p>
The length operator is denoted by the unary prefix operator <code>#</code>.
<p>
The length of a string is its number of bytes.
(That is the usual meaning of string length when each
character is one byte.)
<p>
The length operator applied on a table
returns a border in that table.
A <em>border</em> in a table <code>t</code> is any natural number
that satisfies the following condition:
<pre>
(border == 0 or t[border] ~= nil) and t[border + 1] == nil
</pre><p>
In words,
a border is any (natural) index present in the table
that is followed by an absent index
(or zero, when index 1 is absent).
<p>
A table with exactly one border is called a <em>sequence</em>.
For instance, the table <code>{10, 20, 30, 40, 50}</code> is a sequence,
as it has only one border (5).
The table <code>{10, 20, 30, nil, 50}</code> has two borders (3 and 5),
and therefore it is not a sequence.
(The <b>nil</b> at index 4 is called a <em>hole</em>.)
The table <code>{nil, 20, 30, nil, nil, 60, nil}</code>
has three borders (0, 3, and 6) and three holes
(at indices 1, 4, and 5),
so it is not a sequence, too.
The table <code>{}</code> is a sequence with border 0.
Note that non-natural keys do not interfere
with whether a table is a sequence.
<p>
When <code>t</code> is a sequence,
<code>#t</code> returns its only border,
which corresponds to the intuitive notion of the length of the sequence.
When <code>t</code> is not a sequence,
<code>#t</code> can return any of its borders.
(The exact one depends on details of
the internal representation of the table,
which in turn can depend on how the table was populated and
the memory addresses of its non-numeric keys.)
<p>
The computation of the length of a table
has a guaranteed worst time of <em>O(log n)</em>,
where <em>n</em> is the largest natural key in the table.
<p>
A program can modify the behavior of the length operator for
any value but strings through the <code>__len</code> metamethod (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<h3>3.4.8 – <a name="3.4.8">Precedence</a></h3><p>
Operator precedence in Lua follows the table below,
from lower to higher priority:
<pre>
or
and
< > <= >= ~= ==
|
~
&
<< >>
..
+ -
* / // %
unary operators (not # - ~)
^
</pre><p>
As usual,
you can use parentheses to change the precedences of an expression.
The concatenation ('<code>..</code>') and exponentiation ('<code>^</code>')
operators are right associative.
All other binary operators are left associative.
<h3>3.4.9 – <a name="3.4.9">Table Constructors</a></h3><p>
Table constructors are expressions that create tables.
Every time a constructor is evaluated, a new table is created.
A constructor can be used to create an empty table
or to create a table and initialize some of its fields.
The general syntax for constructors is
<pre>
tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ [fieldlist] ‘<b>}</b>’
fieldlist ::= field {fieldsep field} [fieldsep]
field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp
fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’
</pre>
<p>
Each field of the form <code>[exp1] = exp2</code> adds to the new table an entry
with key <code>exp1</code> and value <code>exp2</code>.
A field of the form <code>name = exp</code> is equivalent to
<code>["name"] = exp</code>.
Fields of the form <code>exp</code> are equivalent to
<code>[i] = exp</code>, where <code>i</code> are consecutive integers
starting with 1;
fields in the other formats do not affect this counting.
For example,
<pre>
a = { [f(1)] = g; "x", "y"; x = 1, f(x), [30] = 23; 45 }
</pre><p>
is equivalent to
<pre>
do
local t = {}
t[f(1)] = g
t[1] = "x" -- 1st exp
t[2] = "y" -- 2nd exp
t.x = 1 -- t["x"] = 1
t[3] = f(x) -- 3rd exp
t[30] = 23
t[4] = 45 -- 4th exp
a = t
end
</pre>
<p>
The order of the assignments in a constructor is undefined.
(This order would be relevant only when there are repeated keys.)
<p>
If the last field in the list has the form <code>exp</code>
and the expression is a function call or a vararg expression,
then all values returned by this expression enter the list consecutively
(see <a href="#3.4.10">§3.4.10</a>).
<p>
The field list can have an optional trailing separator,
as a convenience for machine-generated code.
<h3>3.4.10 – <a name="3.4.10">Function Calls</a></h3><p>
A function call in Lua has the following syntax:
<pre>
functioncall ::= prefixexp args
</pre><p>
In a function call,
first prefixexp and args are evaluated.
If the value of prefixexp has type <em>function</em>,
then this function is called
with the given arguments.
Otherwise, if present,
the prefixexp <code>__call</code> metamethod is called:
its first argument is the value of prefixexp,
followed by the original call arguments
(see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
The form
<pre>
functioncall ::= prefixexp ‘<b>:</b>’ Name args
</pre><p>
can be used to emulate methods.
A call <code>v:name(<em>args</em>)</code>
is syntactic sugar for <code>v.name(v,<em>args</em>)</code>,
except that <code>v</code> is evaluated only once.
<p>
Arguments have the following syntax:
<pre>
args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’
args ::= tableconstructor
args ::= LiteralString
</pre><p>
All argument expressions are evaluated before the call.
A call of the form <code>f{<em>fields</em>}</code> is
syntactic sugar for <code>f({<em>fields</em>})</code>;
that is, the argument list is a single new table.
A call of the form <code>f'<em>string</em>'</code>
(or <code>f"<em>string</em>"</code> or <code>f[[<em>string</em>]]</code>)
is syntactic sugar for <code>f('<em>string</em>')</code>;
that is, the argument list is a single literal string.
<p>
A call of the form <code>return <em>functioncall</em></code> not in the
scope of a to-be-closed variable is called a <em>tail call</em>.
Lua implements <em>proper tail calls</em>
(or <em>proper tail recursion</em>):
in a tail call,
the called function reuses the stack entry of the calling function.
Therefore, there is no limit on the number of nested tail calls that
a program can execute.
However, a tail call erases any debug information about the
calling function.
Note that a tail call only happens with a particular syntax,
where the <b>return</b> has one single function call as argument,
and it is outside the scope of any to-be-closed variable.
This syntax makes the calling function return exactly
the returns of the called function,
without any intervening action.
So, none of the following examples are tail calls:
<pre>
return (f(x)) -- results adjusted to 1
return 2 * f(x) -- result multiplied by 2
return x, f(x) -- additional results
f(x); return -- results discarded
return x or f(x) -- results adjusted to 1
</pre>
<h3>3.4.11 – <a name="3.4.11">Function Definitions</a></h3>
<p>
The syntax for function definition is
<pre>
functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody
funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block <b>end</b>
</pre>
<p>
The following syntactic sugar simplifies function definitions:
<pre>
stat ::= <b>function</b> funcname funcbody
stat ::= <b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody
funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name]
</pre><p>
The statement
<pre>
function f () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
translates to
<pre>
f = function () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
The statement
<pre>
function t.a.b.c.f () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
translates to
<pre>
t.a.b.c.f = function () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
The statement
<pre>
local function f () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
translates to
<pre>
local f; f = function () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
not to
<pre>
local f = function () <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
(This only makes a difference when the body of the function
contains references to <code>f</code>.)
<p>
A function definition is an executable expression,
whose value has type <em>function</em>.
When Lua precompiles a chunk,
all its function bodies are precompiled too,
but they are not created yet.
Then, whenever Lua executes the function definition,
the function is <em>instantiated</em> (or <em>closed</em>).
This function instance, or <em>closure</em>,
is the final value of the expression.
<p>
Parameters act as local variables that are
initialized with the argument values:
<pre>
parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’
</pre><p>
When a Lua function is called,
it adjusts its list of arguments to
the length of its list of parameters,
unless the function is a <em>vararg function</em>,
which is indicated by three dots ('<code>...</code>')
at the end of its parameter list.
A vararg function does not adjust its argument list;
instead, it collects all extra arguments and supplies them
to the function through a <em>vararg expression</em>,
which is also written as three dots.
The value of this expression is a list of all actual extra arguments,
similar to a function with multiple results.
If a vararg expression is used inside another expression
or in the middle of a list of expressions,
then its return list is adjusted to one element.
If the expression is used as the last element of a list of expressions,
then no adjustment is made
(unless that last expression is enclosed in parentheses).
<p>
As an example, consider the following definitions:
<pre>
function f(a, b) end
function g(a, b, ...) end
function r() return 1,2,3 end
</pre><p>
Then, we have the following mapping from arguments to parameters and
to the vararg expression:
<pre>
CALL PARAMETERS
f(3) a=3, b=nil
f(3, 4) a=3, b=4
f(3, 4, 5) a=3, b=4
f(r(), 10) a=1, b=10
f(r()) a=1, b=2
g(3) a=3, b=nil, ... --> (nothing)
g(3, 4) a=3, b=4, ... --> (nothing)
g(3, 4, 5, 8) a=3, b=4, ... --> 5 8
g(5, r()) a=5, b=1, ... --> 2 3
</pre>
<p>
Results are returned using the <b>return</b> statement (see <a href="#3.3.4">§3.3.4</a>).
If control reaches the end of a function
without encountering a <b>return</b> statement,
then the function returns with no results.
<p>
There is a system-dependent limit on the number of values
that a function may return.
This limit is guaranteed to be greater than 1000.
<p>
The <em>colon</em> syntax
is used to emulate <em>methods</em>,
adding an implicit extra parameter <code>self</code> to the function.
Thus, the statement
<pre>
function t.a.b.c:f (<em>params</em>) <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
is syntactic sugar for
<pre>
t.a.b.c.f = function (self, <em>params</em>) <em>body</em> end
</pre>
<h2>3.5 – <a name="3.5">Visibility Rules</a></h2>
<p>
Lua is a lexically scoped language.
The scope of a local variable begins at the first statement after
its declaration and lasts until the last non-void statement
of the innermost block that includes the declaration.
Consider the following example:
<pre>
x = 10 -- global variable
do -- new block
local x = x -- new 'x', with value 10
print(x) --> 10
x = x+1
do -- another block
local x = x+1 -- another 'x'
print(x) --> 12
end
print(x) --> 11
end
print(x) --> 10 (the global one)
</pre>
<p>
Notice that, in a declaration like <code>local x = x</code>,
the new <code>x</code> being declared is not in scope yet,
and so the second <code>x</code> refers to the outside variable.
<p>
Because of the lexical scoping rules,
local variables can be freely accessed by functions
defined inside their scope.
A local variable used by an inner function is called an <em>upvalue</em>
(or <em>external local variable</em>, or simply <em>external variable</em>)
inside the inner function.
<p>
Notice that each execution of a <b>local</b> statement
defines new local variables.
Consider the following example:
<pre>
a = {}
local x = 20
for i = 1, 10 do
local y = 0
a[i] = function () y = y + 1; return x + y end
end
</pre><p>
The loop creates ten closures
(that is, ten instances of the anonymous function).
Each of these closures uses a different <code>y</code> variable,
while all of them share the same <code>x</code>.
<h1>4 – <a name="4">The Application Program Interface</a></h1>
<p>
This section describes the C API for Lua, that is,
the set of C functions available to the host program to communicate
with Lua.
All API functions and related types and constants
are declared in the header file <a name="pdf-lua.h"><code>lua.h</code></a>.
<p>
Even when we use the term "function",
any facility in the API may be provided as a macro instead.
Except where stated otherwise,
all such macros use each of their arguments exactly once
(except for the first argument, which is always a Lua state),
and so do not generate any hidden side-effects.
<p>
As in most C libraries,
the Lua API functions do not check their arguments
for validity or consistency.
However, you can change this behavior by compiling Lua
with the macro <a name="pdf-LUA_USE_APICHECK"><code>LUA_USE_APICHECK</code></a> defined.
<p>
The Lua library is fully reentrant:
it has no global variables.
It keeps all information it needs in a dynamic structure,
called the <em>Lua state</em>.
<p>
Each Lua state has one or more threads,
which correspond to independent, cooperative lines of execution.
The type <a href="#lua_State"><code>lua_State</code></a> (despite its name) refers to a thread.
(Indirectly, through the thread, it also refers to the
Lua state associated to the thread.)
<p>
A pointer to a thread must be passed as the first argument to
every function in the library, except to <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a>,
which creates a Lua state from scratch and returns a pointer
to the <em>main thread</em> in the new state.
<h2>4.1 – <a name="4.1">The Stack</a></h2>
<p>
Lua uses a <em>virtual stack</em> to pass values to and from C.
Each element in this stack represents a Lua value
(<b>nil</b>, number, string, etc.).
Functions in the API can access this stack through the
Lua state parameter that they receive.
<p>
Whenever Lua calls C, the called function gets a new stack,
which is independent of previous stacks and of stacks of
C functions that are still active.
This stack initially contains any arguments to the C function
and it is where the C function can store temporary
Lua values and must push its results
to be returned to the caller (see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>).
<p>
For convenience,
most query operations in the API do not follow a strict stack discipline.
Instead, they can refer to any element in the stack
by using an <em>index</em>:
A positive index represents an absolute stack position,
starting at 1 as the bottom of the stack;
a negative index represents an offset relative to the top of the stack.
More specifically, if the stack has <em>n</em> elements,
then index 1 represents the first element
(that is, the element that was pushed onto the stack first)
and
index <em>n</em> represents the last element;
index -1 also represents the last element
(that is, the element at the top)
and index <em>-n</em> represents the first element.
<h3>4.1.1 – <a name="4.1.1">Stack Size</a></h3>
<p>
When you interact with the Lua API,
you are responsible for ensuring consistency.
In particular,
<em>you are responsible for controlling stack overflow</em>.
When you call any API function,
you must ensure the stack has enough room to accommodate the results.
<p>
There is one exception to the above rule:
When you call a Lua function
without a fixed number of results (see <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>),
Lua ensures that the stack has enough space for all results.
However, it does not ensure any extra space.
So, before pushing anything on the stack after such a call
you should use <a href="#lua_checkstack"><code>lua_checkstack</code></a>.
<p>
Whenever Lua calls C,
it ensures that the stack has space for
at least <a name="pdf-LUA_MINSTACK"><code>LUA_MINSTACK</code></a> extra elements;
that is, you can safely push up to <code>LUA_MINSTACK</code> values into it.
<code>LUA_MINSTACK</code> is defined as 20,
so that usually you do not have to worry about stack space
unless your code has loops pushing elements onto the stack.
Whenever necessary,
you can use the function <a href="#lua_checkstack"><code>lua_checkstack</code></a>
to ensure that the stack has enough space for pushing new elements.
<h3>4.1.2 – <a name="4.1.2">Valid and Acceptable Indices</a></h3>
<p>
Any function in the API that receives stack indices
works only with <em>valid indices</em> or <em>acceptable indices</em>.
<p>
A <em>valid index</em> is an index that refers to a
position that stores a modifiable Lua value.
It comprises stack indices between 1 and the stack top
(<code>1 ≤ abs(index) ≤ top</code>)
plus <em>pseudo-indices</em>,
which represent some positions that are accessible to C code
but that are not in the stack.
Pseudo-indices are used to access the registry (see <a href="#4.3">§4.3</a>)
and the upvalues of a C function (see <a href="#4.2">§4.2</a>).
<p>
Functions that do not need a specific mutable position,
but only a value (e.g., query functions),
can be called with acceptable indices.
An <em>acceptable index</em> can be any valid index,
but it also can be any positive index after the stack top
within the space allocated for the stack,
that is, indices up to the stack size.
(Note that 0 is never an acceptable index.)
Indices to upvalues (see <a href="#4.2">§4.2</a>) greater than the real number
of upvalues in the current C function are also acceptable (but invalid).
Except when noted otherwise,
functions in the API work with acceptable indices.
<p>
Acceptable indices serve to avoid extra tests
against the stack top when querying the stack.
For instance, a C function can query its third argument
without the need to check whether there is a third argument,
that is, without the need to check whether 3 is a valid index.
<p>
For functions that can be called with acceptable indices,
any non-valid index is treated as if it
contains a value of a virtual type <a name="pdf-LUA_TNONE"><code>LUA_TNONE</code></a>,
which behaves like a nil value.
<h3>4.1.3 – <a name="4.1.3">Pointers to strings</a></h3>
<p>
Several functions in the API return pointers (<code>const char*</code>)
to Lua strings in the stack.
(See <a href="#lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a>, <a href="#lua_pushlstring"><code>lua_pushlstring</code></a>,
<a href="#lua_pushstring"><code>lua_pushstring</code></a>, and <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a>.
See also <a href="#luaL_checklstring"><code>luaL_checklstring</code></a>, <a href="#luaL_checkstring"><code>luaL_checkstring</code></a>,
and <a href="#luaL_tolstring"><code>luaL_tolstring</code></a> in the auxiliary library.)
<p>
In general,
Lua's garbage collection can free or move internal memory
and then invalidate pointers to internal strings.
To allow a safe use of these pointers,
The API guarantees that any pointer to a string in a stack index
is valid while the string value at that index is not removed from the stack.
(It can be moved to another index, though.)
When the index is a pseudo-index (referring to an upvalue),
the pointer is valid while the corresponding call is active and
the corresponding upvalue is not modified.
<p>
Some functions in the debug interface
also return pointers to strings,
namely <a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a>, <a href="#lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a>,
<a href="#lua_setlocal"><code>lua_setlocal</code></a>, and <a href="#lua_setupvalue"><code>lua_setupvalue</code></a>.
For these functions, the pointer is guaranteed to
be valid while the caller function is active and
the given closure (if one was given) is in the stack.
<p>
Except for these guarantees,
the garbage collector is free to invalidate
any pointer to internal strings.
<h2>4.2 – <a name="4.2">C Closures</a></h2>
<p>
When a C function is created,
it is possible to associate some values with it,
thus creating a <em>C closure</em>
(see <a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a>);
these values are called <em>upvalues</em> and are
accessible to the function whenever it is called.
<p>
Whenever a C function is called,
its upvalues are located at specific pseudo-indices.
These pseudo-indices are produced by the macro
<a href="#lua_upvalueindex"><code>lua_upvalueindex</code></a>.
The first upvalue associated with a function is at index
<code>lua_upvalueindex(1)</code>, and so on.
Any access to <code>lua_upvalueindex(<em>n</em>)</code>,
where <em>n</em> is greater than the number of upvalues of the
current function
(but not greater than 256,
which is one plus the maximum number of upvalues in a closure),
produces an acceptable but invalid index.
<p>
A C closure can also change the values
of its corresponding upvalues.
<h2>4.3 – <a name="4.3">Registry</a></h2>
<p>
Lua provides a <em>registry</em>,
a predefined table that can be used by any C code to
store whatever Lua values it needs to store.
The registry table is always accessible at pseudo-index
<a name="pdf-LUA_REGISTRYINDEX"><code>LUA_REGISTRYINDEX</code></a>.
Any C library can store data into this table,
but it must take care to choose keys
that are different from those used
by other libraries, to avoid collisions.
Typically, you should use as key a string containing your library name,
or a light userdata with the address of a C object in your code,
or any Lua object created by your code.
As with variable names,
string keys starting with an underscore followed by
uppercase letters are reserved for Lua.
<p>
The integer keys in the registry are used
by the reference mechanism (see <a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a>)
and by some predefined values.
Therefore, integer keys in the registry
must not be used for other purposes.
<p>
When you create a new Lua state,
its registry comes with some predefined values.
These predefined values are indexed with integer keys
defined as constants in <code>lua.h</code>.
The following constants are defined:
<ul>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_RIDX_MAINTHREAD"><code>LUA_RIDX_MAINTHREAD</code></a>: </b> At this index the registry has
the main thread of the state.
(The main thread is the one created together with the state.)
</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_RIDX_GLOBALS"><code>LUA_RIDX_GLOBALS</code></a>: </b> At this index the registry has
the global environment.
</li>
</ul>
<h2>4.4 – <a name="4.4">Error Handling in C</a></h2>
<p>
Internally, Lua uses the C <code>longjmp</code> facility to handle errors.
(Lua will use exceptions if you compile it as C++;
search for <code>LUAI_THROW</code> in the source code for details.)
When Lua faces any error,
such as a memory allocation error or a type error,
it <em>raises</em> an error;
that is, it does a long jump.
A <em>protected environment</em> uses <code>setjmp</code>
to set a recovery point;
any error jumps to the most recent active recovery point.
<p>
Inside a C function you can raise an error explicitly
by calling <a href="#lua_error"><code>lua_error</code></a>.
<p>
Most functions in the API can raise an error,
for instance due to a memory allocation error.
The documentation for each function indicates whether
it can raise errors.
<p>
If an error happens outside any protected environment,
Lua calls a <em>panic function</em> (see <a href="#lua_atpanic"><code>lua_atpanic</code></a>)
and then calls <code>abort</code>,
thus exiting the host application.
Your panic function can avoid this exit by
never returning
(e.g., doing a long jump to your own recovery point outside Lua).
<p>
The panic function,
as its name implies,
is a mechanism of last resort.
Programs should avoid it.
As a general rule,
when a C function is called by Lua with a Lua state,
it can do whatever it wants on that Lua state,
as it should be already protected.
However,
when C code operates on other Lua states
(e.g., a Lua-state argument to the function,
a Lua state stored in the registry, or
the result of <a href="#lua_newthread"><code>lua_newthread</code></a>),
it should use them only in API calls that cannot raise errors.
<p>
The panic function runs as if it were a message handler (see <a href="#2.3">§2.3</a>);
in particular, the error object is on the top of the stack.
However, there is no guarantee about stack space.
To push anything on the stack,
the panic function must first check the available space (see <a href="#4.1.1">§4.1.1</a>).
<h3>4.4.1 – <a name="4.4.1">Status Codes</a></h3>
<p>
Several functions that report errors in the API use the following
status codes to indicate different kinds of errors or other conditions:
<ul>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> (0): </b> no errors.</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRRUN"><code>LUA_ERRRUN</code></a>: </b> a runtime error.</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRMEM"><code>LUA_ERRMEM</code></a>: </b>
memory allocation error.
For such errors, Lua does not call the message handler.
</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRERR"><code>LUA_ERRERR</code></a>: </b> error while running the message handler.</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRSYNTAX"><code>LUA_ERRSYNTAX</code></a>: </b> syntax error during precompilation.</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a>: </b> the thread (coroutine) yields.</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_ERRFILE"><code>LUA_ERRFILE</code></a>: </b> a file-related error;
e.g., it cannot open or read the file.</li>
</ul><p>
These constants are defined in the header file <code>lua.h</code>.
<h2>4.5 – <a name="4.5">Handling Yields in C</a></h2>
<p>
Internally, Lua uses the C <code>longjmp</code> facility to yield a coroutine.
Therefore, if a C function <code>foo</code> calls an API function
and this API function yields
(directly or indirectly by calling another function that yields),
Lua cannot return to <code>foo</code> any more,
because the <code>longjmp</code> removes its frame from the C stack.
<p>
To avoid this kind of problem,
Lua raises an error whenever it tries to yield across an API call,
except for three functions:
<a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>, <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a>, and <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>.
All those functions receive a <em>continuation function</em>
(as a parameter named <code>k</code>) to continue execution after a yield.
<p>
We need to set some terminology to explain continuations.
We have a C function called from Lua which we will call
the <em>original function</em>.
This original function then calls one of those three functions in the C API,
which we will call the <em>callee function</em>,
that then yields the current thread.
This can happen when the callee function is <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>,
or when the callee function is either <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a> or <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>
and the function called by them yields.
<p>
Suppose the running thread yields while executing the callee function.
After the thread resumes,
it eventually will finish running the callee function.
However,
the callee function cannot return to the original function,
because its frame in the C stack was destroyed by the yield.
Instead, Lua calls a <em>continuation function</em>,
which was given as an argument to the callee function.
As the name implies,
the continuation function should continue the task
of the original function.
<p>
As an illustration, consider the following function:
<pre>
int original_function (lua_State *L) {
... /* code 1 */
status = lua_pcall(L, n, m, h); /* calls Lua */
... /* code 2 */
}
</pre><p>
Now we want to allow
the Lua code being run by <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> to yield.
First, we can rewrite our function like here:
<pre>
int k (lua_State *L, int status, lua_KContext ctx) {
... /* code 2 */
}
int original_function (lua_State *L) {
... /* code 1 */
return k(L, lua_pcall(L, n, m, h), ctx);
}
</pre><p>
In the above code,
the new function <code>k</code> is a
<em>continuation function</em> (with type <a href="#lua_KFunction"><code>lua_KFunction</code></a>),
which should do all the work that the original function
was doing after calling <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>.
Now, we must inform Lua that it must call <code>k</code> if the Lua code
being executed by <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> gets interrupted in some way
(errors or yielding),
so we rewrite the code as here,
replacing <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> by <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>:
<pre>
int original_function (lua_State *L) {
... /* code 1 */
return k(L, lua_pcallk(L, n, m, h, ctx2, k), ctx1);
}
</pre><p>
Note the external, explicit call to the continuation:
Lua will call the continuation only if needed, that is,
in case of errors or resuming after a yield.
If the called function returns normally without ever yielding,
<a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a> (and <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a>) will also return normally.
(Of course, instead of calling the continuation in that case,
you can do the equivalent work directly inside the original function.)
<p>
Besides the Lua state,
the continuation function has two other parameters:
the final status of the call and the context value (<code>ctx</code>) that
was passed originally to <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>.
Lua does not use this context value;
it only passes this value from the original function to the
continuation function.
For <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>,
the status is the same value that would be returned by <a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>,
except that it is <a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a> when being executed after a yield
(instead of <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a>).
For <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a> and <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a>,
the status is always <a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a> when Lua calls the continuation.
(For these two functions,
Lua will not call the continuation in case of errors,
because they do not handle errors.)
Similarly, when using <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a>,
you should call the continuation function
with <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> as the status.
(For <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>, there is not much point in calling
directly the continuation function,
because <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a> usually does not return.)
<p>
Lua treats the continuation function as if it were the original function.
The continuation function receives the same Lua stack
from the original function,
in the same state it would be if the callee function had returned.
(For instance,
after a <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a> the function and its arguments are
removed from the stack and replaced by the results from the call.)
It also has the same upvalues.
Whatever it returns is handled by Lua as if it were the return
of the original function.
<h2>4.6 – <a name="4.6">Functions and Types</a></h2>
<p>
Here we list all functions and types from the C API in
alphabetical order.
Each function has an indicator like this:
<span class="apii">[-o, +p, <em>x</em>]</span>
<p>
The first field, <code>o</code>,
is how many elements the function pops from the stack.
The second field, <code>p</code>,
is how many elements the function pushes onto the stack.
(Any function always pushes its results after popping its arguments.)
A field in the form <code>x|y</code> means the function can push (or pop)
<code>x</code> or <code>y</code> elements,
depending on the situation;
an interrogation mark '<code>?</code>' means that
we cannot know how many elements the function pops/pushes
by looking only at its arguments.
(For instance, they may depend on what is in the stack.)
The third field, <code>x</code>,
tells whether the function may raise errors:
'<code>-</code>' means the function never raises any error;
'<code>m</code>' means the function may raise only out-of-memory errors;
'<code>v</code>' means the function may raise the errors explained in the text;
'<code>e</code>' means the function can run arbitrary Lua code,
either directly or through metamethods,
and therefore may raise any errors.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_absindex"><code>lua_absindex</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_absindex (lua_State *L, int idx);</pre>
<p>
Converts the acceptable index <code>idx</code>
into an equivalent absolute index
(that is, one that does not depend on the stack size).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Alloc"><code>lua_Alloc</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef void * (*lua_Alloc) (void *ud,
void *ptr,
size_t osize,
size_t nsize);</pre>
<p>
The type of the memory-allocation function used by Lua states.
The allocator function must provide a
functionality similar to <code>realloc</code>,
but not exactly the same.
Its arguments are
<code>ud</code>, an opaque pointer passed to <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a>;
<code>ptr</code>, a pointer to the block being allocated/reallocated/freed;
<code>osize</code>, the original size of the block or some code about what
is being allocated;
and <code>nsize</code>, the new size of the block.
<p>
When <code>ptr</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
<code>osize</code> is the size of the block pointed by <code>ptr</code>,
that is, the size given when it was allocated or reallocated.
<p>
When <code>ptr</code> is <code>NULL</code>,
<code>osize</code> encodes the kind of object that Lua is allocating.
<code>osize</code> is any of
<a href="#pdf-LUA_TSTRING"><code>LUA_TSTRING</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-LUA_TTABLE"><code>LUA_TTABLE</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-LUA_TFUNCTION"><code>LUA_TFUNCTION</code></a>,
<a href="#pdf-LUA_TUSERDATA"><code>LUA_TUSERDATA</code></a>, or <a href="#pdf-LUA_TTHREAD"><code>LUA_TTHREAD</code></a> when (and only when)
Lua is creating a new object of that type.
When <code>osize</code> is some other value,
Lua is allocating memory for something else.
<p>
Lua assumes the following behavior from the allocator function:
<p>
When <code>nsize</code> is zero,
the allocator must behave like <code>free</code>
and then return <code>NULL</code>.
<p>
When <code>nsize</code> is not zero,
the allocator must behave like <code>realloc</code>.
In particular, the allocator returns <code>NULL</code>
if and only if it cannot fulfill the request.
<p>
Here is a simple implementation for the allocator function.
It is used in the auxiliary library by <a href="#luaL_newstate"><code>luaL_newstate</code></a>.
<pre>
static void *l_alloc (void *ud, void *ptr, size_t osize,
size_t nsize) {
(void)ud; (void)osize; /* not used */
if (nsize == 0) {
free(ptr);
return NULL;
}
else
return realloc(ptr, nsize);
}
</pre><p>
Note that Standard C ensures
that <code>free(NULL)</code> has no effect and that
<code>realloc(NULL,size)</code> is equivalent to <code>malloc(size)</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_arith"><code>lua_arith</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(2|1), +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_arith (lua_State *L, int op);</pre>
<p>
Performs an arithmetic or bitwise operation over the two values
(or one, in the case of negations)
at the top of the stack,
with the value on the top being the second operand,
pops these values, and pushes the result of the operation.
The function follows the semantics of the corresponding Lua operator
(that is, it may call metamethods).
<p>
The value of <code>op</code> must be one of the following constants:
<ul>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPADD"><code>LUA_OPADD</code></a>: </b> performs addition (<code>+</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPSUB"><code>LUA_OPSUB</code></a>: </b> performs subtraction (<code>-</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPMUL"><code>LUA_OPMUL</code></a>: </b> performs multiplication (<code>*</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPDIV"><code>LUA_OPDIV</code></a>: </b> performs float division (<code>/</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPIDIV"><code>LUA_OPIDIV</code></a>: </b> performs floor division (<code>//</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPMOD"><code>LUA_OPMOD</code></a>: </b> performs modulo (<code>%</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPPOW"><code>LUA_OPPOW</code></a>: </b> performs exponentiation (<code>^</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPUNM"><code>LUA_OPUNM</code></a>: </b> performs mathematical negation (unary <code>-</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPBNOT"><code>LUA_OPBNOT</code></a>: </b> performs bitwise NOT (<code>~</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPBAND"><code>LUA_OPBAND</code></a>: </b> performs bitwise AND (<code>&</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPBOR"><code>LUA_OPBOR</code></a>: </b> performs bitwise OR (<code>|</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPBXOR"><code>LUA_OPBXOR</code></a>: </b> performs bitwise exclusive OR (<code>~</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPSHL"><code>LUA_OPSHL</code></a>: </b> performs left shift (<code><<</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPSHR"><code>LUA_OPSHR</code></a>: </b> performs right shift (<code>>></code>)</li>
</ul>
<hr><h3><a name="lua_atpanic"><code>lua_atpanic</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_CFunction lua_atpanic (lua_State *L, lua_CFunction panicf);</pre>
<p>
Sets a new panic function and returns the old one (see <a href="#4.4">§4.4</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(nargs+1), +nresults, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_call (lua_State *L, int nargs, int nresults);</pre>
<p>
Calls a function.
Like regular Lua calls,
<code>lua_call</code> respects the <code>__call</code> metamethod.
So, here the word "function"
means any callable value.
<p>
To do a call you must use the following protocol:
first, the function to be called is pushed onto the stack;
then, the arguments to the call are pushed
in direct order;
that is, the first argument is pushed first.
Finally you call <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>;
<code>nargs</code> is the number of arguments that you pushed onto the stack.
When the function returns,
all arguments and the function value are popped
and the call results are pushed onto the stack.
The number of results is adjusted to <code>nresults</code>,
unless <code>nresults</code> is <a name="pdf-LUA_MULTRET"><code>LUA_MULTRET</code></a>.
In this case, all results from the function are pushed;
Lua takes care that the returned values fit into the stack space,
but it does not ensure any extra space in the stack.
The function results are pushed onto the stack in direct order
(the first result is pushed first),
so that after the call the last result is on the top of the stack.
<p>
Any error while calling and running the function is propagated upwards
(with a <code>longjmp</code>).
<p>
The following example shows how the host program can do the
equivalent to this Lua code:
<pre>
a = f("how", t.x, 14)
</pre><p>
Here it is in C:
<pre>
lua_getglobal(L, "f"); /* function to be called */
lua_pushliteral(L, "how"); /* 1st argument */
lua_getglobal(L, "t"); /* table to be indexed */
lua_getfield(L, -1, "x"); /* push result of t.x (2nd arg) */
lua_remove(L, -2); /* remove 't' from the stack */
lua_pushinteger(L, 14); /* 3rd argument */
lua_call(L, 3, 1); /* call 'f' with 3 arguments and 1 result */
lua_setglobal(L, "a"); /* set global 'a' */
</pre><p>
Note that the code above is <em>balanced</em>:
at its end, the stack is back to its original configuration.
This is considered good programming practice.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(nargs + 1), +nresults, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_callk (lua_State *L,
int nargs,
int nresults,
lua_KContext ctx,
lua_KFunction k);</pre>
<p>
This function behaves exactly like <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>,
but allows the called function to yield (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef int (*lua_CFunction) (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Type for C functions.
<p>
In order to communicate properly with Lua,
a C function must use the following protocol,
which defines the way parameters and results are passed:
a C function receives its arguments from Lua in its stack
in direct order (the first argument is pushed first).
So, when the function starts,
<code>lua_gettop(L)</code> returns the number of arguments received by the function.
The first argument (if any) is at index 1
and its last argument is at index <code>lua_gettop(L)</code>.
To return values to Lua, a C function just pushes them onto the stack,
in direct order (the first result is pushed first),
and returns in C the number of results.
Any other value in the stack below the results will be properly
discarded by Lua.
Like a Lua function, a C function called by Lua can also return
many results.
<p>
As an example, the following function receives a variable number
of numeric arguments and returns their average and their sum:
<pre>
static int foo (lua_State *L) {
int n = lua_gettop(L); /* number of arguments */
lua_Number sum = 0.0;
int i;
for (i = 1; i <= n; i++) {
if (!lua_isnumber(L, i)) {
lua_pushliteral(L, "incorrect argument");
lua_error(L);
}
sum += lua_tonumber(L, i);
}
lua_pushnumber(L, sum/n); /* first result */
lua_pushnumber(L, sum); /* second result */
return 2; /* number of results */
}
</pre>
<hr><h3><a name="lua_checkstack"><code>lua_checkstack</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_checkstack (lua_State *L, int n);</pre>
<p>
Ensures that the stack has space for at least <code>n</code> extra elements,
that is, that you can safely push up to <code>n</code> values into it.
It returns false if it cannot fulfill the request,
either because it would cause the stack
to be greater than a fixed maximum size
(typically at least several thousand elements) or
because it cannot allocate memory for the extra space.
This function never shrinks the stack;
if the stack already has space for the extra elements,
it is left unchanged.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_close (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Close all active to-be-closed variables in the main thread,
release all objects in the given Lua state
(calling the corresponding garbage-collection metamethods, if any),
and frees all dynamic memory used by this state.
<p>
On several platforms, you may not need to call this function,
because all resources are naturally released when the host program ends.
On the other hand, long-running programs that create multiple states,
such as daemons or web servers,
will probably need to close states as soon as they are not needed.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_closeslot"><code>lua_closeslot</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_closeslot (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Close the to-be-closed slot at the given index and set its value to <b>nil</b>.
The index must be the last index previously marked to be closed
(see <a href="#lua_toclose"><code>lua_toclose</code></a>) that is still active (that is, not closed yet).
<p>
A <code>__close</code> metamethod cannot yield
when called through this function.
<p>
(Exceptionally, this function was introduced in release 5.4.3.
It is not present in previous 5.4 releases.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_compare"><code>lua_compare</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_compare (lua_State *L, int index1, int index2, int op);</pre>
<p>
Compares two Lua values.
Returns 1 if the value at index <code>index1</code> satisfies <code>op</code>
when compared with the value at index <code>index2</code>,
following the semantics of the corresponding Lua operator
(that is, it may call metamethods).
Otherwise returns 0.
Also returns 0 if any of the indices is not valid.
<p>
The value of <code>op</code> must be one of the following constants:
<ul>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPEQ"><code>LUA_OPEQ</code></a>: </b> compares for equality (<code>==</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPLT"><code>LUA_OPLT</code></a>: </b> compares for less than (<code><</code>)</li>
<li><b><a name="pdf-LUA_OPLE"><code>LUA_OPLE</code></a>: </b> compares for less or equal (<code><=</code>)</li>
</ul>
<hr><h3><a name="lua_concat"><code>lua_concat</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-n, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_concat (lua_State *L, int n);</pre>
<p>
Concatenates the <code>n</code> values at the top of the stack,
pops them, and leaves the result on the top.
If <code>n</code> is 1, the result is the single value on the stack
(that is, the function does nothing);
if <code>n</code> is 0, the result is the empty string.
Concatenation is performed following the usual semantics of Lua
(see <a href="#3.4.6">§3.4.6</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_copy"><code>lua_copy</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_copy (lua_State *L, int fromidx, int toidx);</pre>
<p>
Copies the element at index <code>fromidx</code>
into the valid index <code>toidx</code>,
replacing the value at that position.
Values at other positions are not affected.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_createtable"><code>lua_createtable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_createtable (lua_State *L, int narr, int nrec);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new empty table and pushes it onto the stack.
Parameter <code>narr</code> is a hint for how many elements the table
will have as a sequence;
parameter <code>nrec</code> is a hint for how many other elements
the table will have.
Lua may use these hints to preallocate memory for the new table.
This preallocation may help performance when you know in advance
how many elements the table will have.
Otherwise you can use the function <a href="#lua_newtable"><code>lua_newtable</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_dump (lua_State *L,
lua_Writer writer,
void *data,
int strip);</pre>
<p>
Dumps a function as a binary chunk.
Receives a Lua function on the top of the stack
and produces a binary chunk that,
if loaded again,
results in a function equivalent to the one dumped.
As it produces parts of the chunk,
<a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> calls function <code>writer</code> (see <a href="#lua_Writer"><code>lua_Writer</code></a>)
with the given <code>data</code>
to write them.
<p>
If <code>strip</code> is true,
the binary representation may not include all debug information
about the function,
to save space.
<p>
The value returned is the error code returned by the last
call to the writer;
0 means no errors.
<p>
This function does not pop the Lua function from the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_error"><code>lua_error</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_error (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Raises a Lua error,
using the value on the top of the stack as the error object.
This function does a long jump,
and therefore never returns
(see <a href="#luaL_error"><code>luaL_error</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gc"><code>lua_gc</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_gc (lua_State *L, int what, ...);</pre>
<p>
Controls the garbage collector.
<p>
This function performs several tasks,
according to the value of the parameter <code>what</code>.
For options that need extra arguments,
they are listed after the option.
<ul>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCCOLLECT</code>: </b>
Performs a full garbage-collection cycle.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCSTOP</code>: </b>
Stops the garbage collector.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCRESTART</code>: </b>
Restarts the garbage collector.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCCOUNT</code>: </b>
Returns the current amount of memory (in Kbytes) in use by Lua.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCCOUNTB</code>: </b>
Returns the remainder of dividing the current amount of bytes of
memory in use by Lua by 1024.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCSTEP</code> <code>(int stepsize)</code>: </b>
Performs an incremental step of garbage collection,
corresponding to the allocation of <code>stepsize</code> Kbytes.
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCISRUNNING</code>: </b>
Returns a boolean that tells whether the collector is running
(i.e., not stopped).
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCINC</code> (int pause, int stepmul, stepsize): </b>
Changes the collector to incremental mode
with the given parameters (see <a href="#2.5.1">§2.5.1</a>).
Returns the previous mode (<code>LUA_GCGEN</code> or <code>LUA_GCINC</code>).
</li>
<li><b><code>LUA_GCGEN</code> (int minormul, int majormul): </b>
Changes the collector to generational mode
with the given parameters (see <a href="#2.5.2">§2.5.2</a>).
Returns the previous mode (<code>LUA_GCGEN</code> or <code>LUA_GCINC</code>).
</li>
</ul><p>
For more details about these options,
see <a href="#pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getallocf"><code>lua_getallocf</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Alloc lua_getallocf (lua_State *L, void **ud);</pre>
<p>
Returns the memory-allocation function of a given state.
If <code>ud</code> is not <code>NULL</code>, Lua stores in <code>*ud</code> the
opaque pointer given when the memory-allocator function was set.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getfield"><code>lua_getfield</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_getfield (lua_State *L, int index, const char *k);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[k]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "index" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getextraspace"><code>lua_getextraspace</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void *lua_getextraspace (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns a pointer to a raw memory area associated with the
given Lua state.
The application can use this area for any purpose;
Lua does not use it for anything.
<p>
Each new thread has this area initialized with a copy
of the area of the main thread.
<p>
By default, this area has the size of a pointer to void,
but you can recompile Lua with a different size for this area.
(See <code>LUA_EXTRASPACE</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getglobal"><code>lua_getglobal</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_getglobal (lua_State *L, const char *name);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value of the global <code>name</code>.
Returns the type of that value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_geti"><code>lua_geti</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_geti (lua_State *L, int index, lua_Integer i);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[i]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "index" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getmetatable"><code>lua_getmetatable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(0|1), –]</span>
<pre>int lua_getmetatable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
If the value at the given index has a metatable,
the function pushes that metatable onto the stack and returns 1.
Otherwise,
the function returns 0 and pushes nothing on the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gettable"><code>lua_gettable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_gettable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[k]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index
and <code>k</code> is the value on the top of the stack.
<p>
This function pops the key from the stack,
pushing the resulting value in its place.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "index" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<p>
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gettop"><code>lua_gettop</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_gettop (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the index of the top element in the stack.
Because indices start at 1,
this result is equal to the number of elements in the stack;
in particular, 0 means an empty stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getiuservalue"><code>lua_getiuservalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_getiuservalue (lua_State *L, int index, int n);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the <code>n</code>-th user value associated with the
full userdata at the given index and
returns the type of the pushed value.
<p>
If the userdata does not have that value,
pushes <b>nil</b> and returns <a href="#pdf-LUA_TNONE"><code>LUA_TNONE</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_insert"><code>lua_insert</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_insert (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Moves the top element into the given valid index,
shifting up the elements above this index to open space.
This function cannot be called with a pseudo-index,
because a pseudo-index is not an actual stack position.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef ... lua_Integer;</pre>
<p>
The type of integers in Lua.
<p>
By default this type is <code>long long</code>,
(usually a 64-bit two-complement integer),
but that can be changed to <code>long</code> or <code>int</code>
(usually a 32-bit two-complement integer).
(See <code>LUA_INT_TYPE</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
<p>
Lua also defines the constants
<a name="pdf-LUA_MININTEGER"><code>LUA_MININTEGER</code></a> and <a name="pdf-LUA_MAXINTEGER"><code>LUA_MAXINTEGER</code></a>,
with the minimum and the maximum values that fit in this type.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isboolean"><code>lua_isboolean</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isboolean (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a boolean,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_iscfunction"><code>lua_iscfunction</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_iscfunction (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a C function,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isfunction"><code>lua_isfunction</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isfunction (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a function
(either C or Lua), and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isinteger"><code>lua_isinteger</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isinteger (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is an integer
(that is, the value is a number and is represented as an integer),
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_islightuserdata"><code>lua_islightuserdata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_islightuserdata (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a light userdata,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isnil"><code>lua_isnil</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isnil (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is <b>nil</b>,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isnone"><code>lua_isnone</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isnone (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the given index is not valid,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isnoneornil"><code>lua_isnoneornil</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isnoneornil (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the given index is not valid
or if the value at this index is <b>nil</b>,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isnumber"><code>lua_isnumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isnumber (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a number
or a string convertible to a number,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isstring"><code>lua_isstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isstring (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a string
or a number (which is always convertible to a string),
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_istable"><code>lua_istable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_istable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a table,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isthread"><code>lua_isthread</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isthread (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a thread,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isuserdata"><code>lua_isuserdata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isuserdata (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the value at the given index is a userdata
(either full or light), and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_isyieldable"><code>lua_isyieldable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_isyieldable (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the given coroutine can yield,
and 0 otherwise.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_KContext"><code>lua_KContext</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef ... lua_KContext;</pre>
<p>
The type for continuation-function contexts.
It must be a numeric type.
This type is defined as <code>intptr_t</code>
when <code>intptr_t</code> is available,
so that it can store pointers too.
Otherwise, it is defined as <code>ptrdiff_t</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_KFunction"><code>lua_KFunction</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef int (*lua_KFunction) (lua_State *L, int status, lua_KContext ctx);</pre>
<p>
Type for continuation functions (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_len"><code>lua_len</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_len (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns the length of the value at the given index.
It is equivalent to the '<code>#</code>' operator in Lua (see <a href="#3.4.7">§3.4.7</a>) and
may trigger a metamethod for the "length" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
The result is pushed on the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_load (lua_State *L,
lua_Reader reader,
void *data,
const char *chunkname,
const char *mode);</pre>
<p>
Loads a Lua chunk without running it.
If there are no errors,
<code>lua_load</code> pushes the compiled chunk as a Lua
function on top of the stack.
Otherwise, it pushes an error message.
<p>
The <code>lua_load</code> function uses a user-supplied <code>reader</code> function
to read the chunk (see <a href="#lua_Reader"><code>lua_Reader</code></a>).
The <code>data</code> argument is an opaque value passed to the reader function.
<p>
The <code>chunkname</code> argument gives a name to the chunk,
which is used for error messages and in debug information (see <a href="#4.7">§4.7</a>).
<p>
<code>lua_load</code> automatically detects whether the chunk is text or binary
and loads it accordingly (see program <code>luac</code>).
The string <code>mode</code> works as in function <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>,
with the addition that
a <code>NULL</code> value is equivalent to the string "<code>bt</code>".
<p>
<code>lua_load</code> uses the stack internally,
so the reader function must always leave the stack
unmodified when returning.
<p>
<code>lua_load</code> can return
<a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRSYNTAX"><code>LUA_ERRSYNTAX</code></a>, or <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRMEM"><code>LUA_ERRMEM</code></a>.
The function may also return other values corresponding to
errors raised by the read function (see <a href="#4.4.1">§4.4.1</a>).
<p>
If the resulting function has upvalues,
its first upvalue is set to the value of the global environment
stored at index <code>LUA_RIDX_GLOBALS</code> in the registry (see <a href="#4.3">§4.3</a>).
When loading main chunks,
this upvalue will be the <code>_ENV</code> variable (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
Other upvalues are initialized with <b>nil</b>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_State *lua_newstate (lua_Alloc f, void *ud);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new independent state and returns its main thread.
Returns <code>NULL</code> if it cannot create the state
(due to lack of memory).
The argument <code>f</code> is the allocator function;
Lua will do all memory allocation for this state
through this function (see <a href="#lua_Alloc"><code>lua_Alloc</code></a>).
The second argument, <code>ud</code>, is an opaque pointer that Lua
passes to the allocator in every call.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_newtable"><code>lua_newtable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_newtable (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new empty table and pushes it onto the stack.
It is equivalent to <code>lua_createtable(L, 0, 0)</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_newthread"><code>lua_newthread</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_State *lua_newthread (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new thread, pushes it on the stack,
and returns a pointer to a <a href="#lua_State"><code>lua_State</code></a> that represents this new thread.
The new thread returned by this function shares with the original thread
its global environment,
but has an independent execution stack.
<p>
Threads are subject to garbage collection,
like any Lua object.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_newuserdatauv"><code>lua_newuserdatauv</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void *lua_newuserdatauv (lua_State *L, size_t size, int nuvalue);</pre>
<p>
This function creates and pushes on the stack a new full userdata,
with <code>nuvalue</code> associated Lua values, called <code>user values</code>,
plus an associated block of raw memory with <code>size</code> bytes.
(The user values can be set and read with the functions
<a href="#lua_setiuservalue"><code>lua_setiuservalue</code></a> and <a href="#lua_getiuservalue"><code>lua_getiuservalue</code></a>.)
<p>
The function returns the address of the block of memory.
Lua ensures that this address is valid as long as
the corresponding userdata is alive (see <a href="#2.5">§2.5</a>).
Moreover, if the userdata is marked for finalization (see <a href="#2.5.3">§2.5.3</a>),
its address is valid at least until the call to its finalizer.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +(2|0), <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_next (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Pops a key from the stack,
and pushes a key–value pair from the table at the given index,
the "next" pair after the given key.
If there are no more elements in the table,
then <a href="#lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a> returns 0 and pushes nothing.
<p>
A typical table traversal looks like this:
<pre>
/* table is in the stack at index 't' */
lua_pushnil(L); /* first key */
while (lua_next(L, t) != 0) {
/* uses 'key' (at index -2) and 'value' (at index -1) */
printf("%s - %s\n",
lua_typename(L, lua_type(L, -2)),
lua_typename(L, lua_type(L, -1)));
/* removes 'value'; keeps 'key' for next iteration */
lua_pop(L, 1);
}
</pre>
<p>
While traversing a table,
avoid calling <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> directly on a key,
unless you know that the key is actually a string.
Recall that <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> may change
the value at the given index;
this confuses the next call to <a href="#lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a>.
<p>
This function may raise an error if the given key
is neither <b>nil</b> nor present in the table.
See function <a href="#pdf-next"><code>next</code></a> for the caveats of modifying
the table during its traversal.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef ... lua_Number;</pre>
<p>
The type of floats in Lua.
<p>
By default this type is double,
but that can be changed to a single float or a long double.
(See <code>LUA_FLOAT_TYPE</code> in <code>luaconf.h</code>.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_numbertointeger"><code>lua_numbertointeger</code></a></h3>
<pre>int lua_numbertointeger (lua_Number n, lua_Integer *p);</pre>
<p>
Tries to convert a Lua float to a Lua integer;
the float <code>n</code> must have an integral value.
If that value is within the range of Lua integers,
it is converted to an integer and assigned to <code>*p</code>.
The macro results in a boolean indicating whether the
conversion was successful.
(Note that this range test can be tricky to do
correctly without this macro, due to rounding.)
<p>
This macro may evaluate its arguments more than once.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(nargs + 1), +(nresults|1), –]</span>
<pre>int lua_pcall (lua_State *L, int nargs, int nresults, int msgh);</pre>
<p>
Calls a function (or a callable object) in protected mode.
<p>
Both <code>nargs</code> and <code>nresults</code> have the same meaning as
in <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>.
If there are no errors during the call,
<a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> behaves exactly like <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>.
However, if there is any error,
<a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> catches it,
pushes a single value on the stack (the error object),
and returns an error code.
Like <a href="#lua_call"><code>lua_call</code></a>,
<a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> always removes the function
and its arguments from the stack.
<p>
If <code>msgh</code> is 0,
then the error object returned on the stack
is exactly the original error object.
Otherwise, <code>msgh</code> is the stack index of a
<em>message handler</em>.
(This index cannot be a pseudo-index.)
In case of runtime errors,
this handler will be called with the error object
and its return value will be the object
returned on the stack by <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>.
<p>
Typically, the message handler is used to add more debug
information to the error object, such as a stack traceback.
Such information cannot be gathered after the return of <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>,
since by then the stack has unwound.
<p>
The <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a> function returns one of the following status codes:
<a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRRUN"><code>LUA_ERRRUN</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRMEM"><code>LUA_ERRMEM</code></a>, or <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRERR"><code>LUA_ERRERR</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(nargs + 1), +(nresults|1), –]</span>
<pre>int lua_pcallk (lua_State *L,
int nargs,
int nresults,
int msgh,
lua_KContext ctx,
lua_KFunction k);</pre>
<p>
This function behaves exactly like <a href="#lua_pcall"><code>lua_pcall</code></a>,
except that it allows the called function to yield (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pop"><code>lua_pop</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-n, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_pop (lua_State *L, int n);</pre>
<p>
Pops <code>n</code> elements from the stack.
It is implemented as a macro over <a href="#lua_settop"><code>lua_settop</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushboolean"><code>lua_pushboolean</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushboolean (lua_State *L, int b);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a boolean value with value <code>b</code> onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-n, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushcclosure (lua_State *L, lua_CFunction fn, int n);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a new C closure onto the stack.
This function receives a pointer to a C function
and pushes onto the stack a Lua value of type <code>function</code> that,
when called, invokes the corresponding C function.
The parameter <code>n</code> tells how many upvalues this function will have
(see <a href="#4.2">§4.2</a>).
<p>
Any function to be callable by Lua must
follow the correct protocol to receive its parameters
and return its results (see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>).
<p>
When a C function is created,
it is possible to associate some values with it,
the so called upvalues;
these upvalues are then accessible to the function whenever it is called.
This association is called a C closure (see <a href="#4.2">§4.2</a>).
To create a C closure,
first the initial values for its upvalues must be pushed onto the stack.
(When there are multiple upvalues, the first value is pushed first.)
Then <a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a>
is called to create and push the C function onto the stack,
with the argument <code>n</code> telling how many values will be
associated with the function.
<a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a> also pops these values from the stack.
<p>
The maximum value for <code>n</code> is 255.
<p>
When <code>n</code> is zero,
this function creates a <em>light C function</em>,
which is just a pointer to the C function.
In that case, it never raises a memory error.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushcfunction"><code>lua_pushcfunction</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushcfunction (lua_State *L, lua_CFunction f);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a C function onto the stack.
This function is equivalent to <a href="#lua_pushcclosure"><code>lua_pushcclosure</code></a> with no upvalues.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_pushfstring (lua_State *L, const char *fmt, ...);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack a formatted string
and returns a pointer to this string (see <a href="#4.1.3">§4.1.3</a>).
It is similar to the ISO C function <code>sprintf</code>,
but has two important differences.
First,
you do not have to allocate space for the result;
the result is a Lua string and Lua takes care of memory allocation
(and deallocation, through garbage collection).
Second,
the conversion specifiers are quite restricted.
There are no flags, widths, or precisions.
The conversion specifiers can only be
'<code>%%</code>' (inserts the character '<code>%</code>'),
'<code>%s</code>' (inserts a zero-terminated string, with no size restrictions),
'<code>%f</code>' (inserts a <a href="#lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a>),
'<code>%I</code>' (inserts a <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a>),
'<code>%p</code>' (inserts a pointer),
'<code>%d</code>' (inserts an <code>int</code>),
'<code>%c</code>' (inserts an <code>int</code> as a one-byte character), and
'<code>%U</code>' (inserts a <code>long int</code> as a UTF-8 byte sequence).
<p>
This function may raise errors due to memory overflow
or an invalid conversion specifier.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushglobaltable"><code>lua_pushglobaltable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushglobaltable (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Pushes the global environment onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushinteger"><code>lua_pushinteger</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushinteger (lua_State *L, lua_Integer n);</pre>
<p>
Pushes an integer with value <code>n</code> onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushlightuserdata"><code>lua_pushlightuserdata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushlightuserdata (lua_State *L, void *p);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a light userdata onto the stack.
<p>
Userdata represent C values in Lua.
A <em>light userdata</em> represents a pointer, a <code>void*</code>.
It is a value (like a number):
you do not create it, it has no individual metatable,
and it is not collected (as it was never created).
A light userdata is equal to "any"
light userdata with the same C address.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushliteral"><code>lua_pushliteral</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_pushliteral (lua_State *L, const char *s);</pre>
<p>
This macro is equivalent to <a href="#lua_pushstring"><code>lua_pushstring</code></a>,
but should be used only when <code>s</code> is a literal string.
(Lua may optimize this case.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushlstring"><code>lua_pushlstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_pushlstring (lua_State *L, const char *s, size_t len);</pre>
<p>
Pushes the string pointed to by <code>s</code> with size <code>len</code>
onto the stack.
Lua will make or reuse an internal copy of the given string,
so the memory at <code>s</code> can be freed or reused immediately after
the function returns.
The string can contain any binary data,
including embedded zeros.
<p>
Returns a pointer to the internal copy of the string (see <a href="#4.1.3">§4.1.3</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushnil"><code>lua_pushnil</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushnil (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a nil value onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushnumber"><code>lua_pushnumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushnumber (lua_State *L, lua_Number n);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a float with value <code>n</code> onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushstring"><code>lua_pushstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_pushstring (lua_State *L, const char *s);</pre>
<p>
Pushes the zero-terminated string pointed to by <code>s</code>
onto the stack.
Lua will make or reuse an internal copy of the given string,
so the memory at <code>s</code> can be freed or reused immediately after
the function returns.
<p>
Returns a pointer to the internal copy of the string (see <a href="#4.1.3">§4.1.3</a>).
<p>
If <code>s</code> is <code>NULL</code>, pushes <b>nil</b> and returns <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushthread"><code>lua_pushthread</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_pushthread (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Pushes the thread represented by <code>L</code> onto the stack.
Returns 1 if this thread is the main thread of its state.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushvalue"><code>lua_pushvalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_pushvalue (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Pushes a copy of the element at the given index
onto the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_pushvfstring"><code>lua_pushvfstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_pushvfstring (lua_State *L,
const char *fmt,
va_list argp);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a>, except that it receives a <code>va_list</code>
instead of a variable number of arguments.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawequal"><code>lua_rawequal</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_rawequal (lua_State *L, int index1, int index2);</pre>
<p>
Returns 1 if the two values in indices <code>index1</code> and
<code>index2</code> are primitively equal
(that is, equal without calling the <code>__eq</code> metamethod).
Otherwise returns 0.
Also returns 0 if any of the indices are not valid.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawget"><code>lua_rawget</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_rawget (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Similar to <a href="#lua_gettable"><code>lua_gettable</code></a>, but does a raw access
(i.e., without metamethods).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawgeti"><code>lua_rawgeti</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_rawgeti (lua_State *L, int index, lua_Integer n);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[n]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the table at the given index.
The access is raw,
that is, it does not use the <code>__index</code> metavalue.
<p>
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawgetp"><code>lua_rawgetp</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_rawgetp (lua_State *L, int index, const void *p);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the value <code>t[k]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the table at the given index and
<code>k</code> is the pointer <code>p</code> represented as a light userdata.
The access is raw;
that is, it does not use the <code>__index</code> metavalue.
<p>
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawlen"><code>lua_rawlen</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Unsigned lua_rawlen (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns the raw "length" of the value at the given index:
for strings, this is the string length;
for tables, this is the result of the length operator ('<code>#</code>')
with no metamethods;
for userdata, this is the size of the block of memory allocated
for the userdata.
For other values, this call returns 0.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawset"><code>lua_rawset</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-2, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_rawset (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Similar to <a href="#lua_settable"><code>lua_settable</code></a>, but does a raw assignment
(i.e., without metamethods).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawseti"><code>lua_rawseti</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_rawseti (lua_State *L, int index, lua_Integer i);</pre>
<p>
Does the equivalent of <code>t[i] = v</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the table at the given index
and <code>v</code> is the value on the top of the stack.
<p>
This function pops the value from the stack.
The assignment is raw,
that is, it does not use the <code>__newindex</code> metavalue.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rawsetp"><code>lua_rawsetp</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_rawsetp (lua_State *L, int index, const void *p);</pre>
<p>
Does the equivalent of <code>t[p] = v</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the table at the given index,
<code>p</code> is encoded as a light userdata,
and <code>v</code> is the value on the top of the stack.
<p>
This function pops the value from the stack.
The assignment is raw,
that is, it does not use the <code>__newindex</code> metavalue.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Reader"><code>lua_Reader</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef const char * (*lua_Reader) (lua_State *L,
void *data,
size_t *size);</pre>
<p>
The reader function used by <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
Every time <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> needs another piece of the chunk,
it calls the reader,
passing along its <code>data</code> parameter.
The reader must return a pointer to a block of memory
with a new piece of the chunk
and set <code>size</code> to the block size.
The block must exist until the reader function is called again.
To signal the end of the chunk,
the reader must return <code>NULL</code> or set <code>size</code> to zero.
The reader function may return pieces of any size greater than zero.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_register"><code>lua_register</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_register (lua_State *L, const char *name, lua_CFunction f);</pre>
<p>
Sets the C function <code>f</code> as the new value of global <code>name</code>.
It is defined as a macro:
<pre>
#define lua_register(L,n,f) \
(lua_pushcfunction(L, f), lua_setglobal(L, n))
</pre>
<hr><h3><a name="lua_remove"><code>lua_remove</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_remove (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Removes the element at the given valid index,
shifting down the elements above this index to fill the gap.
This function cannot be called with a pseudo-index,
because a pseudo-index is not an actual stack position.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_replace"><code>lua_replace</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_replace (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Moves the top element into the given valid index
without shifting any element
(therefore replacing the value at that given index),
and then pops the top element.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_resetthread"><code>lua_resetthread</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +?, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_resetthread (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Resets a thread, cleaning its call stack and closing all pending
to-be-closed variables.
Returns a status code:
<a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> for no errors in the thread
(either the original error that stopped the thread or
errors in closing methods),
or an error status otherwise.
In case of error,
leaves the error object on the top of the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_resume (lua_State *L, lua_State *from, int nargs,
int *nresults);</pre>
<p>
Starts and resumes a coroutine in the given thread <code>L</code>.
<p>
To start a coroutine,
you push the main function plus any arguments
onto the empty stack of the thread.
then you call <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>,
with <code>nargs</code> being the number of arguments.
This call returns when the coroutine suspends or finishes its execution.
When it returns,
<code>*nresults</code> is updated and
the top of the stack contains
the <code>*nresults</code> values passed to <a href="#lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a>
or returned by the body function.
<a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a> returns
<a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a> if the coroutine yields,
<a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> if the coroutine finishes its execution
without errors,
or an error code in case of errors (see <a href="#4.4.1">§4.4.1</a>).
In case of errors,
the error object is on the top of the stack.
<p>
To resume a coroutine,
you remove the <code>*nresults</code> yielded values from its stack,
push the values to be passed as results from <code>yield</code>,
and then call <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>.
<p>
The parameter <code>from</code> represents the coroutine that is resuming <code>L</code>.
If there is no such coroutine,
this parameter can be <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_rotate"><code>lua_rotate</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_rotate (lua_State *L, int idx, int n);</pre>
<p>
Rotates the stack elements between the valid index <code>idx</code>
and the top of the stack.
The elements are rotated <code>n</code> positions in the direction of the top,
for a positive <code>n</code>,
or <code>-n</code> positions in the direction of the bottom,
for a negative <code>n</code>.
The absolute value of <code>n</code> must not be greater than the size
of the slice being rotated.
This function cannot be called with a pseudo-index,
because a pseudo-index is not an actual stack position.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setallocf"><code>lua_setallocf</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_setallocf (lua_State *L, lua_Alloc f, void *ud);</pre>
<p>
Changes the allocator function of a given state to <code>f</code>
with user data <code>ud</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setfield"><code>lua_setfield</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_setfield (lua_State *L, int index, const char *k);</pre>
<p>
Does the equivalent to <code>t[k] = v</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index
and <code>v</code> is the value on the top of the stack.
<p>
This function pops the value from the stack.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "newindex" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setglobal"><code>lua_setglobal</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_setglobal (lua_State *L, const char *name);</pre>
<p>
Pops a value from the stack and
sets it as the new value of global <code>name</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_seti"><code>lua_seti</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_seti (lua_State *L, int index, lua_Integer n);</pre>
<p>
Does the equivalent to <code>t[n] = v</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index
and <code>v</code> is the value on the top of the stack.
<p>
This function pops the value from the stack.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "newindex" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setiuservalue"><code>lua_setiuservalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_setiuservalue (lua_State *L, int index, int n);</pre>
<p>
Pops a value from the stack and sets it as
the new <code>n</code>-th user value associated to the
full userdata at the given index.
Returns 0 if the userdata does not have that value.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setmetatable"><code>lua_setmetatable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_setmetatable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Pops a table or <b>nil</b> from the stack and
sets that value as the new metatable for the value at the given index.
(<b>nil</b> means no metatable.)
<p>
(For historical reasons, this function returns an <code>int</code>,
which now is always 1.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_settable"><code>lua_settable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-2, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_settable (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Does the equivalent to <code>t[k] = v</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at the given index,
<code>v</code> is the value on the top of the stack,
and <code>k</code> is the value just below the top.
<p>
This function pops both the key and the value from the stack.
As in Lua, this function may trigger a metamethod
for the "newindex" event (see <a href="#2.4">§2.4</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_settop"><code>lua_settop</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_settop (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Accepts any index, or 0,
and sets the stack top to this index.
If the new top is greater than the old one,
then the new elements are filled with <b>nil</b>.
If <code>index</code> is 0, then all stack elements are removed.
<p>
This function can run arbitrary code when removing an index
marked as to-be-closed from the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setwarnf"><code>lua_setwarnf</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_setwarnf (lua_State *L, lua_WarnFunction f, void *ud);</pre>
<p>
Sets the warning function to be used by Lua to emit warnings
(see <a href="#lua_WarnFunction"><code>lua_WarnFunction</code></a>).
The <code>ud</code> parameter sets the value <code>ud</code> passed to
the warning function.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_State"><code>lua_State</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef struct lua_State lua_State;</pre>
<p>
An opaque structure that points to a thread and indirectly
(through the thread) to the whole state of a Lua interpreter.
The Lua library is fully reentrant:
it has no global variables.
All information about a state is accessible through this structure.
<p>
A pointer to this structure must be passed as the first argument to
every function in the library, except to <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a>,
which creates a Lua state from scratch.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_status"><code>lua_status</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_status (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the status of the thread <code>L</code>.
<p>
The status can be <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> for a normal thread,
an error code if the thread finished the execution
of a <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a> with an error,
or <a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a> if the thread is suspended.
<p>
You can call functions only in threads with status <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a>.
You can resume threads with status <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a>
(to start a new coroutine) or <a href="#pdf-LUA_YIELD"><code>LUA_YIELD</code></a>
(to resume a coroutine).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_stringtonumber"><code>lua_stringtonumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>size_t lua_stringtonumber (lua_State *L, const char *s);</pre>
<p>
Converts the zero-terminated string <code>s</code> to a number,
pushes that number into the stack,
and returns the total size of the string,
that is, its length plus one.
The conversion can result in an integer or a float,
according to the lexical conventions of Lua (see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>).
The string may have leading and trailing whitespaces and a sign.
If the string is not a valid numeral,
returns 0 and pushes nothing.
(Note that the result can be used as a boolean,
true if the conversion succeeds.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_toboolean"><code>lua_toboolean</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_toboolean (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Converts the Lua value at the given index to a C boolean
value (0 or 1).
Like all tests in Lua,
<a href="#lua_toboolean"><code>lua_toboolean</code></a> returns true for any Lua value
different from <b>false</b> and <b>nil</b>;
otherwise it returns false.
(If you want to accept only actual boolean values,
use <a href="#lua_isboolean"><code>lua_isboolean</code></a> to test the value's type.)
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tocfunction"><code>lua_tocfunction</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_CFunction lua_tocfunction (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Converts a value at the given index to a C function.
That value must be a C function;
otherwise, returns <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_toclose"><code>lua_toclose</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void lua_toclose (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Marks the given index in the stack as a
to-be-closed slot (see <a href="#3.3.8">§3.3.8</a>).
Like a to-be-closed variable in Lua,
the value at that slot in the stack will be closed
when it goes out of scope.
Here, in the context of a C function,
to go out of scope means that the running function returns to Lua,
or there is an error,
or the slot is removed from the stack through
<a href="#lua_settop"><code>lua_settop</code></a> or <a href="#lua_pop"><code>lua_pop</code></a>,
or there is a call to <a href="#lua_closeslot"><code>lua_closeslot</code></a>.
A slot marked as to-be-closed should not be removed from the stack
by any other function in the API except <a href="#lua_settop"><code>lua_settop</code></a> or <a href="#lua_pop"><code>lua_pop</code></a>,
unless previously deactivated by <a href="#lua_closeslot"><code>lua_closeslot</code></a>.
<p>
This function should not be called for an index
that is equal to or below an active to-be-closed slot.
<p>
Note that, both in case of errors and of a regular return,
by the time the <code>__close</code> metamethod runs,
the C stack was already unwound,
so that any automatic C variable declared in the calling function
(e.g., a buffer) will be out of scope.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tointeger"><code>lua_tointeger</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Integer lua_tointeger (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#lua_tointegerx"><code>lua_tointegerx</code></a> with <code>isnum</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tointegerx"><code>lua_tointegerx</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Integer lua_tointegerx (lua_State *L, int index, int *isnum);</pre>
<p>
Converts the Lua value at the given index
to the signed integral type <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a>.
The Lua value must be an integer,
or a number or string convertible to an integer (see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>);
otherwise, <code>lua_tointegerx</code> returns 0.
<p>
If <code>isnum</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
its referent is assigned a boolean value that
indicates whether the operation succeeded.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_tolstring (lua_State *L, int index, size_t *len);</pre>
<p>
Converts the Lua value at the given index to a C string.
If <code>len</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
it sets <code>*len</code> with the string length.
The Lua value must be a string or a number;
otherwise, the function returns <code>NULL</code>.
If the value is a number,
then <code>lua_tolstring</code> also
<em>changes the actual value in the stack to a string</em>.
(This change confuses <a href="#lua_next"><code>lua_next</code></a>
when <code>lua_tolstring</code> is applied to keys during a table traversal.)
<p>
<code>lua_tolstring</code> returns a pointer
to a string inside the Lua state (see <a href="#4.1.3">§4.1.3</a>).
This string always has a zero ('<code>\0</code>')
after its last character (as in C),
but can contain other zeros in its body.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tonumber"><code>lua_tonumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Number lua_tonumber (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#lua_tonumberx"><code>lua_tonumberx</code></a> with <code>isnum</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tonumberx"><code>lua_tonumberx</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Number lua_tonumberx (lua_State *L, int index, int *isnum);</pre>
<p>
Converts the Lua value at the given index
to the C type <a href="#lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a> (see <a href="#lua_Number"><code>lua_Number</code></a>).
The Lua value must be a number or a string convertible to a number
(see <a href="#3.4.3">§3.4.3</a>);
otherwise, <a href="#lua_tonumberx"><code>lua_tonumberx</code></a> returns 0.
<p>
If <code>isnum</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
its referent is assigned a boolean value that
indicates whether the operation succeeded.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_topointer"><code>lua_topointer</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>const void *lua_topointer (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Converts the value at the given index to a generic
C pointer (<code>void*</code>).
The value can be a userdata, a table, a thread, a string, or a function;
otherwise, <code>lua_topointer</code> returns <code>NULL</code>.
Different objects will give different pointers.
There is no way to convert the pointer back to its original value.
<p>
Typically this function is used only for hashing and debug information.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tostring"><code>lua_tostring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_tostring (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> with <code>len</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_tothread"><code>lua_tothread</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_State *lua_tothread (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Converts the value at the given index to a Lua thread
(represented as <code>lua_State*</code>).
This value must be a thread;
otherwise, the function returns <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_touserdata"><code>lua_touserdata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void *lua_touserdata (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
If the value at the given index is a full userdata,
returns its memory-block address.
If the value is a light userdata,
returns its value (a pointer).
Otherwise, returns <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_type (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns the type of the value in the given valid index,
or <code>LUA_TNONE</code> for a non-valid but acceptable index.
The types returned by <a href="#lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a> are coded by the following constants
defined in <code>lua.h</code>:
<a name="pdf-LUA_TNIL"><code>LUA_TNIL</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TNUMBER"><code>LUA_TNUMBER</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TBOOLEAN"><code>LUA_TBOOLEAN</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TSTRING"><code>LUA_TSTRING</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TTABLE"><code>LUA_TTABLE</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TFUNCTION"><code>LUA_TFUNCTION</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TUSERDATA"><code>LUA_TUSERDATA</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_TTHREAD"><code>LUA_TTHREAD</code></a>,
and
<a name="pdf-LUA_TLIGHTUSERDATA"><code>LUA_TLIGHTUSERDATA</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_typename"><code>lua_typename</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_typename (lua_State *L, int tp);</pre>
<p>
Returns the name of the type encoded by the value <code>tp</code>,
which must be one the values returned by <a href="#lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Unsigned"><code>lua_Unsigned</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef ... lua_Unsigned;</pre>
<p>
The unsigned version of <a href="#lua_Integer"><code>lua_Integer</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_upvalueindex"><code>lua_upvalueindex</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_upvalueindex (int i);</pre>
<p>
Returns the pseudo-index that represents the <code>i</code>-th upvalue of
the running function (see <a href="#4.2">§4.2</a>).
<code>i</code> must be in the range <em>[1,256]</em>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_version"><code>lua_version</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Number lua_version (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the version number of this core.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_WarnFunction"><code>lua_WarnFunction</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef void (*lua_WarnFunction) (void *ud, const char *msg, int tocont);</pre>
<p>
The type of warning functions, called by Lua to emit warnings.
The first parameter is an opaque pointer
set by <a href="#lua_setwarnf"><code>lua_setwarnf</code></a>.
The second parameter is the warning message.
The third parameter is a boolean that
indicates whether the message is
to be continued by the message in the next call.
<p>
See <a href="#pdf-warn"><code>warn</code></a> for more details about warnings.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_warning"><code>lua_warning</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_warning (lua_State *L, const char *msg, int tocont);</pre>
<p>
Emits a warning with the given message.
A message in a call with <code>tocont</code> true should be
continued in another call to this function.
<p>
See <a href="#pdf-warn"><code>warn</code></a> for more details about warnings.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Writer"><code>lua_Writer</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef int (*lua_Writer) (lua_State *L,
const void* p,
size_t sz,
void* ud);</pre>
<p>
The type of the writer function used by <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a>.
Every time <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> produces another piece of chunk,
it calls the writer,
passing along the buffer to be written (<code>p</code>),
its size (<code>sz</code>),
and the <code>ud</code> parameter supplied to <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a>.
<p>
The writer returns an error code:
0 means no errors;
any other value means an error and stops <a href="#lua_dump"><code>lua_dump</code></a> from
calling the writer again.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_xmove"><code>lua_xmove</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_xmove (lua_State *from, lua_State *to, int n);</pre>
<p>
Exchange values between different threads of the same state.
<p>
This function pops <code>n</code> values from the stack <code>from</code>,
and pushes them onto the stack <code>to</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_yield (lua_State *L, int nresults);</pre>
<p>
This function is equivalent to <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>,
but it has no continuation (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>).
Therefore, when the thread resumes,
it continues the function that called
the function calling <code>lua_yield</code>.
To avoid surprises,
this function should be called only in a tail call.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_yieldk (lua_State *L,
int nresults,
lua_KContext ctx,
lua_KFunction k);</pre>
<p>
Yields a coroutine (thread).
<p>
When a C function calls <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>,
the running coroutine suspends its execution,
and the call to <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a> that started this coroutine returns.
The parameter <code>nresults</code> is the number of values from the stack
that will be passed as results to <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>.
<p>
When the coroutine is resumed again,
Lua calls the given continuation function <code>k</code> to continue
the execution of the C function that yielded (see <a href="#4.5">§4.5</a>).
This continuation function receives the same stack
from the previous function,
with the <code>n</code> results removed and
replaced by the arguments passed to <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a>.
Moreover,
the continuation function receives the value <code>ctx</code>
that was passed to <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>.
<p>
Usually, this function does not return;
when the coroutine eventually resumes,
it continues executing the continuation function.
However, there is one special case,
which is when this function is called
from inside a line or a count hook (see <a href="#4.7">§4.7</a>).
In that case, <code>lua_yieldk</code> should be called with no continuation
(probably in the form of <a href="#lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a>) and no results,
and the hook should return immediately after the call.
Lua will yield and,
when the coroutine resumes again,
it will continue the normal execution
of the (Lua) function that triggered the hook.
<p>
This function can raise an error if it is called from a thread
with a pending C call with no continuation function
(what is called a <em>C-call boundary</em>),
or it is called from a thread that is not running inside a resume
(typically the main thread).
<h2>4.7 – <a name="4.7">The Debug Interface</a></h2>
<p>
Lua has no built-in debugging facilities.
Instead, it offers a special interface
by means of functions and <em>hooks</em>.
This interface allows the construction of different
kinds of debuggers, profilers, and other tools
that need "inside information" from the interpreter.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef struct lua_Debug {
int event;
const char *name; /* (n) */
const char *namewhat; /* (n) */
const char *what; /* (S) */
const char *source; /* (S) */
size_t srclen; /* (S) */
int currentline; /* (l) */
int linedefined; /* (S) */
int lastlinedefined; /* (S) */
unsigned char nups; /* (u) number of upvalues */
unsigned char nparams; /* (u) number of parameters */
char isvararg; /* (u) */
char istailcall; /* (t) */
unsigned short ftransfer; /* (r) index of first value transferred */
unsigned short ntransfer; /* (r) number of transferred values */
char short_src[LUA_IDSIZE]; /* (S) */
/* private part */
<em>other fields</em>
} lua_Debug;</pre>
<p>
A structure used to carry different pieces of
information about a function or an activation record.
<a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> fills only the private part
of this structure, for later use.
To fill the other fields of <a href="#lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a> with useful information,
you must call <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>.
<p>
The fields of <a href="#lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a> have the following meaning:
<ul>
<li><b><code>source</code>: </b>
the source of the chunk that created the function.
If <code>source</code> starts with a '<code>@</code>',
it means that the function was defined in a file where
the file name follows the '<code>@</code>'.
If <code>source</code> starts with a '<code>=</code>',
the remainder of its contents describes the source in a user-dependent manner.
Otherwise,
the function was defined in a string where
<code>source</code> is that string.
</li>
<li><b><code>srclen</code>: </b>
The length of the string <code>source</code>.
</li>
<li><b><code>short_src</code>: </b>
a "printable" version of <code>source</code>, to be used in error messages.
</li>
<li><b><code>linedefined</code>: </b>
the line number where the definition of the function starts.
</li>
<li><b><code>lastlinedefined</code>: </b>
the line number where the definition of the function ends.
</li>
<li><b><code>what</code>: </b>
the string <code>"Lua"</code> if the function is a Lua function,
<code>"C"</code> if it is a C function,
<code>"main"</code> if it is the main part of a chunk.
</li>
<li><b><code>currentline</code>: </b>
the current line where the given function is executing.
When no line information is available,
<code>currentline</code> is set to -1.
</li>
<li><b><code>name</code>: </b>
a reasonable name for the given function.
Because functions in Lua are first-class values,
they do not have a fixed name:
some functions can be the value of multiple global variables,
while others can be stored only in a table field.
The <code>lua_getinfo</code> function checks how the function was
called to find a suitable name.
If it cannot find a name,
then <code>name</code> is set to <code>NULL</code>.
</li>
<li><b><code>namewhat</code>: </b>
explains the <code>name</code> field.
The value of <code>namewhat</code> can be
<code>"global"</code>, <code>"local"</code>, <code>"method"</code>,
<code>"field"</code>, <code>"upvalue"</code>, or <code>""</code> (the empty string),
according to how the function was called.
(Lua uses the empty string when no other option seems to apply.)
</li>
<li><b><code>istailcall</code>: </b>
true if this function invocation was called by a tail call.
In this case, the caller of this level is not in the stack.
</li>
<li><b><code>nups</code>: </b>
the number of upvalues of the function.
</li>
<li><b><code>nparams</code>: </b>
the number of parameters of the function
(always 0 for C functions).
</li>
<li><b><code>isvararg</code>: </b>
true if the function is a vararg function
(always true for C functions).
</li>
<li><b><code>ftransfer</code>: </b>
the index in the stack of the first value being "transferred",
that is, parameters in a call or return values in a return.
(The other values are in consecutive indices.)
Using this index, you can access and modify these values
through <a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a> and <a href="#lua_setlocal"><code>lua_setlocal</code></a>.
This field is only meaningful during a
call hook, denoting the first parameter,
or a return hook, denoting the first value being returned.
(For call hooks, this value is always 1.)
</li>
<li><b><code>ntransfer</code>: </b>
The number of values being transferred (see previous item).
(For calls of Lua functions,
this value is always equal to <code>nparams</code>.)
</li>
</ul>
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gethook"><code>lua_gethook</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_Hook lua_gethook (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the current hook function.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gethookcount"><code>lua_gethookcount</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_gethookcount (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the current hook count.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_gethookmask"><code>lua_gethookmask</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_gethookmask (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Returns the current hook mask.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(0|1), +(0|1|2), <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int lua_getinfo (lua_State *L, const char *what, lua_Debug *ar);</pre>
<p>
Gets information about a specific function or function invocation.
<p>
To get information about a function invocation,
the parameter <code>ar</code> must be a valid activation record that was
filled by a previous call to <a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> or
given as argument to a hook (see <a href="#lua_Hook"><code>lua_Hook</code></a>).
<p>
To get information about a function, you push it onto the stack
and start the <code>what</code> string with the character '<code>></code>'.
(In that case,
<code>lua_getinfo</code> pops the function from the top of the stack.)
For instance, to know in which line a function <code>f</code> was defined,
you can write the following code:
<pre>
lua_Debug ar;
lua_getglobal(L, "f"); /* get global 'f' */
lua_getinfo(L, ">S", &ar);
printf("%d\n", ar.linedefined);
</pre>
<p>
Each character in the string <code>what</code>
selects some fields of the structure <code>ar</code> to be filled or
a value to be pushed on the stack:
<ul>
<li><b>'<code>n</code>': </b> fills in the field <code>name</code> and <code>namewhat</code>;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>S</code>': </b>
fills in the fields <code>source</code>, <code>short_src</code>,
<code>linedefined</code>, <code>lastlinedefined</code>, and <code>what</code>;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>l</code>': </b> fills in the field <code>currentline</code>;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>t</code>': </b> fills in the field <code>istailcall</code>;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>u</code>': </b> fills in the fields
<code>nups</code>, <code>nparams</code>, and <code>isvararg</code>;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>f</code>': </b>
pushes onto the stack the function that is
running at the given level;
</li>
<li><b>'<code>L</code>': </b>
pushes onto the stack a table whose indices are the
numbers of the lines that are valid on the function.
(A <em>valid line</em> is a line with some associated code,
that is, a line where you can put a break point.
Non-valid lines include empty lines and comments.)
<p>
If this option is given together with option '<code>f</code>',
its table is pushed after the function.
<p>
This is the only option that can raise a memory error.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
This function returns 0 to signal an invalid option in <code>what</code>;
even then the valid options are handled correctly.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(0|1), –]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_getlocal (lua_State *L, const lua_Debug *ar, int n);</pre>
<p>
Gets information about a local variable or a temporary value
of a given activation record or a given function.
<p>
In the first case,
the parameter <code>ar</code> must be a valid activation record that was
filled by a previous call to <a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> or
given as argument to a hook (see <a href="#lua_Hook"><code>lua_Hook</code></a>).
The index <code>n</code> selects which local variable to inspect;
see <a href="#pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal</code></a> for details about variable indices
and names.
<p>
<a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a> pushes the variable's value onto the stack
and returns its name.
<p>
In the second case, <code>ar</code> must be <code>NULL</code> and the function
to be inspected must be on the top of the stack.
In this case, only parameters of Lua functions are visible
(as there is no information about what variables are active)
and no values are pushed onto the stack.
<p>
Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pushes nothing)
when the index is greater than
the number of active local variables.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>int lua_getstack (lua_State *L, int level, lua_Debug *ar);</pre>
<p>
Gets information about the interpreter runtime stack.
<p>
This function fills parts of a <a href="#lua_Debug"><code>lua_Debug</code></a> structure with
an identification of the <em>activation record</em>
of the function executing at a given level.
Level 0 is the current running function,
whereas level <em>n+1</em> is the function that has called level <em>n</em>
(except for tail calls, which do not count in the stack).
When called with a level greater than the stack depth,
<a href="#lua_getstack"><code>lua_getstack</code></a> returns 0;
otherwise it returns 1.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(0|1), –]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_getupvalue (lua_State *L, int funcindex, int n);</pre>
<p>
Gets information about the <code>n</code>-th upvalue
of the closure at index <code>funcindex</code>.
It pushes the upvalue's value onto the stack
and returns its name.
Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pushes nothing)
when the index <code>n</code> is greater than the number of upvalues.
<p>
See <a href="#pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue</code></a> for more information about upvalues.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_Hook"><code>lua_Hook</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef void (*lua_Hook) (lua_State *L, lua_Debug *ar);</pre>
<p>
Type for debugging hook functions.
<p>
Whenever a hook is called, its <code>ar</code> argument has its field
<code>event</code> set to the specific event that triggered the hook.
Lua identifies these events with the following constants:
<a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKCALL"><code>LUA_HOOKCALL</code></a>, <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKRET"><code>LUA_HOOKRET</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKTAILCALL"><code>LUA_HOOKTAILCALL</code></a>, <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKLINE"><code>LUA_HOOKLINE</code></a>,
and <a name="pdf-LUA_HOOKCOUNT"><code>LUA_HOOKCOUNT</code></a>.
Moreover, for line events, the field <code>currentline</code> is also set.
To get the value of any other field in <code>ar</code>,
the hook must call <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>.
<p>
For call events, <code>event</code> can be <code>LUA_HOOKCALL</code>,
the normal value, or <code>LUA_HOOKTAILCALL</code>, for a tail call;
in this case, there will be no corresponding return event.
<p>
While Lua is running a hook, it disables other calls to hooks.
Therefore, if a hook calls back Lua to execute a function or a chunk,
this execution occurs without any calls to hooks.
<p>
Hook functions cannot have continuations,
that is, they cannot call <a href="#lua_yieldk"><code>lua_yieldk</code></a>,
<a href="#lua_pcallk"><code>lua_pcallk</code></a>, or <a href="#lua_callk"><code>lua_callk</code></a> with a non-null <code>k</code>.
<p>
Hook functions can yield under the following conditions:
Only count and line events can yield;
to yield, a hook function must finish its execution
calling <a href="#lua_yield"><code>lua_yield</code></a> with <code>nresults</code> equal to zero
(that is, with no values).
<hr><h3><a name="lua_sethook"><code>lua_sethook</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_sethook (lua_State *L, lua_Hook f, int mask, int count);</pre>
<p>
Sets the debugging hook function.
<p>
Argument <code>f</code> is the hook function.
<code>mask</code> specifies on which events the hook will be called:
it is formed by a bitwise OR of the constants
<a name="pdf-LUA_MASKCALL"><code>LUA_MASKCALL</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_MASKRET"><code>LUA_MASKRET</code></a>,
<a name="pdf-LUA_MASKLINE"><code>LUA_MASKLINE</code></a>,
and <a name="pdf-LUA_MASKCOUNT"><code>LUA_MASKCOUNT</code></a>.
The <code>count</code> argument is only meaningful when the mask
includes <code>LUA_MASKCOUNT</code>.
For each event, the hook is called as explained below:
<ul>
<li><b>The call hook: </b> is called when the interpreter calls a function.
The hook is called just after Lua enters the new function.
</li>
<li><b>The return hook: </b> is called when the interpreter returns from a function.
The hook is called just before Lua leaves the function.
</li>
<li><b>The line hook: </b> is called when the interpreter is about to
start the execution of a new line of code,
or when it jumps back in the code (even to the same line).
This event only happens while Lua is executing a Lua function.
</li>
<li><b>The count hook: </b> is called after the interpreter executes every
<code>count</code> instructions.
This event only happens while Lua is executing a Lua function.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
Hooks are disabled by setting <code>mask</code> to zero.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setlocal"><code>lua_setlocal</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(0|1), +0, –]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_setlocal (lua_State *L, const lua_Debug *ar, int n);</pre>
<p>
Sets the value of a local variable of a given activation record.
It assigns the value on the top of the stack
to the variable and returns its name.
It also pops the value from the stack.
<p>
Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pops nothing)
when the index is greater than
the number of active local variables.
<p>
Parameters <code>ar</code> and <code>n</code> are as in the function <a href="#lua_getlocal"><code>lua_getlocal</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_setupvalue"><code>lua_setupvalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-(0|1), +0, –]</span>
<pre>const char *lua_setupvalue (lua_State *L, int funcindex, int n);</pre>
<p>
Sets the value of a closure's upvalue.
It assigns the value on the top of the stack
to the upvalue and returns its name.
It also pops the value from the stack.
<p>
Returns <code>NULL</code> (and pops nothing)
when the index <code>n</code> is greater than the number of upvalues.
<p>
Parameters <code>funcindex</code> and <code>n</code> are as in
the function <a href="#lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_upvalueid"><code>lua_upvalueid</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void *lua_upvalueid (lua_State *L, int funcindex, int n);</pre>
<p>
Returns a unique identifier for the upvalue numbered <code>n</code>
from the closure at index <code>funcindex</code>.
<p>
These unique identifiers allow a program to check whether different
closures share upvalues.
Lua closures that share an upvalue
(that is, that access a same external local variable)
will return identical ids for those upvalue indices.
<p>
Parameters <code>funcindex</code> and <code>n</code> are as in
the function <a href="#lua_getupvalue"><code>lua_getupvalue</code></a>,
but <code>n</code> cannot be greater than the number of upvalues.
<hr><h3><a name="lua_upvaluejoin"><code>lua_upvaluejoin</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void lua_upvaluejoin (lua_State *L, int funcindex1, int n1,
int funcindex2, int n2);</pre>
<p>
Make the <code>n1</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure at index <code>funcindex1</code>
refer to the <code>n2</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure at index <code>funcindex2</code>.
<h1>5 – <a name="5">The Auxiliary Library</a></h1>
<p>
The <em>auxiliary library</em> provides several convenient functions
to interface C with Lua.
While the basic API provides the primitive functions for all
interactions between C and Lua,
the auxiliary library provides higher-level functions for some
common tasks.
<p>
All functions and types from the auxiliary library
are defined in header file <code>lauxlib.h</code> and
have a prefix <code>luaL_</code>.
<p>
All functions in the auxiliary library are built on
top of the basic API,
and so they provide nothing that cannot be done with that API.
Nevertheless, the use of the auxiliary library ensures
more consistency to your code.
<p>
Several functions in the auxiliary library use internally some
extra stack slots.
When a function in the auxiliary library uses less than five slots,
it does not check the stack size;
it simply assumes that there are enough slots.
<p>
Several functions in the auxiliary library are used to
check C function arguments.
Because the error message is formatted for arguments
(e.g., "<code>bad argument #1</code>"),
you should not use these functions for other stack values.
<p>
Functions called <code>luaL_check*</code>
always raise an error if the check is not satisfied.
<h2>5.1 – <a name="5.1">Functions and Types</a></h2>
<p>
Here we list all functions and types from the auxiliary library
in alphabetical order.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addchar"><code>luaL_addchar</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_addchar (luaL_Buffer *B, char c);</pre>
<p>
Adds the byte <code>c</code> to the buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addgsub"><code>luaL_addgsub</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const void luaL_addgsub (luaL_Buffer *B, const char *s,
const char *p, const char *r);</pre>
<p>
Adds a copy of the string <code>s</code> to the buffer <code>B</code> (see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>),
replacing any occurrence of the string <code>p</code>
with the string <code>r</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addlstring"><code>luaL_addlstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_addlstring (luaL_Buffer *B, const char *s, size_t l);</pre>
<p>
Adds the string pointed to by <code>s</code> with length <code>l</code> to
the buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
The string can contain embedded zeros.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addsize"><code>luaL_addsize</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_addsize (luaL_Buffer *B, size_t n);</pre>
<p>
Adds to the buffer <code>B</code>
a string of length <code>n</code> previously copied to the
buffer area (see <a href="#luaL_prepbuffer"><code>luaL_prepbuffer</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addstring"><code>luaL_addstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_addstring (luaL_Buffer *B, const char *s);</pre>
<p>
Adds the zero-terminated string pointed to by <code>s</code>
to the buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_addvalue"><code>luaL_addvalue</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_addvalue (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Adds the value on the top of the stack
to the buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
Pops the value.
<p>
This is the only function on string buffers that can (and must)
be called with an extra element on the stack,
which is the value to be added to the buffer.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_argcheck"><code>luaL_argcheck</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_argcheck (lua_State *L,
int cond,
int arg,
const char *extramsg);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether <code>cond</code> is true.
If it is not, raises an error with a standard message (see <a href="#luaL_argerror"><code>luaL_argerror</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_argerror"><code>luaL_argerror</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_argerror (lua_State *L, int arg, const char *extramsg);</pre>
<p>
Raises an error reporting a problem with argument <code>arg</code>
of the C function that called it,
using a standard message
that includes <code>extramsg</code> as a comment:
<pre>
bad argument #<em>arg</em> to '<em>funcname</em>' (<em>extramsg</em>)
</pre><p>
This function never returns.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_argexpected"><code>luaL_argexpected</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_argexpected (lua_State *L,
int cond,
int arg,
const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether <code>cond</code> is true.
If it is not, raises an error about the type of the argument <code>arg</code>
with a standard message (see <a href="#luaL_typeerror"><code>luaL_typeerror</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef struct luaL_Buffer luaL_Buffer;</pre>
<p>
Type for a <em>string buffer</em>.
<p>
A string buffer allows C code to build Lua strings piecemeal.
Its pattern of use is as follows:
<ul>
<li>First declare a variable <code>b</code> of type <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>.</li>
<li>Then initialize it with a call <code>luaL_buffinit(L, &b)</code>.</li>
<li>
Then add string pieces to the buffer calling any of
the <code>luaL_add*</code> functions.
</li>
<li>
Finish by calling <code>luaL_pushresult(&b)</code>.
This call leaves the final string on the top of the stack.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
If you know beforehand the maximum size of the resulting string,
you can use the buffer like this:
<ul>
<li>First declare a variable <code>b</code> of type <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>.</li>
<li>Then initialize it and preallocate a space of
size <code>sz</code> with a call <code>luaL_buffinitsize(L, &b, sz)</code>.</li>
<li>Then produce the string into that space.</li>
<li>
Finish by calling <code>luaL_pushresultsize(&b, sz)</code>,
where <code>sz</code> is the total size of the resulting string
copied into that space (which may be less than or
equal to the preallocated size).
</li>
</ul>
<p>
During its normal operation,
a string buffer uses a variable number of stack slots.
So, while using a buffer, you cannot assume that you know where
the top of the stack is.
You can use the stack between successive calls to buffer operations
as long as that use is balanced;
that is,
when you call a buffer operation,
the stack is at the same level
it was immediately after the previous buffer operation.
(The only exception to this rule is <a href="#luaL_addvalue"><code>luaL_addvalue</code></a>.)
After calling <a href="#luaL_pushresult"><code>luaL_pushresult</code></a>,
the stack is back to its level when the buffer was initialized,
plus the final string on its top.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_buffaddr"><code>luaL_buffaddr</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>char *luaL_buffaddr (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Returns the address of the current content of buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
Note that any addition to the buffer may invalidate this address.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_buffinit"><code>luaL_buffinit</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_buffinit (lua_State *L, luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Initializes a buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
This function does not allocate any space;
the buffer must be declared as a variable.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_bufflen"><code>luaL_bufflen</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>size_t luaL_bufflen (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Returns the length of the current content of buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_buffinitsize"><code>luaL_buffinitsize</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>char *luaL_buffinitsize (lua_State *L, luaL_Buffer *B, size_t sz);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to the sequence
<a href="#luaL_buffinit"><code>luaL_buffinit</code></a>, <a href="#luaL_prepbuffsize"><code>luaL_prepbuffsize</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_buffsub"><code>luaL_buffsub</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_buffsub (luaL_Buffer *B, int n);</pre>
<p>
Removes <code>n</code> bytes from the the buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
The buffer must have at least that many bytes.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_callmeta"><code>luaL_callmeta</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(0|1), <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_callmeta (lua_State *L, int obj, const char *e);</pre>
<p>
Calls a metamethod.
<p>
If the object at index <code>obj</code> has a metatable and this
metatable has a field <code>e</code>,
this function calls this field passing the object as its only argument.
In this case this function returns true and pushes onto the
stack the value returned by the call.
If there is no metatable or no metamethod,
this function returns false without pushing any value on the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkany"><code>luaL_checkany</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_checkany (lua_State *L, int arg);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function has an argument
of any type (including <b>nil</b>) at position <code>arg</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkinteger"><code>luaL_checkinteger</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_Integer luaL_checkinteger (lua_State *L, int arg);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is an integer
(or can be converted to an integer)
and returns this integer.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checklstring"><code>luaL_checklstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_checklstring (lua_State *L, int arg, size_t *l);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is a string
and returns this string;
if <code>l</code> is not <code>NULL</code> fills its referent
with the string's length.
<p>
This function uses <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> to get its result,
so all conversions and caveats of that function apply here.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checknumber"><code>luaL_checknumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_Number luaL_checknumber (lua_State *L, int arg);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is a number
and returns this number converted to a <code>lua_Number</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkoption"><code>luaL_checkoption</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_checkoption (lua_State *L,
int arg,
const char *def,
const char *const lst[]);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is a string and
searches for this string in the array <code>lst</code>
(which must be NULL-terminated).
Returns the index in the array where the string was found.
Raises an error if the argument is not a string or
if the string cannot be found.
<p>
If <code>def</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
the function uses <code>def</code> as a default value when
there is no argument <code>arg</code> or when this argument is <b>nil</b>.
<p>
This is a useful function for mapping strings to C enums.
(The usual convention in Lua libraries is
to use strings instead of numbers to select options.)
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkstack"><code>luaL_checkstack</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_checkstack (lua_State *L, int sz, const char *msg);</pre>
<p>
Grows the stack size to <code>top + sz</code> elements,
raising an error if the stack cannot grow to that size.
<code>msg</code> is an additional text to go into the error message
(or <code>NULL</code> for no additional text).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkstring"><code>luaL_checkstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_checkstring (lua_State *L, int arg);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is a string
and returns this string.
<p>
This function uses <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> to get its result,
so all conversions and caveats of that function apply here.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checktype"><code>luaL_checktype</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_checktype (lua_State *L, int arg, int t);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> has type <code>t</code>.
See <a href="#lua_type"><code>lua_type</code></a> for the encoding of types for <code>t</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkudata"><code>luaL_checkudata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void *luaL_checkudata (lua_State *L, int arg, const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the function argument <code>arg</code> is a userdata
of the type <code>tname</code> (see <a href="#luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a>) and
returns the userdata's memory-block address (see <a href="#lua_touserdata"><code>lua_touserdata</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_checkversion"><code>luaL_checkversion</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_checkversion (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Checks whether the code making the call and the Lua library being called
are using the same version of Lua and the same numeric types.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_dofile"><code>luaL_dofile</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_dofile (lua_State *L, const char *filename);</pre>
<p>
Loads and runs the given file.
It is defined as the following macro:
<pre>
(luaL_loadfile(L, filename) || lua_pcall(L, 0, LUA_MULTRET, 0))
</pre><p>
It returns <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> if there are no errors,
or an error code in case of errors (see <a href="#4.4.1">§4.4.1</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_dostring"><code>luaL_dostring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +?, –]</span>
<pre>int luaL_dostring (lua_State *L, const char *str);</pre>
<p>
Loads and runs the given string.
It is defined as the following macro:
<pre>
(luaL_loadstring(L, str) || lua_pcall(L, 0, LUA_MULTRET, 0))
</pre><p>
It returns <a href="#pdf-LUA_OK"><code>LUA_OK</code></a> if there are no errors,
or an error code in case of errors (see <a href="#4.4.1">§4.4.1</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_error"><code>luaL_error</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_error (lua_State *L, const char *fmt, ...);</pre>
<p>
Raises an error.
The error message format is given by <code>fmt</code>
plus any extra arguments,
following the same rules of <a href="#lua_pushfstring"><code>lua_pushfstring</code></a>.
It also adds at the beginning of the message the file name and
the line number where the error occurred,
if this information is available.
<p>
This function never returns,
but it is an idiom to use it in C functions
as <code>return luaL_error(<em>args</em>)</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_execresult"><code>luaL_execresult</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +3, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_execresult (lua_State *L, int stat);</pre>
<p>
This function produces the return values for
process-related functions in the standard library
(<a href="#pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-io.close"><code>io.close</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_fileresult"><code>luaL_fileresult</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(1|3), <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_fileresult (lua_State *L, int stat, const char *fname);</pre>
<p>
This function produces the return values for
file-related functions in the standard library
(<a href="#pdf-io.open"><code>io.open</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-os.rename"><code>os.rename</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-file:seek"><code>file:seek</code></a>, etc.).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_getmetafield"><code>luaL_getmetafield</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +(0|1), <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_getmetafield (lua_State *L, int obj, const char *e);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the field <code>e</code> from the metatable
of the object at index <code>obj</code> and returns the type of the pushed value.
If the object does not have a metatable,
or if the metatable does not have this field,
pushes nothing and returns <code>LUA_TNIL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_getmetatable"><code>luaL_getmetatable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_getmetatable (lua_State *L, const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack the metatable associated with the name <code>tname</code>
in the registry (see <a href="#luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a>),
or <b>nil</b> if there is no metatable associated with that name.
Returns the type of the pushed value.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_getsubtable"><code>luaL_getsubtable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_getsubtable (lua_State *L, int idx, const char *fname);</pre>
<p>
Ensures that the value <code>t[fname]</code>,
where <code>t</code> is the value at index <code>idx</code>,
is a table,
and pushes that table onto the stack.
Returns true if it finds a previous table there
and false if it creates a new table.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_gsub"><code>luaL_gsub</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_gsub (lua_State *L,
const char *s,
const char *p,
const char *r);</pre>
<p>
Creates a copy of string <code>s</code>,
replacing any occurrence of the string <code>p</code>
with the string <code>r</code>.
Pushes the resulting string on the stack and returns it.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_len"><code>luaL_len</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_Integer luaL_len (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns the "length" of the value at the given index
as a number;
it is equivalent to the '<code>#</code>' operator in Lua (see <a href="#3.4.7">§3.4.7</a>).
Raises an error if the result of the operation is not an integer.
(This case can only happen through metamethods.)
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadbuffer"><code>luaL_loadbuffer</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int luaL_loadbuffer (lua_State *L,
const char *buff,
size_t sz,
const char *name);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#luaL_loadbufferx"><code>luaL_loadbufferx</code></a> with <code>mode</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadbufferx"><code>luaL_loadbufferx</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int luaL_loadbufferx (lua_State *L,
const char *buff,
size_t sz,
const char *name,
const char *mode);</pre>
<p>
Loads a buffer as a Lua chunk.
This function uses <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> to load the chunk in the
buffer pointed to by <code>buff</code> with size <code>sz</code>.
<p>
This function returns the same results as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
<code>name</code> is the chunk name,
used for debug information and error messages.
The string <code>mode</code> works as in the function <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadfile"><code>luaL_loadfile</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_loadfile (lua_State *L, const char *filename);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#luaL_loadfilex"><code>luaL_loadfilex</code></a> with <code>mode</code> equal to <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadfilex"><code>luaL_loadfilex</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_loadfilex (lua_State *L, const char *filename,
const char *mode);</pre>
<p>
Loads a file as a Lua chunk.
This function uses <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> to load the chunk in the file
named <code>filename</code>.
If <code>filename</code> is <code>NULL</code>,
then it loads from the standard input.
The first line in the file is ignored if it starts with a <code>#</code>.
<p>
The string <code>mode</code> works as in the function <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
<p>
This function returns the same results as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>
or <a href="#pdf-LUA_ERRFILE"><code>LUA_ERRFILE</code></a> for file-related errors.
<p>
As <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>, this function only loads the chunk;
it does not run it.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_loadstring"><code>luaL_loadstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>int luaL_loadstring (lua_State *L, const char *s);</pre>
<p>
Loads a string as a Lua chunk.
This function uses <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a> to load the chunk in
the zero-terminated string <code>s</code>.
<p>
This function returns the same results as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>.
<p>
Also as <a href="#lua_load"><code>lua_load</code></a>, this function only loads the chunk;
it does not run it.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_newlib"><code>luaL_newlib</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_newlib (lua_State *L, const luaL_Reg l[]);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new table and registers there
the functions in the list <code>l</code>.
<p>
It is implemented as the following macro:
<pre>
(luaL_newlibtable(L,l), luaL_setfuncs(L,l,0))
</pre><p>
The array <code>l</code> must be the actual array,
not a pointer to it.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_newlibtable"><code>luaL_newlibtable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_newlibtable (lua_State *L, const luaL_Reg l[]);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new table with a size optimized
to store all entries in the array <code>l</code>
(but does not actually store them).
It is intended to be used in conjunction with <a href="#luaL_setfuncs"><code>luaL_setfuncs</code></a>
(see <a href="#luaL_newlib"><code>luaL_newlib</code></a>).
<p>
It is implemented as a macro.
The array <code>l</code> must be the actual array,
not a pointer to it.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_newmetatable (lua_State *L, const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
If the registry already has the key <code>tname</code>,
returns 0.
Otherwise,
creates a new table to be used as a metatable for userdata,
adds to this new table the pair <code>__name = tname</code>,
adds to the registry the pair <code>[tname] = new table</code>,
and returns 1.
<p>
In both cases,
the function pushes onto the stack the final value associated
with <code>tname</code> in the registry.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_newstate"><code>luaL_newstate</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>lua_State *luaL_newstate (void);</pre>
<p>
Creates a new Lua state.
It calls <a href="#lua_newstate"><code>lua_newstate</code></a> with an
allocator based on the standard C allocation functions
and then sets a warning function and a panic function (see <a href="#4.4">§4.4</a>)
that print messages to the standard error output.
<p>
Returns the new state,
or <code>NULL</code> if there is a memory allocation error.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_openlibs"><code>luaL_openlibs</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_openlibs (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Opens all standard Lua libraries into the given state.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_opt"><code>luaL_opt</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>T luaL_opt (L, func, arg, dflt);</pre>
<p>
This macro is defined as follows:
<pre>
(lua_isnoneornil(L,(arg)) ? (dflt) : func(L,(arg)))
</pre><p>
In words, if the argument <code>arg</code> is nil or absent,
the macro results in the default <code>dflt</code>.
Otherwise, it results in the result of calling <code>func</code>
with the state <code>L</code> and the argument index <code>arg</code> as
arguments.
Note that it evaluates the expression <code>dflt</code> only if needed.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_optinteger"><code>luaL_optinteger</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_Integer luaL_optinteger (lua_State *L,
int arg,
lua_Integer d);</pre>
<p>
If the function argument <code>arg</code> is an integer
(or it is convertible to an integer),
returns this integer.
If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
returns <code>d</code>.
Otherwise, raises an error.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_optlstring"><code>luaL_optlstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_optlstring (lua_State *L,
int arg,
const char *d,
size_t *l);</pre>
<p>
If the function argument <code>arg</code> is a string,
returns this string.
If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
returns <code>d</code>.
Otherwise, raises an error.
<p>
If <code>l</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
fills its referent with the result's length.
If the result is <code>NULL</code>
(only possible when returning <code>d</code> and <code>d == NULL</code>),
its length is considered zero.
<p>
This function uses <a href="#lua_tolstring"><code>lua_tolstring</code></a> to get its result,
so all conversions and caveats of that function apply here.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_optnumber"><code>luaL_optnumber</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>lua_Number luaL_optnumber (lua_State *L, int arg, lua_Number d);</pre>
<p>
If the function argument <code>arg</code> is a number,
returns this number as a <code>lua_Number</code>.
If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
returns <code>d</code>.
Otherwise, raises an error.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_optstring"><code>luaL_optstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_optstring (lua_State *L,
int arg,
const char *d);</pre>
<p>
If the function argument <code>arg</code> is a string,
returns this string.
If this argument is absent or is <b>nil</b>,
returns <code>d</code>.
Otherwise, raises an error.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_prepbuffer"><code>luaL_prepbuffer</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>char *luaL_prepbuffer (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to <a href="#luaL_prepbuffsize"><code>luaL_prepbuffsize</code></a>
with the predefined size <a name="pdf-LUAL_BUFFERSIZE"><code>LUAL_BUFFERSIZE</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_prepbuffsize"><code>luaL_prepbuffsize</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +?, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>char *luaL_prepbuffsize (luaL_Buffer *B, size_t sz);</pre>
<p>
Returns an address to a space of size <code>sz</code>
where you can copy a string to be added to buffer <code>B</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Buffer"><code>luaL_Buffer</code></a>).
After copying the string into this space you must call
<a href="#luaL_addsize"><code>luaL_addsize</code></a> with the size of the string to actually add
it to the buffer.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_pushfail"><code>luaL_pushfail</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_pushfail (lua_State *L);</pre>
<p>
Pushes the <b>fail</b> value onto the stack (see <a href="#6">§6</a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_pushresult"><code>luaL_pushresult</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_pushresult (luaL_Buffer *B);</pre>
<p>
Finishes the use of buffer <code>B</code> leaving the final string on
the top of the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_pushresultsize"><code>luaL_pushresultsize</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-?, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_pushresultsize (luaL_Buffer *B, size_t sz);</pre>
<p>
Equivalent to the sequence <a href="#luaL_addsize"><code>luaL_addsize</code></a>, <a href="#luaL_pushresult"><code>luaL_pushresult</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-1, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>int luaL_ref (lua_State *L, int t);</pre>
<p>
Creates and returns a <em>reference</em>,
in the table at index <code>t</code>,
for the object on the top of the stack (and pops the object).
<p>
A reference is a unique integer key.
As long as you do not manually add integer keys into the table <code>t</code>,
<a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a> ensures the uniqueness of the key it returns.
You can retrieve an object referred by the reference <code>r</code>
by calling <code>lua_rawgeti(L, t, r)</code>.
The function <a href="#luaL_unref"><code>luaL_unref</code></a> frees a reference.
<p>
If the object on the top of the stack is <b>nil</b>,
<a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a> returns the constant <a name="pdf-LUA_REFNIL"><code>LUA_REFNIL</code></a>.
The constant <a name="pdf-LUA_NOREF"><code>LUA_NOREF</code></a> is guaranteed to be different
from any reference returned by <a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_Reg"><code>luaL_Reg</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef struct luaL_Reg {
const char *name;
lua_CFunction func;
} luaL_Reg;</pre>
<p>
Type for arrays of functions to be registered by
<a href="#luaL_setfuncs"><code>luaL_setfuncs</code></a>.
<code>name</code> is the function name and <code>func</code> is a pointer to
the function.
Any array of <a href="#luaL_Reg"><code>luaL_Reg</code></a> must end with a sentinel entry
in which both <code>name</code> and <code>func</code> are <code>NULL</code>.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_requiref"><code>luaL_requiref</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_requiref (lua_State *L, const char *modname,
lua_CFunction openf, int glb);</pre>
<p>
If <code>package.loaded[modname]</code> is not true,
calls the function <code>openf</code> with the string <code>modname</code> as an argument
and sets the call result to <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>,
as if that function has been called through <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>.
<p>
If <code>glb</code> is true,
also stores the module into the global <code>modname</code>.
<p>
Leaves a copy of the module on the stack.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_setfuncs"><code>luaL_setfuncs</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-nup, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_setfuncs (lua_State *L, const luaL_Reg *l, int nup);</pre>
<p>
Registers all functions in the array <code>l</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_Reg"><code>luaL_Reg</code></a>) into the table on the top of the stack
(below optional upvalues, see next).
<p>
When <code>nup</code> is not zero,
all functions are created with <code>nup</code> upvalues,
initialized with copies of the <code>nup</code> values
previously pushed on the stack
on top of the library table.
These values are popped from the stack after the registration.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_setmetatable"><code>luaL_setmetatable</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_setmetatable (lua_State *L, const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
Sets the metatable of the object on the top of the stack
as the metatable associated with name <code>tname</code>
in the registry (see <a href="#luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a>).
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_Stream"><code>luaL_Stream</code></a></h3>
<pre>typedef struct luaL_Stream {
FILE *f;
lua_CFunction closef;
} luaL_Stream;</pre>
<p>
The standard representation for file handles
used by the standard I/O library.
<p>
A file handle is implemented as a full userdata,
with a metatable called <code>LUA_FILEHANDLE</code>
(where <code>LUA_FILEHANDLE</code> is a macro with the actual metatable's name).
The metatable is created by the I/O library
(see <a href="#luaL_newmetatable"><code>luaL_newmetatable</code></a>).
<p>
This userdata must start with the structure <code>luaL_Stream</code>;
it can contain other data after this initial structure.
The field <code>f</code> points to the corresponding C stream
(or it can be <code>NULL</code> to indicate an incompletely created handle).
The field <code>closef</code> points to a Lua function
that will be called to close the stream
when the handle is closed or collected;
this function receives the file handle as its sole argument and
must return either a true value, in case of success,
or a false value plus an error message, in case of error.
Once Lua calls this field,
it changes the field value to <code>NULL</code>
to signal that the handle is closed.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_testudata"><code>luaL_testudata</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void *luaL_testudata (lua_State *L, int arg, const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
This function works like <a href="#luaL_checkudata"><code>luaL_checkudata</code></a>,
except that, when the test fails,
it returns <code>NULL</code> instead of raising an error.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_tolstring"><code>luaL_tolstring</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>e</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_tolstring (lua_State *L, int idx, size_t *len);</pre>
<p>
Converts any Lua value at the given index to a C string
in a reasonable format.
The resulting string is pushed onto the stack and also
returned by the function (see <a href="#4.1.3">§4.1.3</a>).
If <code>len</code> is not <code>NULL</code>,
the function also sets <code>*len</code> with the string length.
<p>
If the value has a metatable with a <code>__tostring</code> field,
then <code>luaL_tolstring</code> calls the corresponding metamethod
with the value as argument,
and uses the result of the call as its result.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_traceback"><code>luaL_traceback</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_traceback (lua_State *L, lua_State *L1, const char *msg,
int level);</pre>
<p>
Creates and pushes a traceback of the stack <code>L1</code>.
If <code>msg</code> is not <code>NULL</code>, it is appended
at the beginning of the traceback.
The <code>level</code> parameter tells at which level
to start the traceback.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_typeerror"><code>luaL_typeerror</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, <em>v</em>]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_typeerror (lua_State *L,
int arg,
const char *tname);</pre>
<p>
Raises a type error for the argument <code>arg</code>
of the C function that called it,
using a standard message;
<code>tname</code> is a "name" for the expected type.
This function never returns.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_typename"><code>luaL_typename</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>const char *luaL_typename (lua_State *L, int index);</pre>
<p>
Returns the name of the type of the value at the given index.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_unref"><code>luaL_unref</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +0, –]</span>
<pre>void luaL_unref (lua_State *L, int t, int ref);</pre>
<p>
Releases the reference <code>ref</code> from the table at index <code>t</code>
(see <a href="#luaL_ref"><code>luaL_ref</code></a>).
The entry is removed from the table,
so that the referred object can be collected.
The reference <code>ref</code> is also freed to be used again.
<p>
If <code>ref</code> is <a href="#pdf-LUA_NOREF"><code>LUA_NOREF</code></a> or <a href="#pdf-LUA_REFNIL"><code>LUA_REFNIL</code></a>,
<a href="#luaL_unref"><code>luaL_unref</code></a> does nothing.
<hr><h3><a name="luaL_where"><code>luaL_where</code></a></h3><p>
<span class="apii">[-0, +1, <em>m</em>]</span>
<pre>void luaL_where (lua_State *L, int lvl);</pre>
<p>
Pushes onto the stack a string identifying the current position
of the control at level <code>lvl</code> in the call stack.
Typically this string has the following format:
<pre>
<em>chunkname</em>:<em>currentline</em>:
</pre><p>
Level 0 is the running function,
level 1 is the function that called the running function,
etc.
<p>
This function is used to build a prefix for error messages.
<h1>6 – <a name="6">The Standard Libraries</a></h1>
<p>
The standard Lua libraries provide useful functions
that are implemented in C through the C API.
Some of these functions provide essential services to the language
(e.g., <a href="#pdf-type"><code>type</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-getmetatable"><code>getmetatable</code></a>);
others provide access to outside services (e.g., I/O);
and others could be implemented in Lua itself,
but that for different reasons
deserve an implementation in C (e.g., <a href="#pdf-table.sort"><code>table.sort</code></a>).
<p>
All libraries are implemented through the official C API
and are provided as separate C modules.
Unless otherwise noted,
these library functions do not adjust its number of arguments
to its expected parameters.
For instance, a function documented as <code>foo(arg)</code>
should not be called without an argument.
<p>
The notation <b>fail</b> means a false value representing
some kind of failure.
(Currently, <b>fail</b> is equal to <b>nil</b>,
but that may change in future versions.
The recommendation is to always test the success of these functions
with <code>(not status)</code>, instead of <code>(status == nil)</code>.)
<p>
Currently, Lua has the following standard libraries:
<ul>
<li>basic library (<a href="#6.1">§6.1</a>);</li>
<li>coroutine library (<a href="#6.2">§6.2</a>);</li>
<li>package library (<a href="#6.3">§6.3</a>);</li>
<li>string manipulation (<a href="#6.4">§6.4</a>);</li>
<li>basic UTF-8 support (<a href="#6.5">§6.5</a>);</li>
<li>table manipulation (<a href="#6.6">§6.6</a>);</li>
<li>mathematical functions (<a href="#6.7">§6.7</a>) (sin, log, etc.);</li>
<li>input and output (<a href="#6.8">§6.8</a>);</li>
<li>operating system facilities (<a href="#6.9">§6.9</a>);</li>
<li>debug facilities (<a href="#6.10">§6.10</a>).</li>
</ul><p>
Except for the basic and the package libraries,
each library provides all its functions as fields of a global table
or as methods of its objects.
<p>
To have access to these libraries,
the C host program should call the <a href="#luaL_openlibs"><code>luaL_openlibs</code></a> function,
which opens all standard libraries.
Alternatively,
the host program can open them individually by using
<a href="#luaL_requiref"><code>luaL_requiref</code></a> to call
<a name="pdf-luaopen_base"><code>luaopen_base</code></a> (for the basic library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_package"><code>luaopen_package</code></a> (for the package library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_coroutine"><code>luaopen_coroutine</code></a> (for the coroutine library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_string"><code>luaopen_string</code></a> (for the string library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_utf8"><code>luaopen_utf8</code></a> (for the UTF-8 library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_table"><code>luaopen_table</code></a> (for the table library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_math"><code>luaopen_math</code></a> (for the mathematical library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_io"><code>luaopen_io</code></a> (for the I/O library),
<a name="pdf-luaopen_os"><code>luaopen_os</code></a> (for the operating system library),
and <a name="pdf-luaopen_debug"><code>luaopen_debug</code></a> (for the debug library).
These functions are declared in <a name="pdf-lualib.h"><code>lualib.h</code></a>.
<h2>6.1 – <a name="6.1">Basic Functions</a></h2>
<p>
The basic library provides core functions to Lua.
If you do not include this library in your application,
you should check carefully whether you need to provide
implementations for some of its facilities.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-assert"><code>assert (v [, message])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Raises an error if
the value of its argument <code>v</code> is false (i.e., <b>nil</b> or <b>false</b>);
otherwise, returns all its arguments.
In case of error,
<code>message</code> is the error object;
when absent, it defaults to "<code>assertion failed!</code>"
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage ([opt [, arg]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function is a generic interface to the garbage collector.
It performs different functions according to its first argument, <code>opt</code>:
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>collect</code>": </b>
Performs a full garbage-collection cycle.
This is the default option.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>stop</code>": </b>
Stops automatic execution of the garbage collector.
The collector will run only when explicitly invoked,
until a call to restart it.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>restart</code>": </b>
Restarts automatic execution of the garbage collector.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>count</code>": </b>
Returns the total memory in use by Lua in Kbytes.
The value has a fractional part,
so that it multiplied by 1024
gives the exact number of bytes in use by Lua.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>step</code>": </b>
Performs a garbage-collection step.
The step "size" is controlled by <code>arg</code>.
With a zero value,
the collector will perform one basic (indivisible) step.
For non-zero values,
the collector will perform as if that amount of memory
(in Kbytes) had been allocated by Lua.
Returns <b>true</b> if the step finished a collection cycle.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>isrunning</code>": </b>
Returns a boolean that tells whether the collector is running
(i.e., not stopped).
</li>
<li><b>"<code>incremental</code>": </b>
Change the collector mode to incremental.
This option can be followed by three numbers:
the garbage-collector pause,
the step multiplier,
and the step size (see <a href="#2.5.1">§2.5.1</a>).
A zero means to not change that value.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>generational</code>": </b>
Change the collector mode to generational.
This option can be followed by two numbers:
the garbage-collector minor multiplier
and the major multiplier (see <a href="#2.5.2">§2.5.2</a>).
A zero means to not change that value.
</li>
</ul><p>
See <a href="#2.5">§2.5</a> for more details about garbage collection
and some of these options.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-dofile"><code>dofile ([filename])</code></a></h3>
Opens the named file and executes its content as a Lua chunk.
When called without arguments,
<code>dofile</code> executes the content of the standard input (<code>stdin</code>).
Returns all values returned by the chunk.
In case of errors, <code>dofile</code> propagates the error
to its caller.
(That is, <code>dofile</code> does not run in protected mode.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-error"><code>error (message [, level])</code></a></h3>
Raises an error (see <a href="#2.3">§2.3</a>) with @{message} as the error object.
This function never returns.
<p>
Usually, <code>error</code> adds some information about the error position
at the beginning of the message, if the message is a string.
The <code>level</code> argument specifies how to get the error position.
With level 1 (the default), the error position is where the
<code>error</code> function was called.
Level 2 points the error to where the function
that called <code>error</code> was called; and so on.
Passing a level 0 avoids the addition of error position information
to the message.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-_G"><code>_G</code></a></h3>
A global variable (not a function) that
holds the global environment (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
Lua itself does not use this variable;
changing its value does not affect any environment,
nor vice versa.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-getmetatable"><code>getmetatable (object)</code></a></h3>
<p>
If <code>object</code> does not have a metatable, returns <b>nil</b>.
Otherwise,
if the object's metatable has a <code>__metatable</code> field,
returns the associated value.
Otherwise, returns the metatable of the given object.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-ipairs"><code>ipairs (t)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns three values (an iterator function, the table <code>t</code>, and 0)
so that the construction
<pre>
for i,v in ipairs(t) do <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
will iterate over the key–value pairs
(<code>1,t[1]</code>), (<code>2,t[2]</code>), ...,
up to the first absent index.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-load"><code>load (chunk [, chunkname [, mode [, env]]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Loads a chunk.
<p>
If <code>chunk</code> is a string, the chunk is this string.
If <code>chunk</code> is a function,
<code>load</code> calls it repeatedly to get the chunk pieces.
Each call to <code>chunk</code> must return a string that concatenates
with previous results.
A return of an empty string, <b>nil</b>, or no value signals the end of the chunk.
<p>
If there are no syntactic errors,
<code>load</code> returns the compiled chunk as a function;
otherwise, it returns <b>fail</b> plus the error message.
<p>
When you load a main chunk,
the resulting function will always have exactly one upvalue,
the <code>_ENV</code> variable (see <a href="#2.2">§2.2</a>).
However,
when you load a binary chunk created from a function (see <a href="#pdf-string.dump"><code>string.dump</code></a>),
the resulting function can have an arbitrary number of upvalues,
and there is no guarantee that its first upvalue will be
the <code>_ENV</code> variable.
(A non-main function may not even have an <code>_ENV</code> upvalue.)
<p>
Regardless, if the resulting function has any upvalues,
its first upvalue is set to the value of <code>env</code>,
if that parameter is given,
or to the value of the global environment.
Other upvalues are initialized with <b>nil</b>.
All upvalues are fresh, that is,
they are not shared with any other function.
<p>
<code>chunkname</code> is used as the name of the chunk for error messages
and debug information (see <a href="#4.7">§4.7</a>).
When absent,
it defaults to <code>chunk</code>, if <code>chunk</code> is a string,
or to "<code>=(load)</code>" otherwise.
<p>
The string <code>mode</code> controls whether the chunk can be text or binary
(that is, a precompiled chunk).
It may be the string "<code>b</code>" (only binary chunks),
"<code>t</code>" (only text chunks),
or "<code>bt</code>" (both binary and text).
The default is "<code>bt</code>".
<p>
It is safe to load malformed binary chunks;
<code>load</code> signals an appropriate error.
However,
Lua does not check the consistency of the code inside binary chunks;
running maliciously crafted bytecode can crash the interpreter.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-loadfile"><code>loadfile ([filename [, mode [, env]]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Similar to <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a>,
but gets the chunk from file <code>filename</code>
or from the standard input,
if no file name is given.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-next"><code>next (table [, index])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Allows a program to traverse all fields of a table.
Its first argument is a table and its second argument
is an index in this table.
A call to <code>next</code> returns the next index of the table
and its associated value.
When called with <b>nil</b> as its second argument,
<code>next</code> returns an initial index
and its associated value.
When called with the last index,
or with <b>nil</b> in an empty table,
<code>next</code> returns <b>nil</b>.
If the second argument is absent, then it is interpreted as <b>nil</b>.
In particular,
you can use <code>next(t)</code> to check whether a table is empty.
<p>
The order in which the indices are enumerated is not specified,
<em>even for numeric indices</em>.
(To traverse a table in numerical order,
use a numerical <b>for</b>.)
<p>
The behavior of <code>next</code> is undefined if,
during the traversal,
you assign any value to a non-existent field in the table.
You may however modify existing fields.
In particular, you may set existing fields to nil.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-pairs"><code>pairs (t)</code></a></h3>
<p>
If <code>t</code> has a metamethod <code>__pairs</code>,
calls it with <code>t</code> as argument and returns the first three
results from the call.
<p>
Otherwise,
returns three values: the <a href="#pdf-next"><code>next</code></a> function, the table <code>t</code>, and <b>nil</b>,
so that the construction
<pre>
for k,v in pairs(t) do <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
will iterate over all key–value pairs of table <code>t</code>.
<p>
See function <a href="#pdf-next"><code>next</code></a> for the caveats of modifying
the table during its traversal.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-pcall"><code>pcall (f [, arg1, ···])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Calls the function <code>f</code> with
the given arguments in <em>protected mode</em>.
This means that any error inside <code>f</code> is not propagated;
instead, <code>pcall</code> catches the error
and returns a status code.
Its first result is the status code (a boolean),
which is true if the call succeeds without errors.
In such case, <code>pcall</code> also returns all results from the call,
after this first result.
In case of any error, <code>pcall</code> returns <b>false</b> plus the error object.
Note that errors caught by <code>pcall</code> do not call a message handler.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-print"><code>print (···)</code></a></h3>
Receives any number of arguments
and prints their values to <code>stdout</code>,
converting each argument to a string
following the same rules of <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a>.
<p>
The function <code>print</code> is not intended for formatted output,
but only as a quick way to show a value,
for instance for debugging.
For complete control over the output,
use <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-io.write"><code>io.write</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawequal"><code>rawequal (v1, v2)</code></a></h3>
Checks whether <code>v1</code> is equal to <code>v2</code>,
without invoking the <code>__eq</code> metamethod.
Returns a boolean.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawget"><code>rawget (table, index)</code></a></h3>
Gets the real value of <code>table[index]</code>,
without using the <code>__index</code> metavalue.
<code>table</code> must be a table;
<code>index</code> may be any value.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawlen"><code>rawlen (v)</code></a></h3>
Returns the length of the object <code>v</code>,
which must be a table or a string,
without invoking the <code>__len</code> metamethod.
Returns an integer.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-rawset"><code>rawset (table, index, value)</code></a></h3>
Sets the real value of <code>table[index]</code> to <code>value</code>,
without using the <code>__newindex</code> metavalue.
<code>table</code> must be a table,
<code>index</code> any value different from <b>nil</b> and NaN,
and <code>value</code> any Lua value.
<p>
This function returns <code>table</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-select"><code>select (index, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
If <code>index</code> is a number,
returns all arguments after argument number <code>index</code>;
a negative number indexes from the end (-1 is the last argument).
Otherwise, <code>index</code> must be the string <code>"#"</code>,
and <code>select</code> returns the total number of extra arguments it received.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-setmetatable"><code>setmetatable (table, metatable)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the metatable for the given table.
If <code>metatable</code> is <b>nil</b>,
removes the metatable of the given table.
If the original metatable has a <code>__metatable</code> field,
raises an error.
<p>
This function returns <code>table</code>.
<p>
To change the metatable of other types from Lua code,
you must use the debug library (<a href="#6.10">§6.10</a>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-tonumber"><code>tonumber (e [, base])</code></a></h3>
<p>
When called with no <code>base</code>,
<code>tonumber</code> tries to convert its argument to a number.
If the argument is already a number or
a string convertible to a number,
then <code>tonumber</code> returns this number;
otherwise, it returns <b>fail</b>.
<p>
The conversion of strings can result in integers or floats,
according to the lexical conventions of Lua (see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>).
The string may have leading and trailing spaces and a sign.
<p>
When called with <code>base</code>,
then <code>e</code> must be a string to be interpreted as
an integer numeral in that base.
The base may be any integer between 2 and 36, inclusive.
In bases above 10, the letter '<code>A</code>' (in either upper or lower case)
represents 10, '<code>B</code>' represents 11, and so forth,
with '<code>Z</code>' representing 35.
If the string <code>e</code> is not a valid numeral in the given base,
the function returns <b>fail</b>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-tostring"><code>tostring (v)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Receives a value of any type and
converts it to a string in a human-readable format.
<p>
If the metatable of <code>v</code> has a <code>__tostring</code> field,
then <code>tostring</code> calls the corresponding value
with <code>v</code> as argument,
and uses the result of the call as its result.
Otherwise, if the metatable of <code>v</code> has a <code>__name</code> field
with a string value,
<code>tostring</code> may use that string in its final result.
<p>
For complete control of how numbers are converted,
use <a href="#pdf-string.format"><code>string.format</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-type"><code>type (v)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the type of its only argument, coded as a string.
The possible results of this function are
"<code>nil</code>" (a string, not the value <b>nil</b>),
"<code>number</code>",
"<code>string</code>",
"<code>boolean</code>",
"<code>table</code>",
"<code>function</code>",
"<code>thread</code>",
and "<code>userdata</code>".
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-_VERSION"><code>_VERSION</code></a></h3>
<p>
A global variable (not a function) that
holds a string containing the running Lua version.
The current value of this variable is "<code>Lua 5.4</code>".
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-warn"><code>warn (msg1, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Emits a warning with a message composed by the concatenation
of all its arguments (which should be strings).
<p>
By convention,
a one-piece message starting with '<code>@</code>'
is intended to be a <em>control message</em>,
which is a message to the warning system itself.
In particular, the standard warning function in Lua
recognizes the control messages "<code>@off</code>",
to stop the emission of warnings,
and "<code>@on</code>", to (re)start the emission;
it ignores unknown control messages.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-xpcall"><code>xpcall (f, msgh [, arg1, ···])</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function is similar to <a href="#pdf-pcall"><code>pcall</code></a>,
except that it sets a new message handler <code>msgh</code>.
<h2>6.2 – <a name="6.2">Coroutine Manipulation</a></h2>
<p>
This library comprises the operations to manipulate coroutines,
which come inside the table <a name="pdf-coroutine"><code>coroutine</code></a>.
See <a href="#2.6">§2.6</a> for a general description of coroutines.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.close"><code>coroutine.close (co)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Closes coroutine <code>co</code>,
that is,
closes all its pending to-be-closed variables
and puts the coroutine in a dead state.
The given coroutine must be dead or suspended.
In case of error
(either the original error that stopped the coroutine or
errors in closing methods),
returns <b>false</b> plus the error object;
otherwise returns <b>true</b>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.create"><code>coroutine.create (f)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Creates a new coroutine, with body <code>f</code>.
<code>f</code> must be a function.
Returns this new coroutine,
an object with type <code>"thread"</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.isyieldable"><code>coroutine.isyieldable ([co])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns true when the coroutine <code>co</code> can yield.
The default for <code>co</code> is the running coroutine.
<p>
A coroutine is yieldable if it is not the main thread and
it is not inside a non-yieldable C function.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.resume"><code>coroutine.resume (co [, val1, ···])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Starts or continues the execution of coroutine <code>co</code>.
The first time you resume a coroutine,
it starts running its body.
The values <code>val1</code>, ... are passed
as the arguments to the body function.
If the coroutine has yielded,
<code>resume</code> restarts it;
the values <code>val1</code>, ... are passed
as the results from the yield.
<p>
If the coroutine runs without any errors,
<code>resume</code> returns <b>true</b> plus any values passed to <code>yield</code>
(when the coroutine yields) or any values returned by the body function
(when the coroutine terminates).
If there is any error,
<code>resume</code> returns <b>false</b> plus the error message.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.running"><code>coroutine.running ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the running coroutine plus a boolean,
true when the running coroutine is the main one.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.status"><code>coroutine.status (co)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the status of the coroutine <code>co</code>, as a string:
<code>"running"</code>,
if the coroutine is running
(that is, it is the one that called <code>status</code>);
<code>"suspended"</code>, if the coroutine is suspended in a call to <code>yield</code>,
or if it has not started running yet;
<code>"normal"</code> if the coroutine is active but not running
(that is, it has resumed another coroutine);
and <code>"dead"</code> if the coroutine has finished its body function,
or if it has stopped with an error.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.wrap"><code>coroutine.wrap (f)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Creates a new coroutine, with body <code>f</code>;
<code>f</code> must be a function.
Returns a function that resumes the coroutine each time it is called.
Any arguments passed to this function behave as the
extra arguments to <code>resume</code>.
The function returns the same values returned by <code>resume</code>,
except the first boolean.
In case of error,
the function closes the coroutine and propagates the error.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-coroutine.yield"><code>coroutine.yield (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Suspends the execution of the calling coroutine.
Any arguments to <code>yield</code> are passed as extra results to <code>resume</code>.
<h2>6.3 – <a name="6.3">Modules</a></h2>
<p>
The package library provides basic
facilities for loading modules in Lua.
It exports one function directly in the global environment:
<a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>.
Everything else is exported in the table <a name="pdf-package"><code>package</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-require"><code>require (modname)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Loads the given module.
The function starts by looking into the <a href="#pdf-package.loaded"><code>package.loaded</code></a> table
to determine whether <code>modname</code> is already loaded.
If it is, then <code>require</code> returns the value stored
at <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>.
(The absence of a second result in this case
signals that this call did not have to load the module.)
Otherwise, it tries to find a <em>loader</em> for the module.
<p>
To find a loader,
<code>require</code> is guided by the table <a href="#pdf-package.searchers"><code>package.searchers</code></a>.
Each item in this table is a search function,
that searches for the module in a particular way.
By changing this table,
we can change how <code>require</code> looks for a module.
The following explanation is based on the default configuration
for <a href="#pdf-package.searchers"><code>package.searchers</code></a>.
<p>
First <code>require</code> queries <code>package.preload[modname]</code>.
If it has a value,
this value (which must be a function) is the loader.
Otherwise <code>require</code> searches for a Lua loader using the
path stored in <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a>.
If that also fails, it searches for a C loader using the
path stored in <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a>.
If that also fails,
it tries an <em>all-in-one</em> loader (see <a href="#pdf-package.searchers"><code>package.searchers</code></a>).
<p>
Once a loader is found,
<code>require</code> calls the loader with two arguments:
<code>modname</code> and an extra value,
a <em>loader data</em>,
also returned by the searcher.
The loader data can be any value useful to the module;
for the default searchers,
it indicates where the loader was found.
(For instance, if the loader came from a file,
this extra value is the file path.)
If the loader returns any non-nil value,
<code>require</code> assigns the returned value to <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>.
If the loader does not return a non-nil value and
has not assigned any value to <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>,
then <code>require</code> assigns <b>true</b> to this entry.
In any case, <code>require</code> returns the
final value of <code>package.loaded[modname]</code>.
Besides that value, <code>require</code> also returns as a second result
the loader data returned by the searcher,
which indicates how <code>require</code> found the module.
<p>
If there is any error loading or running the module,
or if it cannot find any loader for the module,
then <code>require</code> raises an error.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.config"><code>package.config</code></a></h3>
<p>
A string describing some compile-time configurations for packages.
This string is a sequence of lines:
<ul>
<li>The first line is the directory separator string.
Default is '<code>\</code>' for Windows and '<code>/</code>' for all other systems.</li>
<li>The second line is the character that separates templates in a path.
Default is '<code>;</code>'.</li>
<li>The third line is the string that marks the
substitution points in a template.
Default is '<code>?</code>'.</li>
<li>The fourth line is a string that, in a path in Windows,
is replaced by the executable's directory.
Default is '<code>!</code>'.</li>
<li>The fifth line is a mark to ignore all text after it
when building the <code>luaopen_</code> function name.
Default is '<code>-</code>'.</li>
</ul>
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a></h3>
<p>
A string with the path used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>
to search for a C loader.
<p>
Lua initializes the C path <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a> in the same way
it initializes the Lua path <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a>,
using the environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_CPATH_5_4"><code>LUA_CPATH_5_4</code></a>,
or the environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_CPATH"><code>LUA_CPATH</code></a>,
or a default path defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.loaded"><code>package.loaded</code></a></h3>
<p>
A table used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> to control which
modules are already loaded.
When you require a module <code>modname</code> and
<code>package.loaded[modname]</code> is not false,
<a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> simply returns the value stored there.
<p>
This variable is only a reference to the real table;
assignments to this variable do not change the
table used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.loadlib"><code>package.loadlib (libname, funcname)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Dynamically links the host program with the C library <code>libname</code>.
<p>
If <code>funcname</code> is "<code>*</code>",
then it only links with the library,
making the symbols exported by the library
available to other dynamically linked libraries.
Otherwise,
it looks for a function <code>funcname</code> inside the library
and returns this function as a C function.
So, <code>funcname</code> must follow the <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a> prototype
(see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>).
<p>
This is a low-level function.
It completely bypasses the package and module system.
Unlike <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>,
it does not perform any path searching and
does not automatically adds extensions.
<code>libname</code> must be the complete file name of the C library,
including if necessary a path and an extension.
<code>funcname</code> must be the exact name exported by the C library
(which may depend on the C compiler and linker used).
<p>
This function is not supported by Standard C.
As such, it is only available on some platforms
(Windows, Linux, Mac OS X, Solaris, BSD,
plus other Unix systems that support the <code>dlfcn</code> standard).
<p>
This function is inherently insecure,
as it allows Lua to call any function in any readable dynamic
library in the system.
(Lua calls any function assuming the function
has a proper prototype and respects a proper protocol
(see <a href="#lua_CFunction"><code>lua_CFunction</code></a>).
Therefore,
calling an arbitrary function in an arbitrary dynamic library
more often than not results in an access violation.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a></h3>
<p>
A string with the path used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>
to search for a Lua loader.
<p>
At start-up, Lua initializes this variable with
the value of the environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_PATH_5_4"><code>LUA_PATH_5_4</code></a> or
the environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_PATH"><code>LUA_PATH</code></a> or
with a default path defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>,
if those environment variables are not defined.
A "<code>;;</code>" in the value of the environment variable
is replaced by the default path.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.preload"><code>package.preload</code></a></h3>
<p>
A table to store loaders for specific modules
(see <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>).
<p>
This variable is only a reference to the real table;
assignments to this variable do not change the
table used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.searchers"><code>package.searchers</code></a></h3>
<p>
A table used by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> to control how to find modules.
<p>
Each entry in this table is a <em>searcher function</em>.
When looking for a module,
<a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a> calls each of these searchers in ascending order,
with the module name (the argument given to <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>) as its
sole argument.
If the searcher finds the module,
it returns another function, the module <em>loader</em>,
plus an extra value, a <em>loader data</em>,
that will be passed to that loader and
returned as a second result by <a href="#pdf-require"><code>require</code></a>.
If it cannot find the module,
it returns a string explaining why
(or <b>nil</b> if it has nothing to say).
<p>
Lua initializes this table with four searcher functions.
<p>
The first searcher simply looks for a loader in the
<a href="#pdf-package.preload"><code>package.preload</code></a> table.
<p>
The second searcher looks for a loader as a Lua library,
using the path stored at <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a>.
The search is done as described in function <a href="#pdf-package.searchpath"><code>package.searchpath</code></a>.
<p>
The third searcher looks for a loader as a C library,
using the path given by the variable <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a>.
Again,
the search is done as described in function <a href="#pdf-package.searchpath"><code>package.searchpath</code></a>.
For instance,
if the C path is the string
<pre>
"./?.so;./?.dll;/usr/local/?/init.so"
</pre><p>
the searcher for module <code>foo</code>
will try to open the files <code>./foo.so</code>, <code>./foo.dll</code>,
and <code>/usr/local/foo/init.so</code>, in that order.
Once it finds a C library,
this searcher first uses a dynamic link facility to link the
application with the library.
Then it tries to find a C function inside the library to
be used as the loader.
The name of this C function is the string "<code>luaopen_</code>"
concatenated with a copy of the module name where each dot
is replaced by an underscore.
Moreover, if the module name has a hyphen,
its suffix after (and including) the first hyphen is removed.
For instance, if the module name is <code>a.b.c-v2.1</code>,
the function name will be <code>luaopen_a_b_c</code>.
<p>
The fourth searcher tries an <em>all-in-one loader</em>.
It searches the C path for a library for
the root name of the given module.
For instance, when requiring <code>a.b.c</code>,
it will search for a C library for <code>a</code>.
If found, it looks into it for an open function for
the submodule;
in our example, that would be <code>luaopen_a_b_c</code>.
With this facility, a package can pack several C submodules
into one single library,
with each submodule keeping its original open function.
<p>
All searchers except the first one (preload) return as the extra value
the file path where the module was found,
as returned by <a href="#pdf-package.searchpath"><code>package.searchpath</code></a>.
The first searcher always returns the string "<code>:preload:</code>".
<p>
Searchers should raise no errors and have no side effects in Lua.
(They may have side effects in C,
for instance by linking the application with a library.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-package.searchpath"><code>package.searchpath (name, path [, sep [, rep]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Searches for the given <code>name</code> in the given <code>path</code>.
<p>
A path is a string containing a sequence of
<em>templates</em> separated by semicolons.
For each template,
the function replaces each interrogation mark (if any)
in the template with a copy of <code>name</code>
wherein all occurrences of <code>sep</code>
(a dot, by default)
were replaced by <code>rep</code>
(the system's directory separator, by default),
and then tries to open the resulting file name.
<p>
For instance, if the path is the string
<pre>
"./?.lua;./?.lc;/usr/local/?/init.lua"
</pre><p>
the search for the name <code>foo.a</code>
will try to open the files
<code>./foo/a.lua</code>, <code>./foo/a.lc</code>, and
<code>/usr/local/foo/a/init.lua</code>, in that order.
<p>
Returns the resulting name of the first file that it can
open in read mode (after closing the file),
or <b>fail</b> plus an error message if none succeeds.
(This error message lists all file names it tried to open.)
<h2>6.4 – <a name="6.4">String Manipulation</a></h2>
<p>
This library provides generic functions for string manipulation,
such as finding and extracting substrings, and pattern matching.
When indexing a string in Lua, the first character is at position 1
(not at 0, as in C).
Indices are allowed to be negative and are interpreted as indexing backwards,
from the end of the string.
Thus, the last character is at position -1, and so on.
<p>
The string library provides all its functions inside the table
<a name="pdf-string"><code>string</code></a>.
It also sets a metatable for strings
where the <code>__index</code> field points to the <code>string</code> table.
Therefore, you can use the string functions in object-oriented style.
For instance, <code>string.byte(s,i)</code>
can be written as <code>s:byte(i)</code>.
<p>
The string library assumes one-byte character encodings.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.byte"><code>string.byte (s [, i [, j]])</code></a></h3>
Returns the internal numeric codes of the characters <code>s[i]</code>,
<code>s[i+1]</code>, ..., <code>s[j]</code>.
The default value for <code>i</code> is 1;
the default value for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>.
These indices are corrected
following the same rules of function <a href="#pdf-string.sub"><code>string.sub</code></a>.
<p>
Numeric codes are not necessarily portable across platforms.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.char"><code>string.char (···)</code></a></h3>
Receives zero or more integers.
Returns a string with length equal to the number of arguments,
in which each character has the internal numeric code equal
to its corresponding argument.
<p>
Numeric codes are not necessarily portable across platforms.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.dump"><code>string.dump (function [, strip])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a string containing a binary representation
(a <em>binary chunk</em>)
of the given function,
so that a later <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a> on this string returns
a copy of the function (but with new upvalues).
If <code>strip</code> is a true value,
the binary representation may not include all debug information
about the function,
to save space.
<p>
Functions with upvalues have only their number of upvalues saved.
When (re)loaded,
those upvalues receive fresh instances.
(See the <a href="#pdf-load"><code>load</code></a> function for details about
how these upvalues are initialized.
You can use the debug library to serialize
and reload the upvalues of a function
in a way adequate to your needs.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.find"><code>string.find (s, pattern [, init [, plain]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Looks for the first match of
<code>pattern</code> (see <a href="#6.4.1">§6.4.1</a>) in the string <code>s</code>.
If it finds a match, then <code>find</code> returns the indices of <code>s</code>
where this occurrence starts and ends;
otherwise, it returns <b>fail</b>.
A third, optional numeric argument <code>init</code> specifies
where to start the search;
its default value is 1 and can be negative.
A value of <b>true</b> as a fourth, optional argument <code>plain</code>
turns off the pattern matching facilities,
so the function does a plain "find substring" operation,
with no characters in <code>pattern</code> being considered magic.
<p>
If the pattern has captures,
then in a successful match
the captured values are also returned,
after the two indices.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.format"><code>string.format (formatstring, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a formatted version of its variable number of arguments
following the description given in its first argument,
which must be a string.
The format string follows the same rules as the ISO C function <code>sprintf</code>.
The only differences are that the conversion specifiers and modifiers
<code>*</code>, <code>h</code>, <code>L</code>, <code>l</code>, and <code>n</code> are not supported
and that there is an extra specifier, <code>q</code>.
<p>
The specifier <code>q</code> formats booleans, nil, numbers, and strings
in a way that the result is a valid constant in Lua source code.
Booleans and nil are written in the obvious way
(<code>true</code>, <code>false</code>, <code>nil</code>).
Floats are written in hexadecimal,
to preserve full precision.
A string is written between double quotes,
using escape sequences when necessary to ensure that
it can safely be read back by the Lua interpreter.
For instance, the call
<pre>
string.format('%q', 'a string with "quotes" and \n new line')
</pre><p>
may produce the string:
<pre>
"a string with \"quotes\" and \
new line"
</pre><p>
This specifier does not support modifiers (flags, width, length).
<p>
The conversion specifiers
<code>A</code>, <code>a</code>, <code>E</code>, <code>e</code>, <code>f</code>,
<code>G</code>, and <code>g</code> all expect a number as argument.
The specifiers <code>c</code>, <code>d</code>,
<code>i</code>, <code>o</code>, <code>u</code>, <code>X</code>, and <code>x</code>
expect an integer.
When Lua is compiled with a C89 compiler,
the specifiers <code>A</code> and <code>a</code> (hexadecimal floats)
do not support modifiers.
<p>
The specifier <code>s</code> expects a string;
if its argument is not a string,
it is converted to one following the same rules of <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a>.
If the specifier has any modifier,
the corresponding string argument should not contain embedded zeros.
<p>
The specifier <code>p</code> formats the pointer
returned by <a href="#lua_topointer"><code>lua_topointer</code></a>.
That gives a unique string identifier for tables, userdata,
threads, strings, and functions.
For other values (numbers, nil, booleans),
this specifier results in a string representing
the pointer <code>NULL</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.gmatch"><code>string.gmatch (s, pattern [, init])</code></a></h3>
Returns an iterator function that,
each time it is called,
returns the next captures from <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="#6.4.1">§6.4.1</a>)
over the string <code>s</code>.
If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures,
then the whole match is produced in each call.
A third, optional numeric argument <code>init</code> specifies
where to start the search;
its default value is 1 and can be negative.
<p>
As an example, the following loop
will iterate over all the words from string <code>s</code>,
printing one per line:
<pre>
s = "hello world from Lua"
for w in string.gmatch(s, "%a+") do
print(w)
end
</pre><p>
The next example collects all pairs <code>key=value</code> from the
given string into a table:
<pre>
t = {}
s = "from=world, to=Lua"
for k, v in string.gmatch(s, "(%w+)=(%w+)") do
t[k] = v
end
</pre>
<p>
For this function, a caret '<code>^</code>' at the start of a pattern does not
work as an anchor, as this would prevent the iteration.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.gsub"><code>string.gsub (s, pattern, repl [, n])</code></a></h3>
Returns a copy of <code>s</code>
in which all (or the first <code>n</code>, if given)
occurrences of the <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="#6.4.1">§6.4.1</a>) have been
replaced by a replacement string specified by <code>repl</code>,
which can be a string, a table, or a function.
<code>gsub</code> also returns, as its second value,
the total number of matches that occurred.
The name <code>gsub</code> comes from <em>Global SUBstitution</em>.
<p>
If <code>repl</code> is a string, then its value is used for replacement.
The character <code>%</code> works as an escape character:
any sequence in <code>repl</code> of the form <code>%<em>d</em></code>,
with <em>d</em> between 1 and 9,
stands for the value of the <em>d</em>-th captured substring;
the sequence <code>%0</code> stands for the whole match;
the sequence <code>%%</code> stands for a single <code>%</code>.
<p>
If <code>repl</code> is a table, then the table is queried for every match,
using the first capture as the key.
<p>
If <code>repl</code> is a function, then this function is called every time a
match occurs, with all captured substrings passed as arguments,
in order.
<p>
In any case,
if the pattern specifies no captures,
then it behaves as if the whole pattern was inside a capture.
<p>
If the value returned by the table query or by the function call
is a string or a number,
then it is used as the replacement string;
otherwise, if it is <b>false</b> or <b>nil</b>,
then there is no replacement
(that is, the original match is kept in the string).
<p>
Here are some examples:
<pre>
x = string.gsub("hello world", "(%w+)", "%1 %1")
--> x="hello hello world world"
x = string.gsub("hello world", "%w+", "%0 %0", 1)
--> x="hello hello world"
x = string.gsub("hello world from Lua", "(%w+)%s*(%w+)", "%2 %1")
--> x="world hello Lua from"
x = string.gsub("home = $HOME, user = $USER", "%$(%w+)", os.getenv)
--> x="home = /home/roberto, user = roberto"
x = string.gsub("4+5 = $return 4+5$", "%$(.-)%$", function (s)
return load(s)()
end)
--> x="4+5 = 9"
local t = {name="lua", version="5.4"}
x = string.gsub("$name-$version.tar.gz", "%$(%w+)", t)
--> x="lua-5.4.tar.gz"
</pre>
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.len"><code>string.len (s)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Receives a string and returns its length.
The empty string <code>""</code> has length 0.
Embedded zeros are counted,
so <code>"a\000bc\000"</code> has length 5.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.lower"><code>string.lower (s)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all
uppercase letters changed to lowercase.
All other characters are left unchanged.
The definition of what an uppercase letter is depends on the current locale.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.match"><code>string.match (s, pattern [, init])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Looks for the first <em>match</em> of
the <code>pattern</code> (see <a href="#6.4.1">§6.4.1</a>) in the string <code>s</code>.
If it finds one, then <code>match</code> returns
the captures from the pattern;
otherwise it returns <b>fail</b>.
If <code>pattern</code> specifies no captures,
then the whole match is returned.
A third, optional numeric argument <code>init</code> specifies
where to start the search;
its default value is 1 and can be negative.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack (fmt, v1, v2, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a binary string containing the values <code>v1</code>, <code>v2</code>, etc.
serialized in binary form (packed)
according to the format string <code>fmt</code> (see <a href="#6.4.2">§6.4.2</a>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.packsize"><code>string.packsize (fmt)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the size of a string resulting from <a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a>
with the given format.
The format string cannot have the variable-length options
'<code>s</code>' or '<code>z</code>' (see <a href="#6.4.2">§6.4.2</a>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.rep"><code>string.rep (s, n [, sep])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a string that is the concatenation of <code>n</code> copies of
the string <code>s</code> separated by the string <code>sep</code>.
The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string
(that is, no separator).
Returns the empty string if <code>n</code> is not positive.
<p>
(Note that it is very easy to exhaust the memory of your machine
with a single call to this function.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.reverse"><code>string.reverse (s)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a string that is the string <code>s</code> reversed.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.sub"><code>string.sub (s, i [, j])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the substring of <code>s</code> that
starts at <code>i</code> and continues until <code>j</code>;
<code>i</code> and <code>j</code> can be negative.
If <code>j</code> is absent, then it is assumed to be equal to -1
(which is the same as the string length).
In particular,
the call <code>string.sub(s,1,j)</code> returns a prefix of <code>s</code>
with length <code>j</code>,
and <code>string.sub(s, -i)</code> (for a positive <code>i</code>)
returns a suffix of <code>s</code>
with length <code>i</code>.
<p>
If, after the translation of negative indices,
<code>i</code> is less than 1,
it is corrected to 1.
If <code>j</code> is greater than the string length,
it is corrected to that length.
If, after these corrections,
<code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>,
the function returns the empty string.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.unpack"><code>string.unpack (fmt, s [, pos])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the values packed in string <code>s</code> (see <a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a>)
according to the format string <code>fmt</code> (see <a href="#6.4.2">§6.4.2</a>).
An optional <code>pos</code> marks where
to start reading in <code>s</code> (default is 1).
After the read values,
this function also returns the index of the first unread byte in <code>s</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-string.upper"><code>string.upper (s)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Receives a string and returns a copy of this string with all
lowercase letters changed to uppercase.
All other characters are left unchanged.
The definition of what a lowercase letter is depends on the current locale.
<h3>6.4.1 – <a name="6.4.1">Patterns</a></h3>
<p>
Patterns in Lua are described by regular strings,
which are interpreted as patterns by the pattern-matching functions
<a href="#pdf-string.find"><code>string.find</code></a>,
<a href="#pdf-string.gmatch"><code>string.gmatch</code></a>,
<a href="#pdf-string.gsub"><code>string.gsub</code></a>,
and <a href="#pdf-string.match"><code>string.match</code></a>.
This section describes the syntax and the meaning
(that is, what they match) of these strings.
<h4>Character Class:</h4><p>
A <em>character class</em> is used to represent a set of characters.
The following combinations are allowed in describing a character class:
<ul>
<li><b><em>x</em>: </b>
(where <em>x</em> is not one of the <em>magic characters</em>
<code>^$()%.[]*+-?</code>)
represents the character <em>x</em> itself.
</li>
<li><b><code>.</code>: </b> (a dot) represents all characters.</li>
<li><b><code>%a</code>: </b> represents all letters.</li>
<li><b><code>%c</code>: </b> represents all control characters.</li>
<li><b><code>%d</code>: </b> represents all digits.</li>
<li><b><code>%g</code>: </b> represents all printable characters except space.</li>
<li><b><code>%l</code>: </b> represents all lowercase letters.</li>
<li><b><code>%p</code>: </b> represents all punctuation characters.</li>
<li><b><code>%s</code>: </b> represents all space characters.</li>
<li><b><code>%u</code>: </b> represents all uppercase letters.</li>
<li><b><code>%w</code>: </b> represents all alphanumeric characters.</li>
<li><b><code>%x</code>: </b> represents all hexadecimal digits.</li>
<li><b><code>%<em>x</em></code>: </b> (where <em>x</em> is any non-alphanumeric character)
represents the character <em>x</em>.
This is the standard way to escape the magic characters.
Any non-alphanumeric character
(including all punctuation characters, even the non-magical)
can be preceded by a '<code>%</code>' to represent itself in a pattern.
</li>
<li><b><code>[<em>set</em>]</code>: </b>
represents the class which is the union of all
characters in <em>set</em>.
A range of characters can be specified by
separating the end characters of the range,
in ascending order, with a '<code>-</code>'.
All classes <code>%</code><em>x</em> described above can also be used as
components in <em>set</em>.
All other characters in <em>set</em> represent themselves.
For example, <code>[%w_]</code> (or <code>[_%w]</code>)
represents all alphanumeric characters plus the underscore,
<code>[0-7]</code> represents the octal digits,
and <code>[0-7%l%-]</code> represents the octal digits plus
the lowercase letters plus the '<code>-</code>' character.
<p>
You can put a closing square bracket in a set
by positioning it as the first character in the set.
You can put a hyphen in a set
by positioning it as the first or the last character in the set.
(You can also use an escape for both cases.)
<p>
The interaction between ranges and classes is not defined.
Therefore, patterns like <code>[%a-z]</code> or <code>[a-%%]</code>
have no meaning.
</li>
<li><b><code>[^<em>set</em>]</code>: </b>
represents the complement of <em>set</em>,
where <em>set</em> is interpreted as above.
</li>
</ul><p>
For all classes represented by single letters (<code>%a</code>, <code>%c</code>, etc.),
the corresponding uppercase letter represents the complement of the class.
For instance, <code>%S</code> represents all non-space characters.
<p>
The definitions of letter, space, and other character groups
depend on the current locale.
In particular, the class <code>[a-z]</code> may not be equivalent to <code>%l</code>.
<h4>Pattern Item:</h4><p>
A <em>pattern item</em> can be
<ul>
<li>
a single character class,
which matches any single character in the class;
</li>
<li>
a single character class followed by '<code>*</code>',
which matches sequences of zero or more characters in the class.
These repetition items will always match the longest possible sequence;
</li>
<li>
a single character class followed by '<code>+</code>',
which matches sequences of one or more characters in the class.
These repetition items will always match the longest possible sequence;
</li>
<li>
a single character class followed by '<code>-</code>',
which also matches sequences of zero or more characters in the class.
Unlike '<code>*</code>',
these repetition items will always match the shortest possible sequence;
</li>
<li>
a single character class followed by '<code>?</code>',
which matches zero or one occurrence of a character in the class.
It always matches one occurrence if possible;
</li>
<li>
<code>%<em>n</em></code>, for <em>n</em> between 1 and 9;
such item matches a substring equal to the <em>n</em>-th captured string
(see below);
</li>
<li>
<code>%b<em>xy</em></code>, where <em>x</em> and <em>y</em> are two distinct characters;
such item matches strings that start with <em>x</em>, end with <em>y</em>,
and where the <em>x</em> and <em>y</em> are <em>balanced</em>.
This means that, if one reads the string from left to right,
counting <em>+1</em> for an <em>x</em> and <em>-1</em> for a <em>y</em>,
the ending <em>y</em> is the first <em>y</em> where the count reaches 0.
For instance, the item <code>%b()</code> matches expressions with
balanced parentheses.
</li>
<li>
<code>%f[<em>set</em>]</code>, a <em>frontier pattern</em>;
such item matches an empty string at any position such that
the next character belongs to <em>set</em>
and the previous character does not belong to <em>set</em>.
The set <em>set</em> is interpreted as previously described.
The beginning and the end of the subject are handled as if
they were the character '<code>\0</code>'.
</li>
</ul>
<h4>Pattern:</h4><p>
A <em>pattern</em> is a sequence of pattern items.
A caret '<code>^</code>' at the beginning of a pattern anchors the match at the
beginning of the subject string.
A '<code>$</code>' at the end of a pattern anchors the match at the
end of the subject string.
At other positions,
'<code>^</code>' and '<code>$</code>' have no special meaning and represent themselves.
<h4>Captures:</h4><p>
A pattern can contain sub-patterns enclosed in parentheses;
they describe <em>captures</em>.
When a match succeeds, the substrings of the subject string
that match captures are stored (<em>captured</em>) for future use.
Captures are numbered according to their left parentheses.
For instance, in the pattern <code>"(a*(.)%w(%s*))"</code>,
the part of the string matching <code>"a*(.)%w(%s*)"</code> is
stored as the first capture, and therefore has number 1;
the character matching "<code>.</code>" is captured with number 2,
and the part matching "<code>%s*</code>" has number 3.
<p>
As a special case, the capture <code>()</code> captures
the current string position (a number).
For instance, if we apply the pattern <code>"()aa()"</code> on the
string <code>"flaaap"</code>, there will be two captures: 3 and 5.
<h4>Multiple matches:</h4><p>
The function <a href="#pdf-string.gsub"><code>string.gsub</code></a> and the iterator <a href="#pdf-string.gmatch"><code>string.gmatch</code></a>
match multiple occurrences of the given pattern in the subject.
For these functions,
a new match is considered valid only
if it ends at least one byte after the end of the previous match.
In other words, the pattern machine never accepts the
empty string as a match immediately after another match.
As an example,
consider the results of the following code:
<pre>
> string.gsub("abc", "()a*()", print);
--> 1 2
--> 3 3
--> 4 4
</pre><p>
The second and third results come from Lua matching an empty
string after '<code>b</code>' and another one after '<code>c</code>'.
Lua does not match an empty string after '<code>a</code>',
because it would end at the same position of the previous match.
<h3>6.4.2 – <a name="6.4.2">Format Strings for Pack and Unpack</a></h3>
<p>
The first argument to <a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a>,
<a href="#pdf-string.packsize"><code>string.packsize</code></a>, and <a href="#pdf-string.unpack"><code>string.unpack</code></a>
is a format string,
which describes the layout of the structure being created or read.
<p>
A format string is a sequence of conversion options.
The conversion options are as follows:
<ul>
<li><b><code><</code>: </b>sets little endian</li>
<li><b><code>></code>: </b>sets big endian</li>
<li><b><code>=</code>: </b>sets native endian</li>
<li><b><code>![<em>n</em>]</code>: </b>sets maximum alignment to <code>n</code>
(default is native alignment)</li>
<li><b><code>b</code>: </b>a signed byte (<code>char</code>)</li>
<li><b><code>B</code>: </b>an unsigned byte (<code>char</code>)</li>
<li><b><code>h</code>: </b>a signed <code>short</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>H</code>: </b>an unsigned <code>short</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>l</code>: </b>a signed <code>long</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>L</code>: </b>an unsigned <code>long</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>j</code>: </b>a <code>lua_Integer</code></li>
<li><b><code>J</code>: </b>a <code>lua_Unsigned</code></li>
<li><b><code>T</code>: </b>a <code>size_t</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>i[<em>n</em>]</code>: </b>a signed <code>int</code> with <code>n</code> bytes
(default is native size)</li>
<li><b><code>I[<em>n</em>]</code>: </b>an unsigned <code>int</code> with <code>n</code> bytes
(default is native size)</li>
<li><b><code>f</code>: </b>a <code>float</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>d</code>: </b>a <code>double</code> (native size)</li>
<li><b><code>n</code>: </b>a <code>lua_Number</code></li>
<li><b><code>c<em>n</em></code>: </b>a fixed-sized string with <code>n</code> bytes</li>
<li><b><code>z</code>: </b>a zero-terminated string</li>
<li><b><code>s[<em>n</em>]</code>: </b>a string preceded by its length
coded as an unsigned integer with <code>n</code> bytes
(default is a <code>size_t</code>)</li>
<li><b><code>x</code>: </b>one byte of padding</li>
<li><b><code>X<em>op</em></code>: </b>an empty item that aligns
according to option <code>op</code>
(which is otherwise ignored)</li>
<li><b>'<code> </code>': </b>(space) ignored</li>
</ul><p>
(A "<code>[<em>n</em>]</code>" means an optional integral numeral.)
Except for padding, spaces, and configurations
(options "<code>xX <=>!</code>"),
each option corresponds to an argument in <a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a>
or a result in <a href="#pdf-string.unpack"><code>string.unpack</code></a>.
<p>
For options "<code>!<em>n</em></code>", "<code>s<em>n</em></code>", "<code>i<em>n</em></code>", and "<code>I<em>n</em></code>",
<code>n</code> can be any integer between 1 and 16.
All integral options check overflows;
<a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a> checks whether the given value fits in the given size;
<a href="#pdf-string.unpack"><code>string.unpack</code></a> checks whether the read value fits in a Lua integer.
For the unsigned options,
Lua integers are treated as unsigned values too.
<p>
Any format string starts as if prefixed by "<code>!1=</code>",
that is,
with maximum alignment of 1 (no alignment)
and native endianness.
<p>
Native endianness assumes that the whole system is
either big or little endian.
The packing functions will not emulate correctly the behavior
of mixed-endian formats.
<p>
Alignment works as follows:
For each option,
the format gets extra padding until the data starts
at an offset that is a multiple of the minimum between the
option size and the maximum alignment;
this minimum must be a power of 2.
Options "<code>c</code>" and "<code>z</code>" are not aligned;
option "<code>s</code>" follows the alignment of its starting integer.
<p>
All padding is filled with zeros by <a href="#pdf-string.pack"><code>string.pack</code></a>
and ignored by <a href="#pdf-string.unpack"><code>string.unpack</code></a>.
<h2>6.5 – <a name="6.5">UTF-8 Support</a></h2>
<p>
This library provides basic support for UTF-8 encoding.
It provides all its functions inside the table <a name="pdf-utf8"><code>utf8</code></a>.
This library does not provide any support for Unicode other
than the handling of the encoding.
Any operation that needs the meaning of a character,
such as character classification, is outside its scope.
<p>
Unless stated otherwise,
all functions that expect a byte position as a parameter
assume that the given position is either the start of a byte sequence
or one plus the length of the subject string.
As in the string library,
negative indices count from the end of the string.
<p>
Functions that create byte sequences
accept all values up to <code>0x7FFFFFFF</code>,
as defined in the original UTF-8 specification;
that implies byte sequences of up to six bytes.
<p>
Functions that interpret byte sequences only accept
valid sequences (well formed and not overlong).
By default, they only accept byte sequences
that result in valid Unicode code points,
rejecting values greater than <code>10FFFF</code> and surrogates.
A boolean argument <code>lax</code>, when available,
lifts these checks,
so that all values up to <code>0x7FFFFFFF</code> are accepted.
(Not well formed and overlong sequences are still rejected.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.char"><code>utf8.char (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Receives zero or more integers,
converts each one to its corresponding UTF-8 byte sequence
and returns a string with the concatenation of all these sequences.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.charpattern"><code>utf8.charpattern</code></a></h3>
<p>
The pattern (a string, not a function) "<code>[\0-\x7F\xC2-\xFD][\x80-\xBF]*</code>"
(see <a href="#6.4.1">§6.4.1</a>),
which matches exactly one UTF-8 byte sequence,
assuming that the subject is a valid UTF-8 string.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.codes"><code>utf8.codes (s [, lax])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns values so that the construction
<pre>
for p, c in utf8.codes(s) do <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
will iterate over all UTF-8 characters in string <code>s</code>,
with <code>p</code> being the position (in bytes) and <code>c</code> the code point
of each character.
It raises an error if it meets any invalid byte sequence.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.codepoint"><code>utf8.codepoint (s [, i [, j [, lax]]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the code points (as integers) from all characters in <code>s</code>
that start between byte position <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> (both included).
The default for <code>i</code> is 1 and for <code>j</code> is <code>i</code>.
It raises an error if it meets any invalid byte sequence.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.len"><code>utf8.len (s [, i [, j [, lax]]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the number of UTF-8 characters in string <code>s</code>
that start between positions <code>i</code> and <code>j</code> (both inclusive).
The default for <code>i</code> is 1 and for <code>j</code> is -1.
If it finds any invalid byte sequence,
returns <b>fail</b> plus the position of the first invalid byte.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-utf8.offset"><code>utf8.offset (s, n [, i])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the position (in bytes) where the encoding of the
<code>n</code>-th character of <code>s</code>
(counting from position <code>i</code>) starts.
A negative <code>n</code> gets characters before position <code>i</code>.
The default for <code>i</code> is 1 when <code>n</code> is non-negative
and <code>#s + 1</code> otherwise,
so that <code>utf8.offset(s, -n)</code> gets the offset of the
<code>n</code>-th character from the end of the string.
If the specified character is neither in the subject
nor right after its end,
the function returns <b>fail</b>.
<p>
As a special case,
when <code>n</code> is 0 the function returns the start of the encoding
of the character that contains the <code>i</code>-th byte of <code>s</code>.
<p>
This function assumes that <code>s</code> is a valid UTF-8 string.
<h2>6.6 – <a name="6.6">Table Manipulation</a></h2>
<p>
This library provides generic functions for table manipulation.
It provides all its functions inside the table <a name="pdf-table"><code>table</code></a>.
<p>
Remember that, whenever an operation needs the length of a table,
all caveats about the length operator apply (see <a href="#3.4.7">§3.4.7</a>).
All functions ignore non-numeric keys
in the tables given as arguments.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.concat"><code>table.concat (list [, sep [, i [, j]]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Given a list where all elements are strings or numbers,
returns the string <code>list[i]..sep..list[i+1] ··· sep..list[j]</code>.
The default value for <code>sep</code> is the empty string,
the default for <code>i</code> is 1,
and the default for <code>j</code> is <code>#list</code>.
If <code>i</code> is greater than <code>j</code>, returns the empty string.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.insert"><code>table.insert (list, [pos,] value)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Inserts element <code>value</code> at position <code>pos</code> in <code>list</code>,
shifting up the elements
<code>list[pos], list[pos+1], ···, list[#list]</code>.
The default value for <code>pos</code> is <code>#list+1</code>,
so that a call <code>table.insert(t,x)</code> inserts <code>x</code> at the end
of the list <code>t</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.move"><code>table.move (a1, f, e, t [,a2])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Moves elements from the table <code>a1</code> to the table <code>a2</code>,
performing the equivalent to the following
multiple assignment:
<code>a2[t],··· = a1[f],···,a1[e]</code>.
The default for <code>a2</code> is <code>a1</code>.
The destination range can overlap with the source range.
The number of elements to be moved must fit in a Lua integer.
<p>
Returns the destination table <code>a2</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.pack"><code>table.pack (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a new table with all arguments stored into keys 1, 2, etc.
and with a field "<code>n</code>" with the total number of arguments.
Note that the resulting table may not be a sequence,
if some arguments are <b>nil</b>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.remove"><code>table.remove (list [, pos])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Removes from <code>list</code> the element at position <code>pos</code>,
returning the value of the removed element.
When <code>pos</code> is an integer between 1 and <code>#list</code>,
it shifts down the elements
<code>list[pos+1], list[pos+2], ···, list[#list]</code>
and erases element <code>list[#list]</code>;
The index <code>pos</code> can also be 0 when <code>#list</code> is 0,
or <code>#list + 1</code>.
<p>
The default value for <code>pos</code> is <code>#list</code>,
so that a call <code>table.remove(l)</code> removes the last element
of the list <code>l</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.sort"><code>table.sort (list [, comp])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sorts the list elements in a given order, <em>in-place</em>,
from <code>list[1]</code> to <code>list[#list]</code>.
If <code>comp</code> is given,
then it must be a function that receives two list elements
and returns true when the first element must come
before the second in the final order,
so that, after the sort,
<code>i <= j</code> implies <code>not comp(list[j],list[i])</code>.
If <code>comp</code> is not given,
then the standard Lua operator <code><</code> is used instead.
<p>
The <code>comp</code> function must define a consistent order;
more formally, the function must define a strict weak order.
(A weak order is similar to a total order,
but it can equate different elements for comparison purposes.)
<p>
The sort algorithm is not stable:
Different elements considered equal by the given order
may have their relative positions changed by the sort.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-table.unpack"><code>table.unpack (list [, i [, j]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the elements from the given list.
This function is equivalent to
<pre>
return list[i], list[i+1], ···, list[j]
</pre><p>
By default, <code>i</code> is 1 and <code>j</code> is <code>#list</code>.
<h2>6.7 – <a name="6.7">Mathematical Functions</a></h2>
<p>
This library provides basic mathematical functions.
It provides all its functions and constants inside the table <a name="pdf-math"><code>math</code></a>.
Functions with the annotation "<code>integer/float</code>" give
integer results for integer arguments
and float results for non-integer arguments.
The rounding functions
<a href="#pdf-math.ceil"><code>math.ceil</code></a>, <a href="#pdf-math.floor"><code>math.floor</code></a>, and <a href="#pdf-math.modf"><code>math.modf</code></a>
return an integer when the result fits in the range of an integer,
or a float otherwise.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.abs"><code>math.abs (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the maximum value between <code>x</code> and <code>-x</code>. (integer/float)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.acos"><code>math.acos (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the arc cosine of <code>x</code> (in radians).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.asin"><code>math.asin (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the arc sine of <code>x</code> (in radians).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.atan"><code>math.atan (y [, x])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the arc tangent of <code>y/x</code> (in radians),
but uses the signs of both arguments to find the
quadrant of the result.
It also handles correctly the case of <code>x</code> being zero.
<p>
The default value for <code>x</code> is 1,
so that the call <code>math.atan(y)</code>
returns the arc tangent of <code>y</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.ceil"><code>math.ceil (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the smallest integral value greater than or equal to <code>x</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.cos"><code>math.cos (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the cosine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.deg"><code>math.deg (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Converts the angle <code>x</code> from radians to degrees.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.exp"><code>math.exp (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the value <em>e<sup>x</sup></em>
(where <code>e</code> is the base of natural logarithms).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.floor"><code>math.floor (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the largest integral value less than or equal to <code>x</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.fmod"><code>math.fmod (x, y)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the remainder of the division of <code>x</code> by <code>y</code>
that rounds the quotient towards zero. (integer/float)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.huge"><code>math.huge</code></a></h3>
<p>
The float value <code>HUGE_VAL</code>,
a value greater than any other numeric value.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.log"><code>math.log (x [, base])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the logarithm of <code>x</code> in the given base.
The default for <code>base</code> is <em>e</em>
(so that the function returns the natural logarithm of <code>x</code>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.max"><code>math.max (x, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the argument with the maximum value,
according to the Lua operator <code><</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.maxinteger"><code>math.maxinteger</code></a></h3>
An integer with the maximum value for an integer.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.min"><code>math.min (x, ···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the argument with the minimum value,
according to the Lua operator <code><</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.mininteger"><code>math.mininteger</code></a></h3>
An integer with the minimum value for an integer.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.modf"><code>math.modf (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the integral part of <code>x</code> and the fractional part of <code>x</code>.
Its second result is always a float.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.pi"><code>math.pi</code></a></h3>
<p>
The value of <em>π</em>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.rad"><code>math.rad (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Converts the angle <code>x</code> from degrees to radians.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.random"><code>math.random ([m [, n]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
When called without arguments,
returns a pseudo-random float with uniform distribution
in the range <em>[0,1)</em>.
When called with two integers <code>m</code> and <code>n</code>,
<code>math.random</code> returns a pseudo-random integer
with uniform distribution in the range <em>[m, n]</em>.
The call <code>math.random(n)</code>, for a positive <code>n</code>,
is equivalent to <code>math.random(1,n)</code>.
The call <code>math.random(0)</code> produces an integer with
all bits (pseudo)random.
<p>
This function uses the <code>xoshiro256**</code> algorithm to produce
pseudo-random 64-bit integers,
which are the results of calls with argument 0.
Other results (ranges and floats)
are unbiased extracted from these integers.
<p>
Lua initializes its pseudo-random generator with the equivalent of
a call to <a href="#pdf-math.randomseed"><code>math.randomseed</code></a> with no arguments,
so that <code>math.random</code> should generate
different sequences of results each time the program runs.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.randomseed"><code>math.randomseed ([x [, y]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
When called with at least one argument,
the integer parameters <code>x</code> and <code>y</code> are
joined into a 128-bit <em>seed</em> that
is used to reinitialize the pseudo-random generator;
equal seeds produce equal sequences of numbers.
The default for <code>y</code> is zero.
<p>
When called with no arguments,
Lua generates a seed with
a weak attempt for randomness.
<p>
This function returns the two seed components
that were effectively used,
so that setting them again repeats the sequence.
<p>
To ensure a required level of randomness to the initial state
(or contrarily, to have a deterministic sequence,
for instance when debugging a program),
you should call <a href="#pdf-math.randomseed"><code>math.randomseed</code></a> with explicit arguments.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.sin"><code>math.sin (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the sine of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.sqrt"><code>math.sqrt (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the square root of <code>x</code>.
(You can also use the expression <code>x^0.5</code> to compute this value.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.tan"><code>math.tan (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the tangent of <code>x</code> (assumed to be in radians).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.tointeger"><code>math.tointeger (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
If the value <code>x</code> is convertible to an integer,
returns that integer.
Otherwise, returns <b>fail</b>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.type"><code>math.type (x)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns "<code>integer</code>" if <code>x</code> is an integer,
"<code>float</code>" if it is a float,
or <b>fail</b> if <code>x</code> is not a number.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-math.ult"><code>math.ult (m, n)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a boolean,
true if and only if integer <code>m</code> is below integer <code>n</code> when
they are compared as unsigned integers.
<h2>6.8 – <a name="6.8">Input and Output Facilities</a></h2>
<p>
The I/O library provides two different styles for file manipulation.
The first one uses implicit file handles;
that is, there are operations to set a default input file and a
default output file,
and all input/output operations are done over these default files.
The second style uses explicit file handles.
<p>
When using implicit file handles,
all operations are supplied by table <a name="pdf-io"><code>io</code></a>.
When using explicit file handles,
the operation <a href="#pdf-io.open"><code>io.open</code></a> returns a file handle
and then all operations are supplied as methods of the file handle.
<p>
The metatable for file handles provides metamethods
for <code>__gc</code> and <code>__close</code> that try
to close the file when called.
<p>
The table <code>io</code> also provides
three predefined file handles with their usual meanings from C:
<a name="pdf-io.stdin"><code>io.stdin</code></a>, <a name="pdf-io.stdout"><code>io.stdout</code></a>, and <a name="pdf-io.stderr"><code>io.stderr</code></a>.
The I/O library never closes these files.
<p>
Unless otherwise stated,
all I/O functions return <b>fail</b> on failure,
plus an error message as a second result and
a system-dependent error code as a third result,
and some non-false value on success.
On non-POSIX systems,
the computation of the error message and error code
in case of errors
may be not thread safe,
because they rely on the global C variable <code>errno</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.close"><code>io.close ([file])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Equivalent to <code>file:close()</code>.
Without a <code>file</code>, closes the default output file.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.flush"><code>io.flush ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Equivalent to <code>io.output():flush()</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.input"><code>io.input ([file])</code></a></h3>
<p>
When called with a file name, it opens the named file (in text mode),
and sets its handle as the default input file.
When called with a file handle,
it simply sets this file handle as the default input file.
When called without arguments,
it returns the current default input file.
<p>
In case of errors this function raises the error,
instead of returning an error code.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines ([filename, ···])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Opens the given file name in read mode
and returns an iterator function that
works like <code>file:lines(···)</code> over the opened file.
When the iterator function fails to read any value,
it automatically closes the file.
Besides the iterator function,
<code>io.lines</code> returns three other values:
two <b>nil</b> values as placeholders,
plus the created file handle.
Therefore, when used in a generic <b>for</b> loop,
the file is closed also if the loop is interrupted by an
error or a <b>break</b>.
<p>
The call <code>io.lines()</code> (with no file name) is equivalent
to <code>io.input():lines("l")</code>;
that is, it iterates over the lines of the default input file.
In this case, the iterator does not close the file when the loop ends.
<p>
In case of errors opening the file,
this function raises the error,
instead of returning an error code.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.open"><code>io.open (filename [, mode])</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function opens a file,
in the mode specified in the string <code>mode</code>.
In case of success,
it returns a new file handle.
<p>
The <code>mode</code> string can be any of the following:
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>r</code>": </b> read mode (the default);</li>
<li><b>"<code>w</code>": </b> write mode;</li>
<li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b> append mode;</li>
<li><b>"<code>r+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is preserved;</li>
<li><b>"<code>w+</code>": </b> update mode, all previous data is erased;</li>
<li><b>"<code>a+</code>": </b> append update mode, previous data is preserved,
writing is only allowed at the end of file.</li>
</ul><p>
The <code>mode</code> string can also have a '<code>b</code>' at the end,
which is needed in some systems to open the file in binary mode.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.output"><code>io.output ([file])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Similar to <a href="#pdf-io.input"><code>io.input</code></a>, but operates over the default output file.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen (prog [, mode])</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function is system dependent and is not available
on all platforms.
<p>
Starts the program <code>prog</code> in a separated process and returns
a file handle that you can use to read data from this program
(if <code>mode</code> is <code>"r"</code>, the default)
or to write data to this program
(if <code>mode</code> is <code>"w"</code>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.read"><code>io.read (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Equivalent to <code>io.input():read(···)</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
In case of success,
returns a handle for a temporary file.
This file is opened in update mode
and it is automatically removed when the program ends.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.type"><code>io.type (obj)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Checks whether <code>obj</code> is a valid file handle.
Returns the string <code>"file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is an open file handle,
<code>"closed file"</code> if <code>obj</code> is a closed file handle,
or <b>fail</b> if <code>obj</code> is not a file handle.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-io.write"><code>io.write (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Equivalent to <code>io.output():write(···)</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:close"><code>file:close ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Closes <code>file</code>.
Note that files are automatically closed when
their handles are garbage collected,
but that takes an unpredictable amount of time to happen.
<p>
When closing a file handle created with <a href="#pdf-io.popen"><code>io.popen</code></a>,
<a href="#pdf-file:close"><code>file:close</code></a> returns the same values
returned by <a href="#pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:flush"><code>file:flush ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Saves any written data to <code>file</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:lines"><code>file:lines (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns an iterator function that,
each time it is called,
reads the file according to the given formats.
When no format is given,
uses "<code>l</code>" as a default.
As an example, the construction
<pre>
for c in file:lines(1) do <em>body</em> end
</pre><p>
will iterate over all characters of the file,
starting at the current position.
Unlike <a href="#pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines</code></a>, this function does not close the file
when the loop ends.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:read"><code>file:read (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Reads the file <code>file</code>,
according to the given formats, which specify what to read.
For each format,
the function returns a string or a number with the characters read,
or <b>fail</b> if it cannot read data with the specified format.
(In this latter case,
the function does not read subsequent formats.)
When called without arguments,
it uses a default format that reads the next line
(see below).
<p>
The available formats are
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>n</code>": </b>
reads a numeral and returns it as a float or an integer,
following the lexical conventions of Lua.
(The numeral may have leading whitespaces and a sign.)
This format always reads the longest input sequence that
is a valid prefix for a numeral;
if that prefix does not form a valid numeral
(e.g., an empty string, "<code>0x</code>", or "<code>3.4e-</code>")
or it is too long (more than 200 characters),
it is discarded and the format returns <b>fail</b>.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>a</code>": </b>
reads the whole file, starting at the current position.
On end of file, it returns the empty string;
this format never fails.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>l</code>": </b>
reads the next line skipping the end of line,
returning <b>fail</b> on end of file.
This is the default format.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>L</code>": </b>
reads the next line keeping the end-of-line character (if present),
returning <b>fail</b> on end of file.
</li>
<li><b><em>number</em>: </b>
reads a string with up to this number of bytes,
returning <b>fail</b> on end of file.
If <code>number</code> is zero,
it reads nothing and returns an empty string,
or <b>fail</b> on end of file.
</li>
</ul><p>
The formats "<code>l</code>" and "<code>L</code>" should be used only for text files.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:seek"><code>file:seek ([whence [, offset]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets and gets the file position,
measured from the beginning of the file,
to the position given by <code>offset</code> plus a base
specified by the string <code>whence</code>, as follows:
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>set</code>": </b> base is position 0 (beginning of the file);</li>
<li><b>"<code>cur</code>": </b> base is current position;</li>
<li><b>"<code>end</code>": </b> base is end of file;</li>
</ul><p>
In case of success, <code>seek</code> returns the final file position,
measured in bytes from the beginning of the file.
If <code>seek</code> fails, it returns <b>fail</b>,
plus a string describing the error.
<p>
The default value for <code>whence</code> is <code>"cur"</code>,
and for <code>offset</code> is 0.
Therefore, the call <code>file:seek()</code> returns the current
file position, without changing it;
the call <code>file:seek("set")</code> sets the position to the
beginning of the file (and returns 0);
and the call <code>file:seek("end")</code> sets the position to the
end of the file, and returns its size.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:setvbuf"><code>file:setvbuf (mode [, size])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the buffering mode for a file.
There are three available modes:
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>no</code>": </b> no buffering.</li>
<li><b>"<code>full</code>": </b> full buffering.</li>
<li><b>"<code>line</code>": </b> line buffering.</li>
</ul>
<p>
For the last two cases,
<code>size</code> is a hint for the size of the buffer, in bytes.
The default is an appropriate size.
<p>
The specific behavior of each mode is non portable;
check the underlying ISO C function <code>setvbuf</code> in your platform for
more details.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-file:write"><code>file:write (···)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Writes the value of each of its arguments to <code>file</code>.
The arguments must be strings or numbers.
<p>
In case of success, this function returns <code>file</code>.
<h2>6.9 – <a name="6.9">Operating System Facilities</a></h2>
<p>
This library is implemented through table <a name="pdf-os"><code>os</code></a>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.clock"><code>os.clock ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns an approximation of the amount in seconds of CPU time
used by the program,
as returned by the underlying ISO C function <code>clock</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.date"><code>os.date ([format [, time]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a string or a table containing date and time,
formatted according to the given string <code>format</code>.
<p>
If the <code>time</code> argument is present,
this is the time to be formatted
(see the <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a> function for a description of this value).
Otherwise, <code>date</code> formats the current time.
<p>
If <code>format</code> starts with '<code>!</code>',
then the date is formatted in Coordinated Universal Time.
After this optional character,
if <code>format</code> is the string "<code>*t</code>",
then <code>date</code> returns a table with the following fields:
<code>year</code>, <code>month</code> (1–12), <code>day</code> (1–31),
<code>hour</code> (0–23), <code>min</code> (0–59),
<code>sec</code> (0–61, due to leap seconds),
<code>wday</code> (weekday, 1–7, Sunday is 1),
<code>yday</code> (day of the year, 1–366),
and <code>isdst</code> (daylight saving flag, a boolean).
This last field may be absent
if the information is not available.
<p>
If <code>format</code> is not "<code>*t</code>",
then <code>date</code> returns the date as a string,
formatted according to the same rules as the ISO C function <code>strftime</code>.
<p>
If <code>format</code> is absent, it defaults to "<code>%c</code>",
which gives a human-readable date and time representation
using the current locale.
<p>
On non-POSIX systems,
this function may be not thread safe
because of its reliance on C function <code>gmtime</code> and C function <code>localtime</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime (t2, t1)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the difference, in seconds,
from time <code>t1</code> to time <code>t2</code>
(where the times are values returned by <a href="#pdf-os.time"><code>os.time</code></a>).
In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems,
this value is exactly <code>t2</code><em>-</em><code>t1</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.execute"><code>os.execute ([command])</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function is equivalent to the ISO C function <code>system</code>.
It passes <code>command</code> to be executed by an operating system shell.
Its first result is <b>true</b>
if the command terminated successfully,
or <b>fail</b> otherwise.
After this first result
the function returns a string plus a number,
as follows:
<ul>
<li><b>"<code>exit</code>": </b>
the command terminated normally;
the following number is the exit status of the command.
</li>
<li><b>"<code>signal</code>": </b>
the command was terminated by a signal;
the following number is the signal that terminated the command.
</li>
</ul>
<p>
When called without a <code>command</code>,
<code>os.execute</code> returns a boolean that is true if a shell is available.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit ([code [, close]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Calls the ISO C function <code>exit</code> to terminate the host program.
If <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>,
the returned status is <code>EXIT_SUCCESS</code>;
if <code>code</code> is <b>false</b>,
the returned status is <code>EXIT_FAILURE</code>;
if <code>code</code> is a number,
the returned status is this number.
The default value for <code>code</code> is <b>true</b>.
<p>
If the optional second argument <code>close</code> is true,
closes the Lua state before exiting.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.getenv"><code>os.getenv (varname)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the value of the process environment variable <code>varname</code>
or <b>fail</b> if the variable is not defined.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.remove"><code>os.remove (filename)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Deletes the file (or empty directory, on POSIX systems)
with the given name.
If this function fails, it returns <b>fail</b>
plus a string describing the error and the error code.
Otherwise, it returns true.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.rename"><code>os.rename (oldname, newname)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Renames the file or directory named <code>oldname</code> to <code>newname</code>.
If this function fails, it returns <b>fail</b>,
plus a string describing the error and the error code.
Otherwise, it returns true.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.setlocale"><code>os.setlocale (locale [, category])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the current locale of the program.
<code>locale</code> is a system-dependent string specifying a locale;
<code>category</code> is an optional string describing which category to change:
<code>"all"</code>, <code>"collate"</code>, <code>"ctype"</code>,
<code>"monetary"</code>, <code>"numeric"</code>, or <code>"time"</code>;
the default category is <code>"all"</code>.
The function returns the name of the new locale,
or <b>fail</b> if the request cannot be honored.
<p>
If <code>locale</code> is the empty string,
the current locale is set to an implementation-defined native locale.
If <code>locale</code> is the string "<code>C</code>",
the current locale is set to the standard C locale.
<p>
When called with <b>nil</b> as the first argument,
this function only returns the name of the current locale
for the given category.
<p>
This function may be not thread safe
because of its reliance on C function <code>setlocale</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.time"><code>os.time ([table])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the current time when called without arguments,
or a time representing the local date and time specified by the given table.
This table must have fields <code>year</code>, <code>month</code>, and <code>day</code>,
and may have fields
<code>hour</code> (default is 12),
<code>min</code> (default is 0),
<code>sec</code> (default is 0),
and <code>isdst</code> (default is <b>nil</b>).
Other fields are ignored.
For a description of these fields, see the <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> function.
<p>
When the function is called,
the values in these fields do not need to be inside their valid ranges.
For instance, if <code>sec</code> is -10,
it means 10 seconds before the time specified by the other fields;
if <code>hour</code> is 1000,
it means 1000 hours after the time specified by the other fields.
<p>
The returned value is a number, whose meaning depends on your system.
In POSIX, Windows, and some other systems,
this number counts the number
of seconds since some given start time (the "epoch").
In other systems, the meaning is not specified,
and the number returned by <code>time</code> can be used only as an argument to
<a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-os.difftime"><code>os.difftime</code></a>.
<p>
When called with a table,
<code>os.time</code> also normalizes all the fields
documented in the <a href="#pdf-os.date"><code>os.date</code></a> function,
so that they represent the same time as before the call
but with values inside their valid ranges.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-os.tmpname"><code>os.tmpname ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a string with a file name that can
be used for a temporary file.
The file must be explicitly opened before its use
and explicitly removed when no longer needed.
<p>
In POSIX systems,
this function also creates a file with that name,
to avoid security risks.
(Someone else might create the file with wrong permissions
in the time between getting the name and creating the file.)
You still have to open the file to use it
and to remove it (even if you do not use it).
<p>
When possible,
you may prefer to use <a href="#pdf-io.tmpfile"><code>io.tmpfile</code></a>,
which automatically removes the file when the program ends.
<h2>6.10 – <a name="6.10">The Debug Library</a></h2>
<p>
This library provides
the functionality of the debug interface (<a href="#4.7">§4.7</a>) to Lua programs.
You should exert care when using this library.
Several of its functions
violate basic assumptions about Lua code
(e.g., that variables local to a function
cannot be accessed from outside;
that userdata metatables cannot be changed by Lua code;
that Lua programs do not crash)
and therefore can compromise otherwise secure code.
Moreover, some functions in this library may be slow.
<p>
All functions in this library are provided
inside the <a name="pdf-debug"><code>debug</code></a> table.
All functions that operate over a thread
have an optional first argument which is the
thread to operate over.
The default is always the current thread.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.debug"><code>debug.debug ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Enters an interactive mode with the user,
running each string that the user enters.
Using simple commands and other debug facilities,
the user can inspect global and local variables,
change their values, evaluate expressions, and so on.
A line containing only the word <code>cont</code> finishes this function,
so that the caller continues its execution.
<p>
Note that commands for <code>debug.debug</code> are not lexically nested
within any function and so have no direct access to local variables.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.gethook"><code>debug.gethook ([thread])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the current hook settings of the thread, as three values:
the current hook function, the current hook mask,
and the current hook count,
as set by the <a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> function.
<p>
Returns <b>fail</b> if there is no active hook.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo ([thread,] f [, what])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a table with information about a function.
You can give the function directly
or you can give a number as the value of <code>f</code>,
which means the function running at level <code>f</code> of the call stack
of the given thread:
level 0 is the current function (<code>getinfo</code> itself);
level 1 is the function that called <code>getinfo</code>
(except for tail calls, which do not count in the stack);
and so on.
If <code>f</code> is a number greater than the number of active functions,
then <code>getinfo</code> returns <b>fail</b>.
<p>
The returned table can contain all the fields returned by <a href="#lua_getinfo"><code>lua_getinfo</code></a>,
with the string <code>what</code> describing which fields to fill in.
The default for <code>what</code> is to get all information available,
except the table of valid lines.
If present,
the option '<code>f</code>'
adds a field named <code>func</code> with the function itself.
If present,
the option '<code>L</code>'
adds a field named <code>activelines</code> with the table of
valid lines.
<p>
For instance, the expression <code>debug.getinfo(1,"n").name</code> returns
a name for the current function,
if a reasonable name can be found,
and the expression <code>debug.getinfo(print)</code>
returns a table with all available information
about the <a href="#pdf-print"><code>print</code></a> function.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal ([thread,] f, local)</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function returns the name and the value of the local variable
with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>f</code> of the stack.
This function accesses not only explicit local variables,
but also parameters and temporary values.
<p>
The first parameter or local variable has index 1, and so on,
following the order that they are declared in the code,
counting only the variables that are active
in the current scope of the function.
Compile-time constants may not appear in this listing,
if they were optimized away by the compiler.
Negative indices refer to vararg arguments;
-1 is the first vararg argument.
The function returns <b>fail</b>
if there is no variable with the given index,
and raises an error when called with a level out of range.
(You can call <a href="#pdf-debug.getinfo"><code>debug.getinfo</code></a> to check whether the level is valid.)
<p>
Variable names starting with '<code>(</code>' (open parenthesis)
represent variables with no known names
(internal variables such as loop control variables,
and variables from chunks saved without debug information).
<p>
The parameter <code>f</code> may also be a function.
In that case, <code>getlocal</code> returns only the name of function parameters.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getmetatable"><code>debug.getmetatable (value)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the metatable of the given <code>value</code>
or <b>nil</b> if it does not have a metatable.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getregistry"><code>debug.getregistry ()</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the registry table (see <a href="#4.3">§4.3</a>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue (f, up)</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function returns the name and the value of the upvalue
with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>.
The function returns <b>fail</b>
if there is no upvalue with the given index.
<p>
(For Lua functions,
upvalues are the external local variables that the function uses,
and that are consequently included in its closure.)
<p>
For C functions, this function uses the empty string <code>""</code>
as a name for all upvalues.
<p>
Variable name '<code>?</code>' (interrogation mark)
represents variables with no known names
(variables from chunks saved without debug information).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.getuservalue"><code>debug.getuservalue (u, n)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns the <code>n</code>-th user value associated
to the userdata <code>u</code> plus a boolean,
<b>false</b> if the userdata does not have that value.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook ([thread,] hook, mask [, count])</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the given function as the debug hook.
The string <code>mask</code> and the number <code>count</code> describe
when the hook will be called.
The string mask may have any combination of the following characters,
with the given meaning:
<ul>
<li><b>'<code>c</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua calls a function;</li>
<li><b>'<code>r</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua returns from a function;</li>
<li><b>'<code>l</code>': </b> the hook is called every time Lua enters a new line of code.</li>
</ul><p>
Moreover,
with a <code>count</code> different from zero,
the hook is called also after every <code>count</code> instructions.
<p>
When called without arguments,
<a href="#pdf-debug.sethook"><code>debug.sethook</code></a> turns off the hook.
<p>
When the hook is called, its first parameter is a string
describing the event that has triggered its call:
<code>"call"</code>, <code>"tail call"</code>, <code>"return"</code>,
<code>"line"</code>, and <code>"count"</code>.
For line events,
the hook also gets the new line number as its second parameter.
Inside a hook,
you can call <code>getinfo</code> with level 2 to get more information about
the running function.
(Level 0 is the <code>getinfo</code> function,
and level 1 is the hook function.)
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setlocal"><code>debug.setlocal ([thread,] level, local, value)</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the local variable
with index <code>local</code> of the function at level <code>level</code> of the stack.
The function returns <b>fail</b> if there is no local
variable with the given index,
and raises an error when called with a <code>level</code> out of range.
(You can call <code>getinfo</code> to check whether the level is valid.)
Otherwise, it returns the name of the local variable.
<p>
See <a href="#pdf-debug.getlocal"><code>debug.getlocal</code></a> for more information about
variable indices and names.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setmetatable"><code>debug.setmetatable (value, table)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the metatable for the given <code>value</code> to the given <code>table</code>
(which can be <b>nil</b>).
Returns <code>value</code>.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setupvalue"><code>debug.setupvalue (f, up, value)</code></a></h3>
<p>
This function assigns the value <code>value</code> to the upvalue
with index <code>up</code> of the function <code>f</code>.
The function returns <b>fail</b> if there is no upvalue
with the given index.
Otherwise, it returns the name of the upvalue.
<p>
See <a href="#pdf-debug.getupvalue"><code>debug.getupvalue</code></a> for more information about upvalues.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.setuservalue"><code>debug.setuservalue (udata, value, n)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Sets the given <code>value</code> as
the <code>n</code>-th user value associated to the given <code>udata</code>.
<code>udata</code> must be a full userdata.
<p>
Returns <code>udata</code>,
or <b>fail</b> if the userdata does not have that value.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.traceback"><code>debug.traceback ([thread,] [message [, level]])</code></a></h3>
<p>
If <code>message</code> is present but is neither a string nor <b>nil</b>,
this function returns <code>message</code> without further processing.
Otherwise,
it returns a string with a traceback of the call stack.
The optional <code>message</code> string is appended
at the beginning of the traceback.
An optional <code>level</code> number tells at which level
to start the traceback
(default is 1, the function calling <code>traceback</code>).
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvalueid"><code>debug.upvalueid (f, n)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Returns a unique identifier (as a light userdata)
for the upvalue numbered <code>n</code>
from the given function.
<p>
These unique identifiers allow a program to check whether different
closures share upvalues.
Lua closures that share an upvalue
(that is, that access a same external local variable)
will return identical ids for those upvalue indices.
<p>
<hr><h3><a name="pdf-debug.upvaluejoin"><code>debug.upvaluejoin (f1, n1, f2, n2)</code></a></h3>
<p>
Make the <code>n1</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f1</code>
refer to the <code>n2</code>-th upvalue of the Lua closure <code>f2</code>.
<h1>7 – <a name="7">Lua Standalone</a></h1>
<p>
Although Lua has been designed as an extension language,
to be embedded in a host C program,
it is also frequently used as a standalone language.
An interpreter for Lua as a standalone language,
called simply <code>lua</code>,
is provided with the standard distribution.
The standalone interpreter includes
all standard libraries.
Its usage is:
<pre>
lua [options] [script [args]]
</pre><p>
The options are:
<ul>
<li><b><code>-e <em>stat</em></code>: </b> execute string <em>stat</em>;</li>
<li><b><code>-i</code>: </b> enter interactive mode after running <em>script</em>;</li>
<li><b><code>-l <em>mod</em></code>: </b> "require" <em>mod</em> and assign the
result to global <em>mod</em>;</li>
<li><b><code>-v</code>: </b> print version information;</li>
<li><b><code>-E</code>: </b> ignore environment variables;</li>
<li><b><code>-W</code>: </b> turn warnings on;</li>
<li><b><code>--</code>: </b> stop handling options;</li>
<li><b><code>-</code>: </b> execute <code>stdin</code> as a file and stop handling options.</li>
</ul><p>
After handling its options, <code>lua</code> runs the given <em>script</em>.
When called without arguments,
<code>lua</code> behaves as <code>lua -v -i</code>
when the standard input (<code>stdin</code>) is a terminal,
and as <code>lua -</code> otherwise.
<p>
When called without the option <code>-E</code>,
the interpreter checks for an environment variable <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT_5_4"><code>LUA_INIT_5_4</code></a>
(or <a name="pdf-LUA_INIT"><code>LUA_INIT</code></a> if the versioned name is not defined)
before running any argument.
If the variable content has the format <code>@<em>filename</em></code>,
then <code>lua</code> executes the file.
Otherwise, <code>lua</code> executes the string itself.
<p>
When called with the option <code>-E</code>,
Lua does not consult any environment variables.
In particular,
the values of <a href="#pdf-package.path"><code>package.path</code></a> and <a href="#pdf-package.cpath"><code>package.cpath</code></a>
are set with the default paths defined in <code>luaconf.h</code>.
<p>
The options <code>-e</code>, <code>-l</code>, and <code>-W</code> are handled in
the order they appear.
For instance, an invocation like
<pre>
$ lua -e 'a=1' -llib1 script.lua
</pre><p>
will first set <code>a</code> to 1, then require the library <code>lib1</code>,
and finally run the file <code>script.lua</code> with no arguments.
(Here <code>$</code> is the shell prompt. Your prompt may be different.)
<p>
Before running any code,
<code>lua</code> collects all command-line arguments
in a global table called <code>arg</code>.
The script name goes to index 0,
the first argument after the script name goes to index 1,
and so on.
Any arguments before the script name
(that is, the interpreter name plus its options)
go to negative indices.
For instance, in the call
<pre>
$ lua -la b.lua t1 t2
</pre><p>
the table is like this:
<pre>
arg = { [-2] = "lua", [-1] = "-la",
[0] = "b.lua",
[1] = "t1", [2] = "t2" }
</pre><p>
If there is no script in the call,
the interpreter name goes to index 0,
followed by the other arguments.
For instance, the call
<pre>
$ lua -e "print(arg[1])"
</pre><p>
will print "<code>-e</code>".
If there is a script,
the script is called with arguments
<code>arg[1]</code>, ···, <code>arg[#arg]</code>.
Like all chunks in Lua,
the script is compiled as a vararg function.
<p>
In interactive mode,
Lua repeatedly prompts and waits for a line.
After reading a line,
Lua first try to interpret the line as an expression.
If it succeeds, it prints its value.
Otherwise, it interprets the line as a statement.
If you write an incomplete statement,
the interpreter waits for its completion
by issuing a different prompt.
<p>
If the global variable <a name="pdf-_PROMPT"><code>_PROMPT</code></a> contains a string,
then its value is used as the prompt.
Similarly, if the global variable <a name="pdf-_PROMPT2"><code>_PROMPT2</code></a> contains a string,
its value is used as the secondary prompt
(issued during incomplete statements).
<p>
In case of unprotected errors in the script,
the interpreter reports the error to the standard error stream.
If the error object is not a string but
has a metamethod <code>__tostring</code>,
the interpreter calls this metamethod to produce the final message.
Otherwise, the interpreter converts the error object to a string
and adds a stack traceback to it.
When warnings are on,
they are simply printed in the standard error output.
<p>
When finishing normally,
the interpreter closes its main Lua state
(see <a href="#lua_close"><code>lua_close</code></a>).
The script can avoid this step by
calling <a href="#pdf-os.exit"><code>os.exit</code></a> to terminate.
<p>
To allow the use of Lua as a
script interpreter in Unix systems,
Lua skips the first line of a file chunk if it starts with <code>#</code>.
Therefore, Lua scripts can be made into executable programs
by using <code>chmod +x</code> and the <code>#!</code> form,
as in
<pre>
#!/usr/local/bin/lua
</pre><p>
Of course,
the location of the Lua interpreter may be different in your machine.
If <code>lua</code> is in your <code>PATH</code>,
then
<pre>
#!/usr/bin/env lua
</pre><p>
is a more portable solution.
<h1>8 – <a name="8">Incompatibilities with the Previous Version</a></h1>
<p>
Here we list the incompatibilities that you may find when moving a program
from Lua 5.3 to Lua 5.4.
<p>
You can avoid some incompatibilities by compiling Lua with
appropriate options (see file <code>luaconf.h</code>).
However,
all these compatibility options will be removed in the future.
More often than not,
compatibility issues arise when these compatibility options
are removed.
So, whenever you have the chance,
you should try to test your code with a version of Lua compiled
with all compatibility options turned off.
That will ease transitions to newer versions of Lua.
<p>
Lua versions can always change the C API in ways that
do not imply source-code changes in a program,
such as the numeric values for constants
or the implementation of functions as macros.
Therefore,
you should never assume that binaries are compatible between
different Lua versions.
Always recompile clients of the Lua API when
using a new version.
<p>
Similarly, Lua versions can always change the internal representation
of precompiled chunks;
precompiled chunks are not compatible between different Lua versions.
<p>
The standard paths in the official distribution may
change between versions.
<h2>8.1 – <a name="8.1">Incompatibilities in the Language</a></h2>
<ul>
<li>
The coercion of strings to numbers in
arithmetic and bitwise operations
has been removed from the core language.
The string library does a similar job
for arithmetic (but not for bitwise) operations
using the string metamethods.
However, unlike in previous versions,
the new implementation preserves the implicit type of the numeral
in the string.
For instance, the result of <code>"1" + "2"</code> now is an integer,
not a float.
</li>
<li>
Literal decimal integer constants that overflow are read as floats,
instead of wrapping around.
You can use hexadecimal notation for such constants if you
want the old behavior
(reading them as integers with wrap around).
</li>
<li>
The use of the <code>__lt</code> metamethod to emulate <code>__le</code>
has been removed.
When needed, this metamethod must be explicitly defined.
</li>
<li>
The semantics of the numerical <b>for</b> loop
over integers changed in some details.
In particular, the control variable never wraps around.
</li>
<li>
A label for a <b>goto</b> cannot be declared where a label with the same
name is visible, even if this other label is declared in an enclosing
block.
</li>
<li>
When finalizing an object,
Lua does not ignore <code>__gc</code> metamethods that are not functions.
Any value will be called, if present.
(Non-callable values will generate a warning,
like any other error when calling a finalizer.)
</li>
</ul>
<h2>8.2 – <a name="8.2">Incompatibilities in the Libraries</a></h2>
<ul>
<li>
The function <a href="#pdf-print"><code>print</code></a> does not call <a href="#pdf-tostring"><code>tostring</code></a>
to format its arguments;
instead, it has this functionality hardwired.
You should use <code>__tostring</code> to modify how values are printed.
</li>
<li>
The pseudo-random number generator used by the function <a href="#pdf-math.random"><code>math.random</code></a>
now starts with a somewhat random seed.
Moreover, it uses a different algorithm.
</li>
<li>
By default, the decoding functions in the <a href="#pdf-utf8"><code>utf8</code></a> library
do not accept surrogates as valid code points.
An extra parameter in these functions makes them more permissive.
</li>
<li>
The options "<code>setpause</code>" and "<code>setstepmul</code>"
of the function <a href="#pdf-collectgarbage"><code>collectgarbage</code></a> are deprecated.
You should use the new option "<code>incremental</code>" to set them.
</li>
<li>
The function <a href="#pdf-io.lines"><code>io.lines</code></a> now returns four values,
instead of just one.
That can be a problem when it is used as the sole
argument to another function that has optional parameters,
such as in <code>load(io.lines(filename, "L"))</code>.
To fix that issue,
you can wrap the call into parentheses,
to adjust its number of results to one.
</li>
</ul>
<h2>8.3 – <a name="8.3">Incompatibilities in the API</a></h2>
<ul>
<li>
Full userdata now has an arbitrary number of associated user values.
Therefore, the functions <code>lua_newuserdata</code>,
<code>lua_setuservalue</code>, and <code>lua_getuservalue</code> were
replaced by <a href="#lua_newuserdatauv"><code>lua_newuserdatauv</code></a>,
<a href="#lua_setiuservalue"><code>lua_setiuservalue</code></a>, and <a href="#lua_getiuservalue"><code>lua_getiuservalue</code></a>,
which have an extra argument.
<p>
For compatibility, the old names still work as macros assuming
one single user value.
Note, however, that userdata with zero user values
are more efficient memory-wise.
</li>
<li>
The function <a href="#lua_resume"><code>lua_resume</code></a> has an extra parameter.
This out parameter returns the number of values on
the top of the stack that were yielded or returned by the coroutine.
(In previous versions,
those values were the entire stack.)
</li>
<li>
The function <a href="#lua_version"><code>lua_version</code></a> returns the version number,
instead of an address of the version number.
The Lua core should work correctly with libraries using their
own static copies of the same core,
so there is no need to check whether they are using the same
address space.
</li>
<li>
The constant <code>LUA_ERRGCMM</code> was removed.
Errors in finalizers are never propagated;
instead, they generate a warning.
</li>
<li>
The options <code>LUA_GCSETPAUSE</code> and <code>LUA_GCSETSTEPMUL</code>
of the function <a href="#lua_gc"><code>lua_gc</code></a> are deprecated.
You should use the new option <code>LUA_GCINC</code> to set them.
</li>
</ul>
<h1>9 – <a name="9">The Complete Syntax of Lua</a></h1>
<p>
Here is the complete syntax of Lua in extended BNF.
As usual in extended BNF,
{A} means 0 or more As,
and [A] means an optional A.
(For operator precedences, see <a href="#3.4.8">§3.4.8</a>;
for a description of the terminals
Name, Numeral,
and LiteralString, see <a href="#3.1">§3.1</a>.)
<pre>
chunk ::= block
block ::= {stat} [retstat]
stat ::= ‘<b>;</b>’ |
varlist ‘<b>=</b>’ explist |
functioncall |
label |
<b>break</b> |
<b>goto</b> Name |
<b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
<b>while</b> exp <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
<b>repeat</b> block <b>until</b> exp |
<b>if</b> exp <b>then</b> block {<b>elseif</b> exp <b>then</b> block} [<b>else</b> block] <b>end</b> |
<b>for</b> Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp ‘<b>,</b>’ exp [‘<b>,</b>’ exp] <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
<b>for</b> namelist <b>in</b> explist <b>do</b> block <b>end</b> |
<b>function</b> funcname funcbody |
<b>local</b> <b>function</b> Name funcbody |
<b>local</b> attnamelist [‘<b>=</b>’ explist]
attnamelist ::= Name attrib {‘<b>,</b>’ Name attrib}
attrib ::= [‘<b><</b>’ Name ‘<b>></b>’]
retstat ::= <b>return</b> [explist] [‘<b>;</b>’]
label ::= ‘<b>::</b>’ Name ‘<b>::</b>’
funcname ::= Name {‘<b>.</b>’ Name} [‘<b>:</b>’ Name]
varlist ::= var {‘<b>,</b>’ var}
var ::= Name | prefixexp ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ | prefixexp ‘<b>.</b>’ Name
namelist ::= Name {‘<b>,</b>’ Name}
explist ::= exp {‘<b>,</b>’ exp}
exp ::= <b>nil</b> | <b>false</b> | <b>true</b> | Numeral | LiteralString | ‘<b>...</b>’ | functiondef |
prefixexp | tableconstructor | exp binop exp | unop exp
prefixexp ::= var | functioncall | ‘<b>(</b>’ exp ‘<b>)</b>’
functioncall ::= prefixexp args | prefixexp ‘<b>:</b>’ Name args
args ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [explist] ‘<b>)</b>’ | tableconstructor | LiteralString
functiondef ::= <b>function</b> funcbody
funcbody ::= ‘<b>(</b>’ [parlist] ‘<b>)</b>’ block <b>end</b>
parlist ::= namelist [‘<b>,</b>’ ‘<b>...</b>’] | ‘<b>...</b>’
tableconstructor ::= ‘<b>{</b>’ [fieldlist] ‘<b>}</b>’
fieldlist ::= field {fieldsep field} [fieldsep]
field ::= ‘<b>[</b>’ exp ‘<b>]</b>’ ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | Name ‘<b>=</b>’ exp | exp
fieldsep ::= ‘<b>,</b>’ | ‘<b>;</b>’
binop ::= ‘<b>+</b>’ | ‘<b>-</b>’ | ‘<b>*</b>’ | ‘<b>/</b>’ | ‘<b>//</b>’ | ‘<b>^</b>’ | ‘<b>%</b>’ |
‘<b>&</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’ | ‘<b>|</b>’ | ‘<b>>></b>’ | ‘<b><<</b>’ | ‘<b>..</b>’ |
‘<b><</b>’ | ‘<b><=</b>’ | ‘<b>></b>’ | ‘<b>>=</b>’ | ‘<b>==</b>’ | ‘<b>~=</b>’ |
<b>and</b> | <b>or</b>
unop ::= ‘<b>-</b>’ | <b>not</b> | ‘<b>#</b>’ | ‘<b>~</b>’
</pre>
<p>
<P CLASS="footer">
Last update:
Mon Mar 15 13:39:42 UTC 2021
</P>
<!--
Last change: revised for Lua 5.4.3
-->
</body></html>
``` |
```objective-c
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
//
// Project: Embedded Learning Library (ELL)
// File: Vector_test.h (value)
// Authors: Kern Handa
//
////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////////
#pragma once
#include <value/include/Scalar.h>
namespace ell
{
value::Scalar Vector_test1();
value::Scalar Vector_test2();
value::Scalar Vector_test3();
value::Scalar Vector_test4();
value::Scalar Vector_test5();
} // namespace ell
``` |
North West Bicester (NW Bicester) is one of four eco-towns that were originally given the green light by the government in 2009 to act as showcases for environmentally sustainable communities. It will be a true zero carbon development on the edge of Bicester, Oxfordshire, through measures including renewable energy, sustainable travel options and homes with high energy efficiency ratings. In April 2011, the coalition government announced that only NW Bicester would actually be built to the originally proposed standards under the government’s Eco Town Planning Policy Statement 1, which is often referred to as the Eco Town PPS.
The development: Masterplan and Exemplar Phase
Masterplan: NW Bicester is a proposed 6,000-home development to extend Bicester onto agricultural land to the north-west of the town. Plans for the 1,000 acre site include 40% green open space, a nature reserve and country park; three local centres comprising retail, leisure, nurseries, a health centre and community halls. The plans also include one secondary school, three new primary schools and space for business. There will be links to Bicester through footpaths, cycle-ways and public transport connections.
Exemplar: The first phase of the development was granted planning consent in principle in August 2011 by Cherwell District Council. The detailed plans were approved in August 2012. The application site is just over 51 acres to the north of Bicester adjoining the B4100 on its eastern side and wraps around Home Farm, Caversfield. The most southerly part of the site is approximately 120 metres north of the existing extent of development at Bicester (Bure Park). The approved plans include 393 homes and 40% green open space. The Homes and Communities Agency (HCA) has invested £6m to build 119 affordable homes, the remaining 274 homes will be for private sale. The plans include a combined heat and power energy centre, a nursery of up to 350 square metres, community centre of up to 350 square metres and three retail units of up to 770 square metres. Permission was also granted for an eco-business centre of up to 1,800 square metres (use class B1), office accommodation of up to 1,100 square metres (use class B1), an “eco-pub” of up to 190 square metres (use class A4), and a primary school site measuring up to 1.34 hectares. Community space will incorporate communal barbecue areas, herb boxes and allotments.
Eco-measures
The homes will be built to true zero carbon standards, measuring regulated and unregulated energy. Plans include zero waste to landfill during construction. Solar photovoltaic panels are planned for all residential and non-residential buildings, all of which will feature significant levels of insulation and will be built to code level 5 for sustainable homes. Additional energy is to be provided from an energy centre containing a gas-fired combined heat and power system. The Exemplar phase is a net provider of energy, supplying excess energy generated back to the national grid. Real time information about the homes solar PV energy generation, energy consumption and costs, and water usage will be communicated in every home via a tablet device.
The combined residential solar array will be the biggest in the UK, with an average of 34m2 solar PV per roof. Homes will include triple glazing, rainwater harvesting and heat and hot water provided from the CHP via a network of underground pipes. Homes have been designed to cope with climate change peaks of up to 10 degrees Celsius.
Transport
NW Bicester has a target to reduce local car journeys from 67.5% to 50% by 2026. A number of features have been incorporated to encourage residents to adopt more sustainable modes of travel. The planning conditions oblige a community bus service from the date of the first occupation, half-hourly bus service once the 50th home is occupied and a 15-minute service after the 200th. A communal car club will be available for residents to access and book. Real time bus information and the availability of the car club will be visible in every home via a tablet device.
In addition, communal electric car charging points will be accessible on site and available to every home within the first two years of occupation, cycle stores will come as standard for each home and the development will have segregated cycle-ways and pedestrian routes linking directly into the town’s existing network.
Improvements to Junction 10 of the M40 have also been designed to support NW Bicester and improve links with Silverstone and Brackley. The improvements are due to start in 2015 and will cost around £1.3 million. Work will involve replacing the current southbound entry slip road and widening the A43 southbound.
Construction
The Exemplar will be constructed in four main phases. Pre-construction works commenced in April 2014. The fourth phase of the development is due to be completed in 2018.
Developer and partners
The lead developer on NW Bicester is A2Dominion who appointed Willmott Dixon as its principal contractor for the first phase of the Exemplar. A2Dominion, working in partnership with Cherwell District Council, has appointed expert consultants including Silver DCC Limited (Client Representative), Bioregional, Farrells, Barton Willmore, SQW Consultants, Hyder Consulting, PRP Architects and Oxford Brookes University to help deliver the project.
Community governance
Cherwell District Council and A2Dominion are working on plans for a community-led governance structure that will offer residents and businesses the opportunity to work together to make decisions about the issues that affect their immediate area.
Jobs and business
A2Dominion and Willmott Dixon are working together to achieve 20% local labour on site during construction. A minimum of ten apprenticeships will be made available over the five year construction of the Exemplar.
Local suppliers and sub-contractors are able to register an interest to be involved in the delivery of the scheme.
Green Space / Biodiversity
The Exemplar phase will feature 40% green space, specially designed cycle and pedestrian routes and all garages will have meadow turf roofs.
Many of the existing hedgerows at the site will be kept and incorporated into the eco town design and proposals feature a network of sustainable wildlife corridors and ponds.
In December 2013, A2Dominion purchased 51 acres from Altitude Real Estate LLP which makes up the Exemplar development site currently under construction.
References
Eco-towns
Bicester |
Tom Hodgkinson (born 1968) is a British writer and the editor of The Idler magazine, which he established in 1993 with his friend Gavin Pretor-Pinney. His philosophy, in his published books and articles, is of a relaxed approach to life, enjoying it as it comes rather than toiling for an imagined better future. The Idler was named after a series of essays written by Dr Johnson from 1758 to 1760.
Biography
Tom Hodgkinson was born in Newcastle, England. He is the brother of journalist and author Will Hodgkinson; their father is the science and medical writer Neville Hodgkinson and their mother is the prolific non-fiction writer and journalist Liz Hodgkinson.
Tom was educated at Westminster School and Jesus College, Cambridge, during which time he played the bass guitar in the Stupids-influenced thrash band Chopper. He lived in North Devon until 2013. He currently lives in London.
In the early 1990s, he worked at a Rough Trade Records shop in London, where he had the idea for The Idler. In the late 1990s, he became an importer of absinthe.
From 1995 to 1997 he was Joint Head of Creative Development at Guardian Newspapers, where he worked for Carolyn McCall and Alan Rusbridger.
From 1997 to 2002 he and Gavin Pretor-Pinney ran Idle Industries, a creative consultancy with clients such as Channel 4, The Guardian, Sony PlayStation, ad agency Mother, Paramount TV and Oakley. The pair launched the Crap Towns series of books.
Hodgkinson has contributed articles to The Sunday Telegraph, The Guardian and The Sunday Times as well as being the author of the Idler spin-offs, How To Be Idle, How To Be Free and The Idle Parent.
How to Be Idle has been translated into 25 languages and was a best-seller in the UK, US, Italy, Germany and the Czech Republic.
In 2006 he created National Unawareness Day, to be celebrated on 1 November.
In March 2011 he and his partner Victoria Hull launched The Idler Academy in London, a school running courses in philosophy, public speaking, grammar, ukulele, singing, drawing, calligraphy, astronomy, foraging, bread baking, bartitsu and small business.
In April 2013 he launched the Idler Academy Bad Grammar Award, and in September 2013 he launched the Ukulele Player of the Year competition. Bloomsbury UK and Bloomsbury US published his and Gavin's book, The Ukulele Handbook.
Bibliography
The Idler (periodical: 1993–present)
How To Be Idle (2005)
How To Be Free (2006)
Republished as The Freedom Manifesto (US Release, 2007)
The Idle Parent (2009)
The Book of Idle Pleasures (May 2010; co-edited with Dan Kieran)
Brave Old World (2011)
Republished as How to Live in the Country (2021)
The Ukulele Handbook (September 2013; co-written with Vampire Weekend)
Business for Bohemians (2017)
The Idler's Manual (2021)
See also
Simple living
References
External links
The Idler Website
How To Be Idle at WikiSummaries
Living people
People educated at Westminster School, London
Writers from Newcastle upon Tyne
Critics of work and the work ethic
Simple living advocates
1968 births |
```javascript
/*
*
*/
import jsdom from "jsdom";
import { configure } from "enzyme";
import Adapter from "@wojtekmaj/enzyme-adapter-react-17";
const { JSDOM } = jsdom;
const dom = new JSDOM("<!doctype html><html><body></body></html>");
global.document = dom.window.document;
global.window = dom.window;
global.self = global;
global.performance = {};
configure({ adapter: new Adapter() });
const node = {
getAttribute: arg => true,
parentNode: null
};
window.getSelection = () => ({
rangeCount: 1,
getRangeAt: index => ({ startContainer: [node] })
});
``` |
Lygropia flavofuscalis is a moth in the family Crambidae. It was described by Snellen in 1887. It is found in Colombia and on Curaçao.
References
Moths described in 1887
Lygropia |
Promoting Equality in African Schools (PEAS) is a UK-based charity that builds, develops and runs low fee secondary schools in Uganda and Zambia.
Overview
PEAS was founded by social entrepreneur John Rendel, a Teach First graduate, after visiting Uganda as a student and discovering the huge need for secondary education following the Ugandan governments' free universal primary education (UPE) policy. A similar trend across African has seen a boost in primary enrolment yet demand for secondary education is largely unmet: only about 23% of girls and 27% of boys are enrolled at secondary level, largely due to a lack of schools.
John Rendel, who has won an Unltd Award for Social Entrepreneurship was named in the Courvoisier Future 500 as one of five young leaders in the public and social sectors, founded Promoting Equality in African Schools (PEAS) in 2004
PEAS has teams in the UK, Uganda and Zambia, working to both raise money (in the UK) and implement the PEAS SmartAid approach. As a result, there are currently 22 schools across the PEAS network in Uganda and Zambia, with several new schools under construction, including one in Zambia. The existing PEAS schools are:
Onwards and Upwards Secondary School
Forest High School
Sarah Ntiiro High School
Kiira View Secondary School
Green Shoots Secondary School
Lamwo Kuc Ki Gen High School
Hibiscus High School
Pioneer High School
Principles
PEAS is a young UK charity with no religious or political agenda. It is built on the following principles that aim to eliminate the problems experienced by many development organisations around the world.
Sustainability – Every PEAS school covers its own running costs through low fees, government subsidies and income generating projects. Even the costs of the PEAS Uganda audit and educational inspection teams in Uganda are funded from excess revenues from the schools. Too many charities create dependency on donor funding and PEAS wants to show how much further money can go when it multiplies rather than undermines the energies of local communities.
Local Ownership – Every PEAS school is run by Ugandans for Ugandans with support from UK partners. Each PEAS school has a local Board of Governors.
Avoiding Market Distortions – PEAS schools are only built in areas where there is high demand for extra secondary school provision. In many areas, primary school leavers are unable to continue their education. Schools are marketed to those in greatest need and PEAS is working to help improve existing affordable schools at the same time as launching more and more within its network.
Collaboration with government – PEAS works closely with the Ugandan Ministry of Education and the wider Ugandan government. The success of the schools depends on working within the educational framework laid out by the Ugandan government. In 2011, PEAS engaged further with the Ugandan Government through a Public-Private Partnership: 3 schools have rolled out the Universal Secondary Education (USE) program from the start of 2011. This means that education is free at the point of use for the student, thus expanding access to education to those otherwise unable to afford it.
Transparency – PEAS never gives or receives bribes. This transparency is upheld through clear accounting and all PEAS annual accounts are available on their website for public perusal.
Values
PEAS emphasises certain values that form the basis of their approach to education and schools:
Equal access – PEAS schools are open to all students irrespective of ability and personal characteristics. PEAS schools never discriminate on the basis of ethnicity, religion, gender, physical disability or primary school performance.
Personal security – PEAS schools are safe places that work to instill positive behavioural management systems, which help Ugandan staff move away from the use of corporal punishment. PEAS carries out risk assessment inspections in all the schools.
Relevant learning – As a minimum, PEAS schools guarantee that students leave with literacy, numeracy, and at least one vocational skill. The latter is emphasised through Income Generating Projects such as bee-keeping and brick-making.
Professional development – Through extensive inspection and reciprocal lesson observation, PEAS embeds student-centred learning and professional accountability where staff are responsible for their own success.
PEAS Uganda implements this PEAS vision, supporting each individual school. A Director of Finance financially audits every school, every term, to ensure efficiency and accountability. The Director of Educational Excellence inspects every school, every year, in order to maintain and improve teaching standards to help students learn more. Teachers benefit from continuous professional development, and salaries paid in full, on time, every month, which is a practice still rare in Uganda.
PEAS recently held its first annual teachers conference in Kampala, Uganda, bringing together teachers from across the PEAS network to share experiences and lesson. PEAS also promotes opportunities for the students to practice the skills they have learned, such as through a public speaking competition.
A unique approach to aid
All PEAS schools operate a SmartAid model, a sustainable way of giving aid that prioritises local ownership and long-term sustainability.
The SmartAid model means that PEAS fundraises the capital for the building and start-up costs of a school. As a result, a PEAS school is able to open debt-free, allowing it to charge fees that are low because they merely need to cover the running costs of the school. The income from the low fees is supplemented by income-generating projects (which also teach the students important business and vocational skills).
PEAS schools typically become financially self-sustaining within a year of opening, allowing them to run independently of UK fundraising, which is the key to sustainable development. This means that funds raised by the PEAS team in the UK can be spent on creating even more new schools allowing PEAS to provide thousands and thousands of new secondary school places for young people.
Bridges to Africa
Bridges to Africa is a national sponsored walk organised by PEAS, involving students from schools across London and the UK that has been running since 2006. Students join to complete 10 km bridge walks in London, Manchester and Birmingham. The money raised by students is used to help build new affordable secondary schools in Uganda and Zambia through the charity. In the past, the event has been attended by then Chancellor of the Exchequer Gordon Brown and Channel 4 new presenter Jon Snow. The walk takes place yearly, in May.
Over 5000 students have walked the bridges of the UK in the past years, helping to raise £100,000.
References
External links
www.peas.org.uk
Educational charities based in the United Kingdom
Foreign charities operating in Uganda
Foreign charities operating in Zambia |
Carlo Bossoli (6 December 1815, in Lugano – 1 August 1884, in Turin) was a Swiss-born Italian painter and lithographer, who spent his early career in Russia. He is best known for historical scenes from the Risorgimento.
Biography
His father was a stonemason of Italian origin, working in Switzerland. In 1820, his family moved to accept work in Odessa. Until 1826, he studied with the Capuchins. After graduating, he worked in a shop that sold antiquarian books and prints. It was there that he began to draw and sketch. In 1828, he was hired by the Odessa Opera to work as an assistant to Rinaldo Nannini, a stage designer who had studied at La Scala under Alessandro Sanquirico. He began to sell his paintings in 1833. His father died three years later and he found himself the sole support of his mother, his sister and her illegitimate son.
Luckily, his work drew the attention of Prince Mikhail Vorontsov, who commissioned him to paint several views of Odessa. Princess Elizabeta was impressed with his abilities and arranged for him to study in Italy from 1839 to 1840. He stayed mostly in Naples and Rome, giving special attention to tempera and gouache and associating with the many British artists who were living there. He returned in 1840 and settled in the coastal resort of Alupka, on the Vorontsov estate.
In 1844, at the request of his mother (who was ill), he moved to Milan and opened a studio there. In 1848, he produced popular scenes from "Five Days of Milan". His mother died the following year, but he remained there until 1853, when an unsuccessful uprising against the Austrians forced him to flee to Turin, which he used as his base of operations for travels to England, France, Spain, Morocco, Germany and Scandinavia.
During those years, he produced an album of paintings, showing views of Crimea, which was published in London by Vincent Brooks, Day & Son. It proved to be very popular due to public interest in the Crimean War. Later, in 1859, they commissioned him to produce a series of lithographs depicting the Second Italian War of Independence which were published as "The War in Italy".
After seeing them, young Prince Oddone, Duke of Montferrat gave him a commission to follow the Piedmontese Army and make a record of its campaigns. The result was an album of 150 tempera paintings and the Prince declared him to be "the painter of our history". He fell ill with a fever at this time and his productivity declined dramatically. He divided his time between decorating his home to resemble the Vorontsov Palace and doting on his nephew.
In 1883, at the age of sixty-eight, he married Adelaide De Carolis, who was only twenty-one. The marriage was generally believed to be a financial arrangement. The following year, he died of a heart attack. He was buried in Lugano and a street in Turin is named after him.
Selected paintings
See also
List of Orientalist artists
Orientalism
References
Further reading
Ugo Donati; La guerra del Cinquantanove nei disegni di Carlo Bossoli, 1815 - 1884, pittore ticinese, Banco di Roma per la Svizzera, 1959
Cinquant'anni di vita europea nei disegni e nei dipinti di Carlo Bossoli (exhibition catalog) Tipografia Torinese, 1974
Rosanna Maggio Serra and Ada Peyrot; Carlo Bossoli: cronache pittoriche del Risorgimento (exhibition catalog) Museo Nazionale del Risorgimento Italiano, 1985
Cristina Vernizzi; Carlo Bossoli: cronache pittoriche del Risorgimento (1859-1861) nella Collezione di Eugenio di Savoia, Principe di Carignano, Artema, 1998
External links
The War in Italy, Day & Son (1859), full text @ Google Books
Carlo Bossoli @ Artisti Ticinesi: Biography with more paintings.
Brief biography and more paintings @ Libero
1815 births
1884 deaths
19th-century Italian painters
19th-century Swiss painters
19th-century Italian male artists
Swiss male painters
History painters
Landscape painters
Italian lithographers
Italian male painters
Italian unification
Orientalist painters
People from Lugano
Swiss-Italian people
Swiss emigrants to the Russian Empire
19th-century Swiss male artists |
Peart Water is a stream about long in Somerset, England. It rises in the Quantock Hills and flows in a generally northeast direction. Fish are raised in the Hawkridge Reservoir, and further downstream the Peart Water powers two mills.
Course
Peart Water rises in the Quantock Hills Area of Natural Beauty in West Somerset.
It forms on the Middle Hill in the Quantock Hills at an elevation of about .
It flows in a generally northeast direction for about to Hawkridge Reservoir, which was built in the early 1960s to supply water to the Borough of Bridgwater.
The reservoir covers about .
Peart Water flows onward from the dam in a northeast direction to Spaxton, where it enters the Ashford Reservoir.
The distance between the two reservoirs is about .
The Ashford Reservoir has an elevation of almost .
The Peart Water leaves the Ashford Reservoir, and about from its source joins the Currypool stream and forms the Cannington Brook.
Uses
The Hawkridge Reservoir is stocked with trout.
In August 1993 notice was published of an application by Wessex Water Services to discharge up to of settled effluent daily into the Peart Water from a fish farm at Hawkridge Reservoir.
The Currypool Mill, west of Ashford Reservoir, was fed by a leat from Peart Water.
This used to power an overshot water wheel, which was replaced in 1934 by an Armfield vertical shafted 18" Francis turbine.
The turnbine was still being used to power a saw bench in 1976.
The stream powers the Twinhill Mill in Spaxton.
Notes
Sources
External links
Rivers of Somerset |
Dame Flora Jane Duffy (born 30 September 1987) is a Bermudian triathlete. She won a gold medal at the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, Bermuda's first gold medal. She also competed in Beijing, London, and Rio de Janeiro Olympics. In 2018, she won gold in the women's triathlon at the XXI Commonwealth Games in Australia. She also won gold in the same event at the XXII Commonwealth Games in Birmingham in 2022.
Athletic career
Duffy is the 2016 and 2017 ITU World Triathlon Series World Champion, the 2015 and 2016 ITU Cross Triathlon World Champion, and a six-time winner (2014-2017, 2019, 2021) of the XTERRA World Championships.
She competed for Bermuda at the 2008 Summer Olympics in Beijing, the 2012 Summer Olympics in London, the 2016 Summer Olympics in Rio de Janeiro, and the 2020 Summer Olympics in Tokyo, where she won gold. It was Duffy's first Olympic medal and Bermuda's first gold medal. Duffy's medal also made Bermuda the smallest country in the world to have won a gold medal at the Summer Olympics.
In April 2018, Duffy won the first gold medal of the XXI Commonwealth Games in Gold Coast, Australia. Duffy won the women's sprint triathlon by a 43-second lead, becoming Bermuda's first female Commonwealth gold medalist. She was also scheduled to compete in the women's cross-country mountain bike at the Commonwealth Games, but did not start the event.
Duffy is the only person to win three triathlon world titles in the same year in 2016, claiming the WTS, ITU Cross Triathlon, and Xterra titles in close succession. Duffy is the only triathlete in WTS history to post the fastest swim, bike, and run portions in the same race. Duffy holds the record for the largest winning margin in both Olympic and Sprint distance races in a WTS event.
Duffy was appointed Officer of the Order of the British Empire (OBE) in the 2018 Birthday Honours and Dame Commander of the Order of the British Empire (DBE) in the 2022 New Year Honours, both for services to sport in Bermuda. After beating Georgia Taylor-Brown, she was crowned as the ITU Triathlon World Champion on the 25 of November, 2022. In Abu Dhabi.
Flora Duffy also holds a black belt in Taekwondo.
Personal life
Duffy is of English parentage: her father is from Barrow-in-Furness, and her mother is from Burnley; therefore, she was eligible to represent Great Britain but opted to represent Bermuda, where she grew up. Duffy was privately educated at the independent Warwick Academy, then abroad at the independent Kelly College in England and the University of Colorado Boulder, where she graduated with a BA degree in Sociology.
Duffy launched The Flora Fund days after winning the inaugural WTS Bermuda in April 2018. Through the fund, Duffy hopes to enable youth in Bermuda to pursue their potential, ultimately contributing to a healthier, more ambitious community.
In December 2017, Duffy married South African triathlete Dan Hugo in Stellenbosch, Hugo's native town, where the couple reside when not training in Boulder.
References
External links
The Flora Fund - Duffy's foundation
Living people
Bermudian female triathletes
Female taekwondo practitioners
Triathletes at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Triathletes at the 2012 Summer Olympics
Triathletes at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic triathletes for Bermuda
1987 births
People from Paget Parish
British female triathletes
University of Colorado Boulder alumni
Triathletes at the 2014 Commonwealth Games
Triathletes at the 2015 Pan American Games
Triathletes at the 2020 Summer Olympics
Pan American Games bronze medalists for Bermuda
Pan American Games medalists in triathlon
Central American and Caribbean Games silver medalists for Bermuda
Triathletes at the 2018 Commonwealth Games
Triathletes at the 2022 Commonwealth Games
Commonwealth Games medallists in triathlon
Commonwealth Games gold medallists for Bermuda
Competitors at the 2010 Central American and Caribbean Games
Central American and Caribbean Games medalists in triathlon
Medalists at the 2015 Pan American Games
Medalists at the 2020 Summer Olympics
Olympic gold medalists for Bermuda
Olympic medalists in triathlon
Bermudian people of English descent
Dames Commander of the Order of the British Empire
Sporting dames
Medallists at the 2018 Commonwealth Games
Medallists at the 2022 Commonwealth Games |
Haplochromis flavus, the yellow rockpicker, is a species of cichlid endemic to the Tanzanian portion of Lake Victoria. This species can reach a length of SL.
References
flavus
Endemic freshwater fish of Tanzania
Fish of Lake Victoria
Fish described in 1998
Taxonomy articles created by Polbot |
Retrocomputing is the current use of older computer hardware and software. Retrocomputing is usually classed as a hobby and recreation rather than a practical application of technology; enthusiasts often collect rare and valuable hardware and software for sentimental reasons.
Occasionally, however, an obsolete computer system has to be "resurrected" to run software specific to that system, to access data stored on obsolete media, or to use a peripheral that requires that system.
Hardware retrocomputing
Historic systems
Retrocomputing is part of the history of computer hardware. It can be seen as the analogue of experimental archaeology in computing. Some notable examples include the reconstruction of Babbage's Difference engine (more than a century after its design) and the implementation of Plankalkül in 2000 (more than half a century since its inception).
"Homebrew" computers
Some retrocomputing enthusiasts also consider the "homebrewing" (designing and building of retro- and retro-styled computers or kits), to be an important aspect of the hobby, giving new enthusiasts an opportunity to experience more fully what the early years of hobby computing were like. There are several different approaches to this end. Some are exact replicas of older systems, and some are newer designs based on the principles of retrocomputing, while others combine the two, with old and new features in the same package. Examples include:
Device offered by IMSAI, a modern, updated, yet backward-compatible version and replica of the original IMSAI 8080, one of the most popular early personal systems;
Several Apple 1 replicas and kits have been sold in limited quantities in recent years, by different builders, such as the "Replica 1", from Briel Computers;
A currently ongoing project that uses old technology in a new design is the Z80-based N8VEM;
The Arduino Retro Computer kit is an open source, open hardware kit you can build and has a BASIC interpreter. There is also a version of the Arduino Retro Computer that can be hooked up to a TV;
There is at least one remake of the Commodore 64 using an FPGA configured to emulate the 6502;
MSX 2/2+ compatible do-it-yourself kit GR8BIT, designed for the hands-on education in electronics, deliberately employing old and new concepts and devices (high-capacity SRAMs, micro-controllers and FPGA);
The MEGA65 is a Commodore 65 compatible computer;
The Commander X16 is an ongoing project that hopes to build a new 8-bit platform inspired by the Commodore 64, using off the shelf modern parts.
The C256 Foenix and its different versions is a new retro computer family based on the WDC65C816. FPGAs are used to simulate CBM custom chips and has the power of an Amiga with its graphic and sound capabilities.
Software retrocomputing
As old computer hardware becomes harder to maintain, there has been increasing interest in computer simulation. This is especially the case with old mainframe computers, which have largely been scrapped, and have space, power, and environmental requirements unaffordable by the average user. The memory size and speed of current systems enable simulation of many old systems to run faster than that system on original hardware.
One popular simulator, the history simulator SIMH, offers simulations for over 50 historic systems, from the 1950s thru the present. The Hercules emulator simulates the IBM System/360 family from System/360 to 64-bit System/z. A simulator is available for the Honeywell Multics system.
Software for older systems was not copyrighted, and was open source, so there is a wide variety of available software to run on these simulators.
Some emulations are used by businesses, as running production software in a simulator is usually faster, cheaper, and more reliable that running it on original hardware.
In popular culture
In an interview with Conan O'Brien in May 2014, George R. R. Martin revealed that he writes his books using WordStar 4.0, an MS-DOS application dating back to 1987.
US-based streaming video provider Netflix released a multiple-choice movie branded to be part of their Black Mirror series, called Bandersnatch. The protagonist is a teenage programmer working on a contract to deliver a video-game adaptation of a fantasy novel for an 8-bit computer in 1984. The multiple storylines evolve around the emotions and mental health issues resulting from a reality-perception mismatch between a new generation of computer-savvy teenagers and twenty-somethings, and their care givers.
Education
Due to their low complexity together with other technical advantages, 8-bit computers are frequently re-discovered for education, especially for introductory programming classes in elementary schools. 8-bit computers turn on and directly present a programming environment; there are no distractions, and no need for other features or additional connectivity. The BASIC language is a simple-to-learn programming language that has access to the entire system without having to load libraries for sound, graphics, math, etc. The focus of the programming language is on efficiency; in particular, one command does one thing immediately (e.g. turns the screen green).
Reception
Retrocomputing (and retrogaming as aspect) has been described in one paper as preservation activity and as aspect of the remix culture.
Internet
Though many retro computers pre-date widespread use of the Internet, many enthusiasts find ways to connect their machines using technologies such as Retronet that emulate the modems and X.25 protocol the machines were designed at the time to use.
See also
History of computing hardware
Vintage Computer Festival
Computer History Museum
Computer Conservation Society
Living Computers: Museum + Labs
References
External links
Retro Computer Museum, a computer museum in Leicestershire, UK with regular "come and play" open days
Retrocomputing Museum for re-implementations of old programming languages
RETRO German paper mag about digital culture
The Centre for Computing History The Centre for Computing History UK Computer Museum
Living Computer Museum Request a Login from the LCM to interact with vintage computers over the internet.
bitsavers Software and PDF Document archive about older computers
Vintage Computing Resources Active resources for retrocomputing hobbyists
Learning to code in a “retro” programming environment
Beginning Programming Using Retro Computing
LOAD ZX Spectrum Museum, a retro computing museum in Portugal mostly focused on the Sinclair line of computers
History of computing
Nostalgia |
Ayorinde is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Deborah Ayorinde (born 1987), British-Nigerian actress
James Tanimola Ayorinde (1907-1970s), Nigerian minister
Sam Ayorinde (born 1974), Nigerian footballer
Steve Ayorinde (born 1970), Nigerian official
Surnames of Nigerian origin |
The 1986–87 European Cup was the 27th edition of Europe's premier club handball tournament.
Knockout stage
Round 1
|}
Round 2
|}
Quarterfinals
|}
Semifinals
|}
Finals
|}
External links
EHF Champions League website
European Cup 1987 edition
EHF Champions League seasons
Champions League
Champions League |
Mirjana Sistek-Djordjevic (born July 23, 1935) is a Serbian composer who was born in Belgrade. She was one of the first Serbian women composers to earn a Doctor of Musical Arts (DMA) degree.
Sistek-Djordjevic attended the Academy of Music in Belgrade, where she studied with Stanojlo Rajcic and Petar Bergamo. She was a music professor at the Mokranjac Music School. Her students included Aleksandar Kostić.
Compositions
Chamber
String Quartet
Study (flute)
Theme with Six Variations (2 clarinets)
Three Sketches (violin and piano)
Orchestra
Piano Concerto
Symphony in One Movement
Piano
Klaviska Suita
Piano Trio
Sonata
Suites
Variations
Vocal
Mrazova Sestrica (mixed chorus)
Trazim Pomilovanje (I Seek Pardon; women’s chorus and orchestra; text by Desanka Maksimović)
References
String quartet composers
Serbian music educators
Serbian composers
Serbian women composers
Serbian women educators
Serbian women music educators
University of Arts in Belgrade alumni
1935 births
Living people
People from Belgrade |
The Order of Mwalimu Julius Kambarage Nyerere () is the highest award of the Tanzanian Honours System. It is named after Julius Nyerere, the nation's first president.
History
It was instituted by President Jakaya Kikwete in December 2011 to honour the nation's past presidents during the 50th anniversary celebrations of the independence of Tanganyika (present day Tanzania Mainland).
Recipients
References
External links
Photographs of the award ceremony
Orders, decorations, and medals of Tanzania
Awards established in 2011
2011 establishments in Tanzania
Julius Nyerere |
Thom Thomas (August 31, 1935 – December 2, 2015) was an American actor, screenplay writer and playwright.
Formative years and family
Thomas Neil Thomas was born in Lawrence, Pennsylvania on August 31, 1935. He studied at the Pittsburgh Playhouse School of Theatre from 1958 to 1960 before attending Carnegie Mellon University.
On July 2, 2014, he married Janis V. Purins, with whom he had been living as domestic partners since they met at the Pittsburgh Playhouse in 1973.
Career
Thomas began his career in theatre at Little Lake Theatre in Canonsburg, Pennsylvania, where he acted in or directed thirty plays from 1958 to 1964. In 1965, he served as the co-producer and director at The Rabbit Run Theatre in Madison, Ohio and later at The Odd Chair Playhouse in Bethel Park, Pennsylvania.
In 1966, he joined the American Conservatory Theater, where he worked under the artistic direction of William Ball. He then received the Cameron Overseas Grant from CMU to study in Europe where he joined the Young Vic.
Upon returning to America in 1967, he joined the faculty at Point Park College in Pittsburgh, where he led the theatre department from 1974 to 1977. He was appointed as the artistic director at the Pittsburgh Playhouse and was also the artistic director for the Pittsburgh Civic Light Opera in 1972, where he directed the entire inaugural season at newly restored Heinz Hall.
In 1974, he was honored as "Man of the Year in Theatre" by the Pittsburgh, Pennsylvania Jaycees.
He has been the author of a number of screenplays, including episodes for Hotel, Hill Street Blues and A Year in the Life. He wrote and co-produced the pilot for the proposed series "Private Sessions" starring Mike Farrell and Maureen Stapleton.
Final years and death
In November 2015, Thomas collaborated with Iris Rainer Dart on rewrites for the stage musical, Beaches, based on Dart's popular novel. He also made final edits on his screenplay, Vanished, which was adapted from the novel by Mary McGarry Morris.
During this same time, he was diagnosed with acute myeloid leukemia and died within two weeks. Thomas had been the recipient of multiple grants, including from the Ford Foundation (1969) and the National Endowment for the Arts (1978).
Plays
The Interview, his first major play, was produced with Jose Ferrer as director and actor at the Pittsburgh Playhouse. In 1976, The Interview was produced Off-Broadway. His other plays included The Ball Game, which premiered at Playwrights Horizons and later opened at the Open Space Theatre in London, England, and Without Apologies, which premiered at The Pittsburgh Playhouse and later at the Dorset Theatre Festival directed by Edgar Lansbury, and which subsequently moved to a successful off-Broadway production at the Hudson Guild Theatre, starring Carrie Nye and Pauline Flanagan. Both "The Interview" and "Without Apologies" were published by Samuel French, Inc.
A Moon To Dance By was a play that was first shown at the New Harmony Theatre, Evansville, Indiana in 2004, starring Jana Robbins and, after revision, in 2009 with Jane Alexander at the Pittsburgh Playhouse. It was also later performed at the George Street Playhouse in New Brunswick, New Jersey. Both productions were directed by Edwin Sherin. Based on an actual meeting between Frieda Weekley and her estranged son Monty at the ranch, she shared with her lover after the death of her husband D. H. Lawrence in 1939, the play examines the dynamics of a meeting between a mother who follows her own calling and the needs imposed on her by family and conventions. Named "Best Play, Best Ensemble, Best Actress, and Best Actor" in 2009 by The Pittsburgh Post-Gazette, it was nominated by the American Theatre Critics Association as "Best Play" and was also nominated for the 2009 Pulitzer Prize in Drama.
A member of the Dramatists Guild of America, the Academy of Television Arts and Sciences, and Writers Guild of America West, Thomas was also the co-writer (2012) along with novelist Iris Rainer Dart of a Broadway musical, Beaches, based on Dart's popular novel and film. It premiered at the Signature Theatre in Arlington, Virginia in February 2014.
References
External links
20th-century American dramatists and playwrights
American male screenwriters
Carnegie Mellon University College of Fine Arts alumni
1935 births
2015 deaths
People from Washington County, Pennsylvania
Point Park University faculty
American male dramatists and playwrights
Writers from Pennsylvania
20th-century American male writers |
David Manley may refer to:
David Manley (philosopher), American philosopher
David Manley (artist), British artist, educationalist and arts administrator |
Bardo Pond is the 8th studio album by Bardo Pond, released in 2010.
Track listing
Just Once - 7:19
Don't Know About You - 4:27
Sleeping - 8:38
Undone - 21:02
Cracker Wrist - 9:00
Await The Star (titled "The Stars Behind" on digital releases of the album) - 12:59
Wayne's Tune - 15:52
Personnel
Isobel Sollenberger - Flute, Violin, Vocals
Michael Gibbons - Guitar
John Gibbons - Guitar
Clint Takeda - Bass
Jason Kourkounis - Drums
Aaron Igler - Synthesizer, Electronics
References
2010 albums
Bardo Pond albums
Fire Records (UK) albums |
Patrick Hasenhüttl (born 20 May 1997) is an Austrian professional footballer who plays as a centre-forward for German club Hallescher FC. He previously played senior football for Ingolstadt 04 II, Türkgücü München, SpVgg Unterhaching, Austria Klagenfurt and VfB Oldenburg. Hasenhüttl has played for Austria at under-17, under-18 level and under-19 levels.
Club career
Hasenhüttl played youth football for SpVgg Unterhaching before joining the youth team of VfB Stuttgart in 2013. He left VfB Stuttgart's youth team in 2015 and joined Ingolstadt 04. He made his senior debut for Ingolstadt 04's reserve side on 30 July 2016 as a substitute in a 3–1 defeat away to VfR Garching. On 2 September 2016, he scored the first goal of his senior career with his first touch after coming on as a substitute in a 2–2 draw away to 1. FC Schweinfurt 05. He made a total of 82 league appearances, in which he scored 23 goals, over three seasons with Ingolstadt 04 II.
In June 2019, he signed for Regionalliga Bayern side Türkgücü München on a free transfer. He scored 14 goals in 23 league appearances for Türkgücü München across the 2019–20 season, as they were promoted to the 3. Liga during the COVID-19 pandemic.
He returned to former youth club SpVgg Unterhaching in the summer of 2020 on a two-year contract. Hasenhüttl made his debut for the club in the 3. Liga on 25 September 2020, starting in a 1–0 home victory against VfB Lübeck.
In January 2022, Hasenhüttl signed a 2.5-year contract with Austria Klagenfurt.
He was loaned to 3. Liga club VfB Oldenburg in September 2022.
On 17 August 2023, Hasenhüttl returned to 3. Liga and signed with Hallescher FC.
International career
Hasenhüttl has represented Austria internationally at under-17 level, under-18 level and under-19 levels. He appeared for Austria at the 2016 UEFA European Under-19 Championship.
Personal life
He is the son of former professional footballer and former Southampton and RB Leipzig manager Ralph Hasenhüttl. He was born in Mechelen, Belgium as his father was playing for KV Mechelen at the time, but has represented Austria in youth international football. He also holds German citizenship.
References
External links
Patrick Hasenhüttl at Austrian Football Association
1997 births
Living people
Footballers from Mechelen
Austrian men's footballers
Austria men's youth international footballers
Belgian men's footballers
Belgian people of Austrian descent
German men's footballers
Men's association football forwards
FC Ingolstadt 04 II players
Türkgücü München players
SpVgg Unterhaching players
SK Austria Klagenfurt (2007) players
VfB Oldenburg players
Hallescher FC players
3. Liga players
Regionalliga players |
A whipsaw strike (also called a selective strike) is a strike by a trade union against only one or a few employers in an industry or a multi-employer association at a time. The strike is often of a short duration, and usually recurs during the labor dispute or contract negotiations—hence the name "whipsaw".
Multi-employer bargaining
As unionization spreads in an industry, unions often attempt to encourage employers in that industry to bargain as a group. The goal is to negotiate an industry-wide contract which equalizes pay across employers, forcing businesses to compete on the basis of quality, innovation, and occupational safety and health. This activity is known as multi-employer bargaining. Multi-employer bargaining has been common in the United States and other countries since the 1880s. It is more common in heavily unionized industries such as construction, steelmaking and transportation; where there is high turnover due to the nature of the job (such as construction and longshore operations); and where numerous small employers face a powerful labor union. Although increasingly rare in the private sector in the United Kingdom, multi-employer bargaining remains common in Western Europe (especially in Germany), Scandinavia, Japan, and some South American countries (such as Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Peru and Uruguay). Canada, for example, encourages multi-employer bargaining by law.
Employers face an economic incentive to break away from the employer bargaining group. If the employer does so and is able to negotiate a contract with lower labor costs, that employer will achieve a significant competitive advantage in the marketplace.
Whipsaw strike in multi-employer bargaining
To discourage employers from breaking away from the bargaining group, unions developed the whipsaw strike. In a whipsaw strike, the union strikes one employer (or just a few employers) in the multi-employer bargaining group. The strike is usually of a short duration (a few days or a week at most). The union strikes employer after employer. Strikes may occur one after another and may overlap, or there may be long lulls between strikes. The same employer may be struck repeatedly, with sometimes as little as 24 hours between strikes.
The goal of a whipsaw strike may vary. In some cases, the strike is conducted only against an employer the union believes is considering quitting the employer association. In other cases, the job action is conducted against a strong employer who is committed to staying in the employer group. The strike serves as an example to keep other, weaker businesses (which have a greater incentive to leave the employer group) in line. Sometimes, a whipsaw strike is used as a bargaining tool. For example, the strike may be directed at an employer or employers in the group which the union believes are holding up an agreement, or to keep employers off balance in negotiations, weaken the employer group's economic strength, and exercise the union's economic power.
Employer responses and legality
Employer reactions to whipsaw strikes vary widely. In some countries which ban worker strikes, the whipsaw strike is illegal and employers are able to work with government law enforcement officials to end its use. In countries where the whipsaw strike is permitted, employers often counter this form of strike by locking out all employees who work for the employer association and using strikebreakers to provide temporary or permanent replacements.
Few nations have addressed the use of lockouts during whipsaw strikes, however. In the United States, the Supreme Court has ruled on the legality of the practice. The question before the Court was whether a lockout during a whipsaw strike was an unfair labor practice (ULP) under the National Labor Relations Act and its various amendments. In NLRB v. Truck Drivers Local 449 ("Buffalo Linen Supply Co."), 353 U.S. 87 (1957), the Court held that such a lockout was not a ULP. The high court further extended this ruling in NLRB v. Brown Food Stores, 380 U.S. 278 (1965), holding that an employer could engage in a partial lockout of its employees in advance of a whipsaw strike so long as the employer only utilized temporary replacements and locked out all workers (not just those who supported the union).
Notes
References
Brisbin Jr., Richard A. A Strike Like No Other Strike: Law and Resistance During the Pittston Coal Strike of 1989-1990. Baltimore, Md.: Johns Hopkins University Press, 2002.
Getman, Julius G. and Kohler, Thomas C. "The Story of 'NLRB v. Mackay Radio & Telegraph Co.': The High Cost of Solidarity". In Labor Law Stories. Laura J. Cooper and Catherine L. Fisk, eds. New York: Foundation Press, 2005.
Hardin, Patrick; Higgins Jr, John E.; Hexter, Christopher T.; and Neighbours, John T. The Developing Labor Law: The Board, the Courts, and the National Labor Relations Act. 4th ed. Washington, D.C.: BNA Books, 2002.
"Hiring of Replacements by Nonstruck Employers in 'Whipsaw Strike' Context Held Not an Unfair Labor Practice". Columbia Law Review. 64:1 (January 1964).
International Labor Organization. World Labour Report 1994. Geneva, Switzerland: International Labour Office, April 1994.
LeRoy, Michael H. "Lockouts Involving Replacement Workers: An Empirical Public Policy Analysis and Proposal to Balance Economic Weapons Under the NLRA". Washington University Law Quarterly. 74:981 (Winter 1996).
"Limits on Labor & Management". Time. April 9, 1965.
"Multi-Employer Lockout Found Lawful Response to Whipsaw Strike". Columbia Law Review. 57:8 (December 1957).
O'Connell, Lesley D. Collective Bargaining Systems in 6 Latin American Countries: Degrees of Autonomy and Decentralization. Argentina, Brazil, Chile, Mexico, Peru, and Uruguay. Washington, D.C.: Inter-American Development Bank, May 1999.
Rose, Joseph B. "Multi-Employer Cohesion in Australian Construction". Journal of Industrial Relations. 29:4 (1987).
Tolliday, S. The Power to Manage?: Employers and Industrial Relations in Comparative Historical Perspective. New York: Routledge, 1991.
Wetzel K.; Maxey C.; and Gallagher D.G. "Management and Union Assessments of Multi-Employer Bargaining in Health Care: A Canadian Example". Journal of Health and Human Resources Administration. 7:4 (Spring 1985).
Williams, Steve and Adam-Smith, Derek. Contemporary Employment Relations: A Critical Introduction. Oxford, England: Oxford University Press, 2005.
Labor relations
Labor disputes |
The gens Cossutia was a plebeian family of equestrian rank at ancient Rome. It never attained any importance.
Origin
It is conjectured by some from Cicero's mention of the Cossutianae tabulae, near Caesena, in Gallia Cisalpina, that the Cossutii originally came from that place.
Branches and cognomina
On coins of this gens, we find the cognomens Maridianus and Sabula, but none occur in history.
Members
Decimus Cossutius, a Roman architect, rebuilt the temple of the Olympian Zeus at Athens, in the most magnificent Corinthian style, in 168 BC.
Marcus Cossutius, an eques, and a man of the greatest respectability and integrity, who lived in Sicily during the administration of Verres, and defended Xeno before the latter.
Cossutia, fiancée and perhaps the first wife of Caesar, belonged to a very wealthy equestrian family. She was betrothed to him by his parents, while he was very young, but was rejected by him in his seventeenth year, that he might marry Cornelia.
Gaius Cossutius Maridianus, triumvir monetalis under Caesar in 44 BC.
See also
List of Roman gentes
Cossutianus Capito
References
Roman gentes |
Rehamna () or Rhamna is a province in the Moroccan region of Marrakesh-Safi. Its population in 2014 was 315,077.
Subdivisions
The 23 rural communes are attached to 7 caidats, themselves part of 2 circles:
circle of Rehamna
caidat of Oulad Tmim: Jaafra, Sidi Abdallah and Skoura Lhadra
caidat of Skhour: Sidi Ghanem, Sidi Mansour and Skhour Rehamna
caidat of Labrikiyne: Sidi Ali Labrahla, Oulad Hassoune Hamri and Labrikiyne
caidat of Tnine Bouchane: Oulad Aamer Tizmarine, Ait Hammou, Bouchane and Ait Taleb
circle of Sidi Bou Othmane
caidat of Sidi Bou Othmane: Bourrous, Sidi Boubker and Jbilate
caidat of Louta: Nzalat Laadam, Lamharra and Oulad Imloul
caidat of Ras El Aïn: Akarma, Tlauh, Jaidate and Ras Ain Rhamna
References
Rehamna Province |
```c
/*
*
*/
#include <stdio.h>
#include <stdlib.h>
#include <string.h>
#include <stdbool.h>
#include <stddef.h>
#include <sys/param.h>
#include "esp_log.h"
#include "esp_heap_caps.h"
#include "driver/gpio.h"
#include "sd_protocol_defs.h"
#include "driver/sdspi_host.h"
#include "sdspi_private.h"
#include "sdspi_crc.h"
#include "esp_timer.h"
#include "freertos/FreeRTOS.h"
#include "freertos/semphr.h"
#include "soc/soc_memory_layout.h"
/// Max number of transactions in flight (used in start_command_write_blocks)
#define SDSPI_TRANSACTION_COUNT 4
#define SDSPI_MOSI_IDLE_VAL 0xff //!< Data value which causes MOSI to stay high
#define GPIO_UNUSED 0xff //!< Flag indicating that CD/WP is unused
/// Size of the buffer returned by get_block_buf
#define SDSPI_BLOCK_BUF_SIZE (SDSPI_MAX_DATA_LEN + 4)
/// Maximum number of dummy bytes between the request and response (minimum is 1)
#define SDSPI_RESPONSE_MAX_DELAY 8
/**
* @brief Structure containing run time configuration for a single SD slot
*
* The slot info is referenced to by an sdspi_dev_handle_t (alias int). The handle may be the raw
* pointer to the slot info itself (force converted to, new API in IDFv4.2), or the index of the
* s_slot array (deprecated API). Returning the raw pointer to the caller instead of storing it
* locally can save some static memory.
*/
typedef struct {
spi_host_device_t host_id; //!< SPI host id.
spi_device_handle_t spi_handle; //!< SPI device handle, used for transactions
uint8_t gpio_cs; //!< CS GPIO, or GPIO_UNUSED
uint8_t gpio_cd; //!< Card detect GPIO, or GPIO_UNUSED
uint8_t gpio_wp; //!< Write protect GPIO, or GPIO_UNUSED
uint8_t gpio_int; //!< Write protect GPIO, or GPIO_UNUSED
/// GPIO write protect polarity.
/// 0 means "active low", i.e. card is protected when the GPIO is low;
/// 1 means "active high", i.e. card is protected when GPIO is high.
uint8_t gpio_wp_polarity : 1;
/// Set to 1 if the higher layer has asked the card to enable CRC checks
uint8_t data_crc_enabled : 1;
/// Intermediate buffer used when application buffer is not in DMA memory;
/// allocated on demand, SDSPI_BLOCK_BUF_SIZE bytes long. May be zero.
uint8_t* block_buf;
/// semaphore of gpio interrupt
SemaphoreHandle_t semphr_int;
} slot_info_t;
// Reserved for old API to be back-compatible
static slot_info_t *s_slots[SOC_SPI_PERIPH_NUM] = {};
static const char *TAG = "sdspi_host";
static const bool use_polling = true;
static const bool no_use_polling = true;
/// Functions to send out different kinds of commands
static esp_err_t start_command_read_blocks(slot_info_t *slot, sdspi_hw_cmd_t *cmd,
uint8_t *data, uint32_t rx_length, bool need_stop_command);
static esp_err_t start_command_write_blocks(slot_info_t *slot, sdspi_hw_cmd_t *cmd,
const uint8_t *data, uint32_t tx_length, bool multi_block, bool stop_trans);
static esp_err_t start_command_default(slot_info_t *slot, int flags, sdspi_hw_cmd_t *cmd);
static esp_err_t shift_cmd_response(sdspi_hw_cmd_t *cmd, int sent_bytes);
static esp_err_t poll_busy(slot_info_t *slot, int timeout_ms, bool polling);
/// A few helper functions
/// Map handle to pointer of slot information
static slot_info_t* get_slot_info(sdspi_dev_handle_t handle)
{
if ((uint32_t) handle < SOC_SPI_PERIPH_NUM) {
return s_slots[handle];
} else {
return (slot_info_t *) handle;
}
}
/// Store slot information (if possible) and return corresponding handle
static sdspi_dev_handle_t store_slot_info(slot_info_t *slot)
{
/*
* To be back-compatible, the first device of each bus will always be stored locally, and
* referenced to by the handle `host_id`, otherwise the new API return the raw pointer to the
* slot info as the handle, to save some static memory.
*/
if (s_slots[slot->host_id] == NULL) {
s_slots[slot->host_id] = slot;
return slot->host_id;
} else {
return (sdspi_dev_handle_t)slot;
}
}
/// Get the slot info for a specific handle, and remove the local reference (if exist).
static slot_info_t* remove_slot_info(sdspi_dev_handle_t handle)
{
if ((uint32_t) handle < SOC_SPI_PERIPH_NUM) {
slot_info_t* slot = s_slots[handle];
s_slots[handle] = NULL;
return slot;
} else {
return (slot_info_t *) handle;
}
}
/// Set CS high for given slot
static void cs_high(slot_info_t *slot)
{
if (slot->gpio_cs != GPIO_UNUSED) {
gpio_set_level(slot->gpio_cs, 1);
}
}
/// Set CS low for given slot
static void cs_low(slot_info_t *slot)
{
if (slot->gpio_cs != GPIO_UNUSED) {
gpio_set_level(slot->gpio_cs, 0);
}
}
/// Return true if WP pin is configured and is set as per its polarity
static bool card_write_protected(slot_info_t *slot)
{
if (slot->gpio_wp == GPIO_UNUSED) {
return false;
}
return gpio_get_level(slot->gpio_wp) == (slot->gpio_wp_polarity ? 1 : 0);
}
/// Return true if CD pin is configured and is high
static bool card_missing(slot_info_t *slot)
{
if (slot->gpio_cd == GPIO_UNUSED) {
return false;
}
return gpio_get_level(slot->gpio_cd) == 1;
}
/// Get pointer to a block of DMA memory, allocate if necessary.
/// This is used if the application provided buffer is not in DMA capable memory.
static esp_err_t get_block_buf(slot_info_t *slot, uint8_t **out_buf)
{
if (slot->block_buf == NULL) {
slot->block_buf = heap_caps_malloc(SDSPI_BLOCK_BUF_SIZE, MALLOC_CAP_DMA);
if (slot->block_buf == NULL) {
return ESP_ERR_NO_MEM;
}
}
*out_buf = slot->block_buf;
return ESP_OK;
}
/// Clock out one byte (CS has to be high) to make the card release MISO
/// (clocking one bit would work as well, but that triggers a bug in SPI DMA)
static void release_bus(slot_info_t *slot)
{
spi_transaction_t t = {
.flags = SPI_TRANS_USE_RXDATA | SPI_TRANS_USE_TXDATA,
.length = 8,
.tx_data = {0xff}
};
spi_device_polling_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t);
// don't care if this failed
}
/// Clock out 80 cycles (10 bytes) before GO_IDLE command
static void go_idle_clockout(slot_info_t *slot)
{
//actually we need 10, declare 12 to meet requirement of RXDMA
uint8_t data[12];
memset(data, 0xff, sizeof(data));
spi_transaction_t t = {
.length = 10 * 8,
.tx_buffer = data,
.rx_buffer = data,
};
spi_device_polling_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t);
// don't care if this failed
}
/**
* (Re)Configure SPI device. Used to change clock speed.
* @param slot Pointer to the slot to be configured
* @param clock_speed_hz clock speed, Hz
* @return ESP_OK on success
*/
static esp_err_t configure_spi_dev(slot_info_t *slot, int clock_speed_hz)
{
if (slot->spi_handle) {
// Reinitializing
spi_bus_remove_device(slot->spi_handle);
slot->spi_handle = NULL;
}
spi_device_interface_config_t devcfg = {
.clock_speed_hz = clock_speed_hz,
.mode = 0,
// For SD cards, CS must stay low during the whole read/write operation,
// rather than a single SPI transaction.
.spics_io_num = GPIO_NUM_NC,
.queue_size = SDSPI_TRANSACTION_COUNT,
};
return spi_bus_add_device(slot->host_id, &devcfg, &slot->spi_handle);
}
esp_err_t sdspi_host_init(void)
{
return ESP_OK;
}
static esp_err_t deinit_slot(slot_info_t *slot)
{
esp_err_t err = ESP_OK;
if (slot->spi_handle) {
spi_bus_remove_device(slot->spi_handle);
slot->spi_handle = NULL;
free(slot->block_buf);
slot->block_buf = NULL;
}
uint64_t pin_bit_mask = 0;
if (slot->gpio_cs != GPIO_UNUSED) {
pin_bit_mask |= BIT64(slot->gpio_cs);
}
if (slot->gpio_cd != GPIO_UNUSED) {
pin_bit_mask |= BIT64(slot->gpio_cd);
}
if (slot->gpio_wp != GPIO_UNUSED) {
pin_bit_mask |= BIT64(slot->gpio_wp);
}
if (slot->gpio_int != GPIO_UNUSED) {
pin_bit_mask |= BIT64(slot->gpio_int);
gpio_intr_disable(slot->gpio_int);
gpio_isr_handler_remove(slot->gpio_int);
}
gpio_config_t config = {
.pin_bit_mask = pin_bit_mask,
.mode = GPIO_MODE_INPUT,
.intr_type = GPIO_INTR_DISABLE,
};
if (pin_bit_mask != 0) {
gpio_config(&config);
}
if (slot->semphr_int) {
vSemaphoreDelete(slot->semphr_int);
slot->semphr_int = NULL;
}
free(slot);
return err;
}
esp_err_t sdspi_host_remove_device(sdspi_dev_handle_t handle)
{
//Get the slot info and remove the reference in the static memory (if used)
slot_info_t* slot = remove_slot_info(handle);
if (slot == NULL) {
return ESP_ERR_INVALID_ARG;
}
deinit_slot(slot);
return ESP_OK;
}
//only the slots locally stored can be deinit in this function.
esp_err_t sdspi_host_deinit(void)
{
for (size_t i = 0; i < sizeof(s_slots) / sizeof(s_slots[0]); ++i) {
slot_info_t* slot = remove_slot_info(i);
//slot isn't used, skip
if (slot == NULL) {
continue;
}
deinit_slot(slot);
}
return ESP_OK;
}
esp_err_t sdspi_host_set_card_clk(sdspi_dev_handle_t handle, uint32_t freq_khz)
{
slot_info_t *slot = get_slot_info(handle);
if (slot == NULL) {
return ESP_ERR_INVALID_ARG;
}
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "Setting card clock to %"PRIu32" kHz", freq_khz);
return configure_spi_dev(slot, freq_khz * 1000);
}
esp_err_t sdspi_host_get_real_freq(sdspi_dev_handle_t handle, int* real_freq_khz)
{
slot_info_t *slot = get_slot_info(handle);
if (slot == NULL) {
return ESP_ERR_INVALID_ARG;
}
return spi_device_get_actual_freq(slot->spi_handle, real_freq_khz);
}
static void gpio_intr(void* arg)
{
BaseType_t awoken = pdFALSE;
slot_info_t* slot = (slot_info_t*)arg;
xSemaphoreGiveFromISR(slot->semphr_int, &awoken);
gpio_intr_disable(slot->gpio_int);
if (awoken) {
portYIELD_FROM_ISR();
}
}
esp_err_t sdspi_host_init_device(const sdspi_device_config_t* slot_config, sdspi_dev_handle_t* out_handle)
{
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "%s: SPI%d cs=%d cd=%d wp=%d wp_polarity:%d",
__func__, slot_config->host_id + 1, slot_config->gpio_cs,
slot_config->gpio_cd, slot_config->gpio_wp, slot_config->gpio_wp_polarity);
slot_info_t* slot = (slot_info_t*)malloc(sizeof(slot_info_t));
if (slot == NULL) {
return ESP_ERR_NO_MEM;
}
*slot = (slot_info_t) {
.host_id = slot_config->host_id,
.gpio_cs = slot_config->gpio_cs,
};
// Attach the SD card to the SPI bus
esp_err_t ret = configure_spi_dev(slot, SDMMC_FREQ_PROBING * 1000);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "spi_bus_add_device failed with rc=0x%x", ret);
goto cleanup;
}
// Configure CS pin
gpio_config_t io_conf = {
.intr_type = GPIO_INTR_DISABLE,
.mode = GPIO_MODE_OUTPUT,
.pin_bit_mask = 1ULL << slot_config->gpio_cs,
};
if (slot_config->gpio_cs != SDSPI_SLOT_NO_CS) {
slot->gpio_cs = slot_config->gpio_cs;
} else {
slot->gpio_cs = GPIO_UNUSED;
}
if (slot->gpio_cs != GPIO_UNUSED) {
ret = gpio_config(&io_conf);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "gpio_config (CS) failed with rc=0x%x", ret);
goto cleanup;
}
cs_high(slot);
}
// Configure CD and WP pins
io_conf = (gpio_config_t) {
.intr_type = GPIO_INTR_DISABLE,
.mode = GPIO_MODE_INPUT,
.pin_bit_mask = 0,
.pull_up_en = true
};
if (slot_config->gpio_cd != SDSPI_SLOT_NO_CD) {
io_conf.pin_bit_mask |= (1ULL << slot_config->gpio_cd);
slot->gpio_cd = slot_config->gpio_cd;
} else {
slot->gpio_cd = GPIO_UNUSED;
}
if (slot_config->gpio_wp != SDSPI_SLOT_NO_WP) {
io_conf.pin_bit_mask |= (1ULL << slot_config->gpio_wp);
slot->gpio_wp = slot_config->gpio_wp;
slot->gpio_wp_polarity = slot_config->gpio_wp_polarity;
if (slot->gpio_wp_polarity) {
io_conf.pull_down_en = true;
io_conf.pull_up_en = false;
}
} else {
slot->gpio_wp = GPIO_UNUSED;
}
if (io_conf.pin_bit_mask != 0) {
ret = gpio_config(&io_conf);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "gpio_config (CD/WP) failed with rc=0x%x", ret);
goto cleanup;
}
}
if (slot_config->gpio_int != SDSPI_SLOT_NO_INT) {
slot->gpio_int = slot_config->gpio_int;
io_conf = (gpio_config_t) {
.intr_type = GPIO_INTR_LOW_LEVEL,
.mode = GPIO_MODE_INPUT,
.pull_up_en = true,
.pin_bit_mask = (1ULL << slot_config->gpio_int),
};
ret = gpio_config(&io_conf);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
ESP_LOGE(TAG, "gpio_config (interrupt) failed with rc=0x%x", ret);
goto cleanup;
}
slot->semphr_int = xSemaphoreCreateBinary();
if (slot->semphr_int == NULL) {
ret = ESP_ERR_NO_MEM;
goto cleanup;
}
gpio_intr_disable(slot->gpio_int);
// 1. the interrupt is better to be disabled before the ISR is registered
// 2. the semaphore MUST be initialized before the ISR is registered
// 3. the gpio_int member should be filled before the ISR is registered
ret = gpio_isr_handler_add(slot->gpio_int, &gpio_intr, slot);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
ESP_LOGE(TAG, "gpio_isr_handle_add failed with rc=0x%x", ret);
goto cleanup;
}
} else {
slot->gpio_int = GPIO_UNUSED;
}
//Initialization finished, store the store information if possible
//Then return corresponding handle
*out_handle = store_slot_info(slot);
return ESP_OK;
cleanup:
if (slot->semphr_int) {
vSemaphoreDelete(slot->semphr_int);
slot->semphr_int = NULL;
}
if (slot->spi_handle) {
spi_bus_remove_device(slot->spi_handle);
slot->spi_handle = NULL;
}
free(slot);
return ret;
}
esp_err_t sdspi_host_start_command(sdspi_dev_handle_t handle, sdspi_hw_cmd_t *cmd, void *data,
uint32_t data_size, int flags)
{
slot_info_t *slot = get_slot_info(handle);
if (slot == NULL) {
return ESP_ERR_INVALID_ARG;
}
if (card_missing(slot)) {
return ESP_ERR_NOT_FOUND;
}
// save some parts of cmd, as its contents will be overwritten
int cmd_index = cmd->cmd_index;
uint32_t cmd_arg;
memcpy(&cmd_arg, cmd->arguments, sizeof(cmd_arg));
cmd_arg = __builtin_bswap32(cmd_arg);
ESP_LOGV(TAG, "%s: slot=%i, CMD%d, arg=0x%08"PRIx32" flags=0x%x, data=%p, data_size=%"PRIu32" crc=0x%02x",
__func__, handle, cmd_index, cmd_arg, flags, data, data_size, cmd->crc7);
spi_device_acquire_bus(slot->spi_handle, portMAX_DELAY);
poll_busy(slot, 40, true);
// For CMD0, clock out 80 cycles to help the card enter idle state,
// *before* CS is asserted.
if (cmd_index == MMC_GO_IDLE_STATE) {
go_idle_clockout(slot);
}
// actual transaction
esp_err_t ret = ESP_OK;
cs_low(slot);
if (flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_DATA) {
const bool multi_block = flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_MULTI_BLK;
//send stop transmission token only when multi-block write and non-SDIO mode
const bool stop_transmission = multi_block && !(flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_RSP_R5);
if (flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_WRITE) {
ret = start_command_write_blocks(slot, cmd, data, data_size, multi_block, stop_transmission);
} else {
ret = start_command_read_blocks(slot, cmd, data, data_size, stop_transmission);
}
} else {
ret = start_command_default(slot, flags, cmd);
}
cs_high(slot);
release_bus(slot);
spi_device_release_bus(slot->spi_handle);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "%s: cmd=%d error=0x%x", __func__, cmd_index, ret);
} else {
// Update internal state when some commands are sent successfully
if (cmd_index == SD_CRC_ON_OFF) {
slot->data_crc_enabled = (uint8_t) cmd_arg;
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "data CRC set=%d", slot->data_crc_enabled);
}
}
return ret;
}
static esp_err_t start_command_default(slot_info_t *slot, int flags, sdspi_hw_cmd_t *cmd)
{
size_t cmd_size = SDSPI_CMD_R1_SIZE;
if ((flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_RSP_R1) ||
(flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_NORSP) ||
(flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_RSP_R1B)) {
cmd_size = SDSPI_CMD_R1_SIZE;
} else if (flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_RSP_R2) {
cmd_size = SDSPI_CMD_R2_SIZE;
} else if (flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_RSP_R3) {
cmd_size = SDSPI_CMD_R3_SIZE;
} else if (flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_RSP_R4) {
cmd_size = SDSPI_CMD_R4_SIZE;
} else if (flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_RSP_R5) {
cmd_size = SDSPI_CMD_R5_SIZE;
} else if (flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_RSP_R7) {
cmd_size = SDSPI_CMD_R7_SIZE;
}
//add extra clocks to avoid polling
cmd_size += (SDSPI_NCR_MAX_SIZE - SDSPI_NCR_MIN_SIZE);
spi_transaction_t t = {
.flags = 0,
.length = cmd_size * 8,
.tx_buffer = cmd,
.rx_buffer = cmd,
};
esp_err_t ret = spi_device_polling_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t);
if (cmd->cmd_index == MMC_STOP_TRANSMISSION) {
/* response is a stuff byte from previous transfer, ignore it */
cmd->r1 = 0xff;
}
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "%s: spi_device_polling_transmit returned 0x%x", __func__, ret);
return ret;
}
if (flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_NORSP) {
/* no (correct) response expected from the card, so skip polling loop */
ESP_LOGV(TAG, "%s: ignoring response byte", __func__);
cmd->r1 = 0x00;
}
// we have sent and received bytes with enough length.
// now shift the response to match the offset of sdspi_hw_cmd_t
ret = shift_cmd_response(cmd, cmd_size);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
}
if (flags & SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_RSP_R1B) {
ret = poll_busy(slot, cmd->timeout_ms, no_use_polling);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
}
return ESP_OK;
}
// Wait until MISO goes high
static esp_err_t poll_busy(slot_info_t *slot, int timeout_ms, bool polling)
{
uint8_t t_rx;
spi_transaction_t t = {
.tx_buffer = &t_rx,
.flags = SPI_TRANS_USE_RXDATA, //data stored in rx_data
.length = 8,
};
esp_err_t ret;
int64_t t_end = esp_timer_get_time() + timeout_ms * 1000;
int nonzero_count = 0;
do {
t_rx = SDSPI_MOSI_IDLE_VAL;
t.rx_data[0] = 0;
if (polling) {
ret = spi_device_polling_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t);
} else {
ret = spi_device_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t);
}
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
if (t.rx_data[0] != 0) {
if (++nonzero_count == 2) {
return ESP_OK;
}
}
} while (esp_timer_get_time() < t_end);
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "%s: timeout", __func__);
return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
}
// Wait for data token, reading 8 bytes at a time.
// If the token is found, write all subsequent bytes to extra_ptr,
// and store the number of bytes written to extra_size.
static esp_err_t poll_data_token(slot_info_t *slot, uint8_t *extra_ptr, size_t *extra_size, int timeout_ms)
{
uint8_t t_rx[8];
spi_transaction_t t = {
.tx_buffer = &t_rx,
.rx_buffer = &t_rx,
.length = sizeof(t_rx) * 8,
};
esp_err_t ret;
int64_t t_end = esp_timer_get_time() + timeout_ms * 1000;
do {
memset(t_rx, SDSPI_MOSI_IDLE_VAL, sizeof(t_rx));
ret = spi_device_polling_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
bool found = false;
for (size_t byte_idx = 0; byte_idx < sizeof(t_rx); byte_idx++) {
uint8_t rd_data = t_rx[byte_idx];
if (rd_data == TOKEN_BLOCK_START) {
found = true;
memcpy(extra_ptr, t_rx + byte_idx + 1, sizeof(t_rx) - byte_idx - 1);
*extra_size = sizeof(t_rx) - byte_idx - 1;
break;
}
if (rd_data != 0xff && rd_data != 0) {
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "%s: received 0x%02x while waiting for data",
__func__, rd_data);
return ESP_ERR_INVALID_RESPONSE;
}
}
if (found) {
return ESP_OK;
}
} while (esp_timer_get_time() < t_end);
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "%s: timeout", __func__);
return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
}
// the r1 respond could appear 1-8 clocks after the command token is sent
// this function search for r1 in the buffer after 1 clocks to max 8 clocks
// then shift the data after R1, to match the definition of sdspi_hw_cmd_t.
static esp_err_t shift_cmd_response(sdspi_hw_cmd_t* cmd, int sent_bytes)
{
uint8_t* pr1 = &cmd->r1;
int ncr_cnt = 1;
while (true) {
if ((*pr1 & SD_SPI_R1_NO_RESPONSE) == 0) {
break;
}
pr1++;
if (++ncr_cnt > 8) {
return ESP_ERR_NOT_FOUND;
}
}
int copy_bytes = sent_bytes - SDSPI_CMD_SIZE - ncr_cnt;
if (copy_bytes > 0) {
memcpy(&cmd->r1, pr1, copy_bytes);
}
return ESP_OK;
}
/**
* Receiving one or more blocks of data happens as follows:
* 1. send command + receive r1 response (SDSPI_CMD_R1_SIZE bytes total)
* 2. keep receiving bytes until TOKEN_BLOCK_START is encountered (this may
* take a while, depending on card's read speed)
* 3. receive up to SDSPI_MAX_DATA_LEN = 512 bytes of actual data
* 4. receive 2 bytes of CRC
* 5. for multi block transfers, go to step 2
*
* These steps can be done separately, but that leads to a less than optimal
* performance on large transfers because of delays between each step.
* For example, if steps 3 and 4 are separate SPI transactions queued one after
* another, there will be ~16 microseconds of dead time between end of step 3
* and the beginning of step 4. A delay between two blocking SPI transactions
* in step 2 is even higher (~60 microseconds).
*
* To improve read performance the following sequence is adopted:
* 1. Do the first transfer: command + r1 response + 8 extra bytes.
* Set pre_scan_data_ptr to point to the 8 extra bytes, and set
* pre_scan_data_size to 8.
* 2. Search pre_scan_data_size bytes for TOKEN_BLOCK_START.
* If found, the rest of the bytes contain part of the actual data.
* Store pointer to and size of that extra data as extra_data_{ptr,size}.
* If not found, fall back to polling for TOKEN_BLOCK_START, 8 bytes at a
* time (in poll_data_token function). Deal with extra data in the same way,
* by setting extra_data_{ptr,size}.
* 3. Receive the remaining 512 - extra_data_size bytes, plus 4 extra bytes
* (i.e. 516 - extra_data_size). Of the 4 extra bytes, first two will capture
* the CRC value, and the other two will capture 0xff 0xfe sequence
* indicating the start of the next block. Actual scanning is done by
* setting pre_scan_data_ptr to point to these last 2 bytes, and setting
* pre_scan_data_size = 2, then going to step 2 to receive the next block.
* When the final block is being received, the number of extra bytes is 2
* (only for CRC), because we don't need to wait for start token of the
* next block, and some cards are getting confused by these two extra bytes.
*
* With this approach the delay between blocks of a multi-block transfer is
* ~95 microseconds, out of which 35 microseconds are spend doing the CRC check.
* Further speedup is possible by pipelining transfers and CRC checks, at an
* expense of one extra temporary buffer.
*/
static esp_err_t start_command_read_blocks(slot_info_t *slot, sdspi_hw_cmd_t *cmd,
uint8_t *data, uint32_t rx_length, bool need_stop_command)
{
spi_transaction_t t_command = {
.length = (SDSPI_CMD_R1_SIZE + SDSPI_RESPONSE_MAX_DELAY) * 8,
.tx_buffer = cmd,
.rx_buffer = cmd,
};
esp_err_t ret = spi_device_polling_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t_command);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
uint8_t* cmd_u8 = (uint8_t*) cmd;
size_t pre_scan_data_size = SDSPI_RESPONSE_MAX_DELAY;
uint8_t* pre_scan_data_ptr = cmd_u8 + SDSPI_CMD_R1_SIZE;
/* R1 response is delayed by 1-8 bytes from the request.
* This loop searches for the response and writes it to cmd->r1.
*/
while ((cmd->r1 & SD_SPI_R1_NO_RESPONSE) != 0 && pre_scan_data_size > 0) {
cmd->r1 = *pre_scan_data_ptr;
++pre_scan_data_ptr;
--pre_scan_data_size;
}
if (cmd->r1 & SD_SPI_R1_NO_RESPONSE) {
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "no response token found");
return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
}
while (rx_length > 0) {
size_t extra_data_size = 0;
const uint8_t* extra_data_ptr = NULL;
bool need_poll = true;
for (size_t i = 0; i < pre_scan_data_size; ++i) {
if (pre_scan_data_ptr[i] == TOKEN_BLOCK_START) {
extra_data_size = pre_scan_data_size - i - 1;
extra_data_ptr = pre_scan_data_ptr + i + 1;
need_poll = false;
break;
}
}
if (need_poll) {
// Wait for data to be ready
ret = poll_data_token(slot, cmd_u8 + SDSPI_CMD_R1_SIZE, &extra_data_size, cmd->timeout_ms);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
if (extra_data_size) {
extra_data_ptr = cmd_u8 + SDSPI_CMD_R1_SIZE;
}
}
// Arrange RX buffer
size_t will_receive = MIN(rx_length, SDSPI_MAX_DATA_LEN) - extra_data_size;
uint8_t* rx_data;
ret = get_block_buf(slot, &rx_data);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
// receive actual data
const size_t receive_extra_bytes = (rx_length > SDSPI_MAX_DATA_LEN) ? 4 : 2;
memset(rx_data, 0xff, will_receive + receive_extra_bytes);
spi_transaction_t t_data = {
.length = (will_receive + receive_extra_bytes) * 8,
.rx_buffer = rx_data,
.tx_buffer = rx_data
};
ret = spi_device_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t_data);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
// CRC bytes need to be received even if CRC is not enabled
uint16_t crc = UINT16_MAX;
memcpy(&crc, rx_data + will_receive, sizeof(crc));
// Bytes to scan for the start token
pre_scan_data_size = receive_extra_bytes - sizeof(crc);
pre_scan_data_ptr = rx_data + will_receive + sizeof(crc);
// Copy data to the destination buffer
memcpy(data + extra_data_size, rx_data, will_receive);
if (extra_data_size) {
memcpy(data, extra_data_ptr, extra_data_size);
}
// compute CRC of the received data
uint16_t crc_of_data = 0;
if (slot->data_crc_enabled) {
crc_of_data = sdspi_crc16(data, will_receive + extra_data_size);
if (crc_of_data != crc) {
ESP_LOGE(TAG, "data CRC failed, got=0x%04x expected=0x%04x", crc_of_data, crc);
ESP_LOG_BUFFER_HEX(TAG, data, 16);
return ESP_ERR_INVALID_CRC;
}
}
data += will_receive + extra_data_size;
rx_length -= will_receive + extra_data_size;
extra_data_size = 0;
extra_data_ptr = NULL;
}
if (need_stop_command) {
// To end multi block transfer, send stop command and wait for the
// card to process it
sdspi_hw_cmd_t stop_cmd;
make_hw_cmd(MMC_STOP_TRANSMISSION, 0, cmd->timeout_ms, &stop_cmd);
ret = start_command_default(slot, SDSPI_CMD_FLAG_RSP_R1B, &stop_cmd);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
if (stop_cmd.r1 != 0) {
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "%s: STOP_TRANSMISSION response 0x%02x", __func__, stop_cmd.r1);
}
ret = poll_busy(slot, cmd->timeout_ms, use_polling);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
}
return ESP_OK;
}
/* For CMD53, we can send in byte mode, or block mode
* The data start token is different, and cannot be determined by the length
* That's why we need ``multi_block``.
* It's also different that stop transmission token is not needed in the SDIO mode.
*/
static esp_err_t start_command_write_blocks(slot_info_t *slot, sdspi_hw_cmd_t *cmd,
const uint8_t *data, uint32_t tx_length, bool multi_block, bool stop_trans)
{
if (card_write_protected(slot)) {
ESP_LOGW(TAG, "%s: card write protected", __func__);
return ESP_ERR_INVALID_STATE;
}
// Send the minimum length that is sure to get the complete response
// SD cards always return R1 (1bytes), SDIO returns R5 (2 bytes)
const int send_bytes = SDSPI_CMD_R5_SIZE + SDSPI_NCR_MAX_SIZE - SDSPI_NCR_MIN_SIZE;
spi_transaction_t t_command = {
.length = send_bytes * 8,
.tx_buffer = cmd,
.rx_buffer = cmd,
};
esp_err_t ret = spi_device_polling_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t_command);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
// check if command response valid
ret = shift_cmd_response(cmd, send_bytes);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
ESP_LOGD(TAG, "%s: check_cmd_response returned 0x%x", __func__, ret);
return ret;
}
uint8_t start_token = multi_block ?
TOKEN_BLOCK_START_WRITE_MULTI : TOKEN_BLOCK_START;
while (tx_length > 0) {
// Write block start token
spi_transaction_t t_start_token = {
.length = sizeof(start_token) * 8,
.tx_buffer = &start_token
};
ret = spi_device_polling_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t_start_token);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
// Prepare data to be sent
size_t will_send = MIN(tx_length, SDSPI_MAX_DATA_LEN);
const uint8_t* tx_data = data;
if (!esp_ptr_in_dram(tx_data)) {
// If the pointer can't be used with DMA, copy data into a new buffer
uint8_t* tmp;
ret = get_block_buf(slot, &tmp);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
memcpy(tmp, tx_data, will_send);
tx_data = tmp;
}
// Write data
spi_transaction_t t_data = {
.length = will_send * 8,
.tx_buffer = tx_data,
};
ret = spi_device_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t_data);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
// Write CRC and get the response in one transaction
uint16_t crc = sdspi_crc16(data, will_send);
const int size_crc_response = sizeof(crc) + 1;
spi_transaction_t t_crc_rsp = {
.length = size_crc_response * 8,
.flags = SPI_TRANS_USE_TXDATA | SPI_TRANS_USE_RXDATA,
};
memset(t_crc_rsp.tx_data, 0xff, 4);
memcpy(t_crc_rsp.tx_data, &crc, sizeof(crc));
ret = spi_device_polling_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t_crc_rsp);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
uint8_t data_rsp = t_crc_rsp.rx_data[2];
if (!SD_SPI_DATA_RSP_VALID(data_rsp)) {
return ESP_ERR_INVALID_RESPONSE;
}
switch (SD_SPI_DATA_RSP(data_rsp)) {
case SD_SPI_DATA_ACCEPTED:
break;
case SD_SPI_DATA_CRC_ERROR:
return ESP_ERR_INVALID_CRC;
case SD_SPI_DATA_WR_ERROR:
return ESP_FAIL;
default:
return ESP_ERR_INVALID_RESPONSE;
}
// Wait for the card to finish writing data
ret = poll_busy(slot, cmd->timeout_ms, no_use_polling);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
tx_length -= will_send;
data += will_send;
}
if (stop_trans) {
uint8_t stop_token[2] = {
TOKEN_BLOCK_STOP_WRITE_MULTI,
SDSPI_MOSI_IDLE_VAL
};
spi_transaction_t t_stop_token = {
.length = sizeof(stop_token) * 8,
.tx_buffer = &stop_token,
};
ret = spi_device_polling_transmit(slot->spi_handle, &t_stop_token);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
ret = poll_busy(slot, cmd->timeout_ms, use_polling);
if (ret != ESP_OK) {
return ret;
}
}
return ESP_OK;
}
esp_err_t sdspi_host_io_int_enable(sdspi_dev_handle_t handle)
{
//the pin and its interrupt is already initialized, nothing to do here.
return ESP_OK;
}
//the interrupt will give the semaphore and then disable itself
esp_err_t sdspi_host_io_int_wait(sdspi_dev_handle_t handle, TickType_t timeout_ticks)
{
slot_info_t* slot = get_slot_info(handle);
//skip the interrupt and semaphore if the gpio is already low.
if (gpio_get_level(slot->gpio_int) == 0) {
return ESP_OK;
}
//clear the semaphore before wait
xSemaphoreTake(slot->semphr_int, 0);
//enable the interrupt and wait for the semaphore
gpio_intr_enable(slot->gpio_int);
BaseType_t ret = xSemaphoreTake(slot->semphr_int, timeout_ticks);
if (ret == pdFALSE) {
gpio_intr_disable(slot->gpio_int);
return ESP_ERR_TIMEOUT;
}
return ESP_OK;
}
esp_err_t sdspi_host_get_dma_info(int slot, esp_dma_mem_info_t *dma_mem_info)
{
(void)slot;
dma_mem_info->extra_heap_caps = MALLOC_CAP_DMA;
dma_mem_info->dma_alignment_bytes = 4;
return ESP_OK;
}
``` |
Jahangir Mohammad Adel (; died 13 November 2014) was a Bangladesh Nationalist Party and Jatiya Party politician. He was the Member of Parliament (MP) for Dhaka-12 from 1979 to 1982 and MP for Dhaka-7 from 1986 to 1988. He served as Dhaka's deputy mayor.
Career
He served as Dhaka's deputy mayor. Kamal Hossain, a leader of the Bangladesh Awami League, was shot and killed on August 14, 2000, outside Adel's home after objecting to the flying of Pakistan's flag on Pakistan Day inside Adel's home in Old Dhaka. His sons were acquitted in 2003 in the case. He was a former presidium member of Jatiya Party.
Death
Jahangir Mohammad Adel passed away on November 13, 2014.
References
Jatiya Party politicians
2014 deaths
2nd Jatiya Sangsad members
3rd Jatiya Sangsad members
Bangladesh Nationalist Party politicians |
In Our Blood is an Australian historical drama television miniseries with musical elements which aired on ABC on 19 March 2023.
Synopsis
A series looking at Australia's response to the AIDS crisis.
Cast
Tim Draxl as David Westford
Matt Day as Jeremy Wilding
Jada Alberts as Deb Ferguson
Nicholas Brown as Dr. Paul Kemble
Oscar Leal as Gabe
Anna McGahan as Michelle
Episodes
Reception
Michael Sun of the Guardian gave it 3 stars stating "one wishes In Our Blood leaned harder into its bizarro world and lived up to the sheer campiness of its premise. For a series about misbehaving queers, it’s awfully restrained." The Queer Review's Chad Armstrong gave it 3 stars saying "While the series is hit and miss, there are some brilliant moments and things definitely improve in the second half under director Nicholas Verso, who gets the balance between genuine human emotion and stylized visuals right."
Awards
Logie Awards of 2023
Most Outstanding Drama Series, Miniseries or Telemovie - nominated
External links
References
2023 Australian television series debuts
2020s Australian drama television series
English-language television shows
HIV/AIDS in television |
The 49th International Emmy Awards ceremony took place on November 22, 2021 at Casa Cipriani in New York City, recognizing excellence in television programs produced and aired originally outside the U.S., and non-English language US primetime program between January 1, 2020 and December 31, 2020.
The nominations were announced on September 23, 2021.
The ceremony was hosted by Yvonne Orji, with presenters Vanessa Williams, Method Man, Joshua Jackson, Brian Cox, Piper Perabo, Danielle Moné Truitt, Chiké Okonkwo, Aidan Quinn, Brian d'Arcy James, Emeraude Toubia, Luciano Huck, Felipe Santana, Henning Baum and Angélica. Former NBA star Dirk Nowitzki presented the Directorate Award to Thomas Bellut, managing director of German public broadcaster ZDF.
Eligibility
The 49th International Emmy Awards Competition was opened for all categories December 9, 2020 and closed February 17, 2021.
Ceremony
Nominations for the 49th International Emmy Awards were announced in September 23, 2021 by the International Academy of Television Arts & Sciences (IATAS). Nominees come from Argentina, Belgium, Brazil, Canada, Chile, China, Colombia, Egypt, France, India, Israel, Japan, Lebanon, Mexico, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, Portugal, Singapore, South Korea, Spain, Thailand, the United Kingdom and the United States.
The International Academy also presented one special award. Thomas Bellut, director of the TV channel ZDF, received the Directorate Award.
Broadcast
The 49th International Emmy Awards Gala was live-streamed on the International Academy’s website (iemmy.tv) from 7 pm Eastern Time.
Winners and nominees
Multiple wins
Multiple nominations
References
External links
International Academy of Television Arts and Sciences website
International Emmy Awards ceremonies
International Emmy Awards
International Emmy Awards
International Emmy Awards
International Emmy Awards
International Emmy Awards |
George Barbier (), né Georges Augustin Barbier, (1882–1932) was one of the great French illustrators of the early 20th century.
Biography
Born in Nantes, France on 16 October 1882, Barbier was 29 years old when he mounted his first exhibition in 1911 and was subsequently swept to the forefront of his profession with commissions to design theatre and ballet costumes, to illustrate books, and to produce haute couture fashion illustrations.
For the next 20 years Barbier led a group from the Ecole des Beaux Arts who were nicknamed by Vogue "The Knights of the Bracelet"—a tribute to their fashionable and flamboyant mannerisms and style of dress. Included in this élite circle were Bernard Boutet de Monvel and Pierre Brissaud (both of whom were Barbier's first cousins), Paul Iribe, Georges Lepape, and Charles Martin.
During his career Barbier also turned his hand to jewellery, glass and wallpaper design, as well as writing essays and many articles for the prestigious Gazette du Bon Ton. In the mid-1920s he worked with Erté to design sets and costumes for the Folies Bergère, and in 1929 he wrote the introduction for Erté's acclaimed exhibition and achieved mainstream popularity through his regular appearances in L'Illustration magazine.
Barbier died in 1932 at the very pinnacle of his success. He is buried in Cemetery Miséricorde, Nantes.
References
Further reading
Publications by Barbier
Georges Lepape, Paul Iribe, and George Barbier. L'éventail Et La Fourrure Chez Paquin. (Paris: Maquet, 1911).
René Kieffer, ed. Dessins de George Barbier, 1920.
George Barbier. Falbalas et Fanfreluches Pour 1925. (Paris: Meynial, 1925).
Madeleine Ginsburg, ed. Art Deco Costumes (London: Bracken Books, 1988). Reproduces the complete plates from the almanacs Falbalas et fanfreluches, by George Barbier, Meynial, Paris, 1922-1926.
Secondary Sources
Edmond Jaloux. George Barbier, Vingt-Cinq Costumes Pour Le Théâtre. (Paris: C. Bloch & J. Meynial, 1927).
Jean-Louis Vaudoyer, Henri Régnier, and Charles Martin. George Barbier. (Paris: Henry Babou, 1929).
Frederica T. Harlow, ed. The illustrations of George Barbier: in full color (New York: Dover Publications, 1977).
Kris Somerville. George Barbier: The Knight of the Bracelet. (Columbia, Mo: College of Arts & Science of the University of Missouri—Columbia, 2006).
Barbara Martorelli. Pictures of Elegance. (Twickenham, Middlesex: Guineapiguana Publications, 2008).
Barbier Fashion: Postcards. (Mineola, N.Y.: Dover, 2011).
Hiroshi Unno. Joruju Barubie: Yūbi to Gensō No Irasutorētā [George Barbier : Master of Art Deco : Fashion, Illustration and Graphic Design] (Tōkyō: Pai Intānashonaru, 2011).
Exhibition Catalogs
Catalogue of an Exhibition of Watercolours by Artists of the Gazette Du Bon Ton. (London: Fine Art Society, 1914). Exhibition at the Fine Art Society in London, June 1914.
Le bon ton: 1910-1950: Mode, Theater und Gesellschaft: Originalzeichnumngen von Léon Bakst, George Barbier, Christian Bérard, Eduardo García Benito, Paul Iribe, Georges Lepape, Francis Marshall, and André-Edouard Marty. (München: Galerie Bartsch & Chariau, 1990). Catalogue of an exhibition held at Galerie Bartsch & Chariau, München, 5 Oct. 1990 - 31 Jan. 1991.
Barbara Martorelli. George Barbier: La Nascita Del Déco. (Venezia: Marsilio, 2008). . Catalog of an exhibition held at the Museo Fortuny, Venice, Italy, Aug. 30, 2008-Jan. 5, 2009.
Barbara Martorelli. George Barbier: The Birth of Art Déco (New York: Rizzoli, 2009). English translation.
Jean E. Laboureur, Shigeru Kashima, and Hiroko Ono. Barubie X Raburūru: Āru Deko, Shikisai to Senbyō No Irasutorēshon (Tōkyō : Kyūryūdō, 2012). . Catalog of an exhibition held at Nerima Kuritsu Bijutsukan, Tokyo, April 8-June 3, 2012.
Arthur M. Smith. 'Chevalier Du Bracelet': George Barbier and His Illustrated Works (Toronto, Ontario: University of Toronto Library, 2013). . Catalogue of an exhibition held at the Thomas Fisher Rare Book Library, Toronto, Ontario from 30 September - 20 December 2013.
External links
Art Deco Prints Posters Pochoirs at www.art-deco-prints-and-posters.com
The Romance of Perfume by George Barbier at www.finevintageart.com/george-barbier
video about George Barbier from Tom Vaughan-Johnston
1882 births
1932 deaths
French illustrators
Modern artists
Art Nouveau illustrators
Art Deco artists
French LGBT artists |
Aspergillus pseudoterreus is a species of fungus in the genus Aspergillus. It is from the Terrei section. The species was first described in 2011. It has been reported to produce aspulvinones, asterriquinones, butyrolactones, citreoisocoumarin, citreoviridin, citrinin, 3-methylorsellinic acid, terrein, and terrequinone A.
Growth and morphology
A. pseudoterreus has been cultivated on both Czapek yeast extract agar (CYA) plates and Malt Extract Agar Oxoid® (MEAOX) plates. The growth morphology of the colonies can be seen in the pictures below.
References
pseudoterreus
Fungi described in 2011 |
Heptachlor is an organochlorine compound that was used as an insecticide. Usually sold as a white or tan powder, heptachlor is one of the cyclodiene insecticides. In 1962, Rachel Carson's Silent Spring questioned the safety of heptachlor and other chlorinated insecticides. Due to its highly stable structure, heptachlor can persist in the environment for decades. In the United States, the Environmental Protection Agency has limited the sale of heptachlor products to the specific application of fire ant control in underground transformers. The amount that can be present in different foods is regulated.
Synthesis
Analogous to the synthesis of other cyclodienes, heptachlor is produced via the Diels-Alder reaction of hexachlorocyclopentadiene and cyclopentadiene. The resulting adduct is chlorinated followed by treatment with hydrogen chloride in nitromethane in the presence of aluminum trichloride or with iodine monochloride.
Compared to chlordane, it is about 3–5 times more active as an insecticide, but more inert chemically, being resistant to water and caustic alkalies.
Metabolism
Soil microorganisms transform heptachlor by epoxidation, hydrolysis, and reduction. When the compound was incubated with a mixed culture of organisms, chlordene (hexachlorocyclopentadine, its precursor) formed, which was further metabolized to chlordene epoxide. Other metabolites include 1-hydroxychlordene, 1-hydroxy-2,3-epoxychlordene, and heptachlor epoxide. Soil microorganisms hydrolyze heptachlor to give ketochlordene. Rats metabolize heptachlor to the epoxide 1-exo-1-hydroxyheptachlor epoxide and 1,2-dihydrooxydihydrochlordene. When heptachlor epoxide was incubated with microsomal preparations form liver of pigs and from houseflies, the products found were diol and 1-hydroxy-2,3-epoxychlordene. The metabolic scheme in rats shows two pathways with the same metabolite. The first involves following scheme: heptachlor → heptachlor epoxide → dehydrogenated derivative of 1-exo-hydroxy-2,3-exo-epoxychlordene → 1,2-dihydrooxydihydrochlordene. The second involves: heptachlor → 1-exo-hydroxychlordene → 1-exo-hydroxy, 2,3-exo-epoxychlordene → 1,2-dihydrooxydihydrochlordene.
Environmental impact
Heptachlor is a persistent organic pollutant (POP). It has a half life of ~1.3-4.2 days (air), ~0.03-0.11 years (water), and ~0.11-0.34 years (soil). One study described its half life to be 2 years and claimed that its residues could be found in soil 14 years after its initial application. Like other POPs, heptachlor is lipophilic and poorly soluble in water (0.056 mg/L at 25 °C), thus it tends to accumulate in the body fat of humans and animals.
Heptachlor epoxide is more likely to be found in the environment than its parent compound. The epoxide also dissolves more easily in water than its parent compound and is more persistent. Heptachlor and its epoxide absorb to soil particles and evaporate.
Toxicity of heptachlor and related derivatives
The range of oral rat values are 40 mg/kg to 162 mg/kg. Daily oral doses of heptachlor at 50 and 100 mg/kg were found to be lethal to rats after 10 days. For heptachlor epoxide, the oral LD50 values ranging from 46.5 to 60 mg/kg. With rat oral of LD5047mg/kg, heptachlor epoxide is more toxic. A product of hydrogenation of heptachlor, β-dihydroheptachlor, has high insecticidal activity and low mammalian toxicity, rat oral LD50>5,000mg/kg.
Human impact
Humans may be exposed to heptachlor through drinking water and foods, including breast milk. Heptachlor epoxide is derived from a pesticide that was banned in the U.S. in the 1980s. It is still found in soil and water supplies and can turn up in food. It can be passed along in breast milk.
The International Agency for Research on Cancer and the EPA have classified the compound as a possible human carcinogen. Animals exposed to heptachlor epoxide during gestation and infancy are found to have changes in nervous system and immune function. Exposure to higher doses of heptachlor in newborn animals leads to decreased body weight and death.
The U.S. EPA MCL for drinking water is 0.0004 mg/L for heptachlor and 0.0002 mg/L for heptachlor epoxide. The U.S. FDA limit on food crops is 0.01 ppm, in milk 0.1 ppm, and on edible seafoods 0.3 ppm. The Occupational Safety and Health Administration has limit of 0.5 mg/m3 (cubic meter of workplace air) for 8-hour shifts and 40-hour work weeks.
An ATSDR report in 1993 found no studies with respect to death in humans after oral exposure to heptachlor or heptachlor epoxide.
Chemical properties
The octanol-water partition coefficient (Kow) of heptachlor is ~105.27. Henry's Law constant is 2.3 · 10−3atm-m3/mol and the vapor pressure is 3 · 10−4mmHg at 20 °C.
References
External links
ASTDR ToxFAQs for Heptachlor
CDC - NIOSH Pocket Guide to Chemical Hazards
Obsolete pesticides
Organochloride insecticides
IARC Group 2B carcinogens
Endocrine disruptors
Persistent organic pollutants under the Stockholm Convention
Persistent organic pollutants under the Convention on Long-Range Transboundary Air Pollution |
is a Japanese professional footballer who plays as a midfielder for Mito HollyHock.
References
External links
1995 births
Living people
Japanese men's footballers
Men's association football midfielders
V-Varen Nagasaki players
J1 League players
J2 League players |
Spiranthera may refer to:
Spiranthera (plant), a genus of plants in the family Rutaceae
Spiranthera, a genus of plants in the family Liliaceae, synonym of Eustrephus
Spiranthera, a genus of plants in the family Convolvulaceae, synonym of Merremia
Spiranthera, a genus of plants in the family Pittosporaceae, synonym of Billardiera |
```javascript
Most efficient way to build `HTML` strings
Use `splice()` to remove an item from an array
Counting the months from zero
NaN === NaN?
`NaN` is a number
``` |
Ricardo is a daily French-language cooking show that airs weekdays on Radio-Canada and is hosted by Ricardo Larrivée. He presents accessible recipes alone or accompanied by a guest or a member of his rotating panel of contributors: nutritionists Hélène Laurendeau and Christina Blais, gardener Pierre Gingras and sommelier François Chartier.
The show moved in 2006 from a television studio to a purpose-built kitchen in Ricardo's home in Chambly, Quebec.
Ricardo spun off Ricardo and Friends, an English-language adaptation of the series
Television shows filmed in Quebec
Ici Radio-Canada Télé original programming
2000s Canadian cooking television series
Chambly, Quebec
2002 Canadian television series debuts
2002 establishments in Quebec |
TAKT is a group of writers and composers of new songs for use in Christian churches, initiated in 1947. The genre which the members promoted was later called Neues Geistliches Lied. The name is short for TextAutor/innen- und Komponist/innen-Tagung (Convention of text authors and composers), a name that the group adopted in 1997.
History
A monthly publication, first issued in 1946 was Unser Monatslied (Our song of the month), initiated by , a Protestant church musician from Stuttgart, as an ecumenical approach to more new music for church use. In 1947 a group of the Catholic Church was founded, Werkgemeinschaft Lied und Musik (Workshop song and music), which held annual conventions. In 1950, a Protestant group was founded, Arbeitsgemeinschaft für evangelische Jugendmusik (AGM, Association for Protestant youth music).
From 1971, ecumenical annual meetings of members of both groups were held, initiated by the two presidents, Joachim Schwarz (AGM) and Johannes Aengenvoort. From 1979 to 1989, the annual meetings were at Knivsberg in Denmark, which enabled people from East Germany to attend. After the unification of Germany, the meetings were held in Germany, organized by the group.
Many songs by members of the group have been included in hymnals, including the Catholic Gotteslob and the Protestant Evangelisches Gesangbuch. Many songs were tried first at events such as Kirchentag and Katholikentag. The group published a collection of songs for the Kirchentag in Cologne 2007, Singen, um gehört zu werden (Sing, to be heard), with 119 songs from three decades.
Songs
Well-known songs in the genre NGL by members of TAKT include:
"Ausgang und Eingang" (round by Joachim Schwarz)
"Singet dem Herrn ein neues Lied" (music: Rolf Schweizer)
"Auf Erden Gast sein" (text: Arnim Juhre, music: Oskar Gottlieb Blarr)
"Wer bringt dem Menschen, der blind ist, das Licht" (text: Hans-Jürgen Netz, music: Blarr)
"Der Himmel geht über allen auf" (text: Wilhelm Willms music: Peter Janssens)
"Wenn das rote Meer grüne Welle hat" (text: Wilhelm Willms, music: Janssens)
"Gott gab uns Atem, damit wir leben" (text: Eckart Bücken, music: Fritz Baltruweit)
"Komm Herr, segne uns" (text and musik: Dieter Trautwein)
"Ein Lied hat die Freude sich ausgedacht" (text: Hartmut Handt, music: Nis-Edwin List-Petersen)
"Freunde, dass der Mandelzweig wieder blüht und treibt" (text: Schalom Ben-Chorin, music: Baltruweit)
Members
Members have included:
Writers
Friedrich Karl Barth
Monika Bohge
Eckart Bücken
Susanne Brandt
Wolfgang Fietkau
Frank Fockele
Dieter Frettlöh
Hartmut Handt
Arnim Juhre
Klaus-Uwe Nommensen
Ute Passarge
Kurt Rose
Kurt Rommel
Otmar Schulz
Dieter Trautwein
Rudolf Otto Wiemer
Wilhelm Willms
Lothar Veit
Hildegard Wohlgemuth
Stefan Wolfschütz
Composers
Ernst Arfken
Fritz Baltruweit
Herbert Beuerle
Oskar Gottlieb Blarr
Ludger Edelkötter
Lothar Graap
Winfried Heurich
Peter Janssens
Detlev Jöcker
Wilhelm Keller
Holger Kiesé
Felicitas Kukuck
Nis-Edwin List-Petersen
Christoph Noetzel
Hartmut Reußwig
Paul Ernst Ruppel
Manfred Schlenker
Joachim Schwarz
Rolf Schweizer
Erna Woll
Stephan Zebe
Literature
Arnim Juhre (ed.): Singen, um gehört zu werden. Jugenddienst-Verlag, Wuppertal 1976, .
Susanne Brandt, Frank Fockele, Hartmut Handt, Arnim Juhre, Klaus-Uwe Nommensen, Hartmut Reußwig und Lothar Veit (ed.): Singen, um gehört zu werden. Neue Lieder aus drei Jahrzehnten. Strube, München 2007. (preface)
See also
:de:Liste von Autoren Neuer Geistlicher Lieder
German artist groups and collectives
1947 establishments in Germany |
```smalltalk
namespace ReClassNET.MemoryScanner.Comparer
{
public interface IScanComparer
{
ScanCompareType CompareType { get; }
}
}
``` |
South Division One may refer to:
South Division One (shinty), a Scottish men's shinty division
NIHL South Division 1, an English men's ice hockey division
See also
South Division (disambiguation)
South Division Two (disambiguation) |
Alexander Grigoriev, son of Lykov () (1634? - after 1676) was a Russian cannon and bellfounder.
Career
Early career, avoiding the plague
In 1651, Alexander Grigoriev was accepted to the Moscow Cannon Yard as a "bell person" (колокольное лицо) at the recommendation of a bellmaker Yemelyan Danilov and a number of Muscovite cannonmakers. Soon, Grigoriev was given seven apprentices, with whom he would recast the Annunciation Bell (Благовестный колокол) for the Church of Saint Antipius in Moscow and cast six spare alarm bells for other fortresses. In 1654, Alexander Grigoriev and Feodor Motorin were sent to Novgorod, where they would cast a 16-ton bell for the Saint Sophia Cathedral. Their assignment in Novgorod allowed them to escape the fate of some 150,000 Muscovites, who would die from bubonic plague that year.
Important Moscow commissions
Upon his return to Moscow in 1655, Grigoriev succeeded to the deceased Yemelyan Danilov and continued his work on creating the most important bell in the country, namely the Big Assumption Bell (some 160 tons), which had been shattered before during a religious celebration. Grandiose work on casting of this bell took place in the Moscow Kremlin from May until late fall. Many of Grigoriev's apprentices took part in this assignment, some of whom would become famous bellmakers themselves (Khariton Ivanov, Pyotr Stepanov, Fyodor Dmitriyev). The Big Assumption Bell would only be hung in 1668 in a custom-built wooden belltower. The bell was lost in a Kremlin fire in 1701. Its metal was later used for the casting of the Tsar Bell.
In 1655, Alexander Grigoriev founded an alarm bell for the Frolovskaya (Spasskaya) Tower of the Moscow Kremlin (approx. 3 tons) using the remains of a shattered bell and increasing its weight from 150 to 194 poods. In 1656, Alexander Grigoriev and Feodor Motorin were sent to the Iversky Monastery in Valdai, where they would cast an 11.5-ton bell at the request of Patriarch Nikon. The bell did not survive to this day. The legend has it, however, that Alexander Grigoriev gave out the remaining bronze to his local assistants, giving birth to a tradition of making the now famous little Valdai bells (Валдайские колокольчики).
Status as a master
In 1657, he cast a bell weighing 0.75 tons for the Kotelniy ryad (Котельный ряд; one of the slobodas in Moscow). In 1665, Alexander Grigoriev founded a 5-ton bell for the Simonov Monastery, on which the inscription called him "cannon and bell master of the state" for the first time. In 1668, he cast his best bell ever, namely the Big Annunciation Bell, for the Savvino-Storozhevsky Monastery near Zvenigorod, which would be considered the most sonorous bell in Russia. The work was done in 130 days (a very short period of time in those days). For this bell, Tsar Alexis I rewarded the master with a big piece of cloth along with money and bread allowance. It is said that Feodor Chaliapin used to admire the sound of the Big Annunciation Bell. Unfortunately, the bell was shattered to pieces in 1941 as the Soviets were trying to take it down due to the threat of the approaching German army.
Fate of his household
Alexander Grigoriev was last mentioned in 1676, when ten of his apprentices assisted Khariton Ivanov in casting ten harquebuses at the Cannon Yard. Alexander Grigoriev's outstanding work allows historians to speculate about the existence of Grigoriev's school of casting in the 17th century. There were 21 known apprentices of Grigoriev, many of whom would become famous, as well. Upon Grigoriev's death, his nephew Grigory Yekimov (garnet master) inherited his household in the Pushkarskaya Sloboda, which he would later sell to Feodor Motorin.
References
Russian bell makers
Year of birth unknown
Year of death unknown |
High Tider, Hoi Toider, or High Tide English is an American English dialect, or family of dialects, spoken in very limited communities of the South Atlantic United States, particularly several small islands and coastal townships. The exact areas include the rural "Down East" region of North Carolina, which encompasses the Outer Banks and Pamlico Sound—specifically Atlantic, Davis, Sea Level, and Harkers Island in eastern Carteret County, the village of Wanchese, and also Ocracoke—plus the Chesapeake Bay, such as Smith Island in Maryland, as well as Guinea Neck and Tangier Island in Virginia. High Tider has been observed as far west as Bertie County, North Carolina; the term is also a local nickname for any native resident of these regions.
The dialect does not have a name that is uniformly used in the academic literature, but it is referenced by a variety of names, including Hoi Toider (or, more restrictively based on region, Down East, Chesapeake Bay, or Outer Banks) English, dialect, brogue, or accent. The Atlas of North American English does not consider Hoi Toider dialect to be a subset of Southern U.S. dialect since it does not participate in the first stage of the Southern Vowel Shift, but it shares commonalities as a full member of the larger Southeastern super-dialect region (in fronting the and vowels, exhibiting the pin–pen merger, resisting the cot–caught merger, and being strongly rhotic).
Wolfram & Schilling-Estes (1997) provide the most detailed study of this variety in North Carolina.
History
The term "hoi toid" appears in a local colloquial rhyme, "It's high tide on the sound side", phonetically spelled "hoi toide on the saind soide" , as a marker of pronunciation (or shibboleth) to sharply differentiate speakers of this dialect from speakers of the mainland Southern dialects. The phrase was first recorded as a significant identifier of the dialect in 1993, and has since been used frequently for "performative" purposes by native speakers to demonstrate the dialect to outsiders.
Most native speakers of the dialect refer to it as a brogue.
With a long history of geographical and economic isolation from mainland North Carolina, residents of Harkers Island and other Outer Banks areas such as Ocracoke Island and Atlantic developed a distinct dialect of English. Linguists who have studied this dialect note that it has "roots ... in a number of Early Modern English dialects", spoken in different parts of Britain between about 1650 and 1750. Following settlement, the dialect of these island communities developed in relative isolation for more than 250 years.
High Tider English shares features with other regional dialects of the US Atlantic coast. Certain pronunciation, vocabulary, and grammatical constructions can be traced to eastern and southwestern England (see West Country English). The distinctness of the dialect has survived because the community continues to depend on traditional trades, like fishing, boat building, and decoy carving, and the coastal tourism trade developed much later on islands like Ocracoke.
As many as 500 islanders on Harkers Island are directly descended from the Harkers Island and Outer Banks original settlers that developed this distinct dialect. Linguists from North Carolina State University, East Carolina University, and other academic institutions continue to conduct research on the island dialect. It has been in slow decline in the 21st century.
Phonological features
The chart below lists the vowel sounds in two High Tider accents: one of Smith Island (Maryland) in the Chesapeake Bay and the other of Ocracoke (North Carolina) in the Outer Banks. The symbol "~" is used here to indicate that pronunciations on either side of it form a spectrum of possibilities. The symbol ">" indicates that the pronunciations to its left are more widespread and pronunciations to its right are more marginal. Phonologically, these two example accents are united under the High Tider dialect primarily by their similar and vowels; both also show a greater or lesser degree of "vowel breaking" (or drawling) of the front vowels especially when positioned before the consonant .
The phonology, or pronunciation system, of High Tider English is highly different from the English spoken in the rest of the United States. The High Tider dialect is marked with numerous unique phonological features and sound changes:
The diphthong is , starting very far back in the mouth and retaining its glide, unlike its neighboring Southern dialects. It may also begin with a round-lipped quality, thus , or may even have a triphthongal quality as . Thus, a word like high may sound like something between HAW-ee and HUH-ee, similar to its sound in Cockney or Australian accents. (This is sometimes mischaracterized by outsiders as sounding very close, like (the vowel, leading to the spelling "Hoi Toider" for "High Tider.")
Realization of as , so that fire may begin to merge with the sound of far, as well as tire with tar.
The diphthong ends with a more fronted quality, commonly realized as a shorter off-glide with little or no rounding . The sound has also been described as , with a very raised beginning (or on-glide) to the diphthong; for example, making town sound like teh-een.
Front vowel raising in certain environments, though most noticeably before and :
Merger of and , as in the characteristic pronunciation of fish as feesh or kitchen as keetchen . This may be represented as or .
Raising of in this environment, causing mesh to sound almost like maysh.
The r-colored vowel may have an opener vowel sound: , making the sound of fair almost merge with fire and far.
There is no cot–caught merger.
The vowel is largely fronted, as in much of the rest of the modern-day South: .
Unstressed, word-final may be pronounced , causing yellow to sound like yeller, fellow like feller, potato like (po)tater, and mosquito like (mo)skeeter.
Elision of some medial or final stops, as in cape sounding more like cay.
Strong, bunched-tongue rhoticity, inspired by West Country English, Scottish English, and Irish English
Pin–pen merger.
Lexical features
The island dialect has also retained archaic vocabulary in regular usage. Some examples include mommick, meaning "to frustrate" or "bother", yethy, describing stale or unpleasant odor, and nicket, meaning a pinch of something used as in cooking. The islanders have also developed unique local words used in regular conversation, including dingbatter to refer to a visitor or recent arrival to the island, and dit-dot, a term developed from a joke about Morse code, and used to describe any visitor to the island who has difficulty understanding the local dialect.
In popular culture
In the 1991 Paramount film The Butcher's Wife, the main character Marina is from Ocracoke, North Carolina, and exhibits features of Hoi Toider dialect.
Notes
References
Bibliography
Languages attested from the 17th century
North Carolina culture
Virginia culture
Dialects of English
Carteret County, North Carolina
English-American culture in North Carolina |
Calverstown is a townland in County Westmeath, Ireland. The townland is located in the civil parish of Clonfad. The N52 motorway cuts through the middle of the townland, and Dalystown lies to the north, near the shores of Lough Ennell.
References
Townlands of County Westmeath |
Giuseppe Scalera (born 26 January 1998) is an Italian football player who plays as a defender for Viterbese.
Club career
He made his professional debut in the Serie B for Bari on 17 December 2016 in a game against Avellino.
On 10 January 2019, he joined Sambenedettese on loan. However, the league refused to register the contract with Sambenedettese as it would have been his fourth club of the 2018–19 season. The lawyers argued that the Bari contract and aborted July loan to Pistoiese should not count as Bari went bankrupt soon after, making the player a free agent, but the league rejected that argument and Scalera had to return to Pescara.
On 1 August 2019, he signed with Viterbese.
References
External links
1998 births
Sportspeople from the Metropolitan City of Bari
Footballers from Apulia
Living people
Italian men's footballers
Men's association football defenders
SSC Bari players
Fidelis Andria 2018 players
Delfino Pescara 1936 players
US Viterbese 1908 players
Serie B players
Serie C players |
```php
<?php
/*
*
*
* path_to_url
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. See the
*/
namespace Google\Service\DiscoveryEngine;
class GoogleCloudDiscoveryengineV1ImportCompletionSuggestionsMetadata extends \Google\Model
{
/**
* @var string
*/
public $createTime;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $failureCount;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $successCount;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $updateTime;
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setCreateTime($createTime)
{
$this->createTime = $createTime;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getCreateTime()
{
return $this->createTime;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setFailureCount($failureCount)
{
$this->failureCount = $failureCount;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getFailureCount()
{
return $this->failureCount;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setSuccessCount($successCount)
{
$this->successCount = $successCount;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getSuccessCount()
{
return $this->successCount;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setUpdateTime($updateTime)
{
$this->updateTime = $updateTime;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getUpdateTime()
{
return $this->updateTime;
}
}
// Adding a class alias for backwards compatibility with the previous class name.
class_alias(GoogleCloudDiscoveryengineV1ImportCompletionSuggestionsMetadata::class, your_sha256_hashtCompletionSuggestionsMetadata');
``` |
Michelle Cristina Fazzari (born July 10, 1987) is a Canadian wrestler. She finished in 5th place at the 2014 World Wrestling Championships. She has been ranked number 2 in the world.
Three weeks after undergoing knee surgery, Fazzari made her Pan Am Games debut at Toronto 2015, finishing seventh. Ivan Yarygin Grand-prix bronze medalist 2015
In July 2016, she was officially named to Canada's 2016 Olympic team. In 2021, she won the gold medal in the 62 kg event at the Matteo Pellicone Ranking Series 2021 held in Rome, Italy.
References
External links
1987 births
Brock Badgers wrestlers
Canadian female sport wrestlers
Living people
Sportspeople from Hamilton, Ontario
Wrestlers at the 2014 Commonwealth Games
Wrestlers at the 2015 Pan American Games
Wrestlers at the 2016 Summer Olympics
Olympic wrestlers for Canada
Wrestlers at the 2018 Commonwealth Games
Commonwealth Games medallists in wrestling
Commonwealth Games silver medallists for Canada
World Wrestling Championships medalists
Pan American Games competitors for Canada
20th-century Canadian women
21st-century Canadian women
Medallists at the 2018 Commonwealth Games |
Elaphe anomala commonly known as the Korean rat snake, GuReongEe is a non-venomous species of colubrid snake known from China and Korea. Its common names include Amur ratsnake, southern Amur ratsnake. It is a semi-arboreal snake that can be found in grasslands, dry scrub, rocky areas, and on the banks of rivers and lakes. It grows to .
References
Elaphe
Reptiles of China
Reptiles of Korea
Reptiles described in 1916
Taxa named by George Albert Boulenger |
"MTBD" (Korean: 멘붕; RR: Menbung) is a song by South Korean rapper and singer-songwriter CL, a member of girl group 2NE1. It was released on February 27, 2014, as part of 2NE1's second Korean-language studio-album Crush (2014). "MTBD", which derives from the phrase "mental breakdown", was written and produced by Teddy Park with additional lyrics penned by CL. The song was used in the fifth episode of Fox's Lucifer, which was broadcast in February 2016.
Background and music
"MTBD" was confirmed to be included in the tracklist for 2NE1's second Korean-language studio album, titled Crush on February 19, 2014. The song was subsequently released on February 27 as part of Crush, as the sixth track off of the album. The song serves as CL's second solo track during her career with 2NE1, with her first solo single being "The Baddest Female" (2013). "MTBD" was written by both CL and long-time 2NE1 collaborator Teddy Park, with additional production by Park. "MTBD", which is an acronym stemming from the phrase "mental breakdown", integrates the genres of EDM, hip-pop and bubblegum trap and consists of a tense drum beat, low bass, and a unique synth sound. It interpolates a strong dubstep and trap beat complemented by her "inimitable" style.
CL was accused of blasphemy following the release of "MTBD", particularly amongst Muslims, for incorporating chanted verses from the Quran. A re-edited version was released and the incorporated verses were removed.
Reception
Following the release of Crush, "MTBD" was met with positive reviews from music critics. August Brown of the Los Angeles Times named it the best track off of the album, writing that the "808-destroying stomper as good as anything on rap radio in America right now." Rolling Stone referred to the track as the centerpiece of Crush and further complimented CL's confidence. Writing for Billboard, Tamar Herman viewed the track favorably, writing that the solo track remains one of her strongest works to date. The publication wrote in another view that the song "is the show-stopping centerpiece where CL’s ferocious flow takes no prisoners amid twitching triple hi-hats and the bass going 'boom boom boom.' Billboard further ranked the song as the second best K-Pop Deep Cut in December 2017, praising the song's production and composition in addition to CL's musicality. Fuse said that CL "takes center stage on the incredible solo track 'MTBD,' which sounds like an upgraded version of DJ Snake's 'Turn Down for What.'"
Live performances
CL performed the track live for the first time on 2NE1's two-day stop on their All or Nothing World Tour in Seoul on March 1 and 2, 2014. On March 7, a video of her tour performance was uploaded to 2NE1's YouTube channel. The stage was met with favorable reception among fans, who praised CL's stage charisma, stating that "it's not a joke", and "it's a live jackpot".
CL faced controversy again in November 2016 after performing the unedited version of "MTBD" at the Los Angeles show of her Hello Bitches Tour. CL quickly issued an apology and corrected the issue by her next concert.
Charts
Weekly charts
Monthly charts
References
2014 songs
Songs written by Teddy Park |
Italian-American cuisine () is a style of Italian cuisine adapted throughout the United States. Italian-American food has been shaped throughout history by various waves of immigrants and their descendants, called Italian Americans.
As immigrants from the different regions of Italy settled throughout the various regions of the United States, many brought with them a distinct regional Italian culinary tradition. Many of these foods and recipes developed into new favorites for the townspeople and later for Americans nationwide.
Influences
Italian-American food is based primarily on the culinary traditions of Southern Italian immigrants, although a significant number of Northern Italian immigrants also came to the United States and also influenced this style of cuisine to some extent.
Italian-Americans often identify foods with their regional heritage. Southern Italian staples include dry pasta, tomato sauce, and olive oil, whereas Northern Italian staples include foods such as risotto, white sauce and polenta.
Migration
In the late 19th and early 20th century, the Italian poor suffered from sever food insecurity, from taxes, modernization (depriving them of feudal land access), and overpopulation. The non-landowning class survived on a mostly vegetarian diet consisting of hard bread and soups; meat, if any, is reserved for celebration. Partial knowledge of fine food trickled down from the rich from restaurants, despite the poor having little means to access them.
Under this background, waves of Italians immigrated to the United States, mainly through Ellis Island. In the US, these immigrants found hard work, but pay good enough to buy plenty of soft bread, flour, meat, cheese, eggs, and even olive oil, dry pasta, and cheese imported from Italy or the Italian diaspora in Argentina. Reacting to this newfound abundance, Italian-American cuisine shows two important characteristics: it heavily emphasizes the use of "rich ingredients" (meat, cheese, and eggs) compared to its Italian peasant counterpart, yet it retains a simple-to-prepare style characteristic of the poor's meals. The stereotypical Italian-American "red sauce" cuisine is, accordingly, a fusion of these characteristics with a Southern Italian (chiefly Neapolitan and Sicilian cuisine) base.
Northern Italians also left important marks on Italian-American cuisine. Two cheesemakers from Parma, Paolo Sartori and Count Julio Bolognaisi, took advantage of the milk supply in Wisconsin and produced Parmesan cheese.
Further contact
Over time, through an increased appreciation of Italian cuisine in the United States, as well as increased imports into the United States from Italy, there has been a push towards producing more authentic dishes, which use techniques and ingredients that are more native to Italy.
American cuisine has readily received innovations from Italy, such as espresso (which evolved into specialty coffee drinks, now ubiquitous in American life), tiramisu, and Nutella.
On the other hand, e.g. pasta alla carbonara, a dish unrecorded in Italy before World War II, may be due to an American influence in relationship to the allied liberation of Rome in 1944. Many Italians then were happy to use powdered eggs and bacon supplied by the United States and their armed forces for pasta dishes.
Popularity
Italian-American food and Mediterranean cuisine has been highly influential in the American diet. It is one of the top three cuisines in the United States, according to the National Restaurant Association:
Rated high on the list of popular, or trending, items in the survey include Mediterranean flatbread, ciabatta bread, espresso and specialty coffee drinks. Pizza and pasta are also common dishes in the United States; however, they are often presented in very different forms than in Italy.
Wine
There is a strong association between Italian-American cuisine and the history of winemaking in the United States.
Many Italian wines were first introduced to the United States in the late 18th century. Italian vintners were first brought to the state of Florida in 1766 by Dr. Andrew Turnbull, a British Consul at Smyrna (now Izmir). Philip Mazzei, an Italian physician, and close friend of U.S. President Thomas Jefferson, also helped to cultivate vineyards, olives, and other Mediterranean fruit with the help of Italians.
In later years, American viticulture was more influenced by the Italian diaspora of the transatlantic migrations, which steadily brought more Italians to America from the 1870s through the 1920s. Most of these Italians entered the East Coast of the United States through Ellis Island, whereas many of those quickly passed through to the American West Coast, where California still had its famous "Gold Rush".
In California, Italian-Americans were inspired by the expanse of rolling hills and fertile fields. Prior to Prohibition starting in 1919, many wineries had made their start: Seghesio, Simi, Sebastiani Vineyards and Foppiano began in the late 19th century and remain in operation today. Others included Giuseppe Magliavacca's Napa winery, Secondo Guasti's Italian Vineyard Company and Andrea Sbarbaro's Italian–Swiss Colony.
From 1919 until the repeal of Prohibition in 1933, many Italian-Americans struggled to keep their vineyards going. Many remained through providing sacramental wine to the Catholic Church or grape juice to the general market. These few holdouts can be credited with salvaging America's viticulture heritage, in an industry that values the longevity and tradition of the vine and its produce.
Today, Italian-American wineries prove a powerful asset on the world market. Some of these companies include: Atlas Peak (also known as Antinori), Cosentino, Dalla Valle, Delicato, Ferrari-Carano, E & J Gallo Winery, Geyser Peak, Louis M. Martini, Mazzocco, Robert Mondavi, Monte Bello Ridge, Corrado Parducci, Pedroncelli Winery, Robert Pepi, Picchetti Brothers Winery, Rochioli, Rafanelli, Rubicon Estate Winery (also known as Francis Ford Coppola Presents), Sebastiani Vineyards, Signorello, Sattui, Trinchero (most often under the Sutter Home brand), Valley of the Moon, Viansa, and more.
Dishes
Pastas and grains
American chop suey – a distant relative of ragù bolognese made primarily with hamburger meat
Baked ziti – ziti pasta, originally from Sicily, tube-shaped pasta similar to penne but much longer, mixed with a tomato sauce and covered in cheese, then baked in the oven
Lasagna, particularly using ricotta, called lasagne alla napoletana in Italy. The ricotta distinguishes it from the original and better-known (outside the U.S.) North Italian style that uses béchamel sauce, called lasagne alla bolognese or just lasagne
Penne alla vodka – the sauce of this pasta dish consists of tomato, onion, prosciutto, cream and vodka
Spaghetti and meatballs – a dish based on Neapolitan festival dishes involving much smaller meatballs as well as other ingredients, iconic in the United States. The dish as served in the United States is unknown in Italy. Meatballs (polpette) are not served on top of pasta in Italy.
Vegetable dishes
Eggplant parmesan or melanzane alla parmigiana is a common Italian dish. It typically includes sliced eggplant, marinara sauce, and cheese, layered repeatedly. It is never served on or with spaghetti in Italy and there are no meat "parmigianas" though zucchini- and artichoke-based versions do exist.
Peas and eggs, or piselli cacio e uova, originally a meal eaten by poor Italian immigrants, has since become a favorite lenten meal. It consists of simply eggs and peas, fried in a pan with olive oil and some garlic, onion and pepper.
Meats and eggs
Frittata – An open-faced omelette containing meat, cheese, potatoes, peas, asparagus, peppers, cucuzza (i.e., squash), onions, and other vegetables, alone or in combination. These can be eaten by themselves or on sandwiches.
Sausage and peppers – Salsiccia, peppers and onions cooked together, sometimes with a very light red sauce.
Porchetta, also known as "porketta," Italian roast pork sandwich, or Italian pulled pork depending on the region of the U.S. Roast pork butt or shoulder; often a full suckling pig. Traditionally a holiday or celebration dish or found at festivals or fairs. However, it is commonly eaten in a sandwich form, usually with broccoli rabe, in Philadelphia's Italian-American communities and in recent times throughout the city. Brought to America mostly by immigrants from Abruzzo, as well as those from Lazio (especially the Alban Hills), Marche, and Tuscany.
Chicken (or Veal) Parmesan – fried breaded chicken or veal cutlets covered in sauce and cheese, served with pasta. A very popular dish in casual dining restaurants, as well as a sandwich filling. The name of this dish is often abbreviated to "parm".
Chicken marsala – chicken cutlets, mushrooms, and Marsala wine.
Buffalo wing – unbreaded chicken wing section coated or dipped in a sauce consisting of a vinegar-based cayenne pepper hot sauce.
Chicken Francese was developed by Italian American restaurateurs after the Second World War, when French food became popular after GIs returning from France had developed a taste for it.
Sauces
Alfredo sauce – derived from the Fettuccine Alfredo made popular by Roman restaurateur Alfredo di Lelio starting in 1914. American Alfredo sauce consists largely of cream, butter, and Parmigiano-Reggiano cheese with nutmeg and black pepper seasonings, and is served over vegetables and some meats (particularly chicken and shellfish) as well as the signature pasta ribbons. The authentic Alfredo dish only consists of fettuccine pasta, butter and parmigiano reggiano. The primary difference between authentic fettuccine Alfredo and Alfredo sauce is that while the pasta dish is prepared by adding ingredients to the cooked pasta, Alfredo sauce is prepared in bulk and poured over pasta or other ingredients (vegetables such as broccoli and meats such as shrimp or grilled chicken are common additions). Though very popular in the United States, this sauce is virtually unheard of in Italy.
Marinara sauce – a quick-cooking, sometimes spicy tomato sauce without meat served on pasta. Salsa al pomodoro is the usual Italian name.
Bolognese sauce – a meat-based sauce originating from Bologna, Italy.
Sunday sauce – a meat-infused tomato sauce commonly made on Sundays and special occasions; derived from the Italian ragù napoletano. In some areas, including Boston, New Jersey, and Philadelphia, it is sometimes called "gravy".
Seafood dishes
Lobster Fra Diavolo – a pasta dish made with lobster, sometimes other seafood, that contains crushed red pepper to make it spicy.
Baccalà – salt cod fish, traditionally served during Lent or for Christmas Eve. Can be fried, baccalà salad, so on.
Alici or Acciughe – another integral dish served during Christmas Eve's Feast of the Seven Fishes. This dish's full name is spaghetti con aglio, olio e acciughe (spaghetti with garlic, oil, and anchovies; alici is another word for anchovy). The anchovies and garlic are sliced very thin and dissolve in the oil. When served, the dish appears to be just pasta covered in hot oil. (Many variants exist in Italy: some don't have anchovies, some add capers or chili pepper.)
Soups and stews
Cioppino – a fish stew characteristic of West Coast Italian American cookery, particularly San Francisco.
Wedding soup – a soup with meatballs or sausage and pasta in a chicken broth.
Pasta e fagioli (or "pasta fazool" in Italian-American slang, from Southern Italian fasule ("beans") instead of standard Italian fagioli)—pasta with beans, often cannellini beans, that has the consistency of a stew.
Breads, sandwiches, and savory baked goods
Calzone and stromboli – while the half-moon shaped Italian calzone is well known in the United States, the very similar tube-shaped stromboli as well as large, loaf-like calzones served in slices are also fairly common.
Italian bread – Perhaps a bit closer to French bread in composition and appearance, American "Italian bread" is a lean white bread, often braided and covered in sesame seeds, with a thin but usually crisp crust and a soft crumb. American "Italian bread" does not particularly resemble many traditional Italian bread forms, but is very popular in both loaf form and roll form, where it is often closely associated with sandwich making. A regional variety of this is Scali.
Pizza – the most common form of American pizza is based on (and called) the Neapolitan style, the earliest and essentially standard version of which is commonly called New York–style. Also popular in America is a version of the Sicilian pizza, a larger square pizza in which the dough is risen an inch or more, and which is topped (contrary to native Sicilian tradition) in much the same way as the thin-crusted round Neapolitan form, including the use of mozzarella. Even more Americanized forms such as Greek pizza, apizza (i.e. New Haven–style pizza) and Chicago-style have become common.
Submarine sandwich – originated in several different Italian American communities in the Northeastern United States from the late 19th to mid-20th centuries.
Muffuletta – a large sandwich with cold cuts and olive salad, made on a round loaf; originated in New Orleans.
Italian beef sandwich – a type of roast beef sandwich native to Chicago, similar to a French dip sandwich.
Italian sandwich
Meatball sandwich
Pizzagaina, pizza ghen or pizza rustica – Easter pie, made with various cheeses, eggs, and salted meats. Compare , from Liguria, or the Italian–Argentine version, torta pascualina. Pizzagaina may also be called pasteed or pastiere, although it is more of a quiche than pie unlike pizzagaina.
Sweets
Tiramisu – a sweet multi-layered cake with light fluffy cream, often served with a coffee or other hot caffeinated beverage. Tiramisu is one of the more recent Italian imports, having been invented after World War II (probably in the Veneto region), but adopted readily by American diners.
Cannoli – a sweet ricotta filling in a fried pastry shell.
Struffoli (or Struf') – Fried dough for dessert. Christmas cake is typical of Naples. In Abruzzo, this dish is called cicerchiata, meaning "blue sweet-pea dish" and is eaten before Easter.
Biscotti d'annodare – knot cookies.
Sfogliatelle – a sort of custard turnover made with leaved (millefoglie) pastry; a similar pastry, larger and filled with a type of pastry cream, is sometimes called a "lobster tail".
Biscotti – generally anise flavored, often nut-studded hard cookie that may alternatively contain dried fruit or chocolate are common as well; often dipped in coffee rather than sweet dessert wines as in Italy. American biscotti are almost always loaf-type cookies that are sliced and rebaked to crispness, while the term refers to almost all forms of cookie in Italy.
Pizzelle – traditional Italian waffle cookies made from flour, eggs, sugar, butter or oil, and flavoring (usually anise or anisette, less commonly vanilla or lemon zest). Originally from Abruzzo, brought over to the United States by Abruzzese immigrants. Popular during Christmas in the Northeastern United States among Italian-Americans and especially in Philadelphia and other cities where large numbers of Abruzzese immigrants settled.
Zeppole – these cream puffs are often served on Saint Joseph's Day in many Italian-American communities in the United States. They are made with pâte à choux and then filled with a custard based pastry cream and topped with maraschino cherries and powdered sugar before serving.
See also
Italian cuisine
Cuisine of the United States
North American cuisine
Culinary revolution
New American cuisine
Mediterranean cuisine
References
Further reading
There are many styles of cookbooks available in English, both on the subjects of traditional and authentic "Italian cuisine" and "Italian American" food.
Bastianich, Lidia Matticchio, Lidia's Italian American Kitchen. New York, New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 2001. Focuses on the Italian American kitchen and also the basis of the PBS television cooking show series. Winner of the IACP cookbook Award. Bastianich incorporates Northern Italian and Istrian Slavic influences in her cooking.
Buonopane, Marguerite D., The North End Italian Cookbook, 5th ed. Guilford, CT: Globe Pequot Press, 2004, : An oft-updated collection of Italian American recipes from Boston, Massachusetts.
De Laurentiis, Giada, Giada's Family Dinners. New York, New York: Crown Publishing Group/ Random House, Inc., 2006, or 0-307-23827-X: By the star of television Food Network's Everyday Italian and Behind the Bash, De Laurentiis' cooking style bridges the gap between Italian and Italian American food.
Editoriale Domus (editor), The Silver Spoon (original title, "Il cucchiaio d'argento"). London: Phaidon Press, 2005, : An English translation of a best-selling Italian kitchen reference providing a broad survey of the dishes popular around Italy; provided for comparison with the references about American Italian food.
Gabaccia, Donna, "Food, Recipes, Cookbooks, and Italian American Life" pp. 121–155 in American Woman, Italian Style, Fordham Press, 2011. .
Gentile, Maria, The Italian Cook Book: The Art of Eating Well. New York: The Italian Book Co., 1919: A post-World War I effort to popularize Italian cooking in the United States.
Hill, Henry, The Wiseguy Cookbook. New York: Penguin-Putnam, 2002, : A presentation of the role of food in the life of the American Mafia by the subject of the movie Goodfellas.
Mariani, John and Galina, The Italian American Cookbook. Boston: Harvard Common Press, 2000, : A broad history and survey of Italian American food as eaten around the United States.
Middione, Carlo, The Food of Southern Italy. New York: William Morrow & Company, 1987, (hardcover). A San Franciscan chef's perspective on Italian food.
Rice, William, Steak Lover's Cookbook. New York: Workman Publishing, 1997, . Not an Italian cookbook, but talks extensively about the influence of Italian American cuisine on steakhouse culture and menus.
Rucker, Alan, and Michele Scicolone, The Sopranos Family Cookbook. New York: Warner Books, 2002, : A tie-in to the popular HBO television series, featuring recipes typical of Neapolitan-derived New Jersey Italian American food (the fictional Soprano family claimed descent from the town of Avellino).
On Italian American Winemaking
Wine Heritage: The Story of Italian American Vintners. Dick Rosano (Author), Robert Mondavi (Foreword).
On Related topics of migration, immigration and diaspora
Worrall, Janet E, et al. editors, Italian Immigrants Go West: the Impact of Locale on Ethnicity. Cambridge, MA: Italian American Historical Association (AIHA), 2003, (hardcover) or 0-934675-51-X (softcover): an anthology of essays on Italian Americans, including subjects of history, literature, ethnic relations, movement west in America, early 19th Century migration from Italy, politics, urban/ suburban/ rural living, typical labor and work life, etc.
Gabaccia, Donna R., Italy's Many Diasporas. Seattle, WA: University of Washington Press, 2000, or 0-295-97918-6 (alk. paper): Foreign countries, emigration and immigration. See essays on "Patria e natio" (29), "legacy of civilta italiana" (33), table 3.3. "Destinations of migrants by region, 1876-1914 by percentage" (70), "Paese, regione and the global labor market" (68). This book will also help better understand the concepts of community among working Italian Americans with the ideas of "paese" or "paesani," and the shared, formative culture among them, often referred to as "civilita italiana."
External links
Italian American recipes by La Gazzetta Italiana
FOODS OF AFFECTION ISSUE SPRING 2008 Italian Americana: The voice of leading cultural, intellectual and literary Italian Americans
To Make Pizza - How To Make Pizza Dough
Italian cuisine
Articles containing video clips
American cuisine |
```css
Default to a transparent `border-color` before adding a border to on `:hover` state elements
At-Rules (`@`)
Use `:not()` to apply/unapply styles
Use `SVG` for icons
Combining selectors
``` |
Sir William Arnot Wakeham FREng (born 25 September 1944) is a British chemical engineer. From 2001 to 2009 he was Vice-Chancellor of the University of Southampton.
Education
Wakeham received his undergraduate and graduate degrees in physics at Exeter University.
Career
He served as a research associate at Brown University, in Providence, Rhode Island. In 1971 he was appointed lecturer in the Department of Chemical Engineering and Chemical Technology at Imperial College, London. He was successively Reader in 1979, Professor of Chemical Physics in 1985, and head of the Department of Chemical Engineering in 1988.
His academic specialty is thermodynamics, particularly the thermophysical properties of fluids and intermolecular forces.
In 1996 he was appointed Pro-Rector (Research) and subsequently also Deputy Rector and Pro-Rector (Resources) at Imperial College, holding these positions simultaneously. He oversaw the college's medical school formation in 1997 from the merger of St Mary's Hospital Medical School, Charing Cross and Westminster Medical School (formerly Charing Cross Hospital Medical School and Westminster Hospital Medical School), the Royal Postgraduate Medical School and the National Heart and Lung Institute.
In 2007 the then Secretary of State for Innovation, Universities and Skills, Rt. Hon. John Denham MP invited him to chair a review of UK physics which reported in October 2008.
He is a visiting professor at Imperial College. He is a member of the Engineering and Physical Sciences Research Council (EPSRC) and chairs their Resource Audit Committee. He is
a member of the South East England Development Agency (SEEDA) Board. He is a member of the European Union expert panel on philanthropy and universities. He is UK Chair of the British-Italian Partnership Programme.
Honours
He was knighted in the 2009 Birthday Honours. He was President of the Institution of Chemical Engineers 2011–2. He is a Chartered Engineer, Chartered Physicist and Fellow of the Royal Academy of Engineering, the Institution of Chemical Engineers, the Institution of Electrical Engineers, the Institute of Physics and Imperial College London. He is a Touloukian Medal holder from the American Society of Mechanical Engineers (1997) and holds honorary degrees from Universidade Nova de Lisboa, Exeter University, Loughborough University
Personal life
He married Christina Marjorie Stone in 1969 and they had one son. They divorced in 1974. He married second Sylvia Frances Tolley in 1978 and they had two sons.
See also
List of University of Southampton people
External links
University of Southampton page announcing Wakeham's knighthood and summarising his career
References
British chemical engineers
Chemical engineering academics
Vice-Chancellors of the University of Southampton
Living people
1944 births
Fellows of the Royal Academy of Engineering
Fellows of the Institute of Physics
Fellows of the Institution of Electrical Engineers
Knights Bachelor
Alumni of the University of Exeter
Academics of Imperial College London
Fellows of the Institution of Chemical Engineers |
Moradkandi (, also Romanized as Morādkandī) is a village in Torkaman Rural District, in the Central District of Urmia County, West Azerbaijan Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 80, in 22 families.
References
Populated places in Urmia County |
Nejat İşler (; born 28 February 1972) is a Turkish actor and writer. He is best known for many hit films including Cannes Film Festivale recipients.Some of his popular series are Behzat Ç, Gülbeyaz, Bıçak Sırtı, Keşanlı Ali Destanı, İntikam, Aliye, and Şehnaz Tango.
Biography
Nejat İşler was born in Eyüp, Istanbul. He studied at Cağaloğlu Anadolu High School, where he joined the theatre group. He took a photography course for two years at Yıldız Technical University, before serving his military service. After which he worked for some time as a salesman. After viewing the play Death of Danton, he became inspired to become an actor and joined Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University Conservatory from where he graduated in theatre.
With two friends, he formed the "Kahramanlar ve Soytarılar Theatre" and "Bodrum Deneme Sahnesi". After making his onscreen debut in the Borsa in 1993, later played films such as Eylül Fırtınası. Mustafa Hakkında Herşey and Anlat İstanbul. He played in the Turkish TV series Behzat Ç. Bir Ankara Polisiyesi as a ruthless villain with a dark sense of humor and honor. He had leading role for same role in spin off series "Saygı". He also appeared as one of the actors in the movies "Behzat Ç. Seni Kalbime Gömdüm", "Behzat Ç. Ankara Yanıyor".
He is the author of the books Gerçek Hesap Bu and Ben Hep Senin Yanındaydım. He is also the president of Gümüşlükspor football team.
Personal life
İşler was rushed to the private Bodrum Acıbadem Hospital in January 2014. He was diagnosed with respiratory failure caused by severe pulmonary infection.
Filmography
Movies
Web series
TV series
Dubbing
2014-Benim Adım Gültepe
2022-Kuş Uçuşu
Theater
References
External links
Biography of Nejat İşler
1972 births
Living people
People from Eyüp
Turkish male film actors
Turkish male television actors
Turkish male stage actors
Yıldız Technical University alumni
Academic staff of Mimar Sinan Fine Arts University
Male actors from Istanbul
21st-century Turkish male actors
Cağaloğlu Anadolu Lisesi alumni |
Boyanka Angelova (; born October 28, 1994) is a Bulgarian gymnast, known for complex and difficult combinations in rhythmic gymnastics.
She has mistakenly been identified as the granddaughter of Nadia Comăneci, the first gymnast to receive a perfect 10, in a series of viral videos.
Biography
In 2007 Boyanka Angelova was ranked first in the girls AA International Rhythmic Gymnastics Tournament in Varna for the "Queen Margarita". Still at the age of 13, she won bronze medals with the ribbon and the hoop in the first round European competition in Moscow. She went on to come second to Russia's Yana Lukonina for her performance with the ball at the Junior European Championships in Turin in June 2008, and was very popular with the public.
Boyanka Angelova belongs to the CSKA sports club in Sofia. In 2010, she was appointed to the Bulgarian adult women's team for rhythmic gymnastics, but did not reach the finals.
Angelova has not competed since 2010, due to back pains from previous injuries.
References
External links
1994 births
Living people
Bulgarian rhythmic gymnasts |
The Beat Bullies are an American music production duo based in Atlanta, Georgia, United States, composed of Teeth Malloy, Nicholas Sherwood and Nsilo Reddick. They co-produced Chamillionaire's debut album The Sound of Revenge, and have worked with numerous Atlanta-based rappers including T.I. and Ludacris.
Career
Longtime friends and collaborators, Teeth Malloy and Nikki Broadway met while students at Morehouse College in Atlanta. Malloy, originally from Savannah, Georgia, grew up as a classically trained pianist, who played tenor saxophone and drums in his middle and high school bands. Broadway was raised in Boston with an art background, and started using turntables in high school. At the time they met, they were individually producing for various Atlanta University Center artists, and subsequently began working together as The Beat Bullies.
The Beat Bullies produced several tracks from Chamillionaire's debut album The Sound of Revenge, including "Grown and Sexy", "Southern Takeover" featuring Pastor Troy and Killer Mike, "Radio Interruption", and "Think I’m Crazy" featuring Natalie.
The Beat Bullies have also produced tracks for several albums including Carlos Santana's All That I Am ("My Man" featuring Mary J. Blige and Big Boi), Nelly's Suit ("She Don't Know My Name") and the Purple Ribbon All-Stars' Got Purp? Vol. 2.
References
Record producers from Georgia (U.S. state)
Record production teams |
Rasmus Johan Michael Hansson (born 4 September 1954) is a Norwegian biologist, civil servant, environmental activist and a former national spokesperson for the Green Party. He led the Norwegian chapter of World Wide Fund for Nature from 2000 to 2012. In 2013, he was elected to the Parliament of Norway as the first representative for the Green Party.
Hansson was born in Bærum, and grew up in Oslo. His father was the actor Knut Mørch Hansson of the Trondheim family Hansson which includes several businessmen and lawyers.
Early life
In October 1976 he and two other (Harald Hjort and Knut Are Tvedt) built a dam over the creek in front of the entrance of present-day Norwegian Water Resources and Energy Directorate. (This resulted in their ironic press release being printed by Aftenposten, under the title "Vandalism on power facilities at Middelthunsfallene": "Upon inspection of the facilities on 23 October partial destruction due to vandalism, was confirmed. The dam has been removed and the water is now running its original course - of no use to society.")
Activism resulting in imprisonment
As a student he was among the environmental activists that protested the construction of a hydroelectric power plant in the Alta river in Finnmark during the Alta controversy. He and a fellow student (Jørn Thomassen) were convicted of sitting down on a road meant for "construction traffic". In court he was sentenced for civil disobedience, and he spent 30 days in Oslo kretsfengsel. In 2014 Aftenposten said that "The fines, in the order of [Norwegian] kroner ten thousand were too high for the students so they both chose the option of having themselves imprisoned for a few weeks. It felt okay. Because they regretted nothing."
Career
Hansson has a Cand. real degree in biology from the Norwegian University of Science and Technology. He wrote a master's thesis (hovedfag) on polar bears.
He has worked as an adviser in the Norwegian and been a researcher for Norwegian Polar Institute and Norad. He led the Norwegian chapter of World Wide Fund for Nature from 2000 to 2012. Since 2012 he has been leading the Oslo Centre for Interdisciplinary Environmental and Social Research (CIENS).
Parliamentary election
In the 2013 Norwegian parliamentary election Hansson candidated for the first spot on the party's Oslo ballot against the party's national spokesperson Hanna Marcussen and narrowly won. The party got 5.6% of the votes in Oslo in the election 9 September 2013 and Hansson was the only person from the Green Party who got a seat in the parliament as the national result was 2.8% and below the 4% threshold for levelling seats. It was the first time that the Greens got a representative in the parliament.
He was re-elected to the Storting following the 2021 election, along with party leader Une Aina Bastholm and Lan Marie Berg. The party overall received 3,9% of the vote, just shy of the 4% threshold for levelling seats.
Political priorities
Hansson argues that consumption in Norway needs to be reduced in order to cope with the environmental challenges. During the 2013 campaign for the Greens he suggested that it would be a good idea if the economic welfare was brought back to the level it was in the 1980s, about half of the current level. Among his political priorities are more focus on wind power and saving the polar bear.
Family
He resides in Bærumsmarka.
He is married and has three children.
References
Members of the Storting
Green Party (Norway) politicians
Norwegian environmentalists
Scientists from Oslo
Bærum politicians
1954 births
Living people
Prisoners and detainees of Norway
Norwegian prisoners and detainees
21st-century Norwegian politicians
20th-century Norwegian zoologists |
Miniussi is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Christian Miniussi (born 1967), Argentine tennis player
Ferdinando Miniussi (1940–2001), Italian footballer |
Kim Do-kyun (born 13 January 1977) is a South Korean football manager and former player. He played for South Korea in 1997 FIFA World Youth Championship, 2000 Summer Olympics and 2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup.
Career statistics
Club
Honours
Ulsan Hyundai Horang-i
Korean League Cup runner-up: 2002
Jeonnam Dragons
Korean FA Cup: 2006
South Korea U20
AFC Youth Championship: 1996
Individual
AFC Youth Championship Most Valuable Player: 1996
AFC Asian All Stars: 1999
Notes
References
External links
Kim Do-kyun at KFA
FIFA Player Statistics
1977 births
Living people
Men's association football midfielders
South Korean men's footballers
South Korean expatriate men's footballers
South Korea men's international footballers
Ulsan Hyundai FC players
Kyoto Sanga FC players
Seongnam FC players
Jeonnam Dragons players
K League 1 players
J2 League players
Expatriate men's footballers in Japan
2000 CONCACAF Gold Cup players
Footballers at the 2000 Summer Olympics
Olympic footballers for South Korea
South Korean expatriate sportspeople in Japan
Footballers from North Gyeongsang Province |
Sebastiano Schiavone da Rovigno (literally: Sebastian the Slav from Rovigno) also known as Sebastiano Schiavone and Sebastiano da Rovigno, Bastian Virgola and nicknamed Zoppo (literally, lame) (1420 – 1505) was a woodcarver and marquetry artist from Rovigno (today Rovinj, Croatia) in the Republic of Venice.
Biography
He was born in Rovigno (today Rovinj, Croatia) in the Republic of Venice. While his name literally means "the Slav" and his origins are unknown, it has been argued that he was in fact Italian, since all people from "the other side of the water" were scornfully called as such (schiavoni) by Venetians. He joined the Dominican Order and in 1461 the Olivetans. Sebastian took abode in many monasteries across Italy during the 15th century, working in several monasteries located in important Italian arts towns.
He was a master to fellow friar and woodcarver Fra Giovanni da Verona. Sebastian taught Giovanni the art of woodwork in the monastery of San Giorgio in Ferrara.
He was the founder of an important Olivetan school of woodcarvers in Ferrara. Sebastian artistically contributed to the city of Ferrara with what he had learned from his sojourns in other important Italian cities such as Siena and Ferrara.
He is also said to have worked in the convent of Santa Maria in Organo with Giovanni. He also worked with an Antonio and a Paolo (from Mantua) and with the master Bernardino Ferrando from Bergamo. He was active in the Renaissance period, and his style was influenced by Pietro Lombardo.
One of his most famous works are the 34 choir seats he made for the convent Sant'Elena in Venice, which was affiliated with the Olivetani order. Some of them are in St Mark's Basilica. He worked on the old sacristy in St Mark together with Lorenzo Canozi of Lendinara in 1450.
Most of his work was dispersed. Because of this, it is difficult to determine how much influence he had on his pupil Giovanni da Verona.
Bibliography
Paolo Tedeschi: Fra Sebastiano Schiavone da Rovigno intarsiatore del secolo XV
Antonio Alisi, Istria, città minori, Trieste, 1997.
M. Ferretti, I maestri della prospettiva, in Storia dell'arte italiana, XI, Torino 1982, ad indicem
References
External links
Sebastiano da Rovigno at Istrapedia
1420 births
1505 deaths
Republic of Venice artists
Italian woodcarvers
Italian woodworkers |
```javascript
/**
* Duo Web SDK v2
*/
(function (root, factory) {
/*eslint-disable */
if (typeof define === 'function' && define.amd) {
// AMD. Register as an anonymous module.
define([], factory);
/*eslint-enable */
} else if (typeof module === 'object' && module.exports) {
// Node. Does not work with strict CommonJS, but
// only CommonJS-like environments that support module.exports,
// like Node.
module.exports = factory();
} else {
// Browser globals (root is window)
var Duo = factory();
// If the Javascript was loaded via a script tag, attempt to autoload
// the frame.
Duo._onReady(Duo.init);
// Attach Duo to the `window` object
root.Duo = Duo;
}
}(this, function() {
var DUO_MESSAGE_FORMAT = /^(?:AUTH|ENROLL)+\|[A-Za-z0-9\+\/=]+\|[A-Za-z0-9\+\/=]+$/;
var DUO_ERROR_FORMAT = /^ERR\|[\w\s\.\(\)]+$/;
var DUO_OPEN_WINDOW_FORMAT = /^DUO_OPEN_WINDOW\|/;
var VALID_OPEN_WINDOW_DOMAINS = [
'duo.com',
'duosecurity.com',
'duomobile.s3-us-west-1.amazonaws.com'
];
var iframeId = 'duo_iframe',
postAction = '',
postArgument = 'sig_response',
host,
sigRequest,
duoSig,
appSig,
iframe,
submitCallback;
function throwError(message, url) {
throw new Error(
'Duo Web SDK error: ' + message +
(url ? ('\n' + 'See ' + url + ' for more information') : '')
);
}
function hyphenize(str) {
return str.replace(/([a-z])([A-Z])/, '$1-$2').toLowerCase();
}
// cross-browser data attributes
function getDataAttribute(element, name) {
if ('dataset' in element) {
return element.dataset[name];
} else {
return element.getAttribute('data-' + hyphenize(name));
}
}
// cross-browser event binding/unbinding
function on(context, event, fallbackEvent, callback) {
if ('addEventListener' in window) {
context.addEventListener(event, callback, false);
} else {
context.attachEvent(fallbackEvent, callback);
}
}
function off(context, event, fallbackEvent, callback) {
if ('removeEventListener' in window) {
context.removeEventListener(event, callback, false);
} else {
context.detachEvent(fallbackEvent, callback);
}
}
function onReady(callback) {
on(document, 'DOMContentLoaded', 'onreadystatechange', callback);
}
function offReady(callback) {
off(document, 'DOMContentLoaded', 'onreadystatechange', callback);
}
function onMessage(callback) {
on(window, 'message', 'onmessage', callback);
}
function offMessage(callback) {
off(window, 'message', 'onmessage', callback);
}
/**
* Parse the sig_request parameter, throwing errors if the token contains
* a server error or if the token is invalid.
*
* @param {String} sig Request token
*/
function parseSigRequest(sig) {
if (!sig) {
// nothing to do
return;
}
// see if the token contains an error, throwing it if it does
if (sig.indexOf('ERR|') === 0) {
throwError(sig.split('|')[1]);
}
// validate the token
if (sig.indexOf(':') === -1 || sig.split(':').length !== 2) {
throwError(
'Duo was given a bad token. This might indicate a configuration ' +
'problem with one of Duo\'s client libraries.',
'path_to_url#first-steps'
);
}
var sigParts = sig.split(':');
// hang on to the token, and the parsed duo and app sigs
sigRequest = sig;
duoSig = sigParts[0];
appSig = sigParts[1];
return {
sigRequest: sig,
duoSig: sigParts[0],
appSig: sigParts[1]
};
}
/**
* This function is set up to run when the DOM is ready, if the iframe was
* not available during `init`.
*/
function onDOMReady() {
iframe = document.getElementById(iframeId);
if (!iframe) {
throw new Error(
'This page does not contain an iframe for Duo to use.' +
'Add an element like <iframe id="duo_iframe"></iframe> ' +
'to this page. ' +
'See path_to_url#3.-show-the-iframe ' +
'for more information.'
);
}
// we've got an iframe, away we go!
ready();
// always clean up after yourself
offReady(onDOMReady);
}
/**
* Validate that a MessageEvent came from the Duo service, and that it
* is a properly formatted payload.
*
* The Google Chrome sign-in page injects some JS into pages that also
* make use of postMessage, so we need to do additional validation above
* and beyond the origin.
*
* @param {MessageEvent} event Message received via postMessage
*/
function isDuoMessage(event) {
return Boolean(
event.origin === ('path_to_url + host) &&
typeof event.data === 'string' &&
(
event.data.match(DUO_MESSAGE_FORMAT) ||
event.data.match(DUO_ERROR_FORMAT) ||
event.data.match(DUO_OPEN_WINDOW_FORMAT)
)
);
}
/**
* Validate the request token and prepare for the iframe to become ready.
*
* All options below can be passed into an options hash to `Duo.init`, or
* specified on the iframe using `data-` attributes.
*
* Options specified using the options hash will take precedence over
* `data-` attributes.
*
* Example using options hash:
* ```javascript
* Duo.init({
* iframe: "some_other_id",
* host: "api-main.duo.test",
* sig_request: "...",
* post_action: "/auth",
* post_argument: "resp"
* });
* ```
*
* Example using `data-` attributes:
* ```
* <iframe id="duo_iframe"
* data-host="api-main.duo.test"
* data-sig-request="..."
* data-post-action="/auth"
* data-post-argument="resp"
* >
* </iframe>
* ```
*
* @param {Object} options
* @param {String} options.iframe The iframe, or id of an iframe to set up
* @param {String} options.host Hostname
* @param {String} options.sig_request Request token
* @param {String} [options.post_action=''] URL to POST back to after successful auth
* @param {String} [options.post_argument='sig_response'] Parameter name to use for response token
* @param {Function} [options.submit_callback] If provided, duo will not submit the form instead execute
* the callback function with reference to the "duo_form" form object
* submit_callback can be used to prevent the webpage from reloading.
*/
function init(options) {
if (options) {
if (options.host) {
host = options.host;
}
if (options.sig_request) {
parseSigRequest(options.sig_request);
}
if (options.post_action) {
postAction = options.post_action;
}
if (options.post_argument) {
postArgument = options.post_argument;
}
if (options.iframe) {
if (options.iframe.tagName) {
iframe = options.iframe;
} else if (typeof options.iframe === 'string') {
iframeId = options.iframe;
}
}
if (typeof options.submit_callback === 'function') {
submitCallback = options.submit_callback;
}
}
// if we were given an iframe, no need to wait for the rest of the DOM
if (iframe) {
ready();
} else {
// try to find the iframe in the DOM
iframe = document.getElementById(iframeId);
// iframe is in the DOM, away we go!
if (iframe) {
ready();
} else {
// wait until the DOM is ready, then try again
onReady(onDOMReady);
}
}
// always clean up after yourself!
offReady(init);
}
/**
* This function is called when a message was received from another domain
* using the `postMessage` API. Check that the event came from the Duo
* service domain, and that the message is a properly formatted payload,
* then perform the post back to the primary service.
*
* @param event Event object (contains origin and data)
*/
function onReceivedMessage(event) {
if (isDuoMessage(event)) {
if (event.data.match(DUO_OPEN_WINDOW_FORMAT)) {
var url = event.data.substring("DUO_OPEN_WINDOW|".length);
if (isValidUrlToOpen(url)) {
// Open the URL that comes after the DUO_WINDOW_OPEN token.
window.open(url, "_self");
}
}
else {
// the event came from duo, do the post back
doPostBack(event.data);
// always clean up after yourself!
offMessage(onReceivedMessage);
}
}
}
/**
* Validate that this passed in URL is one that we will actually allow to
* be opened.
* @param url String URL that the message poster wants to open
* @returns {boolean} true if we allow this url to be opened in the window
*/
function isValidUrlToOpen(url) {
if (!url) {
return false;
}
var parser = document.createElement('a');
parser.href = url;
if (parser.protocol === "duotrustedendpoints:") {
return true;
} else if (parser.protocol !== "https:") {
return false;
}
for (var i = 0; i < VALID_OPEN_WINDOW_DOMAINS.length; i++) {
if (parser.hostname.endsWith("." + VALID_OPEN_WINDOW_DOMAINS[i]) ||
parser.hostname === VALID_OPEN_WINDOW_DOMAINS[i]) {
return true;
}
}
return false;
}
/**
* Point the iframe at Duo, then wait for it to postMessage back to us.
*/
function ready() {
if (!host) {
host = getDataAttribute(iframe, 'host');
if (!host) {
throwError(
'No API hostname is given for Duo to use. Be sure to pass ' +
'a `host` parameter to Duo.init, or through the `data-host` ' +
'attribute on the iframe element.',
'path_to_url#3.-show-the-iframe'
);
}
}
if (!duoSig || !appSig) {
parseSigRequest(getDataAttribute(iframe, 'sigRequest'));
if (!duoSig || !appSig) {
throwError(
'No valid signed request is given. Be sure to give the ' +
'`sig_request` parameter to Duo.init, or use the ' +
'`data-sig-request` attribute on the iframe element.',
'path_to_url#3.-show-the-iframe'
);
}
}
// if postAction/Argument are defaults, see if they are specified
// as data attributes on the iframe
if (postAction === '') {
postAction = getDataAttribute(iframe, 'postAction') || postAction;
}
if (postArgument === 'sig_response') {
postArgument = getDataAttribute(iframe, 'postArgument') || postArgument;
}
// point the iframe at Duo
iframe.src = [
'path_to_url host, '/frame/web/v1/auth?tx=', duoSig,
'&parent=', encodeURIComponent(document.location.href),
'&v=2.6'
].join('');
// listen for the 'message' event
onMessage(onReceivedMessage);
}
/**
* We received a postMessage from Duo. POST back to the primary service
* with the response token, and any additional user-supplied parameters
* given in form#duo_form.
*/
function doPostBack(response) {
// create a hidden input to contain the response token
var input = document.createElement('input');
input.type = 'hidden';
input.name = postArgument;
input.value = response + ':' + appSig;
// user may supply their own form with additional inputs
var form = document.getElementById('duo_form');
// if the form doesn't exist, create one
if (!form) {
form = document.createElement('form');
// insert the new form after the iframe
iframe.parentElement.insertBefore(form, iframe.nextSibling);
}
// make sure we are actually posting to the right place
form.method = 'POST';
form.action = postAction;
// add the response token input to the form
form.appendChild(input);
// away we go!
if (typeof submitCallback === "function") {
submitCallback.call(null, form);
} else {
form.submit();
}
}
return {
init: init,
_onReady: onReady,
_parseSigRequest: parseSigRequest,
_isDuoMessage: isDuoMessage,
_doPostBack: doPostBack
};
}));
``` |
Oscar McKinley Charleston (October 14, 1896 – October 5, 1954) was an American center fielder and manager in Negro league baseball. Over his 43-year baseball career, Charleston played or managed with more than a dozen teams, including the Homestead Grays and the Pittsburgh Crawfords, Negro league baseball's leading teams in the 1930s. He also played nine winter seasons in Cuba and in numerous exhibition games against white major leaguers. He was inducted into the National Baseball Hall of Fame in 1976.
One of the Negro leagues' early stars, Charleston was by 1920 generally considered "the greatest center fielder and one of the most reliable sluggers in black baseball." He and Josh Gibson share the record for Negro league batting titles with three, and he is the only player to win batting titles in multiple leagues. He was the second player to win consecutive Triple Crowns in either batting or pitching (after Grover Cleveland Alexander), a feat matched just one time by a batter. He is now credited with having won the Triple Crown (leading in batting average, home runs, RBI) three times, which is the most for any player in Major League Baseball. He holds the second-highest career batting average, behind Ty Cobb, and the fourth-highest career OPS.
In 1915, after serving three years in the U.S. Army, the Indianapolis, Indiana, native continued his baseball career as a professional with the Indianapolis ABCs. He played in the Negro National League's inaugural doubleheader on May 20, 1920. His most productive season was with the Saint Louis Giants in 1921, when he hit 15 home runs, 12 triples, and 17 doubles, stole 31 bases, and had a .437 batting average. In 1933, Charleston played in the first Negro National League All-Star Game at Chicago's Comiskey Park and appeared in the League's 1934 and 1935 all-star games. In 1945, Charleston became manager of the Brooklyn Brown Dodgers and helped recruit black ballplayers such as Roy Campanella to join the first integrated Major League Baseball teams. His career ended in 1954 as a player-manager for the Indianapolis Clowns.
Early life and family
Oscar McKinley Charleston was born in Indianapolis, Indiana, on October 14, 1896, the seventh of eleven children; his younger brother Bennie Charleston played alongside him on the 1932 Pittsburgh Crawfords. Charleston's father, Tom Charleston, was a construction worker and a former jockey. Oscar spent his youth playing sandlot baseball and was a batboy for the Indianapolis ABCs.
On March 7, 1912, fifteen-year-old Charleston lied about his age to enlist in the U.S. Army. He was assigned to Company B of the Twenty-Fourth Infantry Regiment and served in the Philippines, where he ran track and played baseball on the regiment's team. In 1914 the seventeen-year-old, left-handed pitcher played a season representing the regiment in the Manila League. Charleston also pitched a 3–0 shutout and scored a run during a local all-star game. At the end of his tour of duty, Charleston decided not to reenlist. He returned to Indianapolis in April 1915.
On November 24, 1922, Charleston married Jane Blalock Howard, a widow from Harrisburg, Pennsylvania. The couple often traveled together during the early years of their marriage when he was a player and manager for the Harrisburg Giants. The Charlestons had no children and separated during the 1930s, but they never divorced.
Career and statistics
Between 1915 and 1954, Charleston was a player and/or manager for the Indianapolis ABCs, Lincoln Stars, Chicago American Giants, Detroit Stars, Saint Louis Giants, Harrisburg Giants, Hilldale Club, Homestead Grays, and Pittsburgh Crawfords, as well as the Toledo Crawfords, Indianapolis Crawfords, Philadelphia Stars, Brooklyn Brown Dodgers, and the Indianapolis Clowns. Charleston was a player-manager until 1941, but his thirty-nine year baseball career continued as a team manager until his death in 1954. In addition to his play in the Negro leagues, Charleston participated in numerous exhibition games against all-white teams in the years before major league baseball became integrated in 1947. He also played nine winter seasons in Cuba.
Official statistics for the Negro league players are incomplete and vary among sources. The National Baseball Hall of Fame and Museum's website and Baseball Reference's website reported as of March 6, 2018, that Charleston's career batting average over 239 Negro league games and twenty-six seasons (1915–1941) was .339, with a slugging percentage of .545. The Hall of Fame website also noted that Charleston had a .326 lifetime batting average in exhibition play against white major leaguers. Data from other sources provided different statistics, but do not include specific periods of time. For example, the online version of Encyclopedia Britannica lists Charleston's lifetime overall batting average as .357, as did baseball historian James A. Riley in his book The Biographical Encyclopedia of the Negro Baseball Leagues (1994). Riley further stated that Charleston had a .326 batting average in exhibition games against white major league players and a .361 batting average in nine seasons of winter games in Cuba.
Early years, 1915–1920
After his honorable discharge from the U.S. Army in 1915, Charleston returned to the United States and immediately began his baseball career with the Indianapolis ABCs. He was paid $50 per month. On April 11, 1915, Charleston pitched his first game for the ABCs, a three-hit, 7–0 shutout in an exhibition game against the Reserves, a semiprofessional team of white players. Charleston, called "Charlie" by his teammates, soon moved to the center field position, where he became known for playing shallow (close behind second base) and his one-handed catches. Charleston was especially adept at catching high flies, using his running speed to retrieve balls above his head. His strong batting and fielding skills also earned Charleston the nickname of the "Hoosier Comet."
In addition to his skills as a ballplayer, Charleston was known for his combative nature and willingness to fight when provoked. One memorable incident occurred during a game that the Indianapolis ABCs played against a team of white major and minor leaguers in Indianapolis on October 24, 1915. When ABCs player Elwood "Bingo" DeMoss got into a dispute with umpire James Scanlon over a bad call against the team, Charleston ran in from center field and punched the umpire, knocking him to the ground. According to local newspapers, the ballpark erupted into "a near race riot." Charleston and DeMoss escaped the field and were arrested and jailed. The two players were released after posting bail and immediately left town to play winter baseball in Cuba. Charleston was also temporarily dismissed from the ABCs and sent to play for the Lincoln Giants in New York until the controversy died down. He returned to the team in June 1916.
During another incident that occurred in Cuba in the mid-1920s, Charleston fought with Cuban soldiers during a Cuban League game against Havana. He was arrested and fined for his role in the fighting, but was released from custody and returned to the field to play the following day. James "Cool Papa" Bell related a story to baseball historian John Holway of another confrontation involving Charleston. Bell told Holway that around 1935 Charleston tore off the hood of a white-robed Ku Klux Klansman during a trip to Florida.
In spite of the controversy surrounding some of his behavior, Charleston contributed to the success of the Indianapolis ABCs. In 1916 he was a member of the team when it beat the Chicago American Giants to claim what the game's promoters called "The Championship of Colored Baseball." (The first Negro League World Series was not played until October 1924.) Charleston left the ABCs at end of the 1918 season to attend the Colored Officer Training Program during World War I, but he served less than two months before the armistice was signed to end the war and he was discharged. When Charleston returned to Indiana in 1919, the owner of the ABCs did not field a team, so he joined the Chicago American Giants.
Negro league player, 1920–1941
When the Negro National League was established in 1920, Charleston returned to Indianapolis to play for the ABCs, playing center field for the team in the League's inaugural doubleheader on May 20, 1920, at Indianapolis. The ABCs beat the Giants 4–2 and 11–4. Charleston remained with the ABCs until 1921, then signed with the Saint Louis Giants, who paid him $400 per month, the league's highest salary. Charleston's most productive season was with the Saint Louis Giants in 1921, when he hit fifteen home runs, twelve triples, seventeen doubles, and stole thirty-one bases over sixty games. Charleston's batting average that year was .434; he was also the league's leader in doubles, triples, and home runs.
When the Giants folded at the end of the 1921 season due to financial difficulties, Charleston returned to the ABCs and stayed until 1924, when he became a player-manager of the Harrisburg Giants in Pennsylvania. Charleston continued his career with the Harrisburg team until 1927. After it disbanded, Charleston played for the Hillsdale Club, a team near Philadelphia, for two seasons (1928 and 1929) and spent the next two seasons (1930 and 1931) with the Homestead Grays. As Charleston aged, he shifted from center field to first base during his final years playing for the Giants and two years with the Grays. Charleston also played nine seasons of winter baseball on teams in Cuba. His batting average for the nine seasons was .361. A countrywide fan poll taken after the 1925 Eastern Colored League season for an "All-Eastern Team" gave Charleston the most votes, mostly placing him in center field, but he also received votes for left and right field, and as a manager.
In 1932 Charleston became player-manager of the Pittsburgh Crawfords, whose roster included future Hall of Famers Josh Gibson, Satchel Paige, and Judy Johnson, in addition to teammates Ted Page, Jud Wilson, Jimmie Crutchfield, and Double Duty Radcliffe. (Cool Papa Bell joined the Crawfords in 1933.) The Negro National League was revived in 1933 and the Pittsburgh Crawfords and Homestead Grays became its leading teams in the 1930s. The two teams competed for more than a dozen Negro League championships and had several future Hall of Famers on their rosters, including Charleston.
Between 1932 and 1936, while Charleston was player-manager of the Crawfords, the team was considered the best in professional baseball. In 1932 the Crawfords played as an independent team and went 99–36, with Charleston batting .363. That year Charleston received the most votes (43,000) from fans and played first base in the first East-West All-Star Game on September 10, 1933. The game was held at Chicago's Comiskey Park in front of a crowd of 20,000 a few weeks after the first Major League Baseball All-Star Game. Charleston was also a first baseman in the 1934 and 1935 Negro League All-Star Games. For the 1935–36 season, when the Crawfords were part of the Negro National League, the team's overall record was 36–24; Charleston's batting average was .304. Charleston was also a member of the Crawford team that won the 1935 Negro National Team pennant. The 1935 Crawfords team is considered the best in Negro League history.
Charleston's career as a professional ballplayer was nearing its end when the Pittsburgh Crawfords was dissolved in 1939 and acquired by new owners. Charleston moved with the team to Toledo, Ohio, but it failed to attract enough fan support and relocated to Indianapolis in 1940. As it did in Ohio, the Indianapolis Crawfords failed to develop a fan base to sustain the team. Charleston retired as a professional player in 1941. From 1942-1944, he played for the integrated semipro Philadelphia Quartermaster Depot team in the city's industrial league, garnering league player of the week honors in June 1943. In 1945 at the age of 49, Charleston briefly came out of retirement and made appearances in both games of a doubleheader while managing the Brooklyn Brown Dodgers as a pinch hitter and defensive replacement at first base.
Team manager and scout, 1941–1954
During the winter of 1940–41, Charleston returned to Pennsylvania to become manager of the Philadelphia Stars. The Stars finished the season with a 15-46 record and he was dismissed following the season. In 1944, he returned to the Stars as a first base coach. In 1945 Branch Rickey hired Charleston as manager of the Brooklyn Brown Dodgers in the United States League, but the team was short-lived. Its main purpose was to scout talented black players for the first integrated Major League Baseball teams. When this goal was met, the Brown Dodgers disbanded. Although Charleston was not involved in Jackie Robinson's recruitment, he recruited others, including Roy Campanella.
In 1946 Charleston returned to managing the Philadelphia Stars for five seasons, eventually retiring at the end of 1950.
The integration of Major League Baseball teams in the late 1940s marked the decline and eventual end of the Negro leagues. In 1954 Charleston briefly came out of retirement to manage the Indianapolis Clowns, a barnstorming team that usually played on the road. The Clowns captured the Negro American League pennant in 1954 before Charleston returned to Philadelphia, shortly before his death that fall.
Umpiring
In addition to serving as a manager and scout, Charleston umpired for the Negro National League beginning in 1946. In 1947, he worked an NNL-NAL all star game at the Polo Grounds.
Death and legacy
In early October 1954, Charleston fell ill due to a heart attack or stroke. He was admitted to a Philadelphia, Pennsylvania, hospital, and died on October 5, 1954, at the age of 57. Charleston's remains are buried at Floral Park Cemetery in Indianapolis, Indiana.
A renowned player of his era, Charleston was recognized for his athletic skills as a powerful, hard-hitting slugger, his speed and aggressiveness as a base runner, and as a top outfielder. Observers often compared his play to elite contemporaries such as Ty Cobb, Tris Speaker, and Babe Ruth. Charleston ranks among Negro league baseball's top five players in home runs and batting average, and its leader in stolen bases.
While The Sporting News list of the 100 greatest baseball players, published in 1998, ranked Charleston only sixty-seventh, only four other black ballplayers who played all or most of their careers in pre-1947 Negro leagues placed higher on the list: Josh Gibson, Satchel Paige, Buck Leonard, and Cool Papa Bell. In 1999 Charleston was also nominated as a finalist for Major League Baseball's All-20th Century Team.
Charleston's reputation has grown considerably in recent decades. Baseball writer Bill James, author of The New Bill James Historical Baseball Abstract (2001), reported that Charleston "did everything exceptionally well" and ranked him as the fourth-best player of all-time behind Ruth, Honus Wagner, and Willie Mays. Other baseball observers now consider Charleston as not just the greatest all-around Negro league ballplayer but possibly the greatest baseball player ever.
In addition, Charleston's teammates and competitors such as Juanelo Mirabal, Buck O'Neil, and Turkey Stearnes, extol his greatness. “Oscar Charleston was Willie Mays before there was a Willie Mays,” said “Double Duty” Radcliffe shortly before his death in 2005, “except that he was a better base runner, a better center fielder and a better hitter.”
Hall of Fame manager John McGraw, whose career spanned forty years, once said, “If Oscar Charleston isn’t the greatest baseball player in the world, then I’m no judge of baseball talent.” Renowned sportswriter Grantland Rice wrote a column on Charleston titled “No Greater Ball Player” in which he proclaimed: “It’s impossible for anybody to be a better ballplayer than Oscar Charleston.”
Honors and awards
Charleston was inducted into the Baseball Hall of Fame in .
He was inducted into the Indiana Baseball Hall of Fame, Class of 1981.
The Indianapolis chapter of the Society for American Baseball Research is named the Oscar Charleston Chapter.
Oscar Charleston Park on East 30th Street in Indianapolis is named in the ballplayer's honor.
Notes
References
External links
and Baseball-Reference Black Baseball stats and Seamheads
Oscar Charleston at Negro League Players Association
1896 births
1954 deaths
African-American baseball coaches
African-American baseball managers
Baseball players from Indianapolis
Chicago American Giants players
Harrisburg Giants players
Homestead Grays players
Indianapolis ABCs players
Indianapolis Clowns players
Leopardos de Santa Clara players
Lincoln Stars (baseball) players
Major League Baseball coaches
Military personnel from Indiana
National Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
Negro league baseball managers
St. Louis Giants players
Toledo Crawfords players
United States Army personnel of World War I
United States Army soldiers
American expatriate baseball players in Cuba
20th-century African-American sportspeople |
Kalpurehi (, also Romanized as Kalpūrehī; also known as Kalpūreh) is a village in Rud Ab-e Gharbi Rural District, Rud Ab District, Narmashir County, Kerman Province, Iran. At the 2006 census, its population was 42, in 11 families.
References
Populated places in Narmashir County |
The 2013 Trabzon Cup was a professional tennis tournament played on outdoor hard courts. It was the first edition of the tournament which was part of the 2013 ITF Women's Circuit, offering a total of $50,000 in prize money. It took place in Trabzon, Turkey, on 2–8 September 2013. This was the first Trazbon Cup of the year, the 2013 Trabzon Cup (2) was held a week later.
Singles entrants
Seeds
1 Rankings as of 26 August 2013
Other entrants
The following players received wildcards into the singles main draw:
Cemre Anıl
Naz Karagöz
Dinah Pfizenmaier
Ege Tomey
The following players received entry from the qualifying draw:
Melis Sezer
Christina Shakovets
Emily Webley-Smith
Ekaterina Yashina
The following players received entry into the singles main draw as lucky losers:
Ani Amiraghyan
Claudia Coppola
Champions
Singles
Aleksandra Krunić def. Stéphanie Foretz Gacon 1–6, 6–4, 6–3
Doubles
Yuliya Beygelzimer / Maryna Zanevska def. Alona Fomina / Christina Shakovets 6–3, 6–1
External links
2013 Trabzon Cup (1) at ITFtennis.com
2013 ITF Women's Circuit
2013 1
2013 in Turkish tennis |
Santo Domingo de Capillas District is one of sixteen districts of the province Huaytará in Peru.
References |
```javascript
Async and defer scripts
Form a `URL` from its parts
Window.sessionStorage
Network Information API
MediaDevices.getUserMedia()
``` |
Avrainville is the name of three communes in France:
Avrainville, Meurthe-et-Moselle
Avrainville, Vosges
Avrainville, Essonne |
BFC Dynamo developed a very successful youth academy during the 1970s. The team had an average age of only 22.7 years before the 1978–79 season. Young talented players in the team were Hans-Jürgen Riediger, Lutz Eigendorf, Norbert Trieloff, Michael Noack, Roland Jüngling, Rainer Troppa, Bodo Rudwaleit, Ralf Sträßer, Hartmut Pelka and Arthur Ullrich. The veterans in the team were Reinhard Lauck, Frank Terletzki, Wolf-Rüdiger Netz and Bernd Brillat. The young team was coached by 31-year-old coach Jürgen Bogs.
BFC Dynamo got off to a strong start in the 1978-79 DDR-Oberliga and won the first ten matches. Lutz Eigendorf defected to West Germany during a friendly match in Kaiserslautern on 20 March 1979. His defection was considered a slap in the face to the East German regime. BFC Dynamo finally won its first DDR-Oberliga title after defeating rival SG Dynamo Dresden 3–1 on the 24th matchday in front of 22,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. The team set a number of records during the league season.
BFC Dynamo made its debut in the European Cup in the 1979–80 season. The team made it all the way to the quarter-finals of the 1979-80 European Cup, where it faced Nottingham Forest under Brian Clough. BFC Dynamo won the first leg away 1–0. BFC Dynamo thus became the first German team to defeat an English team in England in the European Cup. The success in the league continued, but the competition was fierce. BFC Dynamo won the 1979-80 DDR-Oberliga by defeating first-placed SG Dynamo Dresden on the final matchday and the 1980-81 DDR-Oberliga by defeating second-placed FC Carl Zeiss Jena in the final matchday. BFC Dynamo continued to integrate young players from the youth department into the first team, such as Rainer Ernst in 1979, Bernd Schulz in 1979, Olaf Seier in 1979, Frank Rohde in 1980, Falko Götz in 1980 and Christian Backs in 1981.
BFC Dynamo reached the quarter-finals of the 1981-82 European Cup but was eventually eliminated by Aston Villa. BFC Dynamo now began a period of dominance in the league. The team secured its fourth consecutive league title at the end of the 1981-82 DDR-Oberliga and would go through the entire 1982-83 DDR-Oberliga undefeated. BFC Dynamo was only defeated by FC Karl-Marx-Stadt on the seventh matchday of the 1983-84 DDR-Oberliga. It was the team's first loss in 36 league matches. BFC Dynamo was drawn against Partizan Belgrade in the second round of the 1983–84 European Cup. The players Falko Götz and Dirk Schlegel defected to West Germany during a shopping tour in Belgrade before the return leg. Young talented froward Andreas Thom from the youth department would make his international debut in the match, as a replacement for Falko Götz. BFC Dynamo lost the match but advanced to the quarter-finals on goal difference. The team was eventually eliminated by AS Roma in the quarter-finals. It was the fourth time in five seasons that BFC Dynamo had been eliminated by an eventual finalist. The team reached the final of the 1983-84 FDGB-Pokal but was defeated by SG Dynamo Dresden.
BFC Dynamo was drawn against Aberdeen F.C. under Alex Ferguson in the first round of the 1984-85 European Cup. The team advanced, after a dramatic penalty shoot-out at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark in the return leg. BFC Dynamo continued to dominate the league. The team scored a whopping 90 goals in the 1984-85 DDR-Oberliga. No other team would ever score more goals during a season in the DDR-Oberliga. BFC Dynamo faced rival SG Dynamo Dresden in the final of the 1984–85 FDGB-Pokal. The team lost the match 2–3. For the second consecutive season, SG Dynamo Dresden had stopped BFC Dynamo from winning the Double. The match between 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig and BFC Dynamo on the 18th matchday of the 1985-86 DDR-Oberliga become historic due to a controversial penalty for BFC Dynamo in extra time. The match ended 1-1. BFC Dynamo captured its eighth consecutive league title on the final matchday of the 1985-86 DDR-Oberliga. The team finished just two points ahead of second-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig.
BFC Dynamo had the best material conditions in the league and was the best team by far. But controversial refereeing decisions in favor of BFC Dynamo gave rise to speculation that the team's dominance was also due to help from referees. Complaints of alleged referee bias accumulated as the team came to dominate the DDR-Oberliga. The German Football Association of the GDR (DFV) conducted a secret review of the 1984–85 season. Among other things, the review showed that BFC Dynamo received significantly fewer yellow cards than rivals SG Dynamo Dresden and 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig. A review was also carried out of the final of the 1984-85 FDGB-Pokal. This review showed that the referees had committed several errors in the final to the disadvantage of SG Dynamo Dresden. However, there is no evidence to show that referees were under direct instructions from the Stasi and no document has ever been found in the archives that gave the Stasi a mandate to bribe referees. Former referee Bernd Heynemann concluded: "The BFC is not ten times champions because the referees only whistled for Dynamo. They were already strong as a bear."
The team was joined by Thomas Doll from relegated F.C. Hansa Rostock for the 1986–87 season. Doll and Andreas Thom would form one of the most effective attacking duos in East German football in the late 1980s. BFC Dynamo met fierce competition from 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig in the 1986-87 DDR-Oberliga and the 1987-88 DDR-Oberliga. BFC Dynamo and 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig was level on points heading into the final matchday of the 1987-88 DDR-Oberliga. Both teams won their final matches, but BFC Dynamo finished with a better goal difference, thus winning its tenth consecutive league title. BFC Dynamo then defeated FC Carl Zeiss Jena 2–0 in front of 40,000 spectators at the Stadion der Weltjugend in the final of the 1987–88 FDGB-Pokal. BFC Dynamo had thus finally won the Double. Andreas Thom became the 1988 East German footballer of the year.
BFC Dynamo was drawn against West German champions SV Werder Bremen in the first round of the 1988-89 European Cup. BFC Dynamo sensationally won the first leg 3–0 at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. However, the team lost the return leg 5–0 at the Weser-Stadion. The return leg would become known as "The Second Miracle on the Weser". BFC Dynamo finished the first half of the 1988-89 DDR-Oberliga in fourth place. It was the team's worst result after a first half of a league season in 14 years. The team's ten-year dominance in the league was eventually broken by SG Dynamo Dresden in the 1988-89 DDR-Oberliga. BFC Dynamo again won the FDGB-Pokal by defeating FC Karl-Marx-Stadt 1–0 in the final of the 1988-89 FDGB-Pokal. BFC Dynamo then defeated SG Dynamo Dresden 4–1 in the first edition of the DFV-Supercup. BFC Dynamo eventually became the only winner of the DFV-Supercup in the history of East German football.
East German champions and the loss of Lutz Eigendorf (1978–1979)
BFC Dynamo fielded a young team in the 1978–79 season. The average age of the team was only 22,7 years. The team included several young talented players such as Hans-Jürgen Riediger, Lutz Eigendorf, Norbert Trieloff, Michael Noack, Roland Jüngling, Rainer Troppa, Bodo Rudwaleit, Ralf Sträßer and Artur Ullrich. Reinhard Lauck, Frank Terletzki, Wolf-Rüdiger Netz and Bernd Brillat were the veterans of the team. Terletzki was the team captain. The team was coached by 31-year-old Jürgen Bogs. BFC Dynamo under Bogs would play an aggressive football that focused on attacking.
BFC Dynamo defeated HFC Chemie 4–1 at home and BSG Wismut Aue 2–3 away in the first two matchdays of the 1978-79 DDR-Oberliga. The team then won the derby against 1. FC Union Berlin 5–0 in the third matchday in front of 32,000 spectators at the Stadion der Weltjugend on 2 September 1979. Wolf-Rüdiger Netz scored four goals in the match. BFC Dynamo had finished the 1977-78 DDR-Oberliga in third place and was qualified for the 1978-79 UEFA Cup. The team was drawn against the Yugoslav powerhouse Red Star Belgrade in the first round. BFC Dynamo won the first leg 5–2 in front of 26,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 13 September 1979–78. Hans-Jürgen Riediger scored the first three goals for BFC Dynamo in the match. The return leg was played in front of 60,000 spectators at the Red Star Stadium on 27 September 1978. The score was 3–1 at the end of the match. Miloš Šestić then scored a goal for Red Star Belgrade in stoppage time. BFC Dynamo eventually lost the match 4-1 and was eliminated on the away goal rule. Coach Bogs would many years later describe the defeat to Red Star Belgrade in the return leg as the most bitter defeat of his entire career.
BFC Dynamo defeated 1. FC Union Berlin with 1–8 and then 7–1 in the round of 16 of the 1978-79 FDGB-Pokal. Riediger scored a hat-trick in both legs. He amassed eight goals against 1. FC Union Berlin in the round. The 1978–79 season marked a change in East German football. BFC Dynamo opened the 1978-79 DDR-Oberliga with ten consecutive wins and thus set a new record for the number of consecutive wins at the start of a league season. The previous record was held by SG Dynamo Dresden, who had won seven consecutive matches at the opening of the 1972-73 DDR-Oberliga. The team met SG Dynamo Dresden away on the 11th matchday. SG Dynamo Dresden stood in second place in the league. The match was played in front of 33,000 spectators at Dynamo-Stadion in Dresden on 2 December 1978. Hartmut Schade scored 1-0 for SG Dynamo Dresden in the 57th minute. The match eventually ended in a 1–1 draw after an equaliser by Hans-Jürgen Riediger in the 68th minute on a pass from Lutz Eigendorf. The match was marked by unrest, with numerous fans of both teams arrested. The inexperienced linesman Günter Supp should allegedly have missed an offside on Riediger in the situation that led up to the equaliser. Snowballs were thrown at the departing BFC Dynamo team bus after the match. BFC Dynamo then defeated BSG Chemie Böhlen 6–0 at home on the 12th matchday on 9 December 1978 and FC Karl-Marx-Stadt 1–2 away on the 13th matchday on 16 December 1978. The team finished the first half of the season as Herbstmeister. BFC Dynamo had won 25 points during the first half of the season and thus also set a new record for the number of points won during the first half of a season in the DDR-Oberliga under the current format. The team had won 12 matches and played one draw in its first 13 matches in the 1978-79 DDR-Oberliga.
BFC Dynamo continued to lead the league during the second half of the season. The team defeated 1. FC Union Berlin 0–4 away in the 16th matchday on 3 March 1979. Frank Terletzki scored three goals in the derby. BFC Dynamo then defeated BSG Sachsenring Zwickau 10–0 at home on the 17th matchday on 17 March 1979. It was the biggest win in the past 30 years of the DDR-Oberliga. Wolf-Rüdiger Netz scored four goals and Hans-Jürgen Riediger three goals in the match. BFC Dynamo then went to West Germany for a friendly match against 1. FC Kaiserslautern on 20 March 1978. The team stopped in the city of Gießen in Hesse on the way back to East Berlin. During a shopping tour in the city, Lutz Eigendorf broke away from the rest of the team and defected to West Germany. Eigendorf was one of the most promising players in East German football. He was a product of the elite Children and Youth Sports School (KJS) "Werner Seelenbinder" in Hohenschönhausen and had come through the youth academy of BFC Dynamo. He was often called "The Beckenbauer of East Germany" and was considered the figurehead and great hope of East German football. Eigendorf was popularly nicknamed "Iron Foot" () by the supporters of BFC Dynamo and was said to be one of the favorite players of Erich Mielke. His defection was a slap in the face of the East German regime and was allegedly taken personally by Mielke. Owing to his talent and careful upbringing at BFC Dynamo, his defection was considered a personal defeat of Mielke.
His name would later disappear from all statistics and annals about East German football. All fan merchandise with the name or image of Eigendorf would also be removed from the market. Eigendorf was later to die under mysterious circumstances in Braunschweig in 1983.
BFC Dynamo reached the semi-finals of the 1978-79 FDGB-Pokal. The team was drawn against SG Dynamo Dresden. BFC Dynamo won the first leg 1–0 at home in front of 23,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 10 March 1979. The team then qualified for the final after a 1–1 draw in the return leg at the Dynamo-Stadion in Dresden on 31 March 1979. Peter Kotte had scored 1-0 for SG Dynamo Dresden in the 45th minute, but Roland Jüngling equalized for BFC Dynamo in the 64th minute. Hans-Jürgen Riediger was voted the 1978 BFC Dynamo Footballer of the Year at the 13th edition of the club's traditional annual ball in the Dynamo-Sporthalle on 7 April 1979. BFC Dynamo was then set to play 1. FC Magdeburg in the cup final. The match was played in front of 50,000 spectators at the Stadion der Weltjugend on 28 April 1979. The score was 0–0 at full-time. The team eventually lost the final 1-0 after a goal by Wolfgang Seguin for 1. FC Magdeburg in extra time. BFC Dynamo then also met 1. FC Magdeburg was away on the 23rd matchday on 23 May 1979. The team lost the match 1–0. Joachim Streich scored the winning goal for 1. FC Magdeburg. The loss against 1. FC Magdeburg on the 23rd matchday was the first loss of the league season. It would also be the only loss of the league season. BFC Dynamo had gone through 22 league matches undefeated since the start of the 1978-79 DDR-Oberliga and broke another record of SG Dynamo Dresden. BFC Dynamo had set a new record for the number of matches undefeated since the start of a season in the DDR-Oberliga. The previous record had been held by SG Dynamo Dresden, who had been undefeated during its first 17 matches in the 1972-73 DDR-Oberliga.
BFC Dynamo then met SG Dynamo Dresden at home on the 24th matchday on 26 May 1979. BFC Dynamo was now five points ahead of second-placed SG Dynamo Dresden, with three matches left to play. BFC Dynamo won the match 3–1 in front of 22,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark and finally captured its first title in the DDR-Oberliga. Wolf-Rudiger Netz, Michael Noack and Frank Terletzki scored one goal each in the match. The 17-year-old forward Rainer Ernst from the youth department made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga away against BSG Chemie Böhlen on the 25th matchday on 6 June 1979. The team defeated BSG Chemie Böhlen 3–10. BFC Dynamo then defeated FC Karl-Marx-Stadt 3–1 at home on the last matchday on 9 June 1979. BFC Dynamo had managed an astonishing 21 wins, four draws and only one loss during the league season. The team had scored a total of 75 goals during the season and thus also set a new record for the number of goals scored during a season in the DDR-Oberliga under the current format. The previous record of 70 goals for the current format was set by SG Dynamo Dresden in the 1975-76 DDR-Oberliga. Hans-Jürgen Riediger became the second-placed league top goal scorer with 20 goals. Peter Rohde retired from his playing career after the season. He was registered in the squad at the beginning of the season but did not play any matches for the first team during the season.
European Cup and continued success in the league (1979–1982)
Debut in the European Cup (1979–1980)
The team was joined by young forward Bernd Schulz from the youth department for the 1979–80 season. Schulz scored his first goal for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga already on the first matchday at home against FC Karl-Marx-Stadt on 17 August 1979. BFC Dynamo qualified for its first participation in the European Cup, as the winner of the 1978-79 DDR-Oberliga. The team was drawn against the Polish side Ruch Chorzów in the first round of the 1979-80 European Cup. BFC Dynamo won the first leg 4–1 in front of 30,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 19 September 1979. Wolf-Rüdiger Netz scored the first-ever goal for BFC Dynamo in the European Cup. The team advanced to the second round of the competition after a 0–0 draw in the return leg on 3 October 1979. The 1979-80 DDR-Oberliga would be a tight race between BFC Dynamo and SG Dynamo Dresden. BFC Dynamo conceded its first loss of the league season on the sixth matchday against FC Carl Zeiss Jena on 6 October 1979. Young midfielder Olaf Seier made his first appearance with the first team of BFC Dynamo away against ASG Vorwärts Kamenz in the second round of the 1979-80 FDGB-Pokal on 20 October 1979. BFC Dynamo eliminated Servette FC in the second round of the 1979-80 European Cup and advanced to the quarter-finals. The team finally met SG Dynamo Dresden on the last matchday before the winter break on 15 December 1979. BFC Dynamo stood in second place in the league, four points behind leading SG Dynamo Dresden. The match was played in front of 35,000 spectators at the Dynamo-Stadion in Dresden. The score was 0–0 at half-time. Ralf Sträßer made it 0–1 to BFC Dynamo in the 68th minute. Harmut Pelka then punished a mistake from the duo Hans-Jürgen Dörner and Andreas Schmidt and scored 0–2 in the 70th minute. BFC Dynamo eventually won the match 1-2 and was now only two points behind SG Dynamo Dresden. Goalkeeper Bodo Rudwaleit was voted the 1979 BFC Footballer of the Year at the 14th edition of the club's traditional annual ball.
BFC Dynamo defeated BSG Stahl Riesa 9–1 at home on the 15th matchday on 1 March 1980. Pelka scored four goals in the match. The team was drawn against the English side Nottingham Forest in the quarter-finals of the 1979-80 European Cup. Nottingham Forest was coached by Brian Clough at this time. The first leg was played at City Ground in Nottingham on 5 March 1980. BFC Dynamo won the match 0–1. Hans-Jürgen Riediger scored the winning goal. The win against Nottingham Forest away made BFC Dynamo the first team from Germany to defeat an English team in England in the European Cup. The team then defeated 1. FC Magdeburg 0–1 away on the 16th matchday on 8 March 1980. Frank Terletzki scored the winning goal on a 30-meter free kick. Reinhard Lauck suffered a knee injury in the match against 1. FC Magdeburg would be out for the rest of the season. The return leg against Nottingham Forest was played in front of 30,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 19 March 1980. BFC Dynamo lost 1-3 and was eliminated on goal difference. Nottingham Forrest would later go on to win the 1979-80 European Cup. BFC Dynamo met BSG Chemie Leipzig at home on the 17th matchday on 15 March 1980. The team won the match 10–0.
BFC Dynamo played a 0–0 draw away against FC Vorwärts Frankfurt on the 19th matchday on 28 March 1980. The team could now capture first place in the league, as SG Dynamo Dresden had lost 4–2 away against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig at the same time. Both teams had the same number of points, but BFC Dynamo had a better goal difference. Young midfielder Frank Rohde from the youth department made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga in the match against FC Vorwärts Frankfurt. Frank Rohde was the youngest brother of Peter Rohde. The team lost the lead in the league after a 2–1 loss away to BSG Sachsenring Zwickau on the 21st matchday on 12 April 1980. BFC Dynamo was still in second place in the league before the last matchday, but the team was only one point behind first-placed SG Dynamo Dresden. BFC Dynamo hosted SG Dynamo Dresden at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on the last matchday on 10 May 1980. There was huge excitement around the match around and the stadium was sold out. The East German football weekly Die neue Fußballwoche (FuWo) reported on the "international match atmosphere". SG Dynamo Dresden only needed a draw to win the league title. The score was 0-0 for a long time. The 22-year-old libero Norbert Trieloff then finally scored 1–0 on a pass from Hartmut Pelka in the 77th minute. BFC Dynamo eventually won the match 1-0 and thus captured its second league title in a row in front of 30,000 spectators. Pelka became the best goal scorer for BFC Dynamo in the league with 15 goals. Dietmar Labes left for BSG Bergmann-Borsig after the season.
Continued success in the league (1981–1982)
The East Germany national football team won a silver medal at the 1980 Summer Olympics in Moscow. BFC Dynamo was represented by five players in the squad: Bodo Rudwaleit, Artur Ullrich, Norbert Trieloff, Frank Terletzki and Wolf-Rüdiger Netz.
All five played in the final against Czechoslovakia at the Central Lenin Stadion on 2 August 1980. Joachim Hall became the new assistant coach for the 1980–81 season. Hall had played for SC Dynamo Berlin and BFC Dynamo between 1963 and 1972. BFC Dynamo once again fielded a young team. With the exception of three players, all players in the 18-man squad were between 20 and 25 years old. Harmut Pelka, unfortunately, had to undergo knee surgery during the summer and would be out for almost the entire season. 18-year-old forward Falko Götz from the youth department made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga away against BSG Sachsenring Zwickau on the second matchday of the 1980-81 DDR-Oberliga on 30 August 1980. However, the team simultaneously lost the other of its two most important strikers. Hans-Jürgen Riediger suffered an ankle injury during the match against BSG Sachsenring Zwickau and would be out for the rest of the autumn. This meant that both Pelka and Riediger were out with injuries. It was the third time in his professional career with BFC Dynamo that Riediger was out with an ankle injury.
BFC Dynamo defeated 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig 3–0 at home on the third matchday on 6 September 1980. Bernd Schulz scored two goals and Artur Ullrich one goal in the match. The team then lost 2–1 away to FC Vorwärts Berlin on the fourth matchday on 13 September 1980. BFC Dynamo qualified for the 1980–81 European Cup as the winners of the 1979-80 DDR Oberliga. The team eliminated APOEL FC in the first round of the competition. BFC Dynamo then defeated FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt 7–1 on the seventh matchday in front of 14,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 4 October 1980. BFC Dynamo was drawn against the Czechoslovak side TJ Baník Ostrava in the second round of the 1980–81 European Cup. The first leg was played at the Bazaly in Ostrava on 23 October 1980. The match ended in a 0–0 draw. The return leg was played in front of 18,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 5 November 1980. Lubomír Knapp scored 0–1 for TJ Baník Ostrava on a penalty in the 33rd minute. Rainer Troppa then equalized 1–1 on a penalty in the 58th minute. The match eventually ended in a 1–1 draw and BFC Dynamo was eliminated from the competition on the away goal rule. BFC Dynamo stood in first place in the league after the first half of the season. However, the team only led the league on better goal difference. BFC Dynamo had the same number of points as second-placed 1. FC Magdeburg and third-placed SG Dynamo Dresden. 20-year-old Bernd Schulz was the best goal scorer of BFC Dynamo during the first half of the league season with 10 goals. He was also the second-best goalscorer in the league during the first half of the season and had scored the same number of goals as Joachim Streich of 1. FC Magdeburg.
BFC Dynamo defeated 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig 0–1 away on the 16th matchday on 7 March 1981. Wolf-Rüdiger Netz scored the winning goal. The team then defeated 1. FC Magdeburg 2–4 away on the 18th matchday on 21 March 1980. BFC Dynamo reached the semi-finals of the 1980–81 FDGB-Pokal. The team was eliminated from the competition after losing 5–4 to FC Vorwärts Frankfurt in a penalty shoot-out at the Stadion der Freundschaft on 25 March 1981. It was the third consecutive loss to FC Vorwärts Frankfurt in the 1980–81 season. The guest block of the Stadion der Freundschaft was damaged by supporters of BFC Dynamo during the match. BFC Dynamo defeated FC Karl-Marx-Stadt 5–0 at home on the 21st matchday on 15 April 1981. Hans-Jürgen Riediger, Frank Terletzki, Bernd Schulz, Wolf-Rüdiger Netz and Ralf Sträßer scored one goal each in the match. The team lost 1–3 away against rival SG Dynamo Dresden on the 24th matchday on 16 May 1981. Riediger scored 1–0 for BFC Dynamo in the 14th minute. Then followed three goals by Udo Schmuck, Ralf Minge and Fred Mecke for SG Dynamo Dresden. The 18-year-old midfielder Christian Backs from the youth department made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga away against BSG Stahl Riesa on the 25th matchday on 26 May 1981. BFC Dynamo met FC Carl Zeiss Jena at home on the last matchday. BFC Dynamo was still in first place in the league, but FC Carl Zeiss Jena was only one point behind. BFC Dynamo had a massive goal difference of 72-30 before the match, compared to 56-27 for FC Carl Zeiss Jena. But FC Carl Zeiss Jena would capture the league title if the team won the match. The league final was played in front of 30,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 30 May 1981. BFC Dynamo defeated FC Carl Zeiss Jena 2-1 and thus captured its third consecutive league title. Netz and Riediger scored one goal each in the match. Netz became the best goalscorer of the BFC Dynamo in the league and the third-best goal scorer in the league with 17 goals. Reinhard Lauck had not managed to successfully recover from the complicated knee injury he had sustained in the spring of 1980 and had to end his playing career after the season.
BFC Dynamo made a new friendly tour to Africa during the summer of 1981. The team played three friendly matches in Mozambique in front of up to 40,000 spectators. The team won the third match 5-1 against Red Star Sports Club. The team also returned to Tanzania and Zanzibar during the African tour. The team defeated Simba S.C. 6–1 in front of 40,000 spectators in Dar es Salaam on 2 August 1981 and then SC KMKM 6-1 in front of 28,000 spectators in Zanzibar on 3 August 1961. SC KMKM was a selection from the Navy, Air Force and Security Service. Christian Backs became a regular player in the team during the 1981–82 season. BFC Dynamo was qualified for the 1981-82 European Cup as the winner of the 1980–81 DDR-Oberliga. The team was drawn against the French side AS Saint-Étienne in the qualifying round. AS Saint-Étienne fielded the captain of the France national football team and future French football legend Michel Platini at the time. The first leg ended 1–1 away at the Stade Geoffroy-Guichard on 25 August 1981. BFC Dynamo then won the return leg 2–0 at home in front of 25,000 spectators at Fredrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 4 September 1981. The two goals were scored by Wolf-Rüdiger Netz and Hans-Jürgen Ridigier. The team then took revenge on FC Vorwärts Frankfurt for the previous season with a 6–0 victory at home on the third matchday of the 1981-82 DDR-Oberliga in front of 19,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 5 September 1981. BFC Dynamo eliminated FC Zürich on the away goal rule in the first round of the 1981-82 European Cup. The team was then drawn against English side Aston Villa in the round of 16. BFC Dynamo lost 1–2 to Aston Villa in the first leg in front of 28,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 21 October 1981. Hans-Jürgen Riedier scored the only goal for BFC Dynamo. The team then met rival SG Dynamo Dresden on the ninth matchday on 30 October 1981. The team defeated SG Dynamo Dresden 2–1 in front of 21,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark and moved up to first place in the league. BFC Dynamo defeated Aston Villa 1–0 away in the return leg at Villa Park on 4 November 1981. The winning goal was scored by Frank Terletzki. However, the win away was not enough and the team was eliminated on the away goal rule for a second season in a row. Aston Villa would later go on to win the 1981-82 European Cup. The lead in the league after the win against SG Dynamo Dresden would be short-lived. BFC Dynamo lost 2–1 away to 1. FC Magdeburg on the tenth matchday on 14 November 1981. 1. FC Magdeburg thus became a new leader. However, BFC Dynamo recaptured first place in the league already in the following matchday, after a 3-1 win at home against third-placed FC Carl Zeiss Jena 3–1 on 28 November 1981. BFC Dynamo would not relinquish the lead for the rest of the season.
BFC Dynamo played a friendly match against Bundesliga team VfB Stuttgart during the winter break. The match was arranged at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 15 December 1981. The match ended 0–0 in front of 25,000 spectators. The team met FC Vorwärts Berlin in the semi-finals of the 1981-82 FDGB-Pokal on 27 March 1982. The match was a replay of the semi-final during the previous season. However, this time, BFC Dynamo won 2–0 at home and was thus qualified for the final. Wolf-Rüdiger Netz scored his 100th league goal for BFC Dynamo in the 3–0 win over BSG Sachsenring Zwickau on the 19th matchday on 3 April 1982. BFC Dynamo met SG Dynamo Dresden on the 22nd matchday on 24 April 1982. SG Dynamo Dresden won the match 2–1. The two rivals then met again in the final of the 1981-82 FDGB-Pokal. BFC Dynamo stood in first place in the league and thus had the chance to prepare for its first Double. The final was played in front of 48,000 spectators at the Stadion der Weltjugend on 1 May 1982. Andreas Trautmann scored 0-1 for SG Dynamo Dresden in the 51st minute, but Hans-Jürgen Riediger equalized in the 82nd minute. The score was still 1-1 after extra time and the match had to be decided on penalties. SG Dynamo Dresen goalkeeper Bernd Jakubowski saved the third penalty shot from BFC Dynamo by young Christian Backs. Hans-Uwe Pilz took the fifth penalty for SG Dynamo Dresden. The score was now 4–4 in the penalty shoot-out. Bodo Rudwaleit got a hand on the ball and was close to a save, but Pilz scored. SG Dynamo Dresden eventually won the final 5–6. BFC Dynamo then defeated 1. FC Magdeburg 4–0 on the 23rd matchday in front of 18,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 8 May 1982. The lead in the league was now seven points and the team had thus captured its fourth consecutive league title. Supporters of BFC Dynamo invaded the pitch of the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark in celebration of the league title. It was the first pitch invasion by the supporters of BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga. Wolf-Rüdiger Netz and Rainer Troppa became the best goalscorers of BFC Dynamo in the league with 12 goals each. Hartmut Pelka ended his playing career on medical advice after the season. He had been registered in the squad at the beginning of the season but had not been able to play.
Dominance in the league (1982–1986)
Dominance in the league (1982–1983)
Key players on the team in the 1982-83 season were Bodo Rudwaleit, Christian Backs, Rainer Troppa, Frank Rohde, Frank Terletzki, Hans-Jürgen Riediger, Norbert Trieloff, Artur Ullrich, Michael Noack, Ralf Sträßer and Rainer Ernst. BFC Dynamo opened the 1982-83 DDR-Oberliga with three consecutive wins. The team had scored 11 goals without conceding a single goal in the first three matches of the league season. However, then followed three draws against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig, SG Dynamo Dresden and FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt. The team slipped down to second place in the league, behind FC Carl Zeiss Jena. BFC Dynamo qualified for the 1982-83 European Cup. The team was drawn against the West German champion Hamburger SV in the first round. The first leg was to be played at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 15 September 1982. Many fans of BFC Dynamo looked forward to the prestigious meeting. But fearing riots, political demonstrations and spectators expressing sympathy for West German football stars such as Felix Magath, the Stasi imposed restrictions on ticket sales. Only 2,000 tickets would be allowed for carefully selected fans. The remaining seats were instead allocated to Stasi employees, Volkspolizei officers and SED officials. The match ended in a 1-1 draw. Hans-Jürgen Riedier scored the only goal for BFC Dynamo in the match. The match was attended by 22,000 spectators. 15,500 seats had been reserved for mainly Stasi employees and members SV Dynamo. The Stasi allegedly paid BFC Dynamo 61,000 East German mark for its 10,000 tickets. Only 300 West German supporters had been allowed to attend the match. The small group of West German supporters were sitting in Block E, surrounded by 1,200 Stasi emplyees. No mix with East German supporters were allowed. The return leg was then played at the Volksparkstadion in Hamburg on 29 September 1982. BFC Dynamo lost 2–0 to Hamburger SV and was eliminated from the competition. Hamburger SV would later go on to win the 1982-83 European Cup. BFC Dynamo met third-placed 1. FC Mageburg on the seventh matchday on 2 October 1982. The two teams had the same number of points. The score was 3–0 to BFC Dynamo after the first half, with two goals in quick succession by Riediger and one goal on a penalty by Artur Ullrich. 1. FC Magdeburg came back in the second half, but BFC Dynamo eventually won the match 3–2 in front of 18,500 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. The team could then capture the first place in the league with a 1–3 win away over HFC Chemie on the following matchday, as FC Carl Zeiss Jena lost 1–0 away against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig at the same time. BFC Dynamo was then three points ahead of the chasing trio 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig, FC Carl Zeiss Jena and 1. FC Magdeburg after the tenth matchday. BFC Dynamo met FC Carl Zeiss Jena in the quarter-finals of the 1982-83 FDGB-Pokal. The team lost the quarter-final 4–2 in front of 10,000 spectators at Ernst-Abbe-Sportfeld on 13 November 1982. BFC Dynamo finished the first half of the league season in first place. Hans-Jürgen Riediger was the best goalscorer in the league during the first half of the season. He had scored 16 goals in 13 matches.
Frank Terletzki played his 300th league match for BFC Dynamo on the 15th matchday at home against F.C. Hansa Rostock on 26 February 1983. BFC Dynamo won the match 1-0 after one goal by Wolf-Rüdiger Netz. However, the match was not the only cause for celebration. Striker Hans-Jürgen Riediger suffered a new injury at the same time. Riediger badly injured his knee in the match against F.C. Hansa Rostock and would be out for the rest of the season. A new friendly match against VfB Stuttgart was arranged in the spring on the initiative of BFC Dynamo President Manfred Kirste. The match was played in West Germany this time. The match ended 4-3 VfB Stuttgart in front of 8,000 spectators at the Neckarstadion on 8 March 1983. BFC Dynamo met second-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig at home on the 17th matchday on 12 March 1983. Uwe Zötzsche scored 0–1 to 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig on a penalty in the 36th minute. Rainer Troppa equalized 1–1 in the 56th minute and Frank Rohde made it 2–1 to BFC Dynamo less than five minutes later. BFC Dynamo eventually won the match 2–1 in front of 14,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. The team then defeated SG Dynamo Dresden 1–2 away on the following matchday in front of 38,000 spectators at the Dynamo-Stadion in Dresden on 19 March 1983. The match set a new attendance record in Dresden. BFC Dynamo then defeated FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt 1–0 at home on the 19th matchday on 2 April 1983. Rainer Ernst scored the winning goal in the match. The team then met 1. FC Magdeburg was away on the 20th matchday on 9 April 1983. The team won the match 1–2 in front of 28,000 spectators at the Enrst-Grube-Stadion. BFC Dynamo secured the league title after defeating BSG Wismut Aue 1–3 away on the 22nd matchday on 30 April 1983. The team was now 10 points ahead of second-placed FC Carl Zeiss Jena with four matches left to play. BFC Dynamo then defeated BSG Chemie Böhlen 2–9 away on the following matchday on 7 May 1983. Rainer Ernst, Falko Götz and Ralf Sträßer scored two goals each, while Christian Backs and Michael Noack scored one goal each. The team finally met second-placed FC Carl Zeiss Jena at home on the last matchday on 28 May 1983. BFC Dynamo won the match 2–0. Rainer Ernst and Christian Backs scored one goal each. BFC Dynamo finished 1982-83 DDR-Oberliga undefeated. Hans-Jürgen Riedier was the best goalscorer of BFC Dynamo in the league and the third-best goalscorer of the 1982-83 DDR-Oberliga with 16 goals, despite only being able to play 15 matches before his knee injury. By comparison, the best goalscorer in the league, Joachim Streich of 1. FC Magdeburg, had scored 19 goals in 25 matches. Roland Jüngling retired and Olaf Seier left for 1. FC Union Berlin after the season.
Bodo Rudwaleit was the new team captain for the 1983–84 season. Hans-Jürgen Riediger had still not recovered from the knee injury he had suffered on the 15th matchday of the previous season and would not be able to play. BFC Dynamo only managed a 0–0 draw against BSG Wismut Aue on the opening matchday of the 1983-85 DDR-Oberliga on 13 August 1983. It was the first time since the 1977-78 DDR-Oberliga that BFC Dynamo did not win the opening match of the league season. However, the team would remain undefeated in the league. BFC Dynamo qualified for the 1983-84 European Cup as the winner of the 1982-83 DDR-Oberliga. The team easily eliminated the Luxembourg side Jeunesse Esch in the first round with a win in both legs. BFC Dynamo eventually lost 2–1 away to FC Karl-Marx-Stadt on the seventh matchday on 1 October 1983. It was the first loss in the league since the loss against SG Dynamo Dresden on the 22nd matchday in 1981-82 DDR-Oberliga on 24 April 1982. BFC Dynamo had been undefeated for 36 matchdays in the league, which set a new record. BFC Dynamo was drawn against FK Partizan Belgrade in the second round of the 1982-83 European Cup. The first leg was to be played at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 19 October 1983. BFC Dynamo won the match 2–0 in front of 19,500 spectators. Falko Götz and Rainer Ernst scored one goal each. The team met FC Carl Zeiss Jena at home on the eighth matchday on 22 October 1983. BFC Dynamo won the match 5–0. The 18-year-old talented forward Andreas Thom from the youth department made his debut in the DDR-Oberliga in the match against FC Carl Zeiss Jena, as a substitute for Bernd Schulz. The team was then set to play the return leg away against FK Partizan Belgrade on 2 November 1983. The trip to Belgrade would prove dramatic for the team.
Defection and the debut of Andreas Thom (1983)
The players in BFC Dynamo received political training and were kept under strict discipline, demanding both political reliability, obedience and a moral lifestyle. No contact with the West was allowed. The players were also under the supervision of the Stasi. They would have their telephones tapped, their rooms at training camps tapped and be accompanied by Stasi employees on international trips. The Ministry of the Interior and the Stasi both had employees integrated into the club. It is also likely that individual players in the club had been recruited as so-called Unofficial collaborators (IM), with the task of collecting information about other players. BFC Dynamo flew to Belgrade with Erich Mielke's service aeroplane on 1 November 1983 for the return leg against FK Partizan Belgrade. Coach Jürgen Bogs allowed the players to go on a shopping tour in Belgrade the morning before the match. During their tour in the city, players Falko Götz and Dirk Schlegel defected to West Germany. The duo had jumped into a taxi and fled to the West German embassy. The ambassador decided to take them to the West German Consulate general in Zagreb. With the help of the West German Consulate general in Zagreb, they obtained fake passports and managed to reach Munich. The East German state news agency ADN reported that Götz and Schlegel had been "woed by West German managers with large sums of money" and "betrayed their team". Götz and Schlegel were labeled as "sports traitors". But their defection had no serious consequences for the team. According to Christian Backs, the team only received more political training, but there were no reprisals. However, the loss of two regular players ahead of the match against FK Partizan Belgrade was a challenge. Coach Bogs then decided to give Andreas Thom the chance to make his international debut as a replacement for Falko Götz. Thom had made his first appearance with the first team of BFC Dynamo only five days earlier and had only played five minutes in the DDR-Oberliga. Thom would make a terrific international debut. BFC Dynamo lost the match 1-0 but advanced to the quarter-finals on goal difference. Thom would henceforth be a regular player in the team.
New titles, goal record and European cup drama (1983–1986)
The competition at the top of the league table would be fierce. BFC Dynamo was in first place in the league after the eighth matchday But the team lost 4–1 away to competitor 1. FC Magdeburg on the ninth matchday on 5 November 1983. BFC Dynamo thereby slipped down to fourth place in the league. The team then met local rival 1. FC Union Berlin in the following matchday. BFC Dynamo won the derby 4–0 in front of 22,000 spectators at the Stadion der Weltjugend on 19 November 1983. 18-year-old defender Thomas Grether from the youth department made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga in the derby, as a substitute for Wolf-Rüdiger Netz in the 67th minute. The team then defeated rival SG Dynamo Dresden by 1–2 away in front of 38,000 spectators at Dynamo-Stadion in Dresden on the 11th matchday on 26 November 1983. Grether scored the winning 1–2 goal for BFC Dynamo in the 89th minute. BFC Dynamo was now in second place in the league, with the same number of points as first-placed 1. FC Magdeburg. BFC Dynamo met third-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig was away on the last matchday before the winter break. The team won the match 0–4. Young forward Andreas Thom scored his first goal for BFC Dynamo in the match. The team could now climb to first place in the league, as 1. FC Magdeburg had only managed a 1–1 draw away against BSG Chemie Lezipig. BFC Dynamo finished the first half of the season as Herbstmeister. However, the team was only one point ahead of second-placed 1. FC Magdeburg and third-placed SG Dynamo Dresden.
19-year-old midfielder Eike Küttner from the youth department made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga away against BSG Wismut Aue on the 14th matchday on 18 February 1984. The match ended in a 1–1 draw. It was the first time in seven years that BSG Wismut Aue had won a point against BFC Dynamo at home. BFC Dynamo defeated F.C. Hansa Rostock 3–1 at home on the 15th matchday on 26 February 1984. Defender Michael Noack suffered an injury in the match and would be out for the rest of the season. Young defender Mario Maek from the youth department made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga away against BSG Stahl Riesa on the 17th matchday on 10 March 1984, as a substitute for Andreas Rath. BFC Dynamo was drawn against Italian champions AS Roma in the quarter-finals of the 1983-84 European Cup. The first leg was played in front of 62,000 spectators at the Stadio Olimpico in Rome on 7 March 1984. The score was 0-0 after the first half. AS Roma then scored three goals in the second half. BFC Dynamo eventually lost the match 3–0. The return leg was played in front of 25,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 21 March 1984. Emidio Oddi scored 0-1 for AS Roma in the 55th minute, but Andreas Thom equalized in the 76th minute with a header on a corner by Frank Terletzki. Rainer Ernst then made it 2-1 for BFC Dynamo in the 87th minute. BFC Dynamo eventually defeated AS Roma 2–1 but was eliminated from the competition on goal difference. AS Roma would go all the way to the final of the 1983-84 European Cup where the team eventually lost in a penalty shoot-out against Liverpool F.C.. It was the fourth time in five seasons that BFC Dynamo had been eliminated from the European Cup by an eventual finalist. The team had three times been eliminated by the team that eventually won the tournament: Nottingham Forest in the 1979–80 season, Aston Villa in the 1981–82 season and Hamburger SV in the 1982–83 season.
BFC Dynamo lost 1–2 at home to FC Vorwärts Frankfurt on the 18th matchday on 17 March 1984. The team was still in first place in the league but now stood on the same points as second-placed SG Dynamo Dresden. SG Dynamo Dresden then took over the lead in the league on the 19th matchday on a better goal difference. But BFC Dynamo could recapture the first place with a 4–2 win over FC-Karl-Marx-Stadt at home on the 20th matchday, as SG Dynamo Dresden had played a 1–1 draw away against HFC Chemie at the same time. BFC Dynamo then met SG Dynamo Dresden at home on the 24th matchday on 5 May 1984. The score was 3–0 for BFC Dynamo after only 14 minutes played, with two goals scored by Rainer Ernst in just 5 minutes. BFC Dynamo eventually won the match 4–2 in front of 28,500 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. BFC Dynamo then secured the league title with a 4–5 win away against HFC Chemie on the following matchday on 12 May 1984. Rainer Ernst became the best goal scorer in the 1983-48 DDR-Oberliga with 20 goals. BFC Dynamo reached the final of the FDGB-Pokal for the second season in a row and again had the chance to win the Double. The team once again faced rival SG Dynamo Dresden in the final. The final of the 1983-84 FDGB-Pokal was played in front of 48,000 spectators at Stadion der Weltjugend on 29 May 1984. The score was 0-0 after the first half. Hans-Jürgen Dörner made it 1-0 for SG Dynamo Dresden in the 81st minute. Reinhard Häfner extended the lead to 2–0 on penalty just a minute later. Rainer Troppa scored 2–1 in the 85th minute, but BFC Dynamo could not equalize. BFC Dynamo eventually lost the final 2–1. The team had thus lost its fourth final in a row in the FDGB-Pokal and had once again failed to win the Double. Hans-Jürgen Riediger and Michael Noack ended their careers due to prolonged injuries after the season. Wolf-Rüdiger Netz retired from his playing career and Ralf Sträßer left for 1. FC Union Berlin. Riediger, Noack and Netz had all played around 200 matches each for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga. Riediger and Netz had also scored more than 100 goals each for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga.
BFC Dynamo recruited striker Frank Pastor from relegated HFC Chemie and defender Waldemar Ksienzyk from relegated 1. FC Union Berlin for the 1984–85 season. Both HFC Chemie and 1. FC Union Berlin had been relegated to the second tier DDR-Liga after the 1983-84 DDR-Oberliga. The team was also joined by goalkeeper Marco Kostmann from the youth department. Kostmann became a new reserve goalkeeper behind Bodo Rudwaleit. The young defenders Thomas Grether and Mario Maek would also make a number of appearances with the first during the season. The team had an average age of only 22,8 years at the start of the 1984-85 season. Bodo Rudwaleit, Frank Pastor, Andreas Thom, Norbert Trieloff, Rainer Ernst, Christian Backs, Frank Rohde, Bernd Schulz, Waldemar Ksienzyk, Artur Ullrich and Rainer troppa would be key players on the team during the 1984–85 season. BFC Dynamo got off to a strong start to the 1984-85 DDR-Oberliga. The team had four wins and 11–0 in goal difference after the fourth matchday. BFC Dynamo then defeated 1. FC Magdeburg 3–1 on the fifth matchday in front of 15,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 15 September 1984. The team was awarded two penalties in the match by referee Siegfrid Kirschen, which were converted by Rainer Ernst. BFC Dynamo was head-to-head with SG Dynamo Dresden in the league. Both teams had a full ten points after the first five matchdays. But SG Dynamo Dresden led the league on better goal difference. BFC Dynamo qualified for the 1984-85 European Cup as winners of the 1983-84 DDR-Oberliga. The team was drawn against Scottish champions Aberdeen F.C. in the first round. Aberdeen F.C. was managed by Alex Ferguson at the time. BFC Dynamo lost the first leg 2–1 away at the Pittodrie Stadium in Aberdeen on 19 September 1984. Bernd Schulz scored the only goal for BFC Dynamo in the match. The team then met FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt away at the Georgij-Dimitroff-Stadion on the sixth matchday on 28 September 1984. BFC Dynamo won a hard-fought 4–5 win against FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt. Rainer Ernst scored the winning goal for BFC Dynamo on a penalty in the 83rd minute, after a foul by Olaf Berschuk on Frank Pastor. BFC Dynamo captured the first place in the league, as SG Dynamo Dreden only got 1–1 against BSG Stahl Brandenburg on the sixth matchday. The return leg against Aberdeen F.C. was played at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 3 October 1984. The score was 2–1 to BFC Dynamo after extra time and the round was decided on penalties. Aberdeen F.C. took the lead in the third penalty round after Bernd Scultz had missed a shot. Willie Miller then had the opportunity to decide the penalty shoot-out for Aberdeen F.C. in the fifth round, but Bodo Rudwaleit saved the shot. Frank Terletzki was then able to equalize to 4-4. Eric Black took the sixth penalty for Aberdeen F.C., but also this shot was saved by Rudwaleit. Libero Norbert Trieloff then scored the decisive goal for BFC Dynamo. BFC Dynamo eventually won the penalty shoot-out 5–4 in front of 25,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark and advanced to the second round of the tournament.
BFC Dynamo conceded its first defeat of the league season on the eighth matchday 3–2 away against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig on 13 October 1984. SG Dynamo Dresden could thus take the lead in the league. BFC Dynamo was drawn against FK Austria Wien in the second round of the 1984-85 European Cup. The first leg ended 3–3 in front of 21,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 24 October 1984. BFC Dynamo then followed up the loss against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig in the league with a massive 6–1 win at home over FC Karl-Marx-Stadt on the ninth matchday on 27 October 1984. The return match against FK Austria Wien was then played at the Gerhard-Hanappi-Stadion on 7 November 1984. The score was 1-1 after the first half. Tibor Nyilasi then made it 2–1 to FK Austria Wien in the 65h minute. BFC Dynamo eventually lost 2-1 and was eliminated from the competition. The team then met rival SG Dynamo Dresden away on the tenth matchday on 10 November 1984. The score was 1–1 in the second half. Rainer Ernst made it 1-2 for BFC Dynamo in the 59th minute, but Torsten Gütschow put the final score 2–2 in the 80th minute. BFC Dynamo was still in second place in the league after the 11th matchday. But the team defeated BSG Motor Sulh 6–0 at home on the 12th matchday on 1 December 1984. SG Dynamo played 1–1 at home against FC Vorwärts Frankfurt at the same time. The BFC Dynamo could thus capture first place in the league. The team only managed a 3–3 draw away against FC Vorwärts Frankfurt on the 13th matchday on 15 December 1984. BFC Dynamo led the match 0–2 in the second half. But André Jarmuszkiewicz first managed to reduce to 1-2 and then equalize 2–2 on a penalty. FC Vorwärts Frankfurt then took the lead 3–2, but Frank Rohde eventually saved a point for BFC Dynamo with a 3-3 goal in the 82nd minute. However, SG Dynamo Dresden lost 4–0 away against FC Carl Zeiss Jena at the same time. BFC Dynamo was thus able to finish the first half of the season as Herbstmeister, two points ahead of SG Dynamo Dresden.
BFC Dynamo defeated FC Carl Zeiss Jena 1–0 on the 14th matchday on 16 February 1985. The team could thus extend the lead in the league, as SG Dynamo Dresden only managed a 0–0 draw away against BSG Chemie Leipzig. BFC Dynamo then defeated BSG Chemie Leipzig 5–1 on the following matchday on 23 February 1985. The team defeated BSG Stahl Riesa 9–0 at home on the 17th matchday on 9 March 1985. Rainer Ernst, Andreas Thom, Frank Pastor and Christian Backs scored two goals each. BFC Dynamo reached the semi-finals of the 1984-85 FDGB-Pokal. The team was drawn against 1. FC Magdeburg. The team lost the first leg 3–4 at home in front of 13,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 23 March 1985. BFC Dynamo defeated BSG Stahl Brandeburg 0–1 away in front of 11,000 spectators at Stahl Stadion on the 20th matchday on 13 April 1985. The winning goal was scored by young striker Jan Voß, who was brought onto the pitch as a substitute for Rainer Ernst in the 64th minute. The team could thus extend the lead in the league to five points, as SG Dynamo lost 2–3 at home to 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig at the same time. BFC Dynamo then defeated 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig 3–2 in the following matchday in front of 13,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 20 April 1985. The return leg against 1. FC Magdeburg in the semi-finals of the 1984-85 FDGB-Pokal was played at the Ernst-Grube-Stadion on 1 May 1985. BFC Dynamo won the match 2–0 in front of 28,000 spectators and thus qualified for the final. Andreas Thom and Frank Rohde scored one goal each in the match. BFC Dynamo then finally met rival SG Dynamo Dresden at home on the 23rd matchday on 4 May 1985. SG Dynamo Dresden won the match 2-1 and closed the gap in the league. Ralf Minge scored both goals for SG Dynamo Dresden. However, BFC Dynamo still led the league by four points. BFC Dynamo then defeated F.C. Hansa Rostock 1–5 away on the 24th matchday on 11 May 1985. The team was then able to secure its seventh consecutvie DDR-Oberliga title after an 0–8 win away against BSG Motor Suhl on the 25th matchday on 22 May 1985. BFC Dynamo finished 1984–85 in the first place, six points ahead of SG Dynamo Dresden. The team scored a total of 90 goals in the league. No team would ever score more goals in a season of the DDR-Oberliga. Rainer Ernst became the best goal scorer in the league with 24 goals and Frank Pastor became the second-best goal scorer in the league with 22 goals. BFC Dynamo was then set to play SG Dynamo Dresden in the final of the 1984-85 FDGB-Pokal. The final was played in front of 48,000 spectators at the Stadion der Weltjugend on 8 June 1985. The score was 0–1 to SG Dynamo Dresden after the first half. Andreas Thom equalized 1–1 in the 51st minute. But then followed two goals by Jörg Stübner and Ralf Minge. Rainer Ernst managed to score 2–3 in the 88th minute, but the match eventually ended 2–3 for SG Dynamo Dresden. It was the fourth loss to SG Dynamo Dresden in the final of the FDGB-Pokal and the third time that SG Dynamo Dresden had stopped BFC Dynamo from winning the Double. Reserve goalkeeper Reinhard Schwerdtner was transferred to SG Dynamo Schwerin after the season.
Young midfielder Eike Küttner would make recurring appearances with the first team during the season. BFC Dynamo started the 1985-86 DDR-Oberliga with the derby against 1. FC Union Berlin. The team defeated 1. FC Union Berlin 2–1 in front of 30,000 spectators at the Stadion der Weltjugend on 17 August 1985. Frank Pastor and Rainer Ernst scored one goal each in the match. BFC Dynamo then defeated 1. FC Magdeburg 3–1 on the third matchday on 30 August 1985. The team was in second place in the league after the third matchday, one point behind SG Dynamo Dresden. BFC Dynamo qualified for the 1985-86 European Cup, as winners of the 1984-85 DDR Oberliga. The team was drawn against FK Austria Wien in the first round. It was a replay of the second round of the last season. The first leg was played in front of 21,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 18 September 1985. BFC Dynamo had two goal chances already in the first minutes of the match, with two close shots by Rainer Ernst and Christian Backs. However, FK Austria Wien got 0–1 in the fourth minute, after an unfortunate header by Artur Ullrich which went into his own goal. Toni Polster then made it 0-2 for FK Austria Wien in the 12th minute. Rainer Ernst later missed a chance to score a goal on a penalty. BFC Dynamo eventually lost the match 0–2. BFC Dynamo defeated 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig 1–0 on the fifth matchday in front of 10,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 21 September 1985. The winning goal was scored by Bernd Schulz. The team was then set to play the return leg against FK Austria Wien at the Gerhard-Hanappi-Stadion on 2 October 1985. The score was 0-0 after the first half. Tibor Nyilasi and Gerhard Steinkogler then scored two goals for FK Austria Wien. BFC Dynamo eventually lost the match 2-1 and was eliminated from the competition.
The team met rival SG Dynamo Dresden away on the sixth matchday on 5 October 1985. BFC Dynamo lost the match 4–1. It was the team's first loss of the league season. BFC Dynamo was still in second place in the league but was now three points behind leading SG Dynamo Dresden. The team defeated FC Karl-Marx-Stadt at home on the seventh matchday on 9 October 1985. BFC Dynamo was thus able to close the gap to first-placed SG Dynamo Dresden, as SG Dynamo Dresden had lost 2–1 away against BSG Stahl Brandenburg at the same time. BFC Dynamo and SG Dynamo Dresden stood on the same number of points after the eighth matchday. BFC Dynamo then defeated FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt 2–3 away on the ninth matchday in front of 26,000 spectators at the Georgij-Dimitroff-Stadion on 26 October 1985. Andreas Thom scored two goals in the match. The team was thus able to capture the first place in the league, as SG Dynamo Dresden had only managed 1–1 away against BSG Sachsenring Zwickau. BFC Dynamo then defeated BSG Sachsenring Zwickau 4–1 at home on the tenth matchday on 9 November 1985. 19-year-old defensive midfielder Jörg Fügner from the youth department made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga as a substitute for Frank Terletzki in the match against BSG Sachsenring Zwickau. The team then lost 2–1 away against FC Vorwärts Frankfurt on the 12th matchday on 23 November 1985. However, BFC Dynamo was able to keep the lead in the league, as SG Dynamo Dresden had also lost its match. BFC Dynamo finished the first half of the season in first place, two points ahead of second-placed SG Dynamo Dresden. Forward Jan Voß left for BSG Stahl Brandenburg during the winter break.
The team was joined by defender Burkhard Reich and striker Peter Kaehlitz from SG Dynamo Fürstenwalde and midfielder Michael Schulz from BSG Stahl Brandenburg for the second half of the 1985–86 season. Young defender Heiko Brestrich from the reserve team would also make a number of appearances with the first team during the second half of the season. Brestrich would regularly be included in the starting lineup. BFC Dynamo had won nine of its 13 matches in the first half of the season. The team now opened the second half of the season with three draws. However, rival SG Dynamo Dresden lost even more points during its first matches of the second half of the season. BFC Dynamo was still in first place in the league after the 17th matchday. The team was now five points ahead of second-placed SG Dynamo Dresden with one match more played, eight points ahead of third-placed FC Carl Zeiss Jena with three matches more played and eight points ahead of fourth-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig with two matches more played. BFC Dynamo played 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig was away on the 18th matchday on 22 March 1986. 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig led the match 1-0 after 90 minutes played. Referee Bernd Stumpf then awarded BFC Dynamo a penalty in the 94th minute, after a foul by Hans Richter on Bernd Schulz. Frank Pastor converted the penalty and set the final score to 1-1. The result meant that 1. FC Lokomotive would no longer have a realistic chance of catching up with BFC Dynamo in the league. BFC Dynamo was also able to extend its lead over SG Dynamo Dresden, as SG Dynamo Dresden had lost 3–1 away against FC Karl-Marx-Stadt on the 18th matchday. The penalty was highly controversial and caused a wave of protests in East German football. However, it would many years later be shown that the penalty was correctly awarded. BFC Dynamo then met SG Dynamo Dresden on the 19th matchday on 29 March 1986. The team took revenge for the loss during the autumn and defeated SG Dynamo Dresden 5–2 in front of 18,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. Striker Peter Kaehlitz scored two goals for BFC Dynamo in the match.
BFC Dynamo reached the semifinals of the 1985-86 FDGB-Pokal. The team was drawn against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig. BFC Dynamo won the first leg 4–2 at home on 29 April 1986. Uwe Zötzsche scored both goals for 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig on penalties. BFC Dynamo then met FC Karl-Marx-Stadt on the 20th matchday on 5 April 1986. The team lost the match 2–1. The loss against FC Karl-Marx-Stadt was the beginning of a series of weak results in the league. The return leg against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig was played at Bruno-Plache-Stadion on 6 May 1986. Uwe Zötzsche scored another goal on penalty for 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig in the return leg. BFC Dynamo lost the match 3-1 and was eliminated on the away goal rule. 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig had scored a total of three goals on penalties against BFC Dynamo in the semi-finals. BFC Dynamo played a number of draws in the following league matches. The team was only three points ahead of second-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig and four points ahead of third-placed FC Carl Zeiss Jena after the 24th matchday. The team then met FC Carl Zeiss Jena at the Ernst-Abbe-Sportfeld on the 25th matchday on 14 May 1986. BFC Dynamo lost the match 3–1. The team was now only two points ahead of second-placed FC Carl Zeiss Jena and third-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig before the final matchday. FC Carl Zeiss Jena also had a better goal difference. BFC Dynamo eventually won the league title after a 4–0 victory over bottom team BSG Stahl Riesa at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 24 May 1986. Michael Schulz scored two goals in the match. It was the club's eighth consecutive league title. The team ended up just two points ahead of second-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig. The former long-term team captain Frank Terletzki retired after the season. Olof Hirsch left for 1. FC Union Berlin and Artur Ullrich for F.C. Hansa Rostock. Terletzki had made his first appearance with the first team of BFC Dynamo in 1969 and had played 17 seasons for the team. In total, Terletzki had played in 489 matches for BFC Dynamo.
Controversy, complaints and sanctions (1985–1986)
BFC Dynamo had the best material conditions in the league and was the best team by far. But there had been controversial refereeing decisions in favor of BFC Dynamo, which gave rise to speculations that the dominance of BFC Dynamo was not solely due to athletic performance, but also due to help from referees.
Allegations of referee bias were nothing new in East German football and were not isolated to matches involving BFC Dynamo. Alleged referee bias as a source of unrest was a thread that ran from the very first matches of the DDR-Oberliga. Alleged referee bias had caused riots already during the first season, when ZSG Horch Zwickau defeated SG Dresden-Friedrichstadt 5–1 on 16 April 1950, in a match which decided the title in the 1949–50 DDR-Oberliga. Another example occurred in the 1960 DDR-Oberliga when ASK Vorwärts Berlin defeated SC Chemie Halle away on 16 October 1960. The player bus of ASK Vorwärts Berlin was attacked and the Volkspolizei had to protect the players. The home ground of Union Berlin was closed for two matchdays as a result of crowd trouble over the performance of referee Günther Habermann in the match between Union Berlin and FC Vorwärts Frankfurt in the 1982-83 DDR-Oberliga on 25 September 1982. The police had been forced to come to the rescue of referee Habermann. German sports historian Hanns Leske claims that referees throughout the history of East German football had a preference for the teams sponsored by the armed organs ().
BFC Dynamo was deeply unpopular in Dresden since the relocation of SG Dynamo Dresden in 1954. Its unparalleled run of success would then arouse envy and hatred among supporters of opposing teams around the country. However, the sense that BFC Dynamo benefited from the soft refereeing decision did not arise first in 1978. It had already existed for years, as shown by the riots among supporters of SG Dynamo Schwerin during the match between the two teams at the Sportplatz Paulshöhe in Schwerin in the 1967-68 DDR-Liga on 26 May 1968.
BFC Dynamo was a representative of both the Stasi and the capital. The club was therefore viewed with more suspicion than affection. Lack of success had kept disapproval in check, but complaints increased and feelings became inflamed as the club grew successful. A turning point eventually came in the fractious encounter between BFC Dynamo and SG Dynamo Dresden at the Dynamo-Stadion in Dresden on 2 December 1978. The match was marked by crowd trouble, with 35 to 38 fans of both teams arrested. The match ended in a 1–1 draw after an equalizer by BFC Dynamo. Then SED First Secretary in Bezirk Dresden Hans Modrow blamed the unrest on "inept officiating". Inexperienced linesman Günter Supp should allegedly have missed an offside position on Hans-Jürgen Riediger in the situation leading up to the equalizer. Supporters of SG Dynamo Dresden complained: "We are cheated everywhere, even on the sports field".
The privileges of BFC Dynamo and its overbearing success in the 1980s made fans of opposing teams easily aroused as to what they saw as manipulation by bent referees, especially in Saxon cities such as Dresden and Leipzig. Petitions to authorities were written by citizens, fans of other teams and local members of the SED, claiming referee bias and outright match-fixing in favor of BFC Dynamo. Animosity towards the club had been growing since its first league titles. Frank Rohde said in an interview with German newspaper Die Welt in 2016: "We had the most titles and the best players. We were the hunted ... We came from the capital, where there was more than anywhere else. Like oranges or bananas. There was resentment against Dynamo and the Stasi – and envy for the success we had." The team was met at away matches with aggression and shouts such as "Bent champions!" (), "Stasi-pigs!" and "Zyklon B for BFC!". Fans of BFC Dynamo were taunted by fans of opposing teams with antisemitic slurs such as "Jewish pigs!" and "Berlin Jews!". Coach Jürgen Bogs would later claim that the hatred from opposing fans actually made the team even stronger.
Complaints of alleged referee bias grew in numbers. The number of petitions reached hundreds in 1985 and 1986. The constant rioting at the guest performances of BFC Dynamo around the country was annoying in the SED Politburo. Canadian professor and author Alan McDugall writes that: "No other collective cause in the 1980s was as public, popular, united, or effective as the anti-BFC campaign." East German authorities were not insensitive to the problems caused by the successes of BFC Dynamo. High-ranking officials such as the Head of the Department for Sport of the SED Central Committee Rudolf Hellmann sometimes answered petitions in person. A petition written to Egon Krenz in March 1986 was even answered by Hellman with a personal meeting. Backed by the ruling SED, the German Football Association of the GDR (DFV) would attempt to mollify anti-BFC sentiments. By the mid-1980s, the scandal surrounding alleged referee bias in East German football had so undermined the credibility of the national competitions that Krenz, Hellman and the DFV Secretariat under DFV General secretary Karl Zimmermann would eventually go ahead with sanctions against referees for poor performance and a restructuring of the DFV Referee Commission.
The German Gymnastics and Sports Federation (DTSB), SV Dynamo and ASV Vorwärts fought for supremacy in East German sports. The hegemony and dominance of SV Dynamo in all areas of sport had become more and more of a problem for the leading DTSB. The President of the DTSB Manfred Ewald complained that SV Dynamo "could no longer be controlled". During the 1983-84 season, Ewald would even make an unsuccessful attempt to liquidate SV Dynamo, which would include a downgrading of all its sports clubs to simple sports communities without any special status and a disempowerment of incumbent functionaries. A power struggle was raging between the DTSB President Manfred Ewald and the President of SV Dynamo Erich Mielke. German autor Steffen Karas suggests that this power struggle can explain the radical upheaval at the DFV in February 1983.
SED top-functionary Karl Zimmermann from Leipzig was established as the new vice-president of the DTSB on 2 February 1983. Two days later, the DTSB President Manfred Ewald and the Head of the Department for Sport of the SED Central Committee Rudolf Hellmann convened an extraordinary meeting of the DFV presidium. The previous DFV leadership (Werner Lempert, Günter Schneider, Konrad Dorner, Hans Müller) would be relieved by the highest authority and the chairmanship of the DFV handed over to the newly appointed DTSB Vice President Zimmermann. Zimmermann thus became the new general secretary of the DFV. As he was also vice president of the DTSB, he would enjoy increased powers compared to his predecessor Werner Lempert. German sports historian Hanns Leske claims that Zimmermann had been chosen to carry out reforms in East German football. German author Steffen Karas in turn suggest that the timing and approach to the establishment of Zimmermann suggests a connection with the plans of the DTSB President Ewald. Karas writes that it can be assumed that the growing anti-BFC sentiments in the stadiums also did not go unnoticed by the SED Politburo, which now expected the DTSB and DFV to take countermeasures.
The DFV under Zimmermann conducted an internal analysis of the performance and behavior of the referees in the matches involving BFC Dynamo, SG Dynamo Dresden and 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig during the 1984-85 season. The report listed nine league and cup matches where BFC Dynamo was allegedly favored. It also claimed that SG Dynamo Dresden and 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig had been disadvantaged in eight matches together. According to the analysis, BFC Dynamo had won at least eight points due to refereeing errors in the 26 matches of the league season. The report spoke of "targeted influence from other authorities". The report suggested that one leading referee had been given a holiday home at the expense of BFC Dynamo and that journalists had been threatened by anonymous secret police representatives.
The report noted how yellow cards had been used during the season. The report pointed out a discrepancy in yellow cards between BFC Dynamo, SG Dynamo Dresden and 1. FC Lokomotiv Lipzig. 45 yellow cards had been handed out to SG Dynamo Dresden and 36 to 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig, compared to 16 yellow cards for BFC Dynamo. The report also listed a number of cases were players in opposing teams had received their third or sixth yellow cards in matches prior to the meeting with BFC Dynamo and thus were suspended from the upcoming match against BFC Dynamo.
The report also listed instances where offside goals had been awarded to BFC Dynamo and where penalties and correct goals had been denied to the opposing team. According to Hanns Leske, a particularly drastic example during the season occurred in the 1–1 draw between BSG Wismut Aue and BFC Dynamo on the 16th matchday on 2 March 1985. Leske claims that BSG Wismut Aue had scored a winning goal that was disallowed for being offside and that the refereeing decision was so obviously wrong that the scene could not be shown at the Sport Aktuell (de) cast on East German television.
The report named six referees that were suspected of having favored BFC Dynamo, including Adolf Prokop, Klaus-Dieter Stenzel and Reinhard Purz. It also named a number of referees that were suspected of having disadvantaged SG Dynamo Dresden and 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig, including Klaus-Dieter Stenzel, Wolfgang Henning and Klaus Scheurell.
In the report, the DFV concluded that there had been systematic favoritism towards BFC Dynamo during the 1984-85 season. Zimmermann stated that the hatred of BFC Dynamo was "growing more and more" and that the team's performance was discredited and that the "competition has given up and is no longer even fighting for the championship". The report spoke of "the great damage" that referee bias did to the reputation of BFC Dynamo. Zimmermann called for a suspension of referee Prokop for two international matches and recommended that several referees, including Prokop, Stenzel and Gehard Demme, should no longer be used in matches involving BFC Dynamo, SG Dynamo Dresden and 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig. Zimmermann's report ended up with Egon Krenz, who was a member of the SED Politbüro and the Secretary for Security, Youth and Sport in the SED Central Committee.
The performance of the officials in the final of the 1984–85 FDGB-Pokal between BFC Dynamo and SG Dynamo Dresden on 8 June 1985 sparked great controversy. The DFV and the East German football weekly Die neue Fußballwoche (FuWo) received more than 700 complaints regarding the performance of the referees in the final. Complaints were also sent in considerable numbers to the Department for Sport of the SED Central Committee and to state-television. The performance of the officials in the final resulted in arguments at the top levels of the SED and the East German regime. Politburo member and the chairman of the Free German Trade Union Federation (FDGB) Harry Tisch was so upset about the performance of referee Manfred Roßner in the final that he protested to Erich Mielke and complained that such performance undermined the credibility of the competition. DFV functionaries, as well as Egon Krenz and other SED politicians, became increasingly uneasy about the negative reactions.
The report on the 1984–85 season had already outlined a number of measures to clean up the game. Now,the SED demanded further action. The DFV conducted a video review of the performances of the officials in the final. The analysis concluded that referee Roßner and his two assistants had committed an above-average number of errors during the final. A clear majority of the errors had favored BFC Dynamo. The DFV sanctioned referee Roßner with a ban on matches above the second tier as well as international matches for the coming season. Assistant Klaus Scheurell was in turn de-selected from the first round of the next European cup. Now, Zimmermann also spoke out against the head of the DFV Referee Commission Heinz Einbeck, who was a native of Berlin and a sponsoring member of BFC Dynamo. Hanns Leske writes that the DFV Referee Commission had been dominated by BFC Dynamo and claims that the commission had engaged in "targeted appointment" of always the same "proven referees" for "desired game management".
However, nothing emerged that indicated that referee Roßner had been bought by the Stasi. On the contrary, Roßner claims that he was approached by the DFV Deputy General Secretary Volker Nickchen before the match, who confidentially requested "no BFC-friendly decisions". He was also approached by the incensed DFV Vice President Franz Rydz after the match, who took him to office for his performance with the words: "You can't always go by the book, but have to officiate in a way that placates the Dresden public".
Other officials would also be sanctioned by the DFV in the following months. Referee Reinhard Purz and linesman Günter Supp were questioned for their performances during the controversial match between BFC Dynamo and FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt on the ninth matchday of the 1985-86 DDR-Oberliga on 26 October 1985. BFC Dynamo won the match 2–3. Local and regional SED newspapers remarkably often took a stand against the BFC Dynamo-friendly decisions during the 1984-85 season. The journalist Gerhard Weigel wrote in the local newspaper Das Volk that Purz had made "two match-changing mistakes". According to Weigel, Purz allegedly gave BFC Dynamo an irregular goal and denied FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt a clear penalty. Even BFC Dynamo Coach Jürgen Bogs said after the match that his team did not need such "nature protection". The DFV sanctioned Purz with a ban for the rest of 1985 and Supp with a ban for three match days.
BFC Dynamo President Manfred Kirste sent angry letters to media outlets after the match about reporters he thought fomented anti-BFC sentiments and accused television commentators of failing to correct the "varied eyesight" of the spectators in Erfurt. He also complained: "In the previous weeks, we were rightly criticized for the poor fitness level in our team. Now, when the performances have improved, when the team is playing well and fighting... allegedly 'dubious decisions' by the refereeing collective are being sought out and pushed to the fore!" In a meeting with DFV leadership on 30 October 1985, journalists expressed indignation at Kirstes attempt to influence the press.
The general disillusionment about BFC Dynamo stood at its peak during the 1985–86 season. The DFV was under intense pressure to take action against referees that allegedly favored BFC Dynamo, notably from the Department for Sport of the SED Central Committee under Rudolf Hellmann. One of the most controversial situations occurred during the match between 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig and BFC Dynamo in the 1985-86 DDR-Oberliga on 22 March 1986. 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig led the match 1-0 into extra time when BFC Dynamo was awarded a penalty by referee Bernd Stumpf in the 94th minute. Frank Pastor converted the penalty and equalized. The match ended in a 1–1 draw. The episode, which was later known as "The shameful penalty of Leipzig", caused a wave of protests. SED Second Secretary in Bezirk Leipzig Helmut Hackenberg warned the Department for Party Organs of the SED Central Committee that "corrupt referees" were bringing East Germany, the DFV and the clubs of the security organs into disrepute. A report in Junge Welt demanded referees who "do not provide doubtful justice which does harm to our champion team BFC, its reputation acquired by continuous high performance, indeed to each and every player in this team".
SED General Secretary Erich Honecker and Egon Krenz were fed up with the "football question" and the "BFC-discussion". Protests flowed into Krenz's office from outraged citizens and party members at a time when the SED was preparing for its 11th Party Congress. Rudolf Hellmann said: "The referees should lead confidently, especially now before the XI. Party Congress." Honecker wanted quiet. The DFV Presidium and its General Secretary Zimmermann took the opportunity to take action. An example was consequently made of Stumpf and he was eventually sanctioned with a lifetime ban from refereeing. The sanction against Stumpf was approved by Honecker and Krenz in the SED Central Committee.
The DFV Referee Commission was now suspended and entirely re-formed. Two SV Dynamo representatives in the referee commission, Heinz Einbeck and Gerhard Kunze were replaced. Among the new members of the DFV Referee Commission were Rudi Glöckner from Markranstädt and Günter Männig from Böhlen. Glöckner became the new head of the DFV Referee Commission after Einbeck. Both Glöckner and Männig came from the Leipzig area. Former employees within the DFV has testified that, at some point in the 1980s, "all Dynamo people were dropped" and that "everyone who came then were good friends of the chairman of 1. FC Lok Leipzig, Peter Gießner", including the president of the DFV, the general secretary of the DFV and the new head of the DFV Referee Commission: This ended a BFC era. ... The era of 1. FC Lok Leipzig began."
Egon Krenz received all DDR-Oberliga referees in July 1986 and swore them to "pay special attention" to the BFC in the future. East German football weekly FuWo noted controversial refereeing decisions against BFC Dynamo in several matches of the 1986-87 DDR-Oberliga, including situations where BFC Dynamo were denied penalties and where opposing players could well have received a red card but got away with a yellow card, as well as incorrect offline decisions against BFC Dynamo. As an example, during the match between SG Dynamo Dresden and BFC Dynamo on the 16th matchday, the SG Dynamo Dresden defender Frank Lieberam could have received a red card for his action against the BFC Dynamo striker Andreas Thom in the 79th minute, but referee Adolf Prokop hesitated with regard to the "atmosphere" and Lieberam only received a yellow card. SG Dynamo Dresden won the match 3-2. Despite this, BFC Dynamo would still manage to win its ninth consecutive league title at the end of the season.
Bernd Stumpf has continuously denied any role in manipulating matches during the East German era. In 2000, Mitteldeutscher Rundfunk (MDR) was eventually able to publish a previously unknown video recording from the league match between 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig and BFC Dynamo on 22 March 1986. The video recording had been filmed by BFC Dynamo for training purposes and showed the controversial situation from a different angle. The video recording showed that penalty was indeed correctly awarded and that the sanction against Stumpf was unjustified. In the video recording, it was possible to see how Hans Richter pushed Bernd Schulz with both hands in the penalty area. In an interview with German newspaper Die Zeit in 2000, Stumpf said: "The people have never understood how this Leipzig game was used by the highest officials in the party and government."
Steffen Karas believes that it should be noted and taken into account that the documents about the 1984-85 season were written at a time when there were documented hard-fought, sports-political power struggles within the SED Politburo, the DTSB and the DFV. Karas points out a number of possible flaws in the DFV report on the 1984-85 season which he believes give the report a somewhat incomplete or one-sided appearance.
The report lists nine matches where BFC Dynamo was allegedly favored. Karas notes that one of the nine matches was a match between the reserve team BFC Dynamo II and SG Dynamo Dresden, which had no significance for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga.
The report listed seven occasions when opposing players had received their third and sixth yellow cards in matches prior to a match against BFC Dynamo and were therefore suspended for the match against BFC Dynamo. Karas shows that 97 players were suspended the 1984-85 DDR-Oberliga, giving an average of 6.97 per team. The number of suspended players against BFC Dynamo (7) was thus not excessive, but rather average.
The authors of the report on the 1984-85 season regularly refer to descriptions in the East German football weekly FuWo. However, the report makes no mention of the controversial refereeing decisions against BFC Dynamo described in FuWo.
Karas raises the question of whether the report may have been prepared for the purpose of legitimizing forthcoming actions? It was not an uncommon occurrence in East Germany. At the time the report was written, the DFV was under political pressure to act against BFC Dynamo. Historians would later also find evidence that other clubs in East Germany also gave special support to referees, especially in the form of valuable gifts.
After German reunification, it became known that referee Adolf Prokop had been a Stasi officer, employed as an officer in special service (OibE), and that several other referees, including Bernd Stumpf, had been unofficial collaborators (IM) of the Stasi. But there is no evidence to show that referees were under direct instructions from the Stasi and no document has ever been found in the archives that gave the Stasi a mandate to bribe referees.
Alan McDougall writes that "the theory that there was a state-sanctioned order to favour the club is shown to be less persuasive than the idea that match officials took preventative action." The benefit of controlling important matches in Western Europe, gifts to wives and other forms of patronage, might have put indirect pressure on referees to take preventative action, in so-called "preemptive obedience", towards BFC Dynamo. In order to pursue an international career, a referee would need a travel permit, which must be confirmed by the Stasi.
The German Football Association (DFB) has concluded that "it emerged after the political transition that Dynamo, as the favorite club of Stasi chief Erich Mielke, received many benefits and in case of doubt, mild pressure was applied in its favor". However, McDoguall asks: "If the Stasi was so powerful, why did Mielke wait so long to flex his muscles? If match officials always practised 'pre-emptive obedience' towards BFC, why did it bear fruit only after 1978?" Adolf Prokop protests against having ever manipulated manipulated matches. He was never banned from refereeing. Prokop said in an interview with German newspaper Die Tageszeitung in 2015 that no East German referee went into a match "subjectively just to postpone it" and pointed out that that top teams are viewed with skepticism. Prokop claims that he never received threatening letters from angry fans. He was still invited to nostalgia matches for the East Germany national football team in the 2010s.
The picture that the success of BFC Dynamo relied upon referee bias is dismissed by ex-coach Jürgen Bogs, ex-goalkeeper Bodo Rudwaleit, ex-forward Thom and others associated with the club. Some of them admit that there might have been cases of referee bias. But they insist that it was the thoroughness of their youth work and the quality of their play that earned them their titles. Bogs said in an interview with Frankfurter Rundschau: "You cannot postpone 26 matches in one season in the DDR-Oberliga. At that time we had the best football team". Bogs cites a team with strong footballers and modern training methods as the main reasons for the winning streak. The club performed things such as heart rate and lactate measurements during training, which only came to the Bundesliga many years later. Bogs also worked with video evaluations during his period as coach of BFC Dynamo, which was not yet common in East Germany. Bodo Rudwaleit said in an interview with Die Zeit: "We were a great team. We went out and wanted to show those assholes. It usually worked too. And then mass hysteria: Cheating! BFC referee! Although, with some decisions, I do remember thinking, 'My God! Is that really necessary?' But really, it didn't matter how the referee did, everything was blown out of proportion with us. No one gave me a title, I've worked hard, people should think what they want. What I know, I know all for myself, and that's enough." Jörn Lenz said in an interview with CNN: "Maybe we had a small bonus in the back of referees' minds, in terms of them taking decisions in a more relaxed way in some situations than if they'd been somewhere else, but one can't say it was all manipulated. You can't manipulate 10 league titles. We had the best team in terms of skill, fitness and mentality. We had exceptional players". Also, former referee Bernd Heynemann, who has testified that he was once greeted in person by Mielke in the locker room at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark, said in an interview with the Leipziger Volkszeitung in 2017: "The BFC is not ten times champions because the referees only whistled for Dynamo. They were already strong as a bear".
South African-British author Simon Kuper writes in his book "Football Against the Enemy" that "Dynamo won lots of matches with penalties in the 95th minute." However, Kuper provides no statistics to support his claim. German author Steffen Karas calculates in his Book "66 Jahre BFC Dynamo - Auswärts mit 'nem Bus" that it was actually twice as common for opposing teams to score a match-deciding goal in the 86th minute or later in their wins or draws against BFC Dynamo, during the ten seasons when BFC Dynamo won the DDR-Oberliga than it was for BFC Dynamo in its wins or draws during the same period. Karas claims that BFC Dynamo only scored nine match-deciding goals in the 86th minute or later, in the 218 matches it won or drew during its ten championship years. Only one of those goals came from a penalty. That penalty was the controversial penalty against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig in the 1985-86 DDR-Oberliga on 22 March 1986, which was later proven to be correct.
Although rumours about match manipulation in favor of BFC Dynamo could never be completely dispelled, it is a fact that BFC Dynamo achieved its sporting success much on the basis of its successful youth work. Its youth work during the East German era is still recognized today. Supported by numerous training centers (TZ) of SV Dynamo, the club was able to filter the best talent through nationwide screening and train them in its youth academy. The youth academy had full-time trainers employed for every age group. The top performers of BFC Dynamo in the 1980s came mainly through its own youth teams, such as Frank Terletzki, Hans-Jürgen Riediger, Norbert Trieloff, Bodo Rudwaleit, Artur Ullrich, Rainer Ernst, Bernd Schulz, Christian Backs, Frank Rohde and Andreas Thom. These players influenced the team for years.
In his book "Football Against the Enemy", Simon Kuper also writes that "Mielke loved his club, and made all the best player in the GDR play for it." However, BFC Dynamo recruited fewer established players from the other teams in the DDR-Oberliga than what other clubs did, such as SG Dynamo Dresden and FC Carl Zeiss Jena. Steffen Karas calculates in his book "66 Jahre BFC Dynamo - Auswärts mit 'nem Bus" that five of the top 10 delegations in the DDR-Oberliga instead involved FC Carl Zeiss Jena. Only a fifth of the players who won the ten championships with BFC Dynamo were older than 18 years when they joined the club, and those players came from teams that had been relegated from the DDR-Oberliga or the DDR-Liga. The only major transfers to BFC Dynamo from other clubs during its most successful period in the 1980s were Frank Pastor from then-relegated HFC Chemie in 1984 and Thomas Doll from then-relegated FC Hansa Rostock in 1986. Both came from clubs that had been relegated from the DDR-Oberliga. These transfers would often be labeled delegations by supporters of other teams, but Doll left Hansa Rostock to ensure a chance to play for the national team. He had the opportunity to choose between BFC Dynamo and SG Dynamo Dresden but wanted to go to Berlin to be able to stay close to his family and because he already knew players in BFC Dynamo from the national youth teams.
Last titles in East Germany (1986–1989)
Renewed competition in the league (1986–1987)
The team made a friendly tour to Sweden in August 1986, where it played a number of matches against local teams, including the former opponent from the 1971-72 UEFA Cup Winners' Cup, Åtvidabergs FF.
BFC Dynamo moved its home matches to the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum for the 1986–87 season, as the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark was to be redeveloped. The stadium now had a capacity of 15,000 spectators. Frank Rohde was the new team captain for the 1986–87 season. Jörg Fügner would be used as a regular player during the season. The team was also joined by 20-year-old forward Thomas Doll from F.C. Hansa Rostock. F.C. Hansa Rostock had been relegated to the second tier DDR-Liga after the 1985-86 DDR-Oberliga. Doll and Andreas Thom would form one of the most effective attacking duos in East German football in the late 1980s.
BFC Dynamo opened the 1986-87 DDR-Oberliga with a 4–1 win over FC Vorwärts Frankfurt in front of 12,000 spectators at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum on 16 August 1986. The team was in first place in the league after the fourth matchday. BFC Dynamo then met local rival 1. FC Union Berlin in the fifth matchday on 13 September 1986. BFC Dynamo won the derby with a massive 8–1 in front of 20,000 spectators at the Stadium der Weltjugend on 13 September 1986. Both Thomas Doll and Burkhard Reich scored their first goals for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga in the derby. BFC Dynamo qualified for the 1986-87 European Cup as the winners of the 1985-86 DDR-Oberliga. The team was drawn against the Swedish side Örgryte IS from Gothenburg in the first round. The first leg ended 2–3 for BFC Dynamo away at Nya Ullevi on 17 September 1986. Frank Pastor, Andreas Thom and Thomas Doll scored one goal each in the match. The return leg was played at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum on 1 October 1986. BFC Dynamo defeated Örgryte IS 4–1 in front of 15,000 spectators and advanced to the second round. The team then met third-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig at home in the seventh matchday on 4 October
1986. BFC Dynamo lost the match 0–1. BFC Dynamo thus slipped down to second place in the table, while 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig became the new leader. The East Germany U19 team won the 1986 UEFA European Under-18 Championship, after defeating Italy 3-1 in the final on 15 October 1986. BFC Dynamo was represented by two youth players in the squad: Marco Köller and Hendrik Herzog. BFC Dynamo came back from the defeat against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig with a clear 4–0 win at home over third-placed FC Carl Zeiss Jena on the following matchday on 18 October 1986. 17-year-old midfielder Marco Köller made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga in the match against FC Carl Zeiss Jena, as a substitute for Frank Pastor. Köller would make a number of appearances with the first team of BFC Dynamo during the season.
BFC Dynamo was drawn against the Danish side Brøndby IF in the second round of the 1986-87 European Cup. The first leg was played at Brøndby Stadion on 22 October 1986. BFC Dynamo lost the match 2–1. The team then defeated BSG Fortschritt Bischofswerda 4–0 on the ninth matchday on 1 November 1986. Christian Backs scored three goals and Thomas Doll one goal in the match. BFC Dynamo was thus able to recapature the first place in the league, as 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig had lost 2–1 away against FC Karl-Marx-Stadt at the same time. The return leg against Brøndby IF was played in front of 11,000 spectators at Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum on 6 November 1986. Kim Vilfort managed to make it 0-1 for Brøndby IF already in the 7th minute. Rainer Ernst equalized to 1–1 in the 12th minute. BFC Dynamo then had a number of chances to score, but without success. The match eventually ended in a 1–1 draw and BFC Dynamo was thus eliminated from the competition. BFC Dynamo then met BSG Chemie Böhlen from the second tier DDR-Liga Staffel B in the Second round of the 1986-87 FDGB-Pokal. The team lost 0–1. It was the first time since the 1965-66 FDGB-Pokal that the team had not advanced further than the second round of the cup. BFC Dynamo defeated 1. FC Magdeburg 1–3 away on the tenth matchday on 12 November 1986. The team would win also the remaining matches before the winter break. BFC Dynamo finished the first half of the season in first place, two points ahead of second-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig.
BFC Dynamo met FC Vorwärts Frankfurt away on the 14th matchday on 28 February 1987. The match ended in a 1–1 draw. The 17-year-old defender Hendrik Herzog from the youth department made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the match against FC Vorwärts Frankfurt. BFC Dynamo met SG Dynamo Dresden away on the 16th matchday on 14 March 1987. Thomas Doll made it 0–1 to BFC Dynamo in the 12th minute. Ulf Kirsten, Matthias Döschner and Ralf Minge then scored three goals for SG Dynamo Dresden. Frank Pastor made it 3–2 in the 71st minute. The match ended 3–2 for SG Dynamo Dresden. BFC Dynamo was now on the same number of points as second-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig. The team met 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig was away on the 20th matchday on 11 April 1987. Both teams still had the same number of points. BFC Dynamo defeated 1. FC Lokomotiv Leipzig 1–3 in front of 22,000 spectators at the Bruno-Plache-Stadion. The team followed up the win against 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig with a 3–1 win against FC Carl Zeiss Jena on the 21st matchday in front of 10,000 spectators at the Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum on 18 April 1987. Tomas Doll, Andreas Thom and Frank Pastor scored one goal each in the match. FC Carl Zeiss Jena had only managed to take one point from BFC Dynamo in East Berlin over the last ten years. The team then met 1. FC Magdeburg at home on the 23rd matchday on 9 May 1985. BFC Dynamo won the match 2–1 in front of 12,000 spectators at Dynamo-Stadion im Sportforum. Doll and Thom scored the goals for BFC Dynamo. BFC Dynamo then defeated BSG Stahl Brandeburg 0–1 away on the 24th matchday 16 May 1987. The team was thus able to extend the lead in the league, as both SG Dynamo Dresden and 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig played draws at the same time. BFC Dynamo then secured the league title with a 0–1 win over BSG Energie Cottbus on the 25th matchday in front of 13,600 spectators at the Stadion der Freundschaft on 23 May 1987. Rainer Ernst scored the winning goal for BFC Dynamo. The team eventually finished 1986-87 DDR-Oberliga 6 points ahead of second-placed SG Dynamo Dresden and eight points ahead of third-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipizig. The league title was the club's ninth consecutive league title. BFC Dynamo had won 79.91 percent of all possible points in the DDR-Oberliga between 1979 and 1987. Frank Pastor became the top goal scorer in the 1986-87 DDR-Oberliga with 17 goals.
The Double (1987–1988)
BFC Dynamo returned to the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark for the 1987–88 season. The stadium now had a completely new four-storey grandstand, a roof over the side opposite the main stand () and new floodlight masts. Marco Köller would make recurring appearances with the first team during the season. BFC Dynamo opened the 1987-88 DDR-Oberliga with a 2–1 win over 1. FC Magdeburg in front of 14,000 spectators at Fredrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. Thomas Doll and Frank Pastor scored one goal each in the match. The team then defeated 1. FC Union Berlin 0–4 in the second matchday on 15 August 1987. BFC Dynamo had now captured first place in the league. The team then defeated F.C. Hansa Rostock 4–0 away on the fifth matchday on 5 September 1987. Andreas Thom scored two goals in the match. BFC Dynamo then met FC Carl Zeiss Jena at home on the sixth matchday on 9 September 1987. The team won the match with a massive 5–0. Andreas Thom scored the first three goals for BFC Dynamo in the match.
BFC Dynamo qualified for the 1987-88 European Cup as winners of the 1986-87 DDR-Oberliga. The team was drawn against the French champions FC Girondins de Bordeaux in the first round. The first leg was played in front of 30,000 spectators at the Stade Chaban-Delmas on 16 September 1987. The score was 0-0 after halftime. Dominique Bijotat then made it 1-0 for Bordeaux from an offside position in the 47th minute. Jean-Marc Ferreri then made it 2–0 for Bordeaux in the 58th minute. BFC Dynamo eventually lost the match 2–0. The team would face a very difficult task in the return leg. The team then met SG Dynamo Dresden away on the seventh matchday on 26 September 1987. BFC Dynamo lost the match by 1–3. It was the team's first loss of the league season. The return leg against FC Girondins de Bordeaux was played in front of 20,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 30 September 1987. BFC Dynamo lost also the return leg 0-2 and was eliminated from the tournament. BFC Dynamo played a 2–2 draw away against HFC Chemie on the 9th matchday and then a 3–3 draw at home against FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt on the tenth matchday. Second-placed 1. FC Lokomotive was thus able to close the gap in the league. Long-time defender Norbert Trieloff was transferred to 1. FC Union Berlin in November 1987. Trieloff had made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga in 1974 and had played in a total of 329 matches for the team. BFC Dynamo met fourth-placed FC Karl-Marx-Stadt away in the 11th match on 21 November 1987. The team won the match 2–4. BFC Dynamo then met the reserve team BFC Dynamo II in the round of 16 in the 1987-88 FDGB-Pokal on 28 November 1987. The match ended 3–2 for BFC Dynamo. 21-year-old forward Dirk Anders scored both goals for the reserve team in the match. Anders had made his debut with the first team of BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga at home against FC Karl-Marx-Stadt on the last matchday of the 1986-87 DDR-Oberliga. He would now make a number of appearances with the first team. Anders would be included in the starting line-up already in the upcoming match at home against BSG Wismut Aue on the 12th matchday on 5 December 1987. BFC Dynamo finished the first half of the season in first place. However, the team had the same number of points as second-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig only led the league on a better goal difference. Andreas Thom was the best goalscorer in the league by a wide margin during the first half of the league season. He had scored 14 goals in 13 matches.
The second half of the season would be a tight race between BFC Dynamo and 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig until the end. The lead in the league would change several times between BFC Dynamo, SG Dynamo Dresden and 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig. BFC Dynamo met 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig home on the 16th matchday on 12 March 1988. The team lost the match 0–2. Hans-Jörg Leitzke and Matthias Zimmerling scored the two goals for 1. FC Lokomotive Lepzig. However, BFC Dynamo was still in first place in the league through better goal difference. Both BFC Dynamo and 1. FC Lolomotive Leipzig had had their return matches against 1. FC Magdeburg from the 14th and 15th matchdays postponed. BFC Dynamo played its match away against 1. FC Magdeburg from the 14th matchday on 15 March 1988. Dirk Anders made it 0-1 for BFC Dynamo in the 16th minute, but Damian Halata equalized for 1. FC Magdeburg was on a penalty in the 17th minute. Halata then made it 2–1 to 1. FC Magdeburg in the 87th minute. BFC Dynamo eventually lost the match 2–1. The team then played a 0–0 draw away against BSG Stahl Brandeburg on the 17th matchday on 19 March 1988. SG Dynamo Dresden could now take over the lead in the league. BFC Dynamo then defeated F.C. Hansa Rostock 5–1 on the 18th matchday on 26 March 1988. Burkhard Reich scored two goals for BFC Dynamo in the match. 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig played a 1–1 draw against SG Dynamo Dresden on the 18th matchday. BFC Dynamo was thus able to recapture the first place in the league, but had the same number of points as second-placed SG Dynamo Dresden and was only one point ahead of third-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig. However, 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig had still not played its return match against 1. FC Magdeburg from the 15th matchday. BFC Dynamo then had its against FC Carl Zeiss Jena away on the 19th matchday postponed. SG Dynamo Dresden could thus again take over the lead in the league, after a 2–0 win over F.C. Hansa Rostock on the 19th matchday. BFC Dynamo then met rival SG Dynamo Dresden at home on the 20th matchday on 6 April 1988. The team won the match 1–0 in front of 24,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. The winning goal was scored by Andreas Thom. BFC Dynamo was now again in first place. Both 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig and SG Dynamo Dresden lost points on the 21st matchday. BFC Dynamo was now one point ahead of 1. FC Lokomtive Leizpig. Both BFC Dynamo and 1. FC Lokomtive Leipzig then played their previously postponed matches on 19 April 1988. BFC Dynamo defeated FC Carl Zeiss Jena 2–3 away in its match from the 19th matchday, while 1. FC Lokomotiv Leipzig defeated 1. FC Magdeburg by 3–1 at home in its match from the 15th matchday. BFC Dynamo then lost 2–3 at home to HFC Chemie on the 22nd matchday on 23 April 1988. 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig could now take over the lead in the league. However, BFC Dynamo recaptured first place already in the following matchday. But the team again had the same number of points as second-placed 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig and only led the league on better goal difference.
BFC Dynamo reached the semi-finals of the 1987-88 FDGB-Pokal. The team was drawn against F.C. Hansa Rostock. The semi-final was played at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 18 May 1988. BFC Dynamo won the match 4-0 and advanced to the final. Burkhard Reich, Rainer Ernst, Andreas Thom and Eike Küttner scored one goal each in the match. BFC Dynamo and 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig again had the same number of points before the last matchday. BFC Dynamo had a goal difference of 28, while 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig had a goal difference of 19. BFC Dynamo met 11th-placed FC Vorwärts Frankfurt at home on the 26th matchday on 28 May 1988. FC Vorwärts Frankfurt was only one point from the relegation zone and would have to fight for its place in the DDR-Oberliga. 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig met tenth-placed FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt. Also, FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt was at risk of relegation. Heiko Scholz scored 1-0 for 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig in the 19th minute. 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig was practically the new East German champion at this point. Burkhard Reich then finally scored 1–0 for BFC Dynamo with a header in the 36th minute. BFC Dynamo eventually won the match 1–0 in front of 7,000 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig defeated FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt 3–1, but it was not enough. BFC Dynamo finished with a better goal difference and thus captured its tenth consecutive league title. Andreas Thom became the top goal scorer in the 1987-88 DDR-Oberliga with 20 goals. BFC Dynamo was then set to play the final of the 1987-88 FDGB-Pokal. The team would face FC Carl-Zeiss Jena. The final was played in front of 40,000 spectators at Stadion der Weltjugend on 4 June 1988. The score was 0-0 after full-time. Thomas Doll and Michael Schulz then scored two goals for BFC Dynamo in overtime. The team eventually won the match 2–0. BFC Dynamo had thus finally won the Double, becoming the second team in the history of East German football after SG Dynamo Dresden to win the Double. Andreas Thom had become the player of the week six times in the 1987-88 DDR-Oberliga and was eventually voted the 1988 East German footballer of the year. Peter Kaehlitz was transferred to SG Dynamo Fürstenwalde, Marco Kostmann left for F.C. Hansa Rostock and Heiko Brestrich left for BSG Stahl Brandenburg after the season.
Disaster in Bremen (1988)
Long-time club president Manfred Kirste was replaced before the 1988–89 season. Kirste had served as president since the club's founding in 1966. Herbert Krafft became the new club president. Krafft had a background in the Volkspolizei. The team was joined by young goalkeeper Oskar Kosche from SG Dynamo Fürstenwalde for the 1988–89 season. Kosche also had a background in the youth department of BFC Dynamo. Young defender Hendrik Herzog would also make recurring appearances with the first team during the season. BFC Dynamo started the 1988-89 DDR-Oberliga with three draws. The team played a 2–2 draw at home against HFC Chemie in the opening match, a 2-2 draw away against BSG Wismut Aue in the second matchday and then a 1–1 draw against 1. FC Union Berlin on the third matchday. The team captured its first win of the league season on the fourth matchday, with a 2–6 win away against FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt on 2 September 1988. Andreas Thom scored two goals, Frank Pastor two goals, Rainer Ernst one goal and Dirk Anders one goal in the match. The team was now in fifth place in the league.
BFC Dynamo qualified for the 1988-89 European Cup as winners of the 1987-88 DDR-Oberliga. The team was drawn against the West German champion SV Werder Bremen in the first round. The first leg was played in front of 24,000 spectators at Friedrich-Jahn-Sportpark on 6 September 1988. Among the spectators were Erich Mieke and SED First Secretary in East Berlin Günter Schabowski, and among the guests was former West German Chancellor Willy Brandt. Thomas Doll made it 1-0 for BFC Dynamo in the 16th minute of the match. Andreas Thom and Frank Pastor then scored two more goals in the second half. BFC Dynamo sensationally defeated SV Werder Bremen 3–0. Goalkeeper Bodo Rudwaleit was a match hero for BFC Dynamo with numerous saves. BFC Dynamo then played a 1–1 draw away against 1. FC Magdeburg on the fifth matchday on 17 September 1988. The team then met the first-placed SG Dynamo Dresden away on the sixth matchday on 25 September 1988. The score was 0-0 after the first half. Andreas Trautmann and Ulf Kirsten then scored two goals in quick succession for SG Dynamo Dresden. Eike Küttner made it 2–1 in the 63rd minute. but BFC Dynamo failed to equalize. SG Dynamo Dresden won the match 2–1. BFC Dynamo was then set to play the return leg against SV Werner Bremen in the first round of the 1988-89 European Cup. The match was played at the Weser-Stadion on 11 October 1988. SV Werner Bremen would come to dominate the match. BFC Dynamo sensationally lost 5-0 and was eliminated on goal difference. The return leg would become known as "The Second Miracle on the Weser". Andreas Thom stated afterwards: "I can not get worse than this". Coach Jürgen Bogs summoned up: "That here, was total shit".
It has been rumoured that doping might explain the surprising results in the meeting. Researcher Giselher Spitzer claims that players of BFC Dynamo had been given amphetamines before the first leg. The Stasi allegedly did not want to take this risk in the return leg in Bremen for fear of control. However, a more likely explanation for the surprising loss in Bremen is that the players of BFC Dynamo could not cope with the tremendous media pressure following their home win. Roles had changed during the five-week-long break before the return leg. BFC Dynamo was pushed into the role of favorites, while Werder Bremen was given enough time to build motivation. The match had high political significance: Mielke had made it clear to the team before the return leg that "this was about beating the class enemy". Frank Rohde has said: "You have to consider history, actually, we could only loose". Goalkeeper Rudwaleit conceded that it was a "mental thing". The Stasi also had its explanation for the defeat in Bremen. The Stasi claimed that the main reason for the defeat was that "the team was not morally and ideologically prepared for the match" and "did not have a functioning management that met all the requirements for a stay in Bremen".
Players of BFC Dynamo had apparently also been distracted from their match-day preparations by shopping opportunities. Bogs wanted to travel to Bremen two days in advance. This was denied by the Stasi and the player bus was only allowed to leave East Berlin on Monday morning. The player bus then got stuck in West German morning traffic. Instead of arriving at around 12:00 PM, the bus arrived at 3:00 PM in Bremen. The schedule of Bogs could no longer be held, so the planned shopping tour the day before the match was allegedly cancelled. Werder Bremen Manager Willi Lemke allegedly stopped by the hotel and instead offered a shopping spree for the next day, where players of BFC Dynamo were given the opportunity to buy West German consumer goods at a "Werder discount". Some sources suggest that he actually organized a sale at the player hotel where all kinds of goods were sold. According to Bogs, the player bus was completely stocked up with home appliances, televisions and consumer electronics when it arrived at the Weser-Stadion 90 minutes before kick-off. There are allegations that this was purposely done by Lemke for players of BFC Dynamo to lose their concentration. However, the versions of those involved differ. Frank Rohde has many years later claimed that what has been said about the match over the years is "complete nonsense" and that "the process was the same as always with the European Cup". Bogs was forced to justify himself to the DFV the day after the defeat and would receive a reprimand. BFC Dynamo won the next match 5–1 at home against FC Karl-Marx-Stadt on the ninth matchday on 22 October 1988. Bogs has described the defeat in Bremen as the most spectacular defeat in his career, but not his most bitter. He claims that his most bitter defeat was the 4–1 defeat to Red Star Belgrade on stoppage time in the first round of the 1978–79 UEFA Cup.
Decline in the league and last titles in East Germany (1988–1989)
BFC Dynamo lost more important points to its league rivals towards the end of the autumn. The team met 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig at home on the tenth matchday on 4 November 1988. BFC Dynamo lost the match 0-2 and conceded its second loss of the league season. The team defeated tenth-placed BSG Energie Cottbus 0–2 away on the following matchday, but then played a 1–1 draw against FC Carl Zeiss Jena at home on the 12th matchday. Young defender Jens-Uwe Zöphel from the youth department made his debut in the DDR-Oberliga in the match against FC Carl Zeiss Jena. BFC Dynamo then met F.C. Hansa Rostock away on the last matchday before the winter break on 3 December 1988. F.C. Hansa Rostock was coached by former BFC Dynamo player Werner Voigt at the time. BFC Dynamo lost the match 1–0. The team finished the first half of the season in fourth place, a full nine points behind first-placed SG Dynamo Dresden. It was the club's worst mid-seasonal result in 14 years. The team had played five draws and conceded three losses in the first 13 matches of the league season. Frank Pastor was the best goal scorer of BFC Dynamo in the league during the first half of the season with six goals. The last season's league top goal scorer Andreas Thom scored five goals. BFC Dynamo met 1. FC Union Berlin in the quarter-finals of the 1988-89 FDGB-Pokal. The match was played in front in front of 20,000 spectators at the Stadion an der Alten Försterei on 10 December 1988. Eike Küttner scored 0-1 for BFC Dynamo already in the first match minute. BFC Dynamo eventually won the match 0-2 and advanced to the semi-finals. Fans of 1. FC Union Berlin chanted racist slogans during the match, such as "Jewish pigs!". Andreas Belka left for BSG Energie Cottbus and Thomas Grether for 1. FC Union Berlin during the winter break. Coach Jürgen Bogs and Assistant coach Joachim Hall were called up to the Central Management Office () (BdZL) of SV Dynamo on 15 January 1989. Hall was immediately released from his duties, while Bogs was allowed to remain as coach for the rest of the season.
The average home attendance had dropped from 15,000 to less than 9,000 during the club's most successful years in the 1980s. Ordinary fans feared the Stasi and had become disillusioned with political interference. Particularly aggravating were the restrictions on ticket sales that the Stasi imposed at international matches for political reasons. Only a small number of tickets have been allowed for ordinary fans during European Cup matches against opponents such as Hamburger SV and SV Werder Bremen. The vast majority of the tickets had instead been allocated to a politically hand-picked audience. BFC Dynamo had also seen the emergence of a well-organized hooligan scene in the 1980s. The development was partly a response to the increasing state repression against the supporter scene. The Stasi had tried to control the supporter scene with a broad catalogue of repressive measures. The supporter scene had been increasingly associated with skinheads and far-right tendencies since the mid-1980s. Right-wing slogans and fascist chants were considered the most challenging forms of provocations, as anti-fascism was one of the founding myths of the East German regime. For young people, being a Nazi was sometimes considered the sharpest form of opposition. However, instances of Nazi provocations did not necessarily reflect genuine political convictions. At least some part of the "drift to the right" among East German youth during the 1980s was rooted in a desire to position oneself wherever the state was not. One fan of BFC Dynamo said: "None of us really knew anything about politics. But to raise your arm in front of the Volkspolizei was a real kick. You did that and for some of them, their whole world just fell apart".
Jens-Uwe Zöphel would make recurring appearances with the first team during the second half of the 1988-89 season. The results in the league would improve after the winter break. The team defeated HFC Chemie 1–4 away on the 14th matchday on 24 February 1989. BFC Dynamo now climbed to second place in the league. The team then defeated BSG Wismut Aue 2–1 at home on the 15th matchday on 4 March 1989. BFC Dynamo was drawn against FC Rot-Weiß Erfurtin in the semi-finals of the 1988-89 FDGB-Pokal. BFC Dynamo won the semi-final 6–1 in front of 7,500 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark on 11 March 1989. Six players of BFC Dynamo scored one goal each in the match, including Zöphel, who scored the 5-0 goal. BFC Dynamo then defeated local rival 1. FC Union Berlin 3–2 on the 16th matchday on the 18 March 1989. 1. FC Union Berlin fielded four former BFC Dynamo players in the starting eleven: Olaf Seier, Thomas Grether, Mario Maek and Norbert Trieloff. The team then met FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt at home on the 17th matchday on 25 March 1989. FC Rot-Weiß Erfurt got a revenge for the semi-final of the FDGB-final and won the match 1–2. BFC Dynamo was then set to play FC Karl-Marx-Stadt in the final of the 1989-89 FDGB-Pokal. The final was played in front of 35,000 spectators at the Stadion der Weltjugend on 1 April 1989. BFC Dynamo was a clear favorite with three national team players in the squad. The score was 0–0 at the half-break. Andreas Thom then made it 1–0 to BFC Dynamo in the 57th minute. BFC Dynamo eventually won the final 1-0 and thus won its third cup title.
BFC Dynamo met first-placed SG Dynamo Dresden at home on the 19th matchday on 19 April 1989. BFC Dynamo was now in third place in the league, seven points behind SG Dynamo Dresden. Ulf Kirsten made it 0–1 to SG Dynamo Dresden in the 31st match minute, but Eike Küttner equalized 1–1 in the 56th match minute. The match eventually ended 1–1 in front of 18,500 spectators at the Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. The opportunity to defend the league title was now practically lost. BFC Dynamo then lost 2–1 away to FC Karl-Marx-Stadt on the 22nd matchday and then 2–4 at home to 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig on the 23rd matchday. SG Dynamo Dresden won the league title on the 23rd matchday, thus breaking BFC Dynamo's ten-year-long dominance in the league. BFC Dynamo was now in third place in the league, nine points behind the new champion SG Dynamo Dresden. BFC Dynamo then played 1–1 against BSG Energie Cottbus on the 24th matchday on 24 May 1989. The team could thus climb to second place in the league, as F.C. Hansa Rostock lost 3–0 away against BSG Stahl Brandenburg at the same time. Young midielder Jörn Lenz from the youth department made his debut for BFC Dynamo in the DDR-Oberliga in the match against BSG Energie Cottbus. Lenz had made his debut with the first team of BFC Dynamo in the first round of the 1988–89 FDGB-Pokal against BSG Energie Cottbus II on 9 September 1988. BFC Dynamo then defeated FC Carl Zeiss Jena 0–1 away on the 24th matchday. The team finally met third-placed F.C. Hansa Rostock on the last matchday on 3 June 1989. F.C. Hansa Rostock was only one point behind in the league. BFC Dynamo won the match 4–0 in front of 9,000 spectators at Friedrich-Ludwig-Jahn-Sportpark. The team thus finished the 1988-89 DDR-Oberliga in second place. Andreas Thom and Thomas Doll became the top scorers for BFC Dynamo in the league with 13 goals each. Michael Schulz left for BSG Stahl Henningsdorf after the season.
With the performance of the team declining in the 1988–89 season and the attendance number continuing to fall, the Central Audit Commission at the Central Management Office (BdZL) of SV Dynamo was authorized by SV Dynamo President Erich Mielke to investigate the club. The Central Management Office had been aggrieved that the special position of the club had enabled it to escape its control. The commission now used the inquiry as an opportunity to cut the overmighty organization down to size. The commission was critical of the inefficient use of resources, materialism, low motivation and lack of political-ideological education of players. As a solution, the Central Management Office assumed full responsibility for the material, political and financial management of the club by mid-1989. Former player Michael Noack would later complain that BFC Dynamo had suffered from triple management: the DFV, the Central Management Office (BdZL) of SV Dynamo and the Stasi, whereby a minority had ruled over the club.
Jürgen Bogs was replaced as coach after the 1988–89 season. Helmut Jäschke became the new coach. Jäschke had previously served as a coach of the reserve team BFC Dynamo II. Helmut Koch became the assistant coach of Jäschke. Bogs would later instead take on the role of "head coach" () in the club, which was a managerial role in the club at the time. The team was joined by attacking midfielder Heiko Bonan from 1. FC Magdeburg and defender Jörg Buder from the reserve team for the 1989–90 season. A DFV resolution in 1989 had stipulated that a team qualified for a Euopean competition had the right to sign a player from a now-qualified team for a period of at least half a year. As a result of the egulation, Bonan joined BFC Dynamo. Other players signed on the same basis were Damian Halata from 1. FC Magdeburg to 1. FC Lokomotive Leipzig, Andreas Wagenhaus from Hallescher FC Chemie to SG Dynamo Dresden and Uwe Kirchner and Detlef Schößler from 1. FC Magdeburg to SG Dynamo Dresden. As the winner of the 1988-89 FDGB-Pokal, BFC Dynamo was set to play the DFV-Supercup against league champions SG Dynamo Dresden. It was the first edition of the DFV-Supercup. The match was played in front of 22,348 spectators at the Stadion der Freundschaft in Cottbus on 5 August 1989. SED Politburo and Central Committee members Egon Krenz and Erich Mielke, the Head of the Department for Sport of the SED Central Committee Rudolf Hellmann and the DTSB First Vice President Horst Röder were among the spectators. Bernd Schulz made it 1-0 for BFC Dynamo in the 31st minute. Thomas Doll then scored two goals for BFC Dynamo in the middle of the second half. The score was 4–0 for BFC Dynamo at the end of the match. Matthias Sammer then scored one goal for SG Dynamo Dresden in the 87th minute. BFC Dynamo eventually won the match 4-1 and captured the title. BFC Dynamo would eventually be the first and only winner of the DFV-Supercup in the history of East German football.
See also
History of Berliner FC Dynamo (1954–1978)
History of Berliner FC Dynamo (1989–2004)
History of Berliner FC Dynamo (2004–present)
Explanatory notes
References
History (1978-1989)
History of association football by club
History of football in Germany
Dynamo Berlin 1978 |
```xml
import { TestBed } from '@angular/core/testing';
import { AngularFireModule } from '@angular/fire/compat';
import { AngularFirePerformance, AngularFirePerformanceModule } from '@angular/fire/compat/performance';
import { COMMON_CONFIG } from '../../../src/test-config';
describe('AngularFirePerformance', () => {
let afp: AngularFirePerformance;
beforeEach(() => {
TestBed.configureTestingModule({
imports: [
// NOTE: You must use the [DEFAULT] app instance
// for these tests to work.
AngularFireModule.initializeApp(COMMON_CONFIG),
AngularFirePerformanceModule
]
});
afp = TestBed.inject(AngularFirePerformance);
});
it('should exist', () => {
expect(afp instanceof AngularFirePerformance).toBe(true);
});
it('should have the Performance instance', () => {
expect(afp.dataCollectionEnabled).toBeDefined();
});
});
``` |
```c++
// Use, modification, and distribution is subject to the Boost Software
// path_to_url
// See library home page at path_to_url
//
// Contact the author at: fernando_cacciola@hotmail.com
//
#ifndef your_sha256_hashHPP
#define your_sha256_hashHPP
namespace boost { namespace numeric
{
enum udt_builtin_mixture_enum
{
builtin_to_builtin
,builtin_to_udt
,udt_to_builtin
,udt_to_udt
} ;
} } // namespace boost::numeric
#endif
``` |
```javascript
// Use of this source code is governed by a BSD-style license that can be
// found in the LICENSE file.
// Flags: --expose-wasm
load("test/mjsunit/wasm/wasm-module-builder.js");
(function() {
print("F32: sNaN - 0 = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F32Sub0", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprGetLocal, 0, kExprF32ReinterpretI32, kExprF32Const, 0x00, 0x00,
0x00, 0x00, // 0.0
kExprF32Sub, kExprI32ReinterpretF32, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
// F32Sub0(signalling_NaN)
assertEquals(0x7fe00000, module.exports.F32Sub0(0x7fa00000));
})();
(function() {
print("F32: -0 sNaN = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F32Sub0", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF32Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x80, // 0.0
kExprGetLocal, 0, kExprF32ReinterpretI32, kExprF32Sub,
kExprI32ReinterpretF32, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
// F32Sub0(signalling_NaN)
assertEquals(0x7fe00000, module.exports.F32Sub0(0x7fa00000));
})();
(function() {
print("F32: sNaN - X = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F32NaNSubX", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF32Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0xa0, 0x7f, kExprF32Const, 0x12, 0x34, 0x56,
0x78, kExprF32Sub, kExprI32ReinterpretF32, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7fe00000, module.exports.F32NaNSubX());
})();
(function() {
print("F32: X - sNaN = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F32XSubNaN", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF32Const, 0x12, 0x34, 0x56, 0x78, kExprF32Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0xa0,
0x7f, kExprF32Sub, kExprI32ReinterpretF32, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7fe00000, module.exports.F32XSubNaN());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: X + sNaN = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F32XAddNaN", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF64Const, 0xde, 0xbc, 0x0a, 0x89, 0x67, 0x45, 0x23, 0x01,
kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0xf2, 0x7f,
kExprF64Add, kExprI64ReinterpretF64, kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU,
kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F32XAddNaN());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: sNaN - 0 = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64Sub0", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprI64Const, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0xf9, 0xff,
0x00, kExprF64ReinterpretI64, kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00,
0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, // 0.0
kExprF64Sub, kExprI64ReinterpretF64, kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU,
kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64Sub0());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: -0 - sNaN = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64Sub0", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x80, // 0.0
kExprI64Const, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0xf9, 0xff,
0x00, kExprF64ReinterpretI64, kExprF64Sub, kExprI64ReinterpretF64,
kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU, kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64Sub0());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: sNaN - X = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64NaNSubX", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0xf2, 0x7f,
kExprF64Const, 0xde, 0xbc, 0x0a, 0x89, 0x67, 0x45, 0x23, 0x01,
kExprF64Sub, kExprI64ReinterpretF64, kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU,
kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64NaNSubX());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: X - sNaN = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64XSubNaN", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF64Const, 0xde, 0xbc, 0x0a, 0x89, 0x67, 0x45, 0x23, 0x01,
kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0xf2, 0x7f,
kExprF64Sub, kExprI64ReinterpretF64, kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU,
kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64XSubNaN());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: sNaN * 1 = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64Mul1", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprI64Const, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0xf9, 0xff,
0x00, kExprF64ReinterpretI64, kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00,
0x00, 0x00, 0xf0, 0x3f, kExprF64Mul, kExprI64ReinterpretF64,
kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU, kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64Mul1());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: X * sNaN = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64XMulNaN", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF64Const, 0xde, 0xbc, 0x0a, 0x89, 0x67, 0x45, 0x23, 0x01,
kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0xf2, 0x7f,
kExprF64Mul, kExprI64ReinterpretF64, kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU,
kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64XMulNaN());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: sNaN / 1 = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64Div1", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprI64Const, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0xf9, 0xff,
0x00, kExprF64ReinterpretI64, kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00,
0x00, 0x00, 0xf0, 0x3f, kExprF64Div, kExprI64ReinterpretF64,
kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU, kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64Div1());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: sNaN / -1 = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64Div1", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprI64Const, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0xf9, 0xff,
0x00, kExprF64ReinterpretI64, kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00,
0x00, 0x00, 0xf0, 0xbf, kExprF64Div, kExprI64ReinterpretF64,
kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU, kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64Div1());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: sNaN / -1 = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64Div1", kSig_i_i)
.addBody([
kExprI64Const, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0xf9, 0xff, 0x00,
kExprF64ReinterpretI64,
kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0xf0, 0xbf,
kExprF64Div,
kExprI64ReinterpretF64,
kExprI64Const, 32,
kExprI64ShrU,
kExprI32ConvertI64,
])
.exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64Div1());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: X / sNaN = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64XDivNaN", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF64Const, 0xde, 0xbc, 0x0a, 0x89, 0x67, 0x45, 0x23, 0x01,
kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0xf2, 0x7f,
kExprF64Div, kExprI64ReinterpretF64, kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU,
kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64XDivNaN());
})();
(function() {
print("F64: sNaN / X = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64NaNDivX", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0xf2, 0x7f,
kExprF64Const, 0xde, 0xbc, 0x0a, 0x89, 0x67, 0x45, 0x23, 0x01,
kExprF64Div, kExprI64ReinterpretF64, kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU,
kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64NaNDivX());
})();
(function() {
print("F32ConvertF64(sNaN) = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F32ConvertF64X", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF64Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0x00, 0xf2, 0x7f,
kExprF32ConvertF64, kExprI32ReinterpretF32, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7fd00000, module.exports.F32ConvertF64X());
})();
(function() {
print("F64ConvertF32(sNaN) = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64ConvertF32X", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprF32Const, 0x00, 0x00, 0xa0, 0x7f, kExprF64ConvertF32,
kExprI64ReinterpretF64, kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU,
kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffc0000, module.exports.F64ConvertF32X());
})();
(function() {
print("F64ConvertF32(F32ConvertF64(sNaN)) = qNaN");
var builder = new WasmModuleBuilder();
builder.addFunction("F64toF32toF64", kSig_i_i).addBody(
[ kExprI64Const, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0x80, 0xf9, 0xff,
0x00, kExprF64ReinterpretI64, kExprF32ConvertF64, kExprF64ConvertF32,
kExprI64ReinterpretF64, kExprI64Const, 32, kExprI64ShrU,
kExprI32ConvertI64, ]).exportFunc();
var module = builder.instantiate();
assertEquals(0x7ffa0000, module.exports.F64toF32toF64());
})();
``` |
Pacific Central Station is a railway station in Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada, which acts as the western terminus of Via Rail's cross-country The Canadian service to Toronto and the northern terminus of Amtrak's Cascades service to Seattle and Portland. The station is also Vancouver's main intercity bus terminal. The station is wheelchair accessible and is staffed with full Via services. The station is a candidate for the northern terminus of a possible future high-speed rail line being considered primarily by the US state of Washington.
History
Pacific Central Station was built in 1917 by the Canadian Northern Railway as the terminus of its line to Edmonton. It was dedicated on November 2, 1919, a day after the first Canadian National trains began using the station. It was originally named False Creek Station and was designed by the architecture firm Pratt and Ross. The building was designated a heritage railway station in 1991.
Amtrak service to the terminal was originally offered on the Pacific International from 1972 to 1981, when it ceased due to budget cuts. Cross-border service returned in 1995 with the introduction of the Mount Baker International, which was later folded into the modern-day Cascades brand.
On November 8, 2010, the Canadian government announced a $5.1million plan to rebuild parts of the station, including refurbishing windows, masonry, and the roof of the building.
Services
Rail
Amtrak Cascades
Amtrak Cascades provides two daily round trips between Vancouver and Seattle, Washington, with one daily train continuing to Portland, Oregon.
Amtrak passengers bound for the United States go through United States border preclearance inside the station prior to boarding in Vancouver, with a brief 10-minute stop at the Peace Arch Border Crossing for agents to collect forms. Canadian-bound passengers go through Canadian customs at the station upon arrival; northbound trains travelling towards Pacific Central Station do not stop at the border.
This is in contrast to Amtrak's international services on the East Coast (Adirondack to Montreal and Maple Leaf to Toronto) where passengers are processed by customs immediately after passing over the border.
To enable customs processing away from the border crossing, Amtrak trains are sequestered inside a secure caged area at Pacific Central Station. Additionally, trains make no stops in Canada other than at Pacific Central Station.
Via Rail Canadian
Via Rail's Canadian train offers twice-weekly cross-country service to Toronto via Edmonton, Saskatoon, and Winnipeg; weekly service to Edmonton (summer only).
Bus
Pacific Central Station is Vancouver's main intercity bus terminal.
Public transit
Pacific Central Station is immediately adjacent to Main Street–Science World station on the Expo Line of Greater Vancouver's SkyTrain rapid transit system.
See also
Waterfront station (Vancouver), used by West Coast Express trains
List of heritage buildings in Vancouver
List of designated heritage railway stations of Canada
References
External links
Via Rail page for Vancouver train station (Pacific Central Station)
Via Rail stations in British Columbia
Buildings and structures in Vancouver
Heritage buildings in Vancouver
Transport in Greater Vancouver
Amtrak stations in Canada
Neoclassical architecture in Canada
Designated heritage railway stations in British Columbia
Bus stations in British Columbia
Canadian National Railway stations in British Columbia
Transport infrastructure completed in 1919
Railway stations in Canada opened in 1919
1919 establishments in British Columbia
Juxtaposed border controls
Former Great Northern Railway (U.S.) stations |
Buerton may refer to the following places in Cheshire, England:
Buerton, Cheshire East, a village and civil parish in the unitary authority of Cheshire East
Buerton, Cheshire West and Chester, a former civil parish in the area of the unitary authority of Cheshire West and Chester |
A Safe Place is a 1971 American drama film written and directed by Henry Jaglom and starring Tuesday Weld, Orson Welles, and Jack Nicholson.
Plot
A young woman, named Noah, lives alone in a small apartment in New York City. She is a mentally disturbed flower child, who retreats into her past, yearning for lost innocence. She recalls her childhood, searching for a "safe place." As a child (whose real name was Susan), she met a charismatic magician in Central Park who presented her with magical objects: a levitating silver ball, a star ring, and a Noah's ark.
In the present day, Noah is romantically involved with two different men: Fred, who is practical but dull, and Mitch, who is more dynamic and closer to her ideal fantasy partner. Neither man is able to fulfill her needs totally.
Cast
The cast includes:
Tuesday Weld as Susan/Noah
Orson Welles as The Magician
Jack Nicholson as Mitch
Philip Proctor as Fred
Gwen Welles as Bari
Roger Garrett as Noah's Friend
Francesca Hilton as Noah's Friend
Richard Finocchio as Noah's Friend
Production
The film was "culled from 50 hours of footage."
The work was a product of BBS Productions, a company formed by Bob Rafelson, Bert Schneider, and Steve Blauner, financed by their work on the TV pop group the Monkees. Other BBS films of the era include Easy Rider, Five Easy Pieces, The Last Picture Show, The King of Marvin Gardens, Head, and Drive, He Said. All seven of these films have been restored and released in DVD versions by The Criterion Collection in a set called America Lost and Found: The BBS Story.
Reception
Jaglom's directorial debut was a "critical and box-office disaster" Time magazine called the film "pretentious and confusing", a film that "suggests that the rumors of his expertise were greatly exaggerated, or at least that it does not extend to directing." Vincent Canby described the film as a "superficial case history of a suicide" whose "narrative pretends to be a lot more complex"; Canby noted that the film "reveals the director's apparent adoration of his star [Weld], whom he studies in every possible light and color combination, and in every possible camera setup, often orchestrated with fine, corny songs out of the 1940s and 1950s on the order of Charles Trenet's 'La Mer' and 'Vous Qui Passez Sans Me Voir.'" Variety said the film's "deliberate experimentation puts a heavy burden upon the viewer." Its writer-director "has plunged in over his own depth."
See also
List of American films of 1971
References
External links
1971 drama films
Films directed by Henry Jaglom
American independent films
American drama films
Films about magic and magicians
1971 films
1971 directorial debut films
1971 independent films
1970s English-language films
1970s American films |
Michael A. Quealy (died September 2002) was a Fine Gael politician in Ireland. He was a senator from 1987 to 1989, elected to the 18th Seanad on the Agricultural Panel, but was not re-elected in the 1989 elections.
References
20th-century births
2002 deaths
Fine Gael senators
Members of the 17th Seanad
Agricultural Panel senators |
Tenbury High Ormiston Academy (formerly Tenbury High School) is a coeducational secondary school with academy status located in Tenbury Wells in the English county of Worcestershire. In 2005 it was awarded specialist science and mathematics status.
Previously a community school administered by Worcestershire County Council, Tenbury High School converted to academy status on 1 September 2014 and was renamed Tenbury High Ormiston Academy. The school is now sponsored by the Ormiston Academies Trust but continues to coordinate with Worcestershire County Council for admissions.
Senior management
The post of Executive Principal at the academy is shared with Ormiston Forge Academy in Cradley Heath. As of 2020, the postholder is Andrew Burns.
Headteachers
1998-2013: Stuart Cooke
2013-2018: Adrian Price
2018–present (as of 2023): Victoria Dean
References
https://www.worcesternews.co.uk/news/7460414.schools-celebrate-specialist-status-awards/
External links
Tenbury High Ormiston Academy official website
Secondary schools in Worcestershire
Academies in Worcestershire
Ormiston Academies
Tenbury Wells |
Colonization: Second Contact is an alternate history novel by American writer Harry Turtledove. It is the first novel of the Colonization series and the fifth installment in the Worldwar series.
Plot
The novel is set in 1963, twenty-one years following the end of the alternate World War II and nineteen years after the Race Invasion of Tosev 3. Earl Warren is President of the United States, Vyacheslav Molotov is the Premier of the Soviet Union, and Heinrich Himmler leads Nazi Germany. Smaller countries remain independent, such as the Republic of Ireland and Imperial Japan, which still controls portions of its World War II-era empire. A few isolated areas such as French Polynesia are still held by Charles de Gaulle's Free France, and in German-occupied France the French Resistance remains active. The Northern Hemisphere remains relatively free of Race occupation, but the hotter regions of the planet, such as Central and South America, Mexico, Spain, Portugal, Africa, China, the Middle East, and Australia, are all under Race control. The Race also occupies Poland, with the territory acting as a buffer state, keeping Germany and the Soviet Union from having a mutual land border and an easy way to restart the war between them.
At the start of the novel, the colonization fleet of the Race enters the Solar System, bringing with them 80-100 million colonists for settling on Earth. As the fleet enters Earth orbit, a human satellite unleashes a nuclear attack that kills millions. As Germany, the Soviet Union, and the United States each have large-scale space capability, any of the three nations may have been responsible for the attack. All three deny it when furious Race leaders, headed by Fleetlord Atvar, the commander of all Race forces sent to Earth, demand answers, but two of the three human nations are really as much unaware of the attacker's identity as the Race. In addition, while there is an uneasy peace between the independent human nations and the Race, Mao Zedong and Ruhollah Khomeini continue to lead popular resistance to the invaders in China and the Middle East, respectively. Race efforts to wage a counterinsurgency war in those regions are frustrated by their lack of familiarity with such warfare and a nearly-total lack of support from the human population. The Race also becomes aware of subtle support of the resistance movements by Germany, the United States, and the Soviet Union, but as the Race is unable to prove it, nothing can be done to stop them.
Meanwhile, the Race's colonists, who expected to encounter an Earth that was already conquered with the natives still at medieval levels of advancement, must deal with the consequences of the cold war with the humans. The fleet brings with it not only the first civilians but also the first Race females, both of which cause tension among the male soldiers who formed the invasion force. To the Race males, ginger is a euphoric drug; to the females, it causes them to go into estrus, throwing Race forces on Earth into social chaos. Worse still for Fleetlord Atvar is a sharp upswing in armed revolts in the Middle East and in China; at the novel's end, Khomeini's guerrillas have staged several successful ambushes against Race patrols, and resistance forces under Mao storm the Forbidden City.
References
1999 American novels
Novels set during the Cold War
Worldwar and Colonization series
American alternate history novels
Fiction set in 1963
Alien invasions in novels
Del Rey books
Cultural depictions of Heinrich Himmler
Cultural depictions of Charles de Gaulle
Cultural depictions of Mao Zedong
Cultural depictions of Ruhollah Khomeini |
```c
/***
*wcschr.c - search a wchar_t string for a given wchar_t character
*
*
*Purpose:
* defines wcschr() - search a wchar_t string for a wchar_t character
*
*******************************************************************************/
#include <vcruntime_internal.h>
#include <intrin.h>
#define XMM_SIZE sizeof(__m128i)
#define XMM_CHARS (XMM_SIZE / sizeof(wchar_t))
#define PAGE_SIZE ((intptr_t)0x1000)
#define PAGE_OFFSET(p) ((PAGE_SIZE-1) & (intptr_t)(p))
#define XMM_PAGE_SAFE(p) (PAGE_OFFSET(p) <= (PAGE_SIZE - XMM_SIZE))
/***
*wchar_t *wcschr(string, c) - search a string for a wchar_t character
*
*Purpose:
* Searches a wchar_t string for a given wchar_t character,
* which may be the null character L'\0'.
*
*Entry:
* wchar_t *str - wchar_t string to search in
* wchar_t ch - wchar_t character to search for
*
*Exit:
* returns pointer to the first occurrence of c in string
* returns NULL if c does not occur in string
*
*Exceptions:
*
*******************************************************************************/
wchar_t * __cdecl wcschr (
const wchar_t * str,
wchar_t ch
)
{
if (__isa_available < __ISA_AVAILABLE_SSE2)
{
while (*str && *str != ch)
str++;
// If the character is a match return pointer, otherwise
// it must be the terminating zero and return NULL.
return (*str == ch) ? (wchar_t *)str : NULL;
}
else
{
__m128i match, characters, temp;
unsigned mask;
unsigned long offset;
// Build match pattern with target character in every position.
match = _mm_cvtsi32_si128(ch);
match = _mm_shufflelo_epi16(match, 0);
match = _mm_shuffle_epi32(match, 0);
for (;;)
{
// If the next XMMWORD does not overlap a page boundary check
// it for match of character or zero.
if (XMM_PAGE_SAFE(str))
{
// Check for match with either the search or zero character.
// There may be more than one match, but only the first is
// significant.
characters = _mm_loadu_si128((__m128i*)str);
temp = _mm_xor_si128(temp, temp);
temp = _mm_cmpeq_epi16(temp, characters);
characters = _mm_cmpeq_epi16(characters, match);
temp = _mm_or_si128(temp, characters);
mask = _mm_movemask_epi8(temp);
// If one or more matches was found, get the position of
// the first one. If that character is the same as the
// search character return the pointer to it, otherwise
// it must be the terminating zero so return NULL.
if (mask != 0)
{
_BitScanForward(&offset, mask);
str = (wchar_t *)(offset + (intptr_t)str);
return (*str == ch) ? (wchar_t *)str : NULL;
}
// No match found in this XMMWORD so skip to next.
str += XMM_CHARS;
}
else
{
// If it is not safe to check an entire XMMWORD, check
// a single character and try again.
if (*str == ch) return (wchar_t *)str;
if (*str == 0) return NULL;
// No match so skip to next characcter.
++str;
}
}
}
}
``` |
```javascript
"use strict";
const config = require('config');
if (!config.roles) {
config.roles = config.defaultRoles;
}
module.exports = config;
``` |
Cronaca Sovversiva (Subversive Chronicle) was an Italian-language, United States-based anarchist newspaper associated with Luigi Galleani from 1903 to 1920. It is one of the country's most significant anarchist periodicals.
History
Prior to founding Cronaca Sovversiva, Luigi Galleani became involved in anarcho-communist activism beginning in the 1880s and showed a predilection for speaking and writing convincingly on the topic. After escaping an Italian prison sentence, he traveled through to Paterson, New Jersey, in 1901. After being wounded during the 1902 Paterson silk strike and charged with incitement to riot, he first escaped to Canada before settling in Barre, Vermont, under an assumed name among Italian quarriers. There he began publishing the Italian-language anarchist newspaper Cronaca Sovversiva in 1903.
The newspaper was banned from Italy in October 1915, and from the United States Mail in June 1917. He continued to print the newspaper and distribute it cross-country via Railway Express and a network of supporters who delivered it locally.
References
Bibliography
Further reading
External links
Archives in the Library of Congress
1903 establishments in the United States
1918 disestablishments in the United States
Anarchist newspapers
Insurrectionary anarchism
Italian-language newspapers published in the United States
Newspapers established in 1903
Publications disestablished in 1918
Galleanisti |
Coconut sugar (also known as coco sugar, coconut palm sugar, coco sap sugar or coconut blossom sugar) is a palm sugar produced from the sap of the flower bud stem of the coconut palm.
Other types of palm sugar are made from the kithul palm (Caryota urens), Palmyra palm, the date palm, the sugar date palm, the sago palm or the sugar palm.
Used as a sweetener in many countries, coconut sugar has no significant nutritional or health benefits over other sweeteners.
Manufacture
Coconut sugar comes in crystal or granule form, block or liquid.
Producing coconut sugar is a two-step process. It starts with harvesting or "tapping" the flower bud stem of a coconut tree. Farmers make a cut on the spadix and the sap starts to flow from the cut into bamboo containers. The sap collected is then transferred into large woks and placed over moderate heat to evaporate the moisture content of the sap. The sap is translucent and is about 80% water. At this point it is known as coconut neera or (Indonesia), and as coconut toddy (Sri Lanka), (Thailand), or lagbi (North Africa). As the water evaporates, it starts to transform into a thick sap syrup. From this form, it may or may not be further reduced to crystal, block or soft paste form.
The brown colour which develops as the sap is reduced is mostly due to caramelization.
Culinary use
Coconut sugar is widely used in Sri Lanka as an unrefined syrup or as jaggery, referred to as pol hakuru(පොල් හකුරු), though the jaggery made from the Kithul palm is preferred.
In Indonesian cuisine coconut sugar is called gula jawa (Javanese sugar) or gula merah (red sugar), while gula aren refers to palm sugar specifically made from aren palm. Some Indonesian foodstuffs are made with coconut sugar, including kecap manis (a sweet soya sauce) and dendeng (a meat preparation).
Gula melaka is a Southeast Asian name for palm sugar or "malacca sugar", probably named for its origin in the state of Malacca, Malaysia. It is usually derived from coconut palms, but sometimes from other palms. It is used in savory dishes, but mainly in local desserts and cakes of the Southeast Asian region.
Taste and flavor
Coconut sugar is subtly sweet almost like brown sugar but with a slight hint of caramel. The flavor and sweetness is usually similar to table sugar or brown sugar. However, since coconut sugar is not highly processed, the color, sweetness and flavor can vary depending on the coconut species used, season when it was harvested, where it was harvested and/or the way the "sap" or "toddy" was reduced.
Nutrition and health claims
Although its use as a sweetener has become more common in developed countries, there is no scientific evidence that coconut sugar is more nutritious or healthier than any other sweetener. The nutritive value is similar to the empty calories found in table sugar or brown sugar. The principal carbohydrates of coconut sugar are sucrose (70–79%), glucose, and fructose (3–9% each). Coconut sugar also contains mannose, inositol and amino acids. Presumably due to the heat during cooking, it further contains pyroglutamate in comparatively high concentrations.
The glycemic index (GI) of coconut sugar was reported by the Philippine Coconut Authority to be 35 and by that measure is classified as a low glycemic index food. However, the University of Sydney (Australia) Glycemic Index Research Service measured the GI of coconut sugar to be 54, and considers any GI over 55 to be high.
See also
Gula melaka is frequently made from coconut sugar
Jaggery, a form of brown sugar, is sometimes made from coconut sugar
Tubâ, a Filipino traditional alcoholic drink made from coconut sap
References
Sugars
Foods containing coconut |
```php
<?php
/*
*
*
* path_to_url
*
* Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
* WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied. See the
*/
namespace Google\Service\ManagedServiceforMicrosoftActiveDirectoryConsumerAPI;
class LDAPSSettings extends \Google\Model
{
protected $certificateType = Certificate::class;
protected $certificateDataType = '';
/**
* @var string
*/
public $certificatePassword;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $certificatePfx;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $name;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $state;
/**
* @var string
*/
public $updateTime;
/**
* @param Certificate
*/
public function setCertificate(Certificate $certificate)
{
$this->certificate = $certificate;
}
/**
* @return Certificate
*/
public function getCertificate()
{
return $this->certificate;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setCertificatePassword($certificatePassword)
{
$this->certificatePassword = $certificatePassword;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getCertificatePassword()
{
return $this->certificatePassword;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setCertificatePfx($certificatePfx)
{
$this->certificatePfx = $certificatePfx;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getCertificatePfx()
{
return $this->certificatePfx;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setName($name)
{
$this->name = $name;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getName()
{
return $this->name;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setState($state)
{
$this->state = $state;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getState()
{
return $this->state;
}
/**
* @param string
*/
public function setUpdateTime($updateTime)
{
$this->updateTime = $updateTime;
}
/**
* @return string
*/
public function getUpdateTime()
{
return $this->updateTime;
}
}
// Adding a class alias for backwards compatibility with the previous class name.
class_alias(LDAPSSettings::class, your_sha256_hashAPI_LDAPSSettings');
``` |
Fehrbellin () is a municipality in Germany, located 60 km NW of Berlin. It had 9,310 inhabitants as of 2005, but has since declined to 8,606 inhabitants in 2012.
History
In 1675, the Battle of Fehrbellin was fought there, in which the troops of Brandenburg-Prussia defeated those of the occupying Swedish Empire. In 1758 during the Seven Years' War Prussian and Swedish forces clashed at the Battle of Fehrbellin (1758).
From 1815 to 1945, Fehrbellin was part of the Prussian Province of Brandenburg. From 1952 to 1990, it was part of the Bezirk Potsdam of East Germany.
One of the most important skydiving dropzones of Germany is located at the local airport.
Municipal divisions
Fehrbellin
Betzin
Brunne
Dechtow
Deutschhof
Hakenberg
Karwesee
Königshorst
Lentzke
Linum
Manker
Protzen
Tarmow
Walchow
Wall
Wustrau-Altfriesack
Wustrau and Altfriesack were amalgamated in 1970. With 1221 residents, the combined municipal division is the largest in the municipality. Altfriesack lies between the Ruppiner See and the Bützsee and belonged to Alt Ruppin until 1872. By area, Fehrbellin is the second-largest rural municipality ("Gemeinde") in Germany, trailing only Nuthe-Urstromtal.
Demography
Sights
Hakenberg Victory Column
Zietenschloß in Wustrau
Brandenburg-Preußen Museum
Personalities
Hans Joachim von Zieten (1699–1786), Prussian cavalry general, born and buried in Wustrau.
Hans Ernst Karl, Graf von Zieten (1770–1848), Prussian general field marshal
References
External links
Brandenburg Prussia Museum in Fehrbellin-Wustrau
Localities in Ostprignitz-Ruppin |
Arthur Edward Weston was an Australian Anglican priest in the mid-twentieth century.
Weston was educated at St John's College, Armidale, and was ordained in 1922. After a curacy at All Saints' Cathedral, Bathurst, he was Rector of Parkes, then Archdeacon of Bathurst from 1934 to 1936. He was Rector of Norwood from 1936 to 1947, then of Glenelg until 1957; Archdeacon of Strathalbyn from 1939 to 1953; and Dean of Adelaide from 1957 until 1966.
References
Archdeacons of Bathurst
Archdeacons of Strathalbyn
Deans of Adelaide
People educated at St John's College, Armidale |
NewYork-Presbyterian Brooklyn Methodist Hospital is located in Park Slope in Brooklyn, New York, between 7th and 8th Avenues, on 6th Street. The academic hospital has 591 beds (including bassinets) and provides services to some 42,000 inpatients each year. In addition, approximately 500,000 outpatient visits and services are logged annually. New York-Presbyterian Brooklyn Methodist Hospital offers specialized care in the following areas: advanced and minimally invasive surgery, advanced otolaryngology, asthma and lung disease, cancer care, cardiology and cardiac surgery, diabetes and other endocrine disorders, digestive and liver disorders, healthy aging, neurosciences, orthopedic medicine and surgery, vascular medicine and surgery, and women's health.
NewYork–Presbyterian Brooklyn Methodist Hospital is affiliated with Weill Cornell Medicine and is a teaching hospital for SUNY Downstate College of Medicine.
History
Founded in 1881, NewYork-Presbyterian Brooklyn Methodist Hospital was the first Methodist hospital in the country. The original Romanesque Revival-style building was replaced in the 1930s.
On December 16, 1960, a mid-air collision over Staten Island left 134 people dead; one of the two aircraft that had collided crashed in Park Slope in Brooklyn. The only initial survivor, Stephen Baltz, an 11-year-old boy from Illinois, was thrown from that aircraft onto a snowbank. Badly burned and having inhaled burning fuel, he was taken to what was then Brooklyn's Methodist Hospital, where he succumbed to pneumonia the next day. A plaque inside the hospital’s chapel commemorates the event, including the 65¢ that were found in the boy’s pocket upon arrival.
In 2014, the hospital announced plans to construct a new ambulatory care building on property already owned by the facility. A local community group, Preserve Park Slope, filed a lawsuit to overturn a decision by the New York City Board of Standards and Appeals to approve plans for the building. Construction began on the $445 million project in 2016 despite vigorous community opposition.
On March 15, 2021, NYP opened the Center for Community Health, a six-story ambulatory care center located on 6th Street in Park Slope. This is the first major outpatient care center built in Brooklyn in 40 years.
Name change
In December 16th, 2016 New York Methodist Hospital became part of the NewYork–Presbyterian Healthcare System network and the name was changed to NewYork-Presbyterian Brooklyn Methodist Hospital.
References
External links
Website for NewYork-Presbyterian Brooklyn Methodist Hospital
Website for Center for Community Health
Hospital buildings completed in 1887
Hospital buildings completed in 1924
Hospitals in Brooklyn
NewYork–Presbyterian Healthcare System
1881 establishments in New York (state)
Park Slope |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.