text stringlengths 1 22.8M |
|---|
Rodion Markovits (; or Markovitz, born Markovits Jakab ; 1888 – August 27, 1948) was an Austro-Hungarian-born writer, journalist and lawyer, one of the early modernist contributors to Magyar literary culture in Transylvania and Banat regions. He achieved international fame with the extended reportage Szibériai garnizon ("Siberian Garrison", 1927–8), which chronicles his own exotic experiences in World War I and the Russian Civil War. Locally, he is also known for his lifelong contribution to the political and cultural press of Transylvania. A Romanian national after 1920, Markovits divided himself between the Hungarian Romanian and Jewish communities, and was marginally affiliated with both the Ma art group and the Erdélyi Helikon writers.
Rodion Markovitz was seen by his contemporaries as an eccentric, and some of his colleagues believed him a minor and incidental writer. He was also noted for his leftist inclinations, cemented during his personal encounter with Bolshevism but toned down during the final decades of his life. Although he continued to publish short stories until the 1940s, and wrote the sequel novel Aranyvonat ("Gold Train"), his work never again matched the success of Szibériai garnizon. His final home was the Banat city of Timișoara, where he worked for the Romanian and Hungarian press, and eventually became a grassroots activist of the Hungarian People's Union.
Biography
Early life and World War I
Culturally and ethnically, Markovits was of Hungarian-Jewish extraction, and socially belonged to the lower classes. His background may have been Jewish assimilationist, and he regarded himself as ethnically Hungarian, but his interest in maintaining links with secular Jewish culture put distance between him and the more committed assimilationists. Historian Attila Gidó nevertheless includes Markovits among the most prominent Jews who helped promote, from within, the Hungarian urban culture of Transylvania.
The writer's home village was Kisgérce (today Gherţa Mică, Romania), in the ethnographic region of Avasság (Țara Oașului). He spent part of his childhood in Szatmárnémeti (today Satu Mare, Romania), the local urban center, where he attended Catholic school and then the Kölcsey Calvinist College. Young Markovits went on to study Law at the Faculty of Law of the Budapest (Eötvös Loránd) University, but mainly focused on his budding career as writer and cultural journalist, publishing with left-leaning or satirical periodicals such as Fidibusz, Népszava, Független, Ifjú Erők, Korbács, Szatmár és Vidéke and Márton Lovászy's Magyarország. Upon graduation, he also worked as a lawyer.
Romanian literary historian Cornel Ungureanu refers to World War I as Markovits' "first great journalistic adventure". Markovits was mobilized into the Austro-Hungarian Army a few months into the conflict. In early 1915, he was sent with the 12th Royal Hungarian Army infantry regiment to the Eastern Front, and was captured by the Russian military during summer 1916. His account places this event at the peak of Russia's Brusilov Offensive. Also according to Markovits, the column of Hungarian captives (including much of the 12th) was ordered to the transit camp of Darnytsia (Kiev), then his contingent was carried by train to Kineshma and by boat to Makaryevo. Their rest was interrupted by news that they were to be moved into Siberia, and eventually they were relocated to the banks of the Usuri River, on Russia's nominal border with the Republic of China.
Revolutionary politics
Markovits spent the next seven years of his life in Siberia and the Russian Far East—first as a prisoner of war, then as a drifter. He was notably held in Krasnaya Rechka prison camp, where he founded a newspaper for Hungarian captives, Szibériai Újság. Here, the Austro-Hungarian captives were reached by news of the February Revolution, and began organizing themselves into political or national factions even before the October Revolution sparked chaos in their captors' ranks. Nominally free, the prisoners were left to fend for themselves: after the Russian Civil War began, they purchased a train and, with it, made as far west as Samara, passing by Bolshevik units and Czechoslovak Legions, and being then pushed back into Siberia by the war tide; some Hungarians left the convoy to join the Bolsheviks' Red Guards.
Markovits was held in an isolated and improvised camp near Krasnoyarsk, where life conditions became brutal and the rank structure collapsed entirely. From this location, the entire group of Austro-Hungarians witnessed first hand the mutiny of Russian soldiers from the 30th Regiment, its repression by the White Army, followed by the mass murder of all disarmed rebels and the selective killing of Hungarians who supposedly helped them. According to Markovits, the camp population took its revenge by firing on the retreating Whites of Aleksandr Kolchak, capturing some 8,000 men—an action which had the unwanted effect of bringing typhus into the camp.
Markovits survived the outbreak and joined the newly created Red Army, where he became political commissar at a brigade level. According to his own fictionalized account, he volunteered to help with the coal transports organized by the Red squadrons, and was rewarded with repatriation (through the Baltic states, East Prussia and then Poland).
By the time Markovits returned to Transylvania, the entire region had been united with Romania. He decided to settle in Satu Mare, where he opened a law practice and continued work for the local Hungarian press—as editor of Szamos daily and correspondent for Cluj's Keleti Újság. He made his return to literature with short stories, grouped as Ismét találkoztam Balthazárral ("Once More, I Ran into Balthazar") and published in 1925.
The former prisoner had remained a committed follower of Leninism, as described by Ungureanu: "Taking his place on the left's barricades, living intensely the utopian illusions of communism, Markovits was to illustrate, in the early 1920s (like Malraux, Wells, Shaw, Panait Istrati, Gide etc.), the frenzy of enrollment." In the early to mid-1920s, Rodion Markovits came into contact with the socialist art magazine Ma, published in Vienna by Lajos Kassák and other leftist writers who opposed the regimes of Regency Hungary. Also left-leaning, the Romanian monthly Contimporanul paid homage to Ma as the regional ally of its own avant-garde program: "The reddish air of revolution has braided together the youth of Ma artists and the ideology of a revolution that might have realized their ideal. And the world awaited for the new Christ. But once the White reaction took over, Ma exiled itself to Vienna [...] A new period, a new foundation, a new language emerge with the adoption of collective Constructivism." Between the Constructivist cells of Ma and Contimporanul, and ensuring that the Hungarian and Romanian avant-gardes remained in contact, there was a cosmopolitan group of Transylvanian leftists: Markovits, Aurel Buteanu, Károly Endre, Robert Reiter and Julius Podlipny.
Literary prominence
Szibériai garnizon was originally serialized by Keleti Újság during 1927. The next year, it was reissued as two volumes. These caught the eye of fellow writer Lajos Hatvany, who undertook their translation into German, for Vossischen Zeitung and later for Ullstein-Verlag. The 1929 English version by George Halasz was published in the United States by Horace Liveright, and the first print was exhausted over a few months. A French translation was published by Éditions Payot in 1930.
The books were translated into some 12 other languages before 1933, reaching as far as Asia and South America and making Markovits an international celebrity of the interwar period. According to cultural historian Ivan Sanders, Markovits was, "for a time, the best-known Transylvanian writer in the world." As commentators have since noted, Szibériai garnizon also announced to the world that Hungarian literature in Transylvania was coming of age, even though its subject and content were largely dissonant with the aims of Transylvania's existing literary clubs.
In the larger context of Hungarian literature as divided by the interwar borders, Markovits has drawn parallels with the war-themed literature of Géza Gyóni, Aladár Kuncz, Máté Zalka and Lajos Zilahy. According to Ungureanu, solid links exist between Markovits and an entire category of Austro-Hungarian intellectuals who turned into revolutionaries. Ungureanu concludes: "Settled in the 'once upon a time' provinces of the Empire or wandering the world in search of a 'juster' cause, [these authors] give name to a finality — a shipwreck."
Following the international confirmation, Markovits attracted interest among Transylvanian and Romanian writers of all cultures. The Bucharest daily Dimineaţa featured the serialized Romanian-language version shortly after its German edition saw print. Meanwhile, the Transylvanian Hungarian editors of Erdélyi Helikon review asked Markovits to join their literary club and, in 1929, he visited them at Marosvécs-Brâncoveneşti. Helikon contributor Ernő Ligeti left a memoir of the meeting, in which Markovits comes off as the uncommunicative eccentric. The puzzled and (according to Sanders) envious Ligeti noted that Markovits did not live up to the respect of his "penniless" fans, did not show any interest in Helikons educational agenda, and only "opened his mouth" to impart "droll anecdotes".
In Timișoara
After February 1931, Rodion Markovits moved to the Banat's cultural center, Timișoara, having been granted an editor's position at Temesvári Hírlap (the Hungarian and liberal daily of László Pogány). This relocation, Ungureanu notes, was the end of his communist engagements, and his reinvention as "a reasonable newspaperman". Markovits' writing was later featured in the Romanian-language magazine Vrerea, put out by the left-wing poet Ion Stoia-Udrea. Their common agenda, also shared by Timișoaran intellectuals Virgil Birou, Zoltán Franyó, Andrei A. Lillin and József Méliusz, defined itself around notions of multiculturalism and class conflict. In a 1935 interview, he declared his "spontaneous, sincere and complete affiliation" to the proposals for greater cooperation between Hungarian and Romanian authors.
These years saw the publication of Markovits' two new books: the novels Aranyvonat and Sánta farsang ("Limp Carnival"), and the short prose collection Reb Ancsli és más avasi zsidókról szóló széphistóriák ("Stories About Reb Anschl and Other Jews from the Mountains"). According to Ivan Sanders, "Markovits's subsequent novels were not nearly as successful as Siberian Garrison." Ligeti, who recalled that Markovits fared badly in his journalistic career, mentions that Reb Ancsli... required its author to peddle his way back to the publishers' attention.
Markovits survived World War II from his new home in the Banat, while Regency Hungary incorporated his Northern Transylvanian place of birth. By 1944, Romania had control over both regions, and a transition to communism was first envisaged. At the time, Markovits became a volunteer activist of the Hungarian People's Union, a regional and ethnic partner of the Romanian Communist Party. He resumed his journalistic activity, writing for various Magyar papers in Romania and the Republic of Hungary (Képes Újság, Szabad Szó, Utunk, Világ), gave public readings of his newer works, and lectured at the Béla Bartók Summer University. For a while, Markovits was also president of the Association of Banat Hungarian Writers.
Rodion Markovits died unexpectedly, in his sleep, on August 27, 1948, and was buried at the Timișoara Jewish Cemetery.
Literary work
Ismét találkoztam Balthazárral was in fact Markovits' earliest account of his Siberian trek. Writing in 1930 for the Transylvanian periodical Societatea de Mâine, literary critic Ion Chinezu argued that the volume was merely negligent: "The mannerism of these Siberian memoirs, written with coffee house negligence, was not a good recommendation." By contrast, Szibériai garnizon survives as Markovits' one great book. Chinezu even ranks it better than the period's other war novels (All Quiet on the Western Front), since, beyond "fashion and psychosis", it "has remarkable qualities". An editorial review in the US Field Artillery Branch Coast Artillery Journal also noted: "Siberian Garrison, by sheer force of merit, has become the literary sensation of Europe".
Overall, reviewers agree that the volume is hard to classify in the grid of established genres. Although often read as a novel (a "documentary novel", Sanders suggests), Szibériai garnizon carries the subtitle of "collective reportage". It is a second-person narrative focused on a Budapest lawyer, very likely Markovits' alter ego, who interprets things around him through the grid of objectivity, common sense and boredom. Coast Artillery Journal described Markovits' "unforgettable" creation as "in a class of its own": equal parts novel, diary, historical account and "war book".
Szibériai garnizon, Chinezu notes, lacks all the formal qualities of a novel and veers into "clicking monotony", but, "for all its longueurs, is lively and propels itself into the reader's awareness." Similarly, La Quinzaine Critique columnist André Pierre reported: "The work is located outside the frame of literature, and constitutes a seething document of life, rich in hallucinatory visions." Reviewer Al. Simion writes that the book has as its fortes the "concreteness of images", a "gentle or not so gentle" irony, and, overall, "a limpidness reminding one about the clarity of deepest wells"; the book's universe, he argues, is "flat perhaps, but transparent". Coast Artillery Journal found the narrative to be "distinctly Slavic", "introspective, analytical, sometimes morbid, with a fatalistic acceptance of the inevitable".
To the background of historical events, Szibériai garnizon explores existential themes. According to Chinezu, the text is important for showing the alienation of a prisoner, the man's transformation into "anonymous digit", and the apathetic crowd into which he submerges. Characters fall into two main categories: those who conveniently forget their countries of birth for the duration of their ordeal, and those who miss them so much that they risk escaping and making the perilous journey across Asia. The one sustained effort against apathy is mounted by a militaristic and loyalist group of prisoners, who establish a Siberian branch of Turul Society. Markovits retells the dramatic failure of their honor system, and the ridiculousness of their cultural endeavors, with subdued irony (over what Chinezu calls his "many acid pages"). Al. Simion also notes that, in their Siberian exile, the prisoners come to understand the fragility of their own Empire.
Beyond commentary on the "burlesque bankruptcy of militarism", the reportage is a humorous critique of capitalism. Chinezu reads this in Markovits' depiction of officers, including aged ones, who quickly retrain and build themselves lucrative careers as shoemakers or shopkeepers. The Romanian critic concludes: "the eternal opposition of exploiters and exploited takes its form here, in the heart of Asia." The spark of revolution achieves the destruction of social convention, but also replaces monotony with the presentment of doom. "At one with the events," Simion writes, "the individual or collective dramas and tragedies unfold in accelerated rhythms, in an often demented cavalcade. The extraordinary, the apocalyptic are metamorphosed into diurnal experience." According to Pierre, Markovits' literary effort is on par with the published diaries of another Siberian captive, Edwin Erich Dwinger. Dwinger and the Hungarian author depict "the same destitution, the same sexual perversions, a disruption of ideas and convictions after the Russian Revolution, the camp's transformation into a workers' phalanstère."
With Reb Ancsli és más avasi zsidókról szóló széphistóriák, Markovits alienated his Hungarian Romanian public, a fact noted by Ivan Sanders. "This curious collection", Sanders writes, "is indeed much closer in spirit and style to popular Yiddish literature than to Transylvanian Hungarian writing, and [Ernő] Ligeti notes this, too, with a mixture of amusement and disdain."
Legacy
In Communist Romania, Rodion Markovits' overall work was considered for translation and republication during the mid-1960s—a project of the state-run ESPLA Publishing House, with assistance from his former Timișoaran colleagues Zoltán Franyó and József Méliusz. Markovits continued to be respected by the national communist authorities, even as the diplomatic contacts with Hungary began to worsen. Around 1968, the Romanian regime promoted Markovits, Jenő Dsida, Sándor Makkai, Aladár Kuncz and some others as the canonical authors of Hungarian-Romanian literature, but, Hungarian observers wrote, it remained silent about the more unpalatable political stances these authors took. In a 1981 review of Hungarian Romanian literature, published by the Romanian Communist Party's Era Socialistă, Kuncz and Markovits were introduced as authors of "anti-militarist novels [...] unmasking the cruelty of World War I".
A Romanian edition of Szibériai garnizon was eventually re-translated by Dan Culcer, and published with Bucharest's Editura Kriterion. After being researched and collected by writer János Szekernyés, Markovits' articles were grouped in the 1978 volume Páholyból ("From the Booth").
Markovits' work continued to be revered even after the Romanian Revolution of 1989 toppled communism. Editura Dacia republished Garnizoana din Siberia, and his work was included in a commemorative anthology of writers from Satu Mare County. The writer's home in Gherţa Mică is preserved as the Rodion Markovits Memorial House.<ref> Casă memorială. Gherţa Mică"], at the Satu Mare County site; retrieved November 11, 2011</ref>
Notes
References
Markovits Rodion, Garnizoana din Siberia (translated by Dan Culcer, with a preface by Al. Simion), Editura Kriterion, Bucharest, 1975; online reprint at the Erdélyi Magyar Adatbank
Andreea Andreescu, Lucian Nastasă, Andrea Varga (eds.), Minorităţi etnoculturale. Mărturii documentare. Maghiarii din România (1956–1968) (Documente 145–151), Resource Center for Ethno-cultural Diversity, Cluj-Napoca, 2003.
Adriana Babeţi, Cornel Ungureanu (eds.), Europa Centrală. Memorie, paradis, apocalipsă, Polirom, Iaşi, 1998.
Paul Cernat, Avangarda românească şi complexul periferiei: primul val, Cartea Românească, Bucharest, 2007.
André Pierre, "Revue des livres et des revues. Littérature hongroise", in La Quinzaine Critique'', Nr. 41/1931, p. 335-336 (digitized by the Bibliothèque nationale de France [http://gallica.bnf.fr/ Gallica digital library)
Writers from Austria-Hungary
Journalists from Austria-Hungary
Hungarian journalists
Hungarian male novelists
Jewish Hungarian-language writers
Romanian opinion journalists
Romanian memoirists
Romanian male novelists
20th-century Romanian novelists
Romanian male short story writers
Romanian short story writers
Jewish novelists
Austro-Hungarian Jews
Romanian people of Hungarian-Jewish descent
People from Satu Mare County
Eötvös Loránd University alumni
20th-century Hungarian lawyers
Austro-Hungarian military personnel of World War I
World War I prisoners of war held by Russia
People of the Russian Civil War
Hungarian communists
Romanian communists
Communist writers
1888 births
1948 deaths
20th-century Hungarian novelists
20th-century Hungarian male writers
20th-century journalists
20th-century memoirists |
Easton station may refer to:
Easton station (Pennsylvania), a former station on the Lehigh Valley Railroad in the United States
Easton railway station (England), a former station on the Isle of Portland in Dorset, United Kingdom |
California School of Podiatric Medicine at Samuel Merritt University is a podiatric medical school based in Oakland, California. It is one of eleven podiatric medical schools in the United States. The college is accredited by the American Podiatric Medical Association's Council on Podiatric Medical Education.
History
The school was founded in 1914 as the California School of Chiropody and was located in San Francisco. In 1969, the name was changed to the California College of Podiatric Medicine. In 2002, the college underwent a merger with Samuel Merritt University in Oakland and the school was renamed to be the California School of Podiatric Medicine (CSPM).
Until 2009, when Western University opened its College of Podiatric Medicine in Pomona, CSPM was the only podiatric medical school in the western United States. For this reason, most podiatric physicians in that part of the country attended CSPM.
Academics
The educational program leading to the Doctor of Podiatric Medicine degree consists of a comprehensive curriculum in the basic medical and clinical sciences. The didactic course work is completed during the first three years of the program. Clinical rotations begin at the start of the second academic year in May. During the summer months, second year students begin to participate in clinical rotations, which cover mechanical orthopedics/biomechanics, radiology, general and primary podiatric medicine. The majority of the third year and the entire fourth year are devoted to clinical rotations at inpatient and outpatient facilities, outside externships at affiliated Bay Area medical centers and throughout the United States, and community practice clerkships. In addition to podiatric medicine and surgery, students are exposed to internal medicine, vascular surgery, general surgery, orthopedics surgery, rheumatology, anesthesia, dermatology, trauma, infectious disease, and other medical fields.
Students, who successfully complete the four year podiatric medical curriculum, take and pass the 3rd Year Practical Examinations, the 4th Year Objective Structured Clinical Examination (OSCE) Examination, Parts I and II of the National Board of Podiatric Medical Examiners, and receive approval for graduation by the appropriate administration and faculty may be granted the degree of Doctor of Podiatric Medicine.
CSPM has a local learning center at St. Mary's Medical Center in San Francisco. In addition to St. Mary's, major hospital affiliations include Seton Medical Center, Alameda County Medical Center - Highland Hospital, Laguna Honda Hospital and Rehabilitation Center, Kaiser Permanente San Francisco, San Francisco General Hospital, VA San Francisco Medical Center, and VA Palo Alto Health Care System. In addition, fourth year students have the opportunity to do core rotations at VA Albuquerque Medical Center, Maricopa Medical Center in Arizona, VA Salt Lake City, VA Tacoma/Madigan Army Hospital, or Long Beach Memorial Medical Center.
References
External links
California School of Podiatric Medicine Website
Samuel Merritt University
External links
Official website
Universities and colleges established in 1909
Education in Oakland, California
Podiatric medical schools in the United States
Universities and colleges in Alameda County, California
Schools accredited by the Western Association of Schools and Colleges
1909 establishments in California |
Professor Kenji Takagi (1888–1963) was a Japanese orthopedic surgeon, noted for being one of the first people to carry out a successful arthroscopy of the knee.
Takagi was attached to Tokyo University (where he succeeded Yoshinori Tashiro) in 1918 when he carried out the ground-breaking operation on a cadaver. He had been influenced by the work of Danish surgeon Severin Nordentoft. In 1922, he went to Germany to study the use of x-ray technology there. Following World War II, Takagi's pupil Masaki Watanabe, carried on his work.
References
1888 births
1963 deaths
Japanese orthopedic surgeons
20th-century surgeons |
Mark W. Gillette is United States Army major general who served as the Senior Defense Official and Defense Attaché to U.S. Embassy Cairo, Egypt from September 2020 to January 2023. Previously he served as the Chief of Staff of the United Nations Command from August 2018 to September 2020 and Defense Attaché to U.S. Embassy Beijing, China from June 2013 to June 2015.
References
Living people
Place of birth missing (living people)
Recipients of the Defense Superior Service Medal
United States Army generals
Year of birth missing (living people)
United States military attachés |
Langelurillus orbicularis is a species of jumping spider in the genus Langelurillus that lives in Zimbabwe. The species was first described in 2008 by Wanda Wesołowska and Meg Cumming. The spider is small with a distinctively rounded grey abdomen between long and a dark brown carapace between long. The species is named for the rounded abdomen. The female is larger than the male and has a mottled abdomen that has a ladder-like pattern made up of six spots. It is similar to others in its genus, but differs in the design of the copulatory organs. The male has a distinctive tibial apophysis made up of three horns and the female has wide seminal ducts that make a characteristic shape.
Taxonomy
Langelurillus orbicularis was first described by Wanda Wesołowska and Meg Cumming in 2008. It was one of over 500 species identified by the Polish arachnologist Wesołowska during her career. They allocated it to the genus Langelurillus, which had been raised by Maciej Próchniewicz in 1994. The genus is related to Aelurillus and Langona but the spiders are smaller and, unlike these genera and Phlegra, they lack the parallel stripes on the back of the body that is feature of the majority of these spiders. In 2015, Wayne Maddison placed the genus in the subtribe Aelurillina, which also contained Aelurillus, Langona and Phlegra, in the tribe Aelurillini, within the subclade Saltafresia in the clade Salticoida. In 2016, Jerzy Prószyński placed the same genera in a group named Aelurillines based on the shape of the spiders' copulatory organs. The species is named after a Latin word that means rounded.
Description
Langelurillus orbicularis is a small spider. The male has a very high carapace that has a length of between and a width of between . It is light brown and covered in short grey hairs with a short eye field. The clypeus is brown and of medium height. The chelicerae are yellowish brown with a blue metallic sheen and toothless, while the labium and other mouthparts are light brown. The rounded abdomen is distinctive, as recalled in the species name. It is between long and wide, grey and covered in grey hairs. The spinnerets are yellow and black and the relatively short legs are yellowish-brown, with brown hairs and spines. The pedipalps are hairy and dark brown to black. The spider has a very convex palpal bulb with tooth-like tegular apophysis on the edge of the tegulum. The embolus is coiled into a spiral at the tip of the bulb. The embolus is hidden behind a shield. The male has a distinctive tibial apophysis, or appendage, with one horn having two prongs, one larger than the other, and another topped with what seems to be a mat of short dense hairs.
The female is generally larger to the male. The carapace is between long and wide and the abdomen measures between long and wide. It has similar colours, although the thorax is lighter and the abdomen is mottled with a ladder-like pattern made of three pairs of white spots. There are two teeth in the chelicerae. The spider has an oval epigyne with two rounded depressions and wide seminal ducts leading to spherical receptacles.
The species has similarities to others in the genus, particularly Langelurillus difficilis and Langelurillus manifestus, but have distinctive copulatory organs, especially the shape of the male's tibial apophysis and the female's seminal ducts.
Distribution and habitat
Almost all, if not all, Langelurillus spiders live in sub-Saharan Africa. Langelurillus orbicularis is endemic to Zimbabwe. The holotype was discovered in 1999. It lives in and around leaf litter in shady damp places, under trees, bushes and walls.
References
Citations
Bibliography
}}
Arthropods of Zimbabwe
Endemic fauna of Zimbabwe
Salticidae
Spiders described in 2008
Spiders of Africa
Taxa named by Wanda Wesołowska |
Pherocera flavipes is a species of stiletto flies (insects in the family Therevidae).
References
Therevidae
Articles created by Qbugbot
Insects described in 1923 |
In ancient Greek religion and myth, the Anemoi (Greek: , "Winds") were wind gods who were each ascribed a cardinal direction from which their respective winds came (see Classical compass winds), and were each associated with various seasons and weather conditions. They were the progeny of the goddess of the dawn Eos and her husband, the god of the dusk, Astraeus.
Etymology
The earliest attestation of the word in Greek and of the worship of the winds by the Greeks, are perhaps the Mycenaean Greek word-forms , , , , i.e. "priestess of the winds". These words, written in Linear B, are found on the KN Fp 1 and KN Fp 13 tablets.
Mythology
The Anemoi are minor gods and are subject to the god Aeolus. They were sometimes represented as gusts of wind, and at other times were personified as winged men. They were also sometimes depicted as horses kept in the stables of the storm god Aeolus, who provided Odysseus with the Anemoi in the Odyssey. The Spartans were reported to sacrifice a horse to the winds on Mount Taygetus. Astraeus, the astrological deity (sometimes associated with Aeolus), and Eos/Aurora, the goddess of the dawn, were the parents of the Anemoi, according to the Greek poet Hesiod.
Of the four chief Anemoi, Boreas (Aquilo in Roman mythology) is the north wind and bringer of cold winter air, Zephyrus (Favonius in Latin) is the west wind and bringer of light spring and early-summer breezes, and Notus (Auster in Latin) is the south wind and bringer of the storms of late summer and autumn; Eurus, the southeast (or according to some, the east) wind, was not associated with any of the three Greek seasons, and is the only one of these four Anemoi not mentioned in Hesiod's Theogony or in the Orphic hymns.
The deities equivalent to the Anemoi in Roman mythology were the Venti (Latin, "winds"). These gods had different names, but were otherwise very similar to their Greek counterparts, borrowing their attributes and being frequently conflated with them. Ptolemy's world map listed 12 winds: Septentrio (N), Aquilo (NNE), Vulturnus (NE), Subsolanus (E), Eurus (SE), Euroauster (SSE), Austeronotus (S), Euronotus (SSW), Africus (SW), Zephirus (W), Eurus (NW), Circius (NNW).
Boreas
Boreas is the god of the north wind and the harshest of the Anemoi. He is mostly known for his abduction of the Athenian princess Orithyia, by whom he became the father of the Boreads. In art, he is usually depicted as a bearded, older man. His Roman equivalent is called Aquilo.
Zephyrus (Favonius)
Zephyrus (Gk. []), sometimes shortened in English to Zephyr, is the Greek god of the west wind. The gentlest of the winds, Zephyrus is known as the fructifying wind, the messenger of spring. It was thought that Zephyrus lived in a cave in Thrace.
Zephyrus was reported as having several wives in different stories. He was said to be the husband of Iris, goddess of the rainbow. He abducted the goddess Chloris, and gave her the domain of flowers. With Chloris, he fathered Karpos ('fruit'). He is said to have vied for Chloris's love with his brother Boreas, eventually winning her devotion. Additionally, with yet another sister and lover, the harpy Podarge (also known as Celaeno), Zephyrus was said to be the father of Balius and Xanthus, Achilles' horses.
In the story of Eros and Psyche, Zephyrus served Eros (or Cupid) by transporting Psyche to his abode.
Zephyrus was also claimed to have killed one of Apollo's many male lovers Hyacinth out of jealousy. Hyacinth was killed by a discus thrown by Apollo. Though according to some sources, his death was said to be an accident, others said that Zephyrus was the true culprit, having blown the discus off course.
Notus (Auster)
Notus (, ) was the Greek god of the south wind. He was associated with the desiccating hot wind of the rise of Sirius after midsummer, was thought to bring the storms of late summer and early autumn, and was feared as a destroyer of crops.
Notus' equivalent in Roman mythology was Auster, the embodiment of the sirocco wind, a southerly wind which brings cloudy weather, powerful winds and rain to southern Europe. (Auster named the compass point Australis and the country's name Australia.) The Auster winds are mentioned in Virgil's Aeneid Book II, lines 304–307:
Another Roman poet, Tibullus 1.1, lines 47–48, speaks of the pleasure of lying in bed on rainy winter days:
The name Australia (the "southern land") is derived from Auster.
Eurus (Vulturnus)
Eurus (, ) according to some was the southeast wind, but according to others the east wind. On the Tower of the Winds in Athens, Eurus occupies the southeast side, while Apeliotes is in the east. However, it is widely accepted that Eurus is the east wind, while Apeliotes is the southeast wind.
Eurus' Roman counterpart is Vulturnus, according to Pliny the Elder; but for Aulus Gellius Volturnus was the equivalent of the southeast wind Euronotus. In the Latin poems, the name Eurus is generally used for the east or southeast wind, as in Greek.
Eurus is a wind of storm, described as a turbulent wind during storms and tossing ships on the sea. He is referred to as the "savior of Sparta" in a Homeric paean, or poem. Eurus is also called the "hot wind" by Nonnus in Dionysiaca. Eurus is closely related to Helios in passages of the Dionysiaca, being called from his place near Helios' palace, Phaethon, where the sun rose in the east.
Lesser winds
Four lesser wind deities appear in a few ancient sources, such as at the Tower of the Winds in Athens:
Kaikias (or Caecius) is the Greek deity of the northeast wind. He is shown on the monument as a bearded man with a shield full of hailstones.
Apeliotes (or Apheliotes; the name means 'from the (rising) sun') is the Greek deity of the southeast wind. As this wind was thought to cause a refreshing rain particularly beneficial to farmers, he is often depicted wearing high boots and carrying fruit, draped in a light cloth concealing some flowers or grain. He is clean-shaven, with curly hair and a friendly expression. Because Apeliotes is a minor god, he was often syncretized with Eurus, the east wind. The Roman counterpart of Apeliotes is Subsolanus.
Skiron was the name used in Athens for the wind which blew from the Scironian rocks (a geographical feature near Kineta to the west of Athens). On the Tower of the Winds, however, he appears on the northwest side. His name is related to Skirophorion, the last of the three months of spring in the Attic calendar. He is depicted as a bearded man tilting a cauldron, representing the onset of winter. His Roman counterpart is Caurus or Corus. Caurus is also one of the oldest Roman wind-deities, and numbered among the di indigetes ('indigenous gods'), a group of abstract and largely minor numinous entities. The Roman poet Virgil writes when describing steppe winter weather near the Sea of Azov:
Lips is the Greek deity of the southwest wind, often depicted holding the stern of a ship. His Roman equivalent was Africus, due to the Roman province Africa being to the southwest of Italy. This name is thought to be derived from the name of a North African tribe, the Afri.
Other minor wind deities included:
Argestes "clearing", a wind blowing from about the same direction as Skiron (Caurus), and probably another name for it
Aparctias, sometimes called the north wind instead of Boreas
Thrascias, the north-northwest wind (sometimes called in Latin Circius)
Euronotus, the wind blowing from the direction, as its name suggests, between Euros and Notus, that is, a south-southeast wind (Euroauster to the Romans)
Iapyx, the northwest wind about the same as Caurus. It was this wind, according to Virgil, that carried the fleeing Cleopatra home to Egypt after she was defeated at the battle of Actium.
Libonotus, the south-southwest wind, known as Austro-Africus to the Romans
Meses, another name for the northwest wind
Olympias, apparently identified with Skiron/Argestes
Phoenicias, another name for the southeast wind ('the one blowing from Phoenicia', due to this land lying to the southeast of Greece)
See also
Anemometer, modern device to measure wind
Bacab
Dáinn, Dvalinn, Duneyrr and Duraþrór
Norðri, Suðri, Austri and Vestri
Vayu
List of wind deities
References
Further reading
Apollonius of Rhodes, Apollonius Rhodius: the Argonautica, translated by Robert Cooper Seaton, W. Heinemann, 1912. Internet Archive.
Aristotle, Meteorologica, 2.6
Aulus Gellius, Attic Nights, 2. 22
Grimal, Pierre, The Dictionary of Classical Mythology, Wiley-Blackwell, 1996. .
Herodotus, The Histories with an English translation by A. D. Godley. Cambridge. Harvard University Press. 1920. Online version at the Topos Text Project. Greek text available at Perseus Digital Library.
March, J. (1999). Cassell's Dictionary Of Classical Mythology. London. .
Pausanias, Description of Greece with an English Translation by W.H.S. Jones, Litt.D., and H.A. Ormerod, M.A., in 4 Volumes. Cambridge, MA, Harvard University Press; London, William Heinemann Ltd. 1918. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library
Pausanias, Graeciae Descriptio. 3 vols. Leipzig, Teubner. 1903. Greek text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pliny the Elder, The Natural History. John Bostock, M.D., F.R.S. H.T. Riley, Esq., B.A. London. Taylor and Francis, Red Lion Court, Fleet Street. 1855. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Pliny the Elder, Naturalis Historia. Karl Friedrich Theodor Mayhoff. Lipsiae. Teubner. 1906. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Aeneid. Theodore C. Williams. trans. Boston. Houghton Mifflin Co. 1910. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Latin text available at the Perseus Digital Library.
Publius Vergilius Maro, Bucolics, Aeneid, and Georgics of Vergil. J. B. Greenough. Boston. Ginn & Co. 1900. Online version at the Perseus Digital Library.
External links
Warburg Institute Iconographic Database (ca 50 images of winds)
Drawings of the eight winds on the Tower of the Winds at Athens
{| border="1" cellpadding="5" cellspacing="0"
! style="background:#ffdead;" |Myths read aloud by storytellers
|-
|Bibliography of reconstruction: Homer, Iliad ii.595–600 (c. 700 BCE); Various 5th century BCE vase paintings; Palaephatus, On Unbelievable Tales 46. Hyacinthus (330 BCE); Pseudo-Apollodorus, Bibliotheca 1.3.3; Ovid, Metamorphoses 10. 162–219 (1–8 CE); Pausanias, Description of Greece 3.1.3, 3.19.4 (160–176 CE); Philostratus the Elder, Images i.24 Hyacinthus (170–245 CE); Philostratus the Younger, Images 14. Hyacinthus (170–245 CE); Lucian, Dialogues of the Gods 14 (170 CE); First Vatican Mythographer, 197. Thamyris et Musae
|}
Characters in Roman mythology
Children of Eos
Deities in the Iliad
Greek gods
Metamorphoses characters
Personifications in Greek mythology
Roman gods
Sky and weather gods
Wind gods
Helios in mythology
Avian humanoids |
1979 Football Championship of Ukrainian SSR was the 49th season of association football competition of the Ukrainian SSR, which was part of the Soviet Second League in Zone 2. The season started on 31 March 1981.
The 1979 Football Championship of Ukrainian SSR was won by Kolos Nikopol.
The "Ruby Cup" of Molod Ukrayiny newspaper (for the most scored goals) was received by Avanhard Rivno.
Teams
Location map
Promoted teams
Metalurh Dniprodzerzhynsk – Champion of the Fitness clubs competitions (KFK) (debut)
Okean Kerch – Third place runner-up of the Fitness clubs competitions (KFK) (returning after 10 seasons)
Renamed teams
Nyva Vinnytsia was called Lokomotyv Vinnytsia
Avtomobilist Tiraspol was called Start Tiraspol
Final standings
Top goalscorers
The following were the top ten goalscorers.
See also
Soviet Second League
Notes
External links
1979 Soviet Second League, Zone 6 (Ukrainian SSR football championship). Luhansk football portal
1979 Soviet championships (all leagues) at helmsoccer.narod.ru
1979
3
Soviet
Soviet
football
Football Championship of the Ukrainian SSR |
The Sardinian regional election of 1961 took place on 18 June 1961.
Two more seats were added.
After the election Efisio Corrias, the incumbent Christian Democratic President, formed a new government that included the Sardinian Action Party, a social-liberal regionalist party. In 1963 the government was enlarged to the Italian Democratic Socialist Party.
Results
Sources: Regional Council of Sardinia and Istituto Cattaneo
References
Elections in Sardinia
1961 elections in Italy |
Lauretha A. Vaird (August 4, 1952 – January 2, 1996) was a Philadelphia Police Department officer who was shot dead by the rapper Christopher Roney aka "Cool C" during a botched armed bank robbery in January 1996. Roney attempted to rob the bank with another rapper, Warren McGlone aka "Steady B", and another man, Mark Canty. During the robbery, Vaird was mortally wounded by a gunshot wound in the abdomen and died soon after. Vaird was Philadelphia's first female police officer to be shot and killed in the line of duty.
Background
Vaird was a single mother of two boys. Before she became a police officer, she worked as a teacher's aide at Pickett Middle School in Germantown. She joined the Philadelphia police force in 1986 at the age of 34. Before her death, she was a 9-year veteran with the 25th District.
Murder
On January 2, 1996, at around 8:20 a.m., "Cool C" and "Steady B", and their accomplice, Canty, attempted to rob a PNC Bank branch in Feltonville, Philadelphia, at 4710 Rising Sun Avenue. The men had stolen a green minivan for the job which was driven by McGlone who acted as the getaway driver. Roney and Canty went into the branch before it was due to open. Canty carried a 9 millimeter semi-automatic handgun and Roney was armed with a .38 caliber revolver. The bank had no security guards, which influenced the men to rob that particular branch. They held three bank employees at gunpoint and demanded access to the bank vault. Within moments of entering the bank, the silent alarm was tripped. Officer Vaird, who was in the area at the time and riding alone in a patrol car, responded to the alarm.
Canty forced two of the bank employees to take him to the vault while Roney stood guard by the bank entrance covering the third employee. As Vaird entered the door to the bank with her weapon drawn, she was shot in the abdomen by Roney. Vaird was wearing a bulletproof vest, but it was without its bullet-resistant panels. After he shot her, Roney left the bank through the front door. Canty fled through a side entrance and left his gun at the scene. Roney then exchanged fire with another police officer, Donald Patterson, who arrived shortly after Vaird. Roney was able to escape and dropped his gun on the sidewalk outside the entrance to the bank. He got into the minivan with McGlone and the two men then fled. None of the three suspects stole anything from the bank. Vaird was taken to St. Christopher's Hospital for Children, where she was pronounced dead at 9:56 am, having been killed by the single shot to the abdomen.
Aftermath
The two pistols used by the assailants were found separately outside different entrances to the bank. The stolen minivan that Roney and McGlone had escaped in was found abandoned about a mile from the bank. The police also found various items of clothing used as disguises by Canty and Roney. This evidence led to their warrants and arrests. The guns were traced back to both Canty and McGlone. The .38 caliber revolver used by Roney belonged to Anthony Brown, a relative of Canty. It had been stolen from Brown and was last seen in Canty's possession before the bank robbery. The 9mm semi-automatic pistol was traced back to Richelle Parker, a friend of McGlone, who had bought the gun for him.
McGlone was arrested outside his home two days later on January 4, 1996. He was charged with murder in the death of officer Vaird. After questioning McGlone, police issued a warrant for the arrests of Canty and Roney. Canty was arrested during a traffic stop in Maryland at a later date. Roney surrendered to the police on January 6, 1996.
Vaird died at the age of 43 and is buried at Ivy Hill Cemetery in Philadelphia, Pennsylvania.
Trial and conviction
On October 30, 1996, McGlone and Canty were both sentenced to life in prison without possibility of parole. McGlone is an inmate at the State Correctional Institution – Houtzdale and his inmate ID number is DD6864. Canty is an inmate at the State Correctional Institution – Mahanoy and his inmate ID number is DD6842. Roney was identified as the actual killer of Vaird, as he had been the one to fire the gun that killed her. On October 30, 1996, Roney was found guilty of first-degree murder, three counts of robbery, conspiracy, aggravated assault, burglary and possession of an instrument of crime. On November 1, 1996, he received the death penalty for murdering Vaird. He is currently on death row awaiting execution and is an inmate at the State Correctional Institution – Greene. His inmate ID number is DF1973.
On January 10, 2006, Roney's death warrant was signed by Pennsylvania Governor Ed Rendell and his execution date was set for March 9, 2006 (Rendell was Philadelphia's Mayor at the time of the robbery/murder). He was granted a stay of execution from Pennsylvania Judge Gary Glazer on February 1, 2006, until all post-conviction litigation was resolved. His execution was set for January 8, 2015, but he was granted another stay of execution by Pennsylvania Judge Luis Felipe Restrepo on December 5, 2014.
References
1996 in Pennsylvania
1996 murders in the United States
American murder victims
American police officers killed in the line of duty
Bank robberies
Burials at Ivy Hill Cemetery (Philadelphia)
Crimes in Philadelphia
Deaths by firearm in Pennsylvania
Deaths by person in Pennsylvania
Female murder victims
History of Philadelphia
January 1996 crimes in the United States
Philadelphia Police Department
People murdered in Pennsylvania
Robberies in the United States |
```javascript
import React from 'react';
import CalendarList from '../index';
import {CalendarListDriver} from '../driver';
//@ts-expect-error
import {getMonthTitle} from '../../testUtils';
const CURRENT = '2022-09-09';
const NEXT_MONTH = '2022-10-09';
const PREV_MONTH = '2022-08-09';
const nextMonthData = {dateString: '2022-10-09', day: 9, month: 10, timestamp: 1665273600000, year: 2022};
const prevMonthData = {dateString: '2022-08-09', day: 9, month: 8, timestamp: 1660003200000, year: 2022};
const testIdCalendarList = 'myCalendarList';
const onMonthChangeMock = jest.fn();
const onVisibleMonthsChangeMock = jest.fn();
const pastScrollRange = 10;
const futureScrollRange = 5;
// const initialVisibleItems = [
// {
// "index": 50,
// "isViewable": true,
// "item": "2022-09-09T00:00:00.000Z",
// "key": "50"
// }
// ];
// const changed = [
// {
// "index": 51,
// "isViewable": true,
// "item": "2022-10-09T00:00:00.000Z",
// "key": "51"
// },
// {
// "index": 50,
// "isViewable": false,
// "item": "2022-09-09T00:00:00.000Z",
// "key":"50"
// }
// ];
// const visibleItems = [
// {
// "index": 51,
// "isViewable": true,
// "item": "2022-10-09T00:00:00.000Z",
// "key": "51"
// }
// ];
const defaultProps = {
testID: testIdCalendarList,
current: CURRENT,
onMonthChange: onMonthChangeMock,
onVisibleMonthsChange: onVisibleMonthsChangeMock
};
const TestCase = props => {
return <CalendarList {...defaultProps} {...props} />;
};
describe('CalendarList', () => {
describe('Props', () => {
describe('past/futureScrollRange', () => {
const driver = new CalendarListDriver(
testIdCalendarList,
<TestCase pastScrollRange={pastScrollRange} futureScrollRange={futureScrollRange} />
);
beforeEach(() => {
jest.useFakeTimers();
driver.render();
});
it('should have correct number of list items', () => {
expect(driver.getListProps().data.length).toBe(pastScrollRange + futureScrollRange + 1);
});
});
});
describe('Horizontal Mode', () => {
const driver = new CalendarListDriver(testIdCalendarList, <TestCase horizontal={true} staticHeader={true} />);
beforeEach(() => {
jest.useFakeTimers();
driver.render();
onMonthChangeMock.mockClear();
onVisibleMonthsChangeMock.mockClear();
});
// afterEach(() => driver.clear());
describe('Init', () => {
it('should display current month', () => {
// static header
expect(driver.getStaticHeaderTitle()).toBe(getMonthTitle(CURRENT));
// list
expect(driver.getListProps().horizontal).toBe(true);
expect(driver.getListProps().data.length).toBe(101);
expect(driver.getListProps().initialScrollIndex).toBe(50);
expect(driver.getListProps().initialNumToRender).toBe(1);
// list items
expect(driver.getListItem(CURRENT)).toBeDefined();
expect(driver.getListItemTitle(CURRENT)).toBeDefined();
// events
expect(onMonthChangeMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
expect(onVisibleMonthsChangeMock).not.toHaveBeenCalled();
});
});
describe('Static Header Arrows', () => {
it('should change month on right arrow press', () => {
driver.pressRightArrow();
expect(onMonthChangeMock).toHaveBeenCalledWith(nextMonthData);
expect(onVisibleMonthsChangeMock).toHaveBeenCalledWith([nextMonthData]);
expect(driver.getStaticHeaderTitle()).toBe(getMonthTitle(NEXT_MONTH));
// NOTE: check visible list item - only first item is rendered and arrow press doesn't actually scrolls the list
// expect(driver.getListItemTitle(NEXT_MONTH)).toBeDefined();
});
it('should change month on left arrow press', () => {
driver.pressLeftArrow();
expect(onMonthChangeMock).toHaveBeenCalledWith(prevMonthData);
expect(onVisibleMonthsChangeMock).toHaveBeenCalledWith([prevMonthData]);
expect(driver.getStaticHeaderTitle()).toBe(getMonthTitle(PREV_MONTH));
});
});
// describe('List Scroll', () => {
// it('scroll to next month', () => {
// driver.fireOnViewableItemsChanged(changed, visibleItems);
// expect(onMonthChangeMock).toHaveBeenCalled();
// expect(onMonthChangeMock).toHaveBeenCalledWith(nextMonthData);
// expect(onVisibleMonthsChangeMock).toHaveBeenCalledWith([nextMonthData]);
// expect(driver.getStaticHeaderTitle()).toBe(getMonthTitle(NEXT_MONTH));
// });
// });
});
});
``` |
The Hope Whisper was an electric car developed in Denmark in 1983. The sole model crashed at the unveiling when the car rolled away during the photoshoot and hit a barrier. It did not reach production.
The Whisper was a compact four-seater city car (two adults and two children), with a claimed range of 62 miles and a top speed of 50 mph. It has a glass fibre body and was long.
In 1985, a Whisper II was developed with Berlin University but funding for production was again not forthcoming.
References
Electric concept cars
Hadsund |
Meganoton is a genus of moths in the family Sphingidae.
Species
Meganoton analis (R. Felder, 1874)
Meganoton hyloicoides Rothschild, 1910
Meganoton loeffleri Eitschberger, 2003
Meganoton nyctiphanes (Walker, 1856)
Meganoton rubescens Butler, 1876
Meganoton yunnanfuana Clark, 1925
Sphingini
Moth genera
Taxa named by Jean Baptiste Boisduval |
Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich (July 1496 – 12 June 1567), was Lord Chancellor during King Edward VI of England's reign, from 1547 until January 1552. He was the founder of Felsted School with its associated almshouses in Essex in 1564. He was a beneficiary of the Dissolution of the Monasteries, and persecuted perceived opponents of the king and their policies. He played a role in the trials of Catholic martyrs Thomas More and John Fisher as well as that of Protestant martyr Anne Askew.
Origins
According to some sources, Rich was born in the London parish of St Lawrence Jewry, the second son of Richard Rich by Joan Dingley, but this is disputed. Also, according to Carter, he was born at Basingstoke, Hampshire, the son of John Rich (d. 1509?), of Penton Mewsey, Hampshire, and a wife named Agnes whose surname is unknown. In 1509, Richard inherited his father's house in Islington, Middlesex. Early in 1551 he was described in an official document as "fifty-four years of age and more", and was therefore born about 1496 or earlier.
According to Sergeaunt (1889):
He had a brother, Robert, whom Henry VIII granted a messuage in Bucklersbury on 24 February 1539, and who died in 1557.
Career
Little is known of Rich's early life. He may have studied at Cambridge before 1516. That year, he entered the Middle Temple as a lawyer and at some point between 1520 and 1525 he was a reader at the New Inn. By 1528 Rich was in search of a patron and wrote to Cardinal Wolsey; in 1529, Thomas Audley succeeded in helping him get elected as an MP for Colchester. As Audley's career advanced in the early 1530s, so did Rich's, through a variety of legal posts, before he became truly prominent in the mid-1530s.
Other preferments followed, and in 1533 Rich was knighted and became the Solicitor General for England and Wales in which capacity he was to act under Thomas Cromwell as a "lesser hammer" for the demolition of the monasteries, and to secure the operation of Henry VIII's Act of Supremacy. Rich had a share in the trials of Thomas More and Bishop John Fisher. In both cases his evidence against the prisoner included admissions made in friendly conversation, and in More's case the words were given a misconstruction that could hardly be other than wilful. While on trial, More said that Rich was "always reputed light of his tongue, a great dicer and gamester, and not of any commendable fame." Rich also played a major part in Cromwell's fall.
As King's Solicitor, Rich travelled to Kimbolton Castle in January 1536 to take the inventory of the goods of Katherine of Aragon, and wrote to Henry advising how he might properly obtain her possessions.
Chancellor
On 19 April 1536 Rich became the chancellor of the Court of Augmentations, established for the disposal of the monastic revenues. His own share of the spoil, acquired either by grant or purchase, included Leez (Leighs) Priory and about 100 manors in Essex. Rich also acquired—and destroyed—the real estate and holdings of the Priory of St Bartholomew-the-Great in Smithfield. He built the Tudor-style gatehouse still surviving in London as the upper portion of the Smithfield Gate. He was Speaker of the House of Commons in the same year, and advocated the king's policy. Despite the share he had taken in the suppression of the monasteries, the prosecution of Thomas More and Bishop Fisher and the part he played under Edward VI and Elizabeth, his religious beliefs remained nominally Catholic.
Rich was also a participant in the torture of Anne Askew, the only woman tortured at the Tower of London. Both he and Chancellor Wriothesley turned the wheels of the rack to torture her.
Baron Rich
Rich was an assistant executor of the will of King Henry VIII, and received a grant of lands. He became Baron Rich of Leez on 26 February 1547. In the next month he succeeded Wriothesley as chancellor. He supported Lord Protector Edward Seymour in his policies, including reforms in Church matters and the prosecution of his brother Thomas Seymour, until the crisis of October 1549, when he joined with the John Dudley. He resigned his office in January 1552.
Prosecution of bishops
Rich took part in the prosecution of bishops Stephen Gardiner and Edmund Bonner, and had a role in the harsh treatment accorded to the future Mary I of England. But upon her accession, Mary showed Rich no ill will. He took an active part in the restoration of the old religion in Essex under the new reign, and was one of the most active persecutors. His reappearances in the privy council were rare during Mary's reign; but under Elizabeth he served on a commission to inquire into the grants of land made under Mary, and in 1566 was sent for to advise on the question of the queen's marriage. He died at Rochford in Essex, on 12 June 1567, and was buried in Felsted church.
In Mary's reign he founded a chaplaincy with provision for the singing of masses and dirges, and the ringing of bells in Felsted church. To this was added a Lenten allowance of herrings to the inhabitants of three parishes. These donations were transferred in 1564 to the foundation of Felsted School for instruction, primarily for children born on the founder's manors, in Latin, Greek and divinity. The patronage of the school remained in the founder's family until 1851.
Descendants
Rich's descendants formed the powerful Rich family, lasting for three centuries, acquiring several titles in the Peerage of England and intermarrying with numerous other noble families.
By his wife Elizabeth Jenks (Gynkes) (d.1558) he had 15 children. Thirteen of them are shown in the Essex pedigrees. The eldest son, Robert (1537?–1581), second Baron Rich, supported the Reformation. One grandson, Richard Rich, was the first husband of Katherine Knyvet: another, Robert Rich, third Baron Rich (1559–1619) was created First Earl of Warwick (of the third creation) in 1618. This line failed with the death of the 8th Earl on 7 September 1759.
Rich had an illegitimate son named Richard (d. 1598) whom he acknowledged fully in his will with legacies and guardians for his minority, his education in the common law, and suitable marital arrangements. In this line of descent was his grandson the merchant adventurer Sir Nathaniel Rich, and his great-grandson Nathaniel Rich (nephew of the elder Nathaniel), a colonel in the New Model Army during the English Civil War.
Legacy
Since the mid-16th century Rich has had a reputation for immorality, financial dishonesty, double-dealing, perjury and treachery rarely matched in English history. The historian Hugh Trevor-Roper called Rich a man "of whom nobody has ever spoken a good word".
Depiction in the arts
Rich is the supporting villain in the play A Man for All Seasons by Robert Bolt, which shows his slide into corruption. In the subsequent, Oscar-winning film adaptation, John Hurt portrays him. Bolt depicts Rich as perjuring himself against More in order to become Attorney-General for Wales. More responds, "Why Richard, it profits a man nothing to give his soul for the whole world... but for Wales?". The final line of the film notes that Rich "died in his bed" in juxtaposition with More's martyrdom and the other major characters' untimely deaths. In the 1988 remake of the film, Jonathan Hackett portrayed Rich.
Rich is a supporting character in C. J. Sansom's Shardlake series of historical mystery novels, which are set in Henry VIII's reign. Rich is portrayed as a cruel villain who is prepared to subvert justice to enhance his property and position. He has a significant role in the plot of Sovereign, the third of the series, and in Heartstone, the fifth.
Rod Hallett played Rich in seasons two, three and four of the Showtime series The Tudors.
Rich (spelled Riche in the novels) appears in Hilary Mantel's three volumes about Thomas Cromwell, Wolf Hall, Bring Up the Bodies and The Mirror and the Light. Bryan Dick portrays him in the BBC television adaptation of the first two novels, Wolf Hall.
Notes
References
External links
Will of Sir Richard Rich, Lord Rich, proved 3 June 1568, PROB 11/50/176, National Archives Retrieved 1 July 2013
Luminarium Encyclopedia; England under the Tudors: Richard Rich, 1st Baron Rich
1490s births
1567 deaths
16th-century English nobility
Barons in the Peerage of England
English Anglicans
English MPs 1529–1536
English MPs 1536
English MPs 1539–1540
English MPs 1542–1544
English MPs 1545–1547
English Roman Catholics
Lord chancellors of England
Members of the Middle Temple
Merchants from London
Peers of England created by Edward VI
Rich family
Speakers of the House of Commons of England |
Caherconlish () is a village in County Limerick, Ireland.
Location
The village of Caherconlish is located 16 km southeast of Limerick City in east County Limerick. It is one half of the parish of Caherconlish/Caherline in the Roman Catholic Archdiocese of Cashel and Emly. The village's fairly close proximity to Limerick City has meant a growth in both the size and population of the village, as Caherconlish is now seen as a commuter town of the city. Neighbouring villages include Boher, Ballyneety, Herbertstown, Kilteely and Pallasgreen.
The main focal point is the Millennium Centre.
Sport
The main sports played in the village are hurling, gaelic football and soccer.
Caherline GAA is the local hurling club and they play in blue and white. The club is a member of the east division of Limerick GAA and has won the Limerick Senior Hurling Championship on three occasions in 1896,1905 and 1907. Their biggest achievement in recent times was winning the Limerick Junior Hurling Championship for the fourth time in their history in 2021. Their grounds are Father Hayes Memorial Park on the Mitchelstown road.
The Gaelic football club in the parish is called Caherconlish GAA and they play in blue, black and white. They too play at Father Hayes Memorial Park.
Caherconlish AFC is the local soccer club in the village. The club playing colours are Amber/Yellow and Green.
The club consists of 188 players, 166 underage and 23 adult players (as of 2021). The club plays in the Limerick District School Boy league (underage) and Limerick District league (Adult). The club is located at Caherconlish AFC grounds adjacent to Oakley Lawns Residential Estate.
People
Nóirín Ní Riain, singer
See also
List of towns and villages in Ireland
References
External links
Towns and villages in County Limerick |
Events from the year 1223 in Ireland.
Incumbent
Lord: Henry III
Events
2 February – End of the 5 month-long precipitation in Ireland According to The Annals of Loch Se.
Full dates unknown
Miles de Courcy was granted the territories of Kingsale and Ringrone by Henry III of England.
Baron Kerry was established, with Thomas Fitzmaurice being the first baron.
The current Old Head of Kinsale was constructed.
Deaths
Albin O'Molloy, Irish bishop (birth year unknown)
Máel Ísa Ua Conchobair, Irish prince (birth year unknown)
References
1223 in Ireland
1220s in Ireland
1223 by country
Years of the 13th century in Ireland |
Portals is a global public art initiative that connects people around the globe through real-time video audiovisual technology housed inside a gold-painted, converted shipping container or other structure. Individuals and groups enter local Portals and engage with individuals or groups in distant Portals through live, full-body video conferencing. The experience has been described as "breathing the same air." Portals are placed in public spaces such as public squares, museums, university campuses, high-level summits, and refugee camps. Participation is free, and the spaces are maintained by staff called Portal_Curators.
History
The project was started in 2014 by artist Amar Bakshi, and initially connected the cities of New York and Tehran. According to Bakshi, he started the project "to connect people who wouldn't otherwise meet.” He had the idea to start the project after his days as a foreign journalist, where he launched How the World Sees America for The Washington Post. After returning from his time reporting, he realized he missed the conversations he had had with strangers he met around the world.
Bakshi, along with his art collective Shared Studios, has operated the project in nearly 50 cities around the world. Notable project participants have included U.S. president Barack Obama, UN Secretary General Ban Ki-moon, and Google founder Sergey Brin.
Artist Amar Bakshi built the first Portal in 2014. He launched Portals in collaboration with fellow journalist Michelle Moghtader and Iranian artist Sohrab Kashani. Bakshi began construction of the first Portal in his parents’ backyard in Washington, D.C. The first project connected participants in Lu Magnus art gallery in New York City, USA and Sazmanab Center for Contemporary Art in Tehran, Iran, and was in place for two weeks.
Computer science professor Omid Habibi then became interested in the project and decided to create a Portal at Hariwa University in Herat, Afghanistan, which then launched in March 2015.
The project has since expanded to over 40 cities around the world.
Structure
The videoconferencing has been done through different platforms, including Zoom. According to Bakshi, he originally had wanted to strip the shipping containers of paint, buff them, and repaint them, but this process proved to be too expensive and bad for the environment. The decision to paint the shipping containers gold emerged through trial and error. He previously experimented with painting the container black, white, and silver, but he decided on the color gold because he felt it conveyed “sacredness.”
In some locations the video conferencing equipment is housed inside an existing building rather than a shipping container. In other locations the project operates inside a gold, inflatable portal.
Participation in the project is free, and those who wish to participate can often make appointments prior to arrival. The sessions typically last 20 minutes, and participants are asked an open-ended questions such as “What would make today a good day for you?” to get the conversation going. Interactions are sometimes aided by text translations or in-person translators.
Notable Portal locations
Portals have been placed at the following locations:
Amman, Jordan, at Fablab
Aspen, USA at the 2016 Aspen Ideas Festival
Austin, Texas at St. Edward's University and 2017 SXSW
Baltimore, USA at Lexington Market
Berlin, Germany at Tempelhof Airport
Boulder, Colorado at University of Colorado Boulder
Brooklyn, USA at the New Lab
Chicago, USA at Chicago Ideas Week 2016
College Park, USA at the University of Maryland
El Progreso, Honduras with Organization for Youth Empowerment
Erbil, Iraq at the Harsham IDP Camp with UNICEF
Gaza City, Palestine at Gaza Sky Geeks
Greenwich, USA at Greenwich Academy
Havana, Cuba with Vistar Magazine
Herat, Afghanistan at Hariwa University
Isfahan, Iran
Kigali, Rwanda at Impact Hub Kigali with Kurema Kureba Kwiga
Los Angeles, USA at Grand Park
London, UK at Campus London
Mission, USA with Mission Economic Development District
Mexico City, Mexico at Museo Tamayo and Center for Digital Culture
Mumbai, India at the 2017 Mumbai Marathon
Newark, USA at Military Park
New York City, USA at the United Nations Headquarters, UNGA 2015 and UNGA 2016, Lu Magnus Gallery and Danese/Corey Gallery
Oxford, UK at 2017 Skoll World Forum
Park City, USA at the 2015 Sundance Film Festival with Airbnb
Palo Alto, USA at Stanford University and the 2016 Global Entrepreneurship Summit with Google for Entrepreneurs
Rye, USA at Rye Arts Center
San Francisco, USA at ProxySF
Seoul, South Korea at Campus Seoul
Tehran, Iran at the Sazmanab Center for Contemporary Art</ref>
Washington, DC at the U.S. Holocaust Memorial Museum, the U.S. Capitol, the Woodrow Wilson Plaza, and Georgetown University
Yangon, Myanmar
Za'atari, Jordan
Davos, Switzerland (for the World Economic Forum)
Notable guests
Portal participants include:
Barack Obama
Ban Ki-moon
Haider Al-Abadi
Samantha Power
Ewan McGregor
Fareed Zakaria
Doug Liman
Morgan Spurlock
Amy Chua
Robert Post
Vint Cerf
Tom Friedman
Samantha Power
References
External links
Official website
2014 in art
Public art
Visual arts |
Towanda is the name of several places in the United States:
Towanda, Illinois
Towanda, Kansas
Pennsylvania:
Communities:
Towanda, Pennsylvania, a borough in Bradford County
Towanda Township, Pennsylvania, a township in Bradford County
North Towanda Township, Pennsylvania, a township in Bradford County
Streams:
Towanda Creek, a tributary of the Susquehanna River
South Branch Towanda Creek, a tributary of Towanda Creek |
is a tactical role-playing game developed and published by Nippon Ichi Software for the PlayStation 2 video game console. Disgaea 2 is the sequel to 2003's Disgaea: Hour of Darkness and was released for the PlayStation 2. It is also the predecessor to Disgaea 3: Absence of Justice for the PlayStation 3.
Unlike Nippon Ichi's previous games, Disgaea 2 is on DVD-ROM and has an animated opening movie.
It was re-released for the PlayStation Portable as in Japan and as Disgaea 2: Dark Hero Days in North America and Europe. It was re-released on PC in 2017.
Gameplay
Disgaea 2 is divided into 13 chapters. Each chapter begins with cut scenes to explain Adell's next mission. Players then take control of Adell in his hometown of Holt. The town serves as a gateway to story maps, side quests, the dark council, and the item world. At the beginning of each chapter, a new area is unlocked. Each area consists of multiple maps which must be beaten to advance to the next chapter. Talking to the gatekeeper of Holt will give players the option of exploring the new area or repeating any maps that have been beaten. Many maps also have cut scenes. Scenes at the beginning and end of each chapter cannot be skipped.
The gameplay in Disgaea 2 builds directly upon that of Disgaea: Hour of Darkness; players control a party of characters to do battle on a 3D isometric grid map.
The Item World game mode returns from Disgaea: Hour of Darkness. Players can select any item in the party's inventory and enter it. The levels within are randomly generated, and the difficulty of enemies depends on the item's rarity or power. There are two ways to descend through the Item World: by defeating all enemies on a given level, or by using exit portals located somewhere on each level. Special enemies, called Guardians, can be freed by defeating them, imparting certain benefits to the item, such as increased attack or defense values. Once they are freed, they can be moved between items freely. The further a player descends through a given item's Item World, the higher the stat bonuses it will receive.
Plot
Fifteen years ago, a powerful Overlord by the name of Zenon appeared in Veldime and cursed its human population. Since then, all its inhabitants have become demons and are to remain that way if the curse was not broken. However, a young man named Adell was the only human unaffected by the curse. Wanting to save his family and return them back to their true form, Adell decides to seek out Overlord Zenon and defeat him. Adell's mother tries to summon Zenon and fails, but instead summons Rozalin, Zenon's daughter. They later go on a quest to find Zenon and return Rozalin to him, and then defeat him so that the curse would be lifted, making his family and the rest of the world human again.
Reception
Disgaea 2 has received generally favorable reviews, obtaining an aggregate score of 84/100 on Metacritic. It received a mention in Gaming Target's selection of '52 Games We'll Still Be Playing From 2006' and won "IGN's Best of 2006" prize of "Best PS2 Strategy Game".
Re-releases
The official website for Disgaea 2 Portable opened on December 29, 2008. It was released in Japan on March 26, 2009. NIS America announced that they were publishing the PlayStation Portable version under the name Disgaea 2: Dark Hero Days. It was released in the United States on September 8, 2009.
The re-release features bonus material over the original, including an expanded playable character line-up(including three of the main cast from the sequel Disgaea 3: Absence of Justice; Mao, Raspberyl and Mr. Champloo), an 'Axel Mode' storyline, more creatable monsters and more powerful versions of existing spells. Features from Disgaea 3 are also introduced, including an enhanced Magichange system, Pass & Toss and Level Spheres in the Item World.
A PlayStation 2 Classic Edition of Disgaea 2 was released for U.S. PSN on January 22, 2013.
A port of the game for PCs titled Disgaea 2 PC was released on January 30, 2017, and includes all content from the PS2 and PSP versions, along with an updated interface and support for mouse and keyboard.
See also
Disgaea: Hour of Darkness
Nippon Ichi
Tactical role-playing games
References
External links
Official Japanese Page
Official English Page
Game screenshots
2006 video games
Disgaea
Fantasy video games
Linux games
MacOS games
Nippon Ichi Software games
PlayStation 2 games
PlayStation Network games
PlayStation Portable games
Tactical role-playing video games
Video games about demons
Video games developed in Japan
Windows games
Single-player video games |
Odveig Klyve (born 29 January 1954) is a Norwegian writer and film director.
Among her notable publications are Rift (poetry debut, 1993), Basunengelen (children's book, 1997), Historien om Null (children's book, 2003), Algebraisk (poetry, 2004), Det andre blikket (poetry, 2006), Sterkest. Historien om Tre (children's book, 2006) and Hemmeleg (children's book, 2007). In total she has published seven poetry collections and eight children's books. She has also translated work of the Iranian poet Forugh Farrokhzād, the Palestinian poet Fadwa Touqan and an English poet.
She has written and directed several short films, which have been invited to international festivals in France, Germany, Spain, Italy, Northern Ireland, England, Scotland, Romania, US and India. She has her education in literature, film and social studies.
She hails from Hardanger and now lives in Stavanger.
References
1954 births
Living people
Norwegian women film directors
Norwegian film directors
20th-century Norwegian poets
Norwegian children's writers
People from Hordaland
Norwegian women poets
Norwegian women children's writers
21st-century Norwegian poets
20th-century Norwegian women writers
21st-century Norwegian women writers
21st-century Norwegian writers |
The 1930–31 La Liga season started 7 December 1930, and finished 5 April 1931.
Athletic Bilbao defended the title successfully and won the league thanks to its better goal difference in a three-way draw in the first position.
Alavés made their debut in La Liga.
Team information
League table
Results
Top scorers
Note: this year there are no difference between La liga top scorers and the Pichichi Trophy
References
La liga top scorers 1930–31
External links
LFP website
Clásico Español Barça – Madrid
1930 1931
1930–31 in Spanish football leagues
Spain |
The concept of the Antichrist has been a vigorous one throughout Christian history, and there are many references to it and to associated concepts both in the Bible and in subsequent ecclesiastical writings.
New Testament
The words antichrist and antichrists appear four times in the First and Second Epistle of John. 1 John chapter 2 refers to many antichrists present at the time while warning of one Antichrist that is coming. The "many antichrists" belong to the same spirit as that of the one Antichrist. John wrote that such antichrists deny "that Jesus is the Christ", "the Father and the Son", and would "not confess Jesus came in the flesh.": a probable reference to the Gnostic claim that Jesus was not human, but only a spirit.
Related terms
Many commentators, both ancient and modern, identify the Man of Sin in 2 Thessalonians chapter 2 as the Antichrist, even though they vary greatly in who they view the Antichrist to be. Paul provides greater detail than found in John's letters. He uses the term "Man of Sin" (sometimes translated son of perdition or man of lawlessness) to describe what John identifies as the Antichrist.
Paul writes that this Man of Sin will possess a number of characteristics. These include "sitting in the temple", opposing himself against anything that is worshiped, claiming divine authority, working all kinds of counterfeit miracles and signs, and doing all kinds of evil. Paul notes that "the mystery of lawlessness" (though not the Man of Sin himself) was working in secret already during his day and will continue to function until being destroyed on the Last Day. His identity is to be revealed after that which is restraining him is removed.
The term is also often applied to prophecies regarding a "Little horn" power in Daniel 7. Daniel 9:27 mentions an "abomination that causes desolations" setting itself up in a "wing" or a "pinnacle" of the temple. Some scholars interpret this as referring to the Antichrist. Some commentators also view the verses prior to this as referring to the Antichrist. Jesus references the abomination from Daniel 9:27, 11:31, and 12:11 in Matthew 24:15 and Mark 13:14 when he warns about the destruction of Jerusalem. Daniel 11:36-37 speaks of a self exalting king, considered by some to be the Antichrist.
Antiochus Epiphanes attempted to replace worship of Yahweh with veneration of himself, and was referred to in the Daniel 8:23-25 prophecy. His command to worship false gods and desecration of the temple was seen by Jerome as prefiguring the Antichrist.
Several American evangelical and fundamentalist theologians, including Cyrus Scofield, have identified the Antichrist as being in league with (or the same as) several figures in the Book of Revelation including the Dragon, the Beast, the False Prophet, and the Whore of Babylon.
Early Church
Polycarp (ca. 69 – ca. 155) warned the Philippians that everyone that preached false doctrine was an antichrist.
Irenaeus (2nd century AD - c. 202) held that Rome, the fourth prophetic kingdom, would end in a tenfold partition. The ten divisions of the empire are the "ten horns" of Daniel 7 and the "ten horns" in Revelation 17. A "little horn," which is to supplant three of Rome's ten divisions, is also the still future "eighth" in Revelation.
He identified the Antichrist with Paul's Man of Sin, Daniel's Little Horn, and John's Beast of Revelation 13. He sought to apply other expressions to Antichrist, such as "the abomination of desolation," mentioned by Christ (Matt. 24:15) and the "king of a most fierce countenance," in Gabriel's explanation of the Little Horn of Daniel 8.
Under the notion that the Antichrist, as a single individual, might be of Jewish origin, he fancies that the mention of "Dan," in Jeremiah 8:16, and the omission of that name from those tribes listed in Revelation 7, might indicate Antichrist's tribe. He also speculated that it was “very probable” the Antichrist might be called Lateinos, which is Greek for “Latin Man”.
Tertullian (ca.160 – ca.220 AD) held that the Roman Empire was the restraining force written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7-8. The fall of Rome and the disintegration of the ten provinces of the Roman Empire into ten kingdoms were to make way for the Antichrist.
'For that day shall not come, unless indeed there first come a falling away,' he [Paul] means indeed of this present empire, 'and that man of sin be revealed,' that is to say, Antichrist, 'the son of perdition, who opposeth and exalteth himself above all that is called God or religion; so that he sitteth in the temple of God, affirming that he is God. Remember ye not, that when I was with you, I used to tell you these things? And now ye know what detaineth, that he might be revealed in his time. For the mystery of iniquity doth already work; only he who now hinders must hinder, until he be taken out of the way.' What obstacles is there but the Roman state, the falling away of which, by being scattered into the ten kingdoms, shall introduce Antichrist upon (its own ruins)? And then shall be revealed the wicked one, whom the Lord shall consume with the spirit of His mouth, and shall destroy with the brightness of His coming: even him whose coming is after the working of Satan, with all power, and signs, and lying wonders, and with all deceivableness of unrighteousness in them that perish.'
Hippolytus of Rome (c. 170-c. 236) held that the Antichrist would come from the tribe of Dan and would rebuild the Jewish temple in order to reign from it. He identified the Antichrist with the Beast out of the Earth from the book of Revelation. By the beast, then, coming up out of the earth, he means the kingdom of Antichrist; and by the two horns he means him and the false prophet after him. And in speaking of “the horns being like a lamb,” he means that he will make himself like the Son of God, and set himself forward as king. And the terms, “he spake like a dragon,” mean that he is a deceiver, and not truthful.
Origen (185–254) refuted Celsus's view of the Antichrist. Origen utilized Scriptural citations from Daniel, Paul, and the Gospels. He argued:
Where is the absurdity, then, in holding that there exist among men, so to speak, two extremes-- the one of virtue, and the other of its opposite; so that the perfection of virtue dwells in the man who realizes the ideal given in Jesus, from whom there flowed to the human race so great a conversion, and healing, and amelioration, while the opposite extreme is in the man who embodies the notion of him that is named Antichrist?... one of these extremes, and the best of the two, should be styled the Son of God, on account of His pre-eminence; and the other, who is diametrically opposite, be termed the son of the wicked demon, and of Satan, and of the devil. And, in the next place, since evil is specially characterized by its diffusion, and attains its greatest height when it simulates the appearance of the good, for that reason are signs, and marvels, and lying miracles found to accompany evil, through the cooperation of its father the devil.
Post-Nicene Christianity
Athanasius (c. 293 – 373), writes that Arius of Alexandria is to be associated with the Antichrist, saying, “And ever since [the Council of Nicaea] has Arius's error been reckoned for a heresy more than ordinary, being known as Christ's foe, and harbinger of Antichrist.”
John Chrysostom (c. 347–407) warned against speculations and old wives' tales about the Antichrist, saying, “Let us not therefore enquire into these things”. He preached that by knowing Paul's description of the Antichrist in 2 Thessalonians Christians would avoid deception.
Jerome (c. 347–420) warned that those substituting false interpretations for the actual meaning of Scripture belonged to the “synagogue of the Antichrist”. “He that is not of Christ is of Antichrist,” he wrote to Pope Damasus I. He believed that “the mystery of iniquity” written about by Paul in 2 Thessalonians 2:7 was already in action when “every one chatters about his views.” To Jerome, the power restraining this mystery of iniquity was the Roman Empire, but as it fell this restraining force was removed. He warned a noble woman of Gaul: “He that letteth is taken out of the way, and yet we do not realize that Antichrist is near. Yes, Antichrist is near whom the Lord Jesus Christ “shall consume with the spirit of his mouth.” “Woe unto them,” he cries, “that are with child, and to them that give suck in those days.”... Savage tribes in countless numbers have overrun run all parts of Gaul. The whole country between the Alps and the Pyrenees, between the Rhine and the Ocean, has been laid waste by hordes of Quadi, Vandals, Sarmatians, Alans, Gepids, Herules, Saxons, Burgundians, Allemanni, and—alas! for the commonweal!-- even Pannonians. In his Commentary on Daniel, he noted, “Let us not follow the opinion of some commentators and suppose him to be either the Devil or some demon, but rather, one of the human race, in whom Satan will wholly take up his residence in bodily form.” Instead of rebuilding the Jewish Temple to reign from, Jerome thought the Antichrist sat in God's Temple inasmuch as he made “himself out to be like God.” He refuted Porphyry's idea that the “little horn” mentioned in Daniel chapter 7 was Antiochus Epiphanes by noting that the “little horn” is defeated by an eternal, universal ruler, right before the final judgment. Instead, he advocated that the “little horn” was the Antichrist:
We should therefore concur with the traditional interpretation of all the commentators of the Christian Church, that at the end of the world, when the Roman Empire is to be destroyed, there shall be ten kings who will partition the Roman world amongst themselves. Then an insignificant eleventh king will arise, who will overcome three of the ten kings... after they have been slain, the seven other kings also will bow their necks to the victor.
Circa 380, an apocalyptic pseudo-prophecy falsely attributed to the Tiburtine Sibyl describes Constantine as victorious over Gog and Magog. Later on, it predicts:
When the Roman empire shall have ceased, then the Antichrist will be openly revealed and will sit in the House of the Lord in Jerusalem. While he is reigning, two very famous men, Elijah and Enoch, will go forth to announce the coming of the Lord. Antichrist will kill them and after three days they will be raised up by the Lord. Then there will be a great persecution, such as has not been before nor shall be thereafter. The Lord will shorten those days for the sake of the elect, and the Antichrist will be slain by the power of God through Michael the Archangel on the Mount of Olives.
Augustine of Hippo (354 – 430) wrote “it is uncertain in what temple [the Antichrist] shall sit, whether in that ruin of the temple which was built by Solomon, or in the Church.”
Arnulf (bishop of Orléans) accused Pope John XV in A.D. 991:
Are any bold enough to maintain that the priests of the Lord all over the world are to take their law from monsters of guilt like these—men branded with ignominy, illiterate men, and ignorant alike of things human and divine? If, holy fathers, we are bound to weigh in the balance the lives, the morals, and the attainments of the humblest candidate for the priestly office, how much more ought we to look to the fitness of him who aspires to be the Lord and Master of all priests! Yet how would it fare with us, if it should happen that the man the most deficient in all these virtues, unworthy of the lowest place in the priesthood, should be chosen to fill the highest place of all? What would you say of such a one, when you see him sitting upon the throne glittering in purple and gold? Must he not be the "Antichrist, sitting in the temple of God and showing himself as God"?
Pre-Reformation Western Christianity
Pope Gregory VII (c. 1015 or 29 - 1085), struggled against, in his own words, "a robber of temples, a perjurer against the Holy Roman Church, notorious throughout the whole Roman world for the basest of crimes, namely, Wilbert, plunderer of the holy church of Ravenna, Antichrist, and archeritic."
Cardinal Benno, on the opposite side of the Investiture Controversy, wrote long descriptions of abuses committed by Gregory VII, including necromancy, torture of a former friend upon a bed of nails, commissioning an attempted assassination, executions without trials, unjust excommunication, doubting the Real Presence in the Eucharist, and even burning it. Benno held that Gregory VII was “either a member of Antichrist, or Antichrist himself.”
Eberhard II von Truchsees, Prince-Archbishop of Salzburg in 1241 at the Council of Regensburg denounced Pope Gregory IX as "that man of perdition, whom they call Antichrist, who in his extravagant boasting says, I am God, I cannot err." He argued that the ten kingdoms that the Antichrist is involved with were the "Turks, Greeks, Egyptians, Africans, Spaniards, French, English, Germans, Sicilians, and Italians who now occupy the provinces of Rome." He held that the papacy was the "little horn" of Daniel 7:8:
A little horn has grown up with eyes and mouth speaking great things, which is reducing three of these kingdoms--i.e. Sicily, Italy, and Germany--to subserviency, is persecuting the people of Christ and the saints of God with intolerable opposition, is confounding things human and divine, and is attempting things unutterable, execrable.
Protestant reformers
Many Protestant reformers, including Martin Luther, John Calvin, Thomas Cranmer, John Knox, and Cotton Mather, identified the Roman Papacy as the Antichrist. The Centuriators of Magdeburg, a group of Lutheran scholars in Magdeburg headed by Matthias Flacius, wrote the 12-volume "Magdeburg Centuries" to discredit the papacy and identify the pope as the Antichrist. The fifth round of talks in the Lutheran-Roman Catholic dialogue notes,
In calling the pope the "antichrist," the early Lutherans stood in a tradition that reached back into the eleventh century. Not only dissidents and heretics but even saints had called the bishop of Rome the "antichrist" when they wished to castigate his abuse of power.
William Tyndale, an English reformer, held that while the Roman Catholic Empire of that age was the empire of Antichrist, any religious organization that distorted the doctrine of the Old and New Testaments showed the work of Antichrist. In his treatise The Parable of the Wicked Mammon, he expressly rejected the established Church teaching that looked to the future for an Antichrist to rise up, and he taught that Antichrist is a present spiritual force that will be with us until the end of the age under different religious disguises from time to time. Tyndale's translation of 2 Thessalonians, chapter 2, concerning the "man of sin" reflected his understanding, but was significantly amended by later revisers, including the King James Bible committee.
Counter-Reformation
The view of Futurism, a product of the Counter-Reformation, was advanced beginning in the 16th century in response to the identification of the Papacy as Antichrist. Francisco Ribera, a Jesuit priest, developed this theory in In Sacram Beati Ioannis Apostoli & Evangelistae Apocalypsin Commentarij, his 1585 treatise on the Apocalypse of John. St. Bellarmine codified this view, giving in full the Catholic theory set forth by the Greek and Latin Fathers, of a personal Antichrist to come just before the end of the world and to be accepted by the Jews and enthroned in the temple at Jerusalem. Most premillennial dispensationalists now accept Bellarmine's interpretation in modified form. Widespread US Protestant identification of the Papacy as the Antichrist persisted until the early 1900s when the Scofield Reference Bible was published by Cyrus Scofield. This commentary promoted Futurism, causing a decline in the Protestant identification of the Papacy as Antichrist.
Some Futurists hold that sometime prior to the expected return of Jesus, there will be a period of "great tribulation" during which the Antichrist, indwelt and controlled by Satan, will attempt to win supporters with false peace, supernatural signs. He will silence all that defy him by refusing to "receive his mark" on their right hands or forehead. This "mark" will be required to legally partake in the end-time economic system. Some Futurists believe that the Antichrist will be assassinated halfway through the Tribulation, being revived and indwelt by Satan. The Antichrist will continue on for three and a half years following this "deadly wound".
See also
Abomination of Desolation
Armageddon
Armilus
Beelzebub
Bible Prophecy
Book of Revelation
Christ
Christian Eschatology
Eschatology
False messiah
False prophet
Gog and Magog
Great Apostasy
List of fictional Antichrists
Mahdi
Masih ad-Dajjal
Number of the Beast
Summary of Christian eschatological differences
Temple Mount
The Two Witnesses
Third Temple
Whore of Babylon
Notes
References
Further reading
Of Antichrist and His Ruin, John Bunyan, Diggory Press; Published in 1692, .
The Antichrist, Martin Luther, Diggory Press; 1535 (approximate),
The Antichrist: Has he launched his final campaign against the Savior?, Vincent P. Miceli S.J., Roman Catholic Books, Fort Collins-CO, 1981
External links
Encyclopædia Britannica: Antichrist — full article
Catholic Encyclopedia: Antichrist
Jewish Encyclopedia: Antichrist
Concordia Cyclopedia: Antichrist (page 1) (page 2)
Lutheran Scholarly Works on the Antichrist
Antichrist |
Chirchiq, also spelled as Chirchik, (; ) is a district-level city in Tashkent Region, Uzbekistan. It is about 32 km northeast of Tashkent, along the river Chirchiq. Chirchiq lies in the Chatkal Mountains. The population of Chirchiq as of 2021 is approximately 162,800.
It is located at latitude 41° 28' 8N; longitude 69° 34' 56E, 582 meters above sea level.
History
The city was founded in 1935, when several local villages grew together as a consequence of the construction of a hydroelectric power station on the Chirchiq River.
Economy
Chirchiq is in the middle of an intensively cultivated area, producing mainly vegetables and fruits, including melons and grapes. A large electrochemical works produces fertilizer for the region's collective farms. Chirchiq's industries also include the production of ferroalloys and machinery for the agricultural and chemical industries.
Chirchiq is also a major winter recreation area in Tashkent Region. There is a ski resort near the city, named Chimgan, that attract tourists from throughout Central Asia and Russia. A water diversion on the Chirchiq River just outside the city provides the major source of drinking water for Tashkent and other cities to the south.
Surroundings
There are many villages near Chirchiq, for example: Azadbash, Abay, Kyzyltu, Koshkargan, Yumalak, Kotakbash, Tavaksay.
References
Populated places in Tashkent Region
Cities in Uzbekistan
Cities and towns built in the Soviet Union |
The Dorset Regiment was a line infantry regiment of the British Army in existence from 1881 to 1958, being the county regiment of Dorset. Until 1951, it was formally called the Dorsetshire Regiment, although usually known as "The Dorsets". In 1958, after service in the Second Boer War along with World War I and World War II, the Dorset Regiment was amalgamated with the Devonshire Regiment to form the Devonshire and Dorset Regiment. In 2007, it was amalgamated with the Royal Gloucestershire, Berkshire and Wiltshire Regiment, The Light Infantry and the Royal Green Jackets to form a new large regiment, The Rifles.
History
The Territorials in Dorset trace their origins to the 1st Administrative Battalion, Dorsetshire Rifle Volunteers formed at Dorchester. Its first formation consisted of the following: The first volunteer corps in Dorset had their headquarters in Dorchester. The 1st Dorsetshire Rifle Volunteer Corps (1 Dorsetshire RVC) was at Bridport, 2 Dorsetshire RVC at Wareham, 3 Dorsetshire Rifle Volunteer Corps at Dorchester, 4th Dorsetshire RVC at Poole, 5 Dorsetshire RVC at Weymouth, 6 Dorsetshire RVC at Wimborne, 7 Dorsetshire RVC at Sherborne, 8 RVC at Blandford, 9 Dorsetshire RVC – Shaftesbury, 10 Dorsetshire RVC at Sturminster, 11 Dorsetshire Rifle Volunteer Corps at Gillingham, and 12 Dorsetshire RVC at Stalbridge.
Eventually in 1880 as a result of the Childers Reforms the regiment was re-designated to the 1st Dorsetshire Rifle Volunteers. Just a year later it moved under control of the Dorsetshire Regiment as the volunteer battalion.
Early history
The Dorsetshire Regiment was established in the Regular Army in 1881 under the Childers Reforms by the amalgamation of the 39th (Dorsetshire) Regiment of Foot and the 54th (West Norfolk) Regiment of Foot. The 1st Battalion was stationed in Malta from 1888, in Egypt from 1889, and in British India from 1893, where it took part in operations in the Tirah Campaign on the North West Frontier in 1897–98.
The 2nd Battalion was stationed in Ireland from 1893 to 1897, then in Malta from 1899. Following the outbreak of the Second Boer War in late 1899, they were sent to South Africa, participating in the Relief of Ladysmith. The battalion stayed in South Africa throughout the war, which ended in June 1902 with the Peace of Vereeniging. Four months later 300 officers and men left Cape Town on the SS German in late September 1902, and arrived at Southampton in late October, when they were posted to Portland.
In 1908, the Volunteers and Militia were reorganised nationally, with the former becoming the Territorial Force and the latter the Special Reserve; the regiment now had one Reserve battalion and one Territorial battalion.
First World War
During the First World War, nine hostilities-only battalions were formed, six battalions serving overseas. The 1st Battalion and 6th (Service) battalion served on the Western Front throughout most of the war. Additional battalions (1/4th Battalion, 2/4th Battalion and 3/4th Battalion) were formed as part of the Territorial Force to meet the demand for troops on the Western Front.
Regular Army
The 1st Battalion was in Belfast when war broke out: it landed at Le Havre in August 1914 forming part of the 15th Brigade in the 5th Division. It transferred to 95th Brigade in the 32nd Division in December 1915 and to the 14th Brigade in the same Division in January 1916.
The 2nd Battalion was in Poona, India, when war broke out and was shipped, as part of the 16th Indian Brigade, to Mesopotamia, where it was trapped in the Siege of Kut and captured by the Turks. (Of the 350 men of the battalion captured, only 70 survived their captivity.) During the siege, returning sick and wounded, and the few replacements who had been sent out, were unable to re-join their battalion, so they, and similar drafts of the 2nd Norfolk Regiment, were amalgamated into a scratch battalion forming part of the force attempting to relieve Kut. This battalion was formally titled the Composite English Battalion, but was more commonly known as The Norsets; it was broken up in July 1916, when the 2nd Dorsets was re-constituted. The battalion then served in Egypt as part of 9th Indian Brigade in the 3rd Indian Division.
Special Reserve
The 3rd (Reserve) Battalion remained in the UK fulfilling its role of training reinforcement drafts for the Regular battalions (including the 'Norsets'). It was also instrumental in setting up the 7th (Reserve) Battalion to do the same for the 5th and 6th (Service) Battalions, and the 1st and 2nd (later 8th) Home Service Battalions.
Territorial Force
The 1/4th Battalion of the Territorial Force served in India and Mesopotamia and 2/4th Battalion in India and Egypt.
New Army
The 5th (Service) Battalion took part in the Gallipoli Campaign, and having been evacuated from there in December 1915, went to Egypt before joining the war on the Western Front in July 1916. The 6th (Service) Battalion was shipped to Boulogne in France in July 1915 as part of 50th Brigade in the 17th (Northern) Division and saw action on the Western Front.
After First World War and Anglo-Irish War
The 3/4th (Reserve) Battalion was moved to Ebrington Barracks in Derry in April 1918. The 3rd (Reserve) Battalion also served in Ireland, at Derry from March 1919, absorbing the 3/4th Bn as postwar demobilisation progressed. The remaining personnel were drafted to the 1st Battalion in August 1919.
In April 1920, during the Anglo-Irish War, soldiers from the regiment fired into a protesting crowd on Bridge Street, leading to riots and skirmishes which saw it fight alongside the Royal Irish Constabulary (RIC) and (later) Ulster Volunteers (UVF) against the Irish Republican Army (IRA). Sporadic violence in the city continued until another large engagement in June, when the Dorsets and the UVF attacked the Bogside area of the city. A large IRA counter-offensive from the west ended the disturbances, which had seen 40 people killed since April. Some RIC officers threatened to resign over the Dorsets' fraternisation and co-operation with the UVF.
On 7 February 1920 4th Battalion was reformed in the TF (soon afterwards reorganised as the Territorial Army (TA))with its headquarters in Dorchester and four companies (A–D).
Malabar Campaign
In Summer 1921, the 2nd Battalion served under the command of Major-General John Burnett-Stuart, General Officer Commanding Madras District in India, where he was involved in the suppression of the Moplah Rebellion at Malabar between 1921 and 1922. The riots that they quashed were inspired by 10,000 guerrillas and led to 2,300 executions.
The Officers and Men from the Dorset Regiment who lost their lives while taking part in the suppression of the revolt are commemorated in a brass tablet at the St. Mark's Cathedral, Bangalore.
Second World War
In the Second World War, the regiment expanded to eight battalions.
The 1st Battalion was a regular army unit and part of the 231st Infantry Brigade, alongside the 1st Hampshires and 2nd Devonshires, for the duration of the war, fighting in Malta between 1940 and 1942, Sicily in August 1943, and Italy in September 1943. The 1st Dorsets landed on Gold Beach on D-Day in June 1944 as a part of the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division and fought with the division in the Battle of Normandy and North-West Europe, until the division was withdrawn in late 1944 and used as a training division. The battalion had troops 327 killed and 1,029 wounded.
The 2nd Battalion was also a regular army unit and was part of the 5th Infantry Brigade, 2nd Infantry Division, throughout the war, participating in the Battle of France and the Dunkirk evacuation in 1940. In 1944, it took part in the Battle of Kohima during the Burma Campaign of 1944–1945, still with the 2nd Division.
The 4th Battalion was an original 1st Line TA unit and, in 1939, raised a 2nd Line duplicate, the 5th Battalion, when the Territorial Army was doubled in size prior to the commencement of the war. The 4th and 5th Battalions were both part of 130th Infantry Brigade in the 43rd (Wessex) Infantry Division, participating in the Normandy Campaign, Operation Market Garden and the Rhine Crossing.
The 30th Battalion, previously the 6th (Home Defence) Battalion, was with the 43rd Infantry Brigade in North Africa and the invasion of Sicily, after which it spent the rest of the war in Gibraltar.
The 7th Battalion, which was raised in 1940, was later converted to the 110th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery. The regiment served with the 43rd (Wessex) Division in North-West Europe from June 1944 to May 1945.
The 8th Battalion, which was also raised in 1940 as 50th (Holding) Battalion, was initially assigned to the 210th Independent Infantry Brigade (Home) and was on home defence. Later, the battalion converted to the 105th Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment, Royal Artillery. The regiment was sent to North Africa in late 1942 and fought with the British First Army, It later served in the Italian Campaign supporting US Fifth Army.
Post war and amalgamation
In 1958, the regiment amalgamated with the Devonshire Regiment to form the Devonshire and Dorset Regiment.
Regimental museum
The regimental collection is displayed in the Keep Military Museum in Dorchester.
Battle honours
The regiment was awarded the following battle honours. Those from the two World Wars that are emblazoned on the Queen's Colour are indicated in bold:
From 39th Regiment of Foot: Plassey, Gibraltar 1779–83, Albuhera, Vittoria, Pyrenees, Nivelle, Nive, Orthes, Peninsula, Maharajpore, Sevastopol
From 54th Regiment of Foot: Marabout, Egypt, Ava
Martinique 1794 (awarded in 1909 for service of the 39th Regiment), Tirah, Relief of Ladysmith, South Africa 1899–1902
The Great War (13 battalions): Mons, Le Cateau, Retreat from Mons, Marne 1914, Aisne 1914, La Bassée 1914, Armentières 1914, Ypres 1915 '17, Gravenstafel, St. Julien, Bellewaarde, Somme 1916 '18, Albert 1916 '18, Flers-Courcelette, Thiepval, Ancre 1916 '18, Arras 1917, Scarpe 1917, Messines 1917, Langemarck 1917, Polygon Wood, Broodseinde, Poelcappelle, Passchendaele, St. Quentin, Amiens, Bapaume 1918, Hindenburg Line, Épéhy, Canal du Nord, St. Quentin Canal, Beaurevoir, Cambrai 1918, Selle, Sambre, France and Flanders 1914–18, Suvla, Landing at Suvla, Scimitar Hill, Gallipoli 1915, Egypt 1916, Gaza, El Mughar, Nebi Samwil, Jerusalem, Tell 'Asur, Megiddo, Sharon, Palestine 1917–18, Basra, Shaiba, Kut al Amara 1915 '17, Ctesiphon, Defence of Kut al Amara, Baghdad, Khan Baghdadi, Mesopotamia 1914–18
The Second World War: St. Omer-La Bassée, Normandy Landing, Villers Bocage, Tilly sur Seulles, Caen, Mont Pincon, St. Pierre La Vielle, Arnhem 1944, Aam, Geilenkirchen, Goch, Rhine, Twente Canal, North-West Europe 1940 '44–45, Landing in Sicily, Agira, Regalbuto, Sicily 1943, Landing at Porto San Venere, Italy 1943, Malta 1940–42, Kohima, Mandalay, Mt. Popa, Burma 1944–45
Victoria Cross
The following member of the regiment was awarded the Victoria Cross:
Private (later Corporal) Samuel Vickery, Tirah Campaign
Regimental colonels
Colonels of the regiment were:
1881–1889 (1st Battalion): Gen. John Ramsay Stuart, CB
1881–1892 (2nd Battalion only to 1889): Gen. Sir Charles Thomas van Straubenzee, GCB
1892–1894: Lt-Gen. Robert John Eagar, CB
1894–1903: Gen. Henry Ralph Browne, CB
1903–1909: Lt-Gen. Sir Matthew William Edward Gosset, KCB
1909–1910: Lt-Gen. Lindsay Farrington
1910: Maj-Gen. William de Wilton Roche Thackwell, CB
1910–1922: Maj-Gen. Henry Cook, CB
1922–1933: Maj-Gen. Sir Arlington Augustus Chichester, KCMG, CB, DSO
1933–1946: Maj-Gen. Sir Hubert Jervoise Huddleston, GCMG, GBE, CB, DSO, MC
1946–1952: Brig. Charles Hall Woodhouse, OBE, MC
1952–1958: Maj-Gen. George Neville Wood, CB, CBE, DSO, MC
1958 Regiment amalgamated with The Devonshire Regiment to form the Devonshire and Dorset Regiment
Gallery
Footnotes
References
Further reading
C.T. Atkinson, The Dorsetshire Regiment: the Thirty-Ninth and Fifty-Fourth Foot and the Dorset Militia and Volunteers (Oxford : Privately printed at the University Press, 1947).
Military units and formations in Dorset
Military units and formations in Dorchester, Dorset
Military units and formations established in 1881
Regiments of the British Army in World War II
Regiments of the British Army in World War I
Military units and formations disestablished in 1958
1881 establishments in the United Kingdom
R |
The American Meditation Institute (AMI) was founded by Leonard Perlmutter (Ram Lev) and Jenness Cortez Perlmutter in 1996. The Perlmutters were influenced by Eknath Easwaran and Nisargadatta Maharaj; they were direct disciples of Swami Rama of the Himalaya Mountains, the man who, in laboratory conditions and under the observation of research scientists at the Menninger Clinic, demonstrated that blood pressure, heart rate, and the autonomic nervous system can be voluntarily controlled. These research demonstrations have been one of the major cornerstones of the mind-body movement since the 1970s.
AMI is located on in the foothills of the Berkshire Mountains just east of Albany, New York. AMI offers a full range of education programs including a yoga therapist certification program, weekly classes, and weekend retreats on the practical application of yoga science as holistic mind-body medicine.
As a non-profit educational organization, the American Meditation Institute describes its mission as “to provide safe, effective practices for achieving optimal wellness and longevity for the general public, medical doctors and other healthcare professionals.” Courses include meditation, breathing, gentle yoga, nutrition, mind function optimization, chakra balancing techniques, kitchen yoga (food as medicine), Ayurveda, Tantra healing, the teachings of the Buddha, and a computer distance learning course on the psychology of the Bhagavad Gita.
In addition, the American Meditation Institute publishes a variety of media through AMI Publishers, including the magazine Transformation, the Journal of Yoga Science as Mind-Body Medicine, and books including The Heart and Science of Yoga: A Blueprint for Peace, Happiness and Freedom from Fear. This encyclopedic resource for experiencing the healing connection between mind, body, and spirit was the recipient of six major book awards during 2006 and 2007 including the Benjamin Franklin, ForeWord Magazine, Independent Publisher Book Awards, Eric Hoffer Awards and Nautilus Awards. The book has been endorsed by noted physicians Mehmet Oz, Dean Ornish, Bernie Siegel, and Larry Dossey.
In 2009, The American Meditation Institute hosted its First Annual Comprehensive Training in Holistic Mind-Body Medicine course for healthcare practitioners. The course is acknowledged to be the first and only such complete yoga science curriculum in the United States to offer continuing medical education credits for physicians registered nurses and other health care practitioners.
References
External links
American Meditation Institute
AMI at Encyclopedia.com
Rensselaer County, New York
1996 establishments in New York (state)
Hindu organizations
Yoga organizations |
Dworzysk may refer to the following places:
Dworzysk, Białystok County in Podlaskie Voivodeship (north-east Poland)
Dworzysk, Gmina Sokółka in Podlaskie Voivodeship (north-east Poland)
Dworzysk, Gmina Sidra in Podlaskie Voivodeship (north-east Poland) |
Xinle may refer to:
Xinle culture (5500-4800 BC), Neolithic culture in northeast China, found primarily around the lower Liao River on the Liaodong Peninsula in Liaoning
Xinle, Hebei, a city in Shijiazhuang, Hebei, China
Xinle, Sichuan, a town in Luzhou, Sichuan, China
Xinle Township, Heilongjiang, a township in Hulin, Heilongjiang, China
Xinle Township, Chongqing, a township in Shizhu Tujia Autonomous County, Chongqing, China
Xinle Subdistrict, Shenyang, a subdistrict in Huanggu District, Shenyang, Liaoning, China
Xinle Subdistrict, Harbin, a subdistrict in Daowai District, Harbin, Heilongjiang, China |
Cumanotus fernaldi is a species of sea slug, an aeolid nudibranch, a marine gastropod mollusc in the family Cumanotidae.
Distribution
This species was described from the San Juan Islands, British Columbia, Canada, .
References
Cumanotidae
Gastropods described in 1984 |
John McQuillan (born 20 July 1970) is a Scottish former professional footballer.
Career
McQuillan, a right-back, began his career with his hometown club Stranraer in 1986, despite having already played for Dundee United's victorious youth side in the Milk Cup earlier that year. After one season at Stair Park, McQuillan returned to Tayside but signed for United's rivals Dundee, beginning an eight-year stay at Dens Park. In 1991–92, McQuillan was part of Dundee's First Division-winning side, although he suffered relegation from the Premier Division two seasons later. At the beginning of the 1995–96 season, McQuillan moved to Tayside rivals St Johnstone, picking up another First Division title the following season. In March 2000, weeks before the end of his contract, McQuillan moved to Dundee United for £50,000. Featuring as a first-choice in the remainder of that season, McQuillan played in fifteen matches the 2000–01 season before moving on loan to Alloa Athletic for the final months of the season. McQuillan started the 2001–02 season on loan at Montrose and in February 2002, made his loan spell permanent, going on to spend another two seasons at Links Park before playing his final match in May 2004.
It is unknown whether McQuillan stayed in football after retiring.
Career statistics
External links
References
1970 births
Living people
People from Stranraer
Scottish men's footballers
Stranraer F.C. players
Dundee F.C. players
St Johnstone F.C. players
Dundee United F.C. players
Alloa Athletic F.C. players
Montrose F.C. players
Scottish Premier League players
Scottish Football League players
Men's association football fullbacks
Footballers from Dumfries and Galloway |
Société Anonyme des Anciens Etablissements Hotchkiss et Compagnie was a French arms and, in the 20th century, automobile manufacturer first established by United States gunsmith Benjamin B. Hotchkiss (1826–1885). He moved to France and set up a factory, first at Viviez near Rodez in 1867, manufacturing arms used by the French in the Franco-Prussian War of 1870, then moving at Saint-Denis near Paris in 1875. It was merged into and succeeded by Thomson-CSF, now Thales Group.
Arms
An example of the company's output was the Hotchkiss revolving cannon (see picture from a privately circulated book dated 1874 by Alfred Koerner, later chairman of the company). The cannon had five barrels each able to fire 43 shells a minute a distance of one mile; it was made in four sizes from 37 mm to 57 mm, the largest intended for naval use. At the turn of the twentieth century, the company introduced the gas-actuated Hotchkiss machine gun, a sturdy and reliable weapon which was widely used during World War I and thereafter by the French Army.
Cars
At the start of the twentieth century the company started building cars. Information provided by the company for the International Universal Exhibition of 1900, at which it displayed a variety of cannons, said the St Denis factory employed around 400 staff and had 600 machine tools.
The first Hotchkiss car, a 17 CV four-cylinder model, appeared in 1903. The badge for the marque consisted of a pair of crossed cannons—a salute to the company's first products.
A factory fire nearly killed all projects. Despite this, a six-cylinder model followed in 1906. During World War I, they mass-produced the Hotchkiss M1914 machine gun, tank parts and other weapons. In 1933, they developed the Hotchkiss H35 tank.
Post war came a luxury model called AK (6.6-litre) but only one was built. In 1920, there was an unsuccessful attempt to build Hotchkiss cars by a British arm of Hotchkiss in the United Kingdom—only a prototype was made.
A refined model named AM was in production between 1923 and 1928. A new six-cylinder model, named AM 80 came in 1928. The company made several successful racing cars. Hotchkiss racers won the Rallye Automobile Monte Carlo in 1932, 1933, 1934, 1939, 1949 and 1950.
The Hotchkiss 680 was an important model between the wars—it had a six-cylinder, 3-litre engine. In 1937, the company merged with Amilcar. J. A. Grégoire joined the company as a designer. After World War II, the 680 continued. The first new car post war was a 13 CV four-cylinder model. From 1947, two-litre flat-four models are frequently called Hotchkiss-Grégoire. In 1954, Hotchkiss purchased French manufacturer Delahaye, closing down their automotive line but continuing to produce Hotchkiss-Delahaye trucks for a few months before eliminating the Delahaye name completely. After 1954, Hotchkiss manufactured Jeeps under licence from Willys.
In 1956, Hotchkiss merged with French weapon manufacturer Brandt, producing jeeps at their factory near Paris for the French military until 1966. The firm was merged into Thomson-Houston in 1966 and in 1970 stopped producing vehicles. In the early 1970s, the Hotchkiss marque disappeared, as the French conglomerate came to be known as . This, in turn, was nationalized in 1982 to form Thomson SA.
Tanks
The Char léger modèle 1935 H, Commonly known as the Hotchkiss H35 was a light tank produced by the company in the mid 1930s. Initially designed by Hotchkiss in 1933, it was put into service in 1936. An estimated 1,200 vehicles were built between September 1936 and June 1940, however it remained in service with multiple countries as late as 1952. Unlike many other vehicles of the time, the H35 was not made of riveted rolled homogenous armoured plates - rather, it was almost entirely cast iron. This gave it increased structural strength, especially against HE (High Explosive) rounds. A spiritual successor to the Renault FT-17, the tank was intended for a very similar role: a cavalry tank, lightly armoured, nimble, and supported by infantry. For the time, it had formidable armour and proved combat effective against German armour during the Battle of France. It was almost entirely immune to frontal fire from the Panzer II and could only be effectively neutralised by more formidable Panzer IIIs and IVs. Due to a weak main armament, many Hotchkiss H35 tanks were converted into the Hotchkiss H39 - with a slightly more powerful 37mm cannon, a more powerful engine and slightly more armour on the turret. Several Hotchkiss tanks were captured by Nazi Germany and converted to Panzerjäger () assault guns.
Hotchkiss drive
The name of the Hotchkiss firm was given to a form of power transmission from a vehicle's engine by shaft to the differential on its rear axle, which through leaf springs both locates the rear axle and transmits drive forces.
See also
Panhard
References
Defence companies of France
Defunct motor vehicle manufacturers of France |
Fazıl Say (; born 14 January 1970 in Ankara) is a Turkish pianist and composer.
Life and career
Fazıl Say was born in 1970. His father, Ahmet Say was an author and musicologist. His mother, Gürgün Say was a pharmacist. His grandfather Fazıl Say with whom he shares the same name with was a member of the Spartakusbund. Say was a child prodigy, who was able to do basic arithmetic with 4-digit numbers at the age of two. His father, having found out that he was playing the melody of "Daha Dün Annemizin" (Turkish version of Ah! vous dirai-je, maman) on a makeshift flute with no prior training, enlisted the help of Ali Kemal Kaya, an oboist and family friend. At the age of three, Say started his piano lessons under the tutelage of pianist Mithat Fenmen.
Say wrote his first piece – a piano sonata – in 1984, at the age of fourteen, when he was a student at the Conservatory of his home town Ankara. It was followed, in this early phase of his development, by several chamber works without an opus number, including Schwarze Hymnen for violin and piano and a guitar concerto. He subsequently designated as his opus 1 one of the works that he had played in the concert that won him the Young Concert Artists Auditions in New York: the Four Dances of Nasreddin Hodja (1990). This work already displays in essence the significant features of his personal style: a rhapsodic, fantasia-like basic structure; a variable rhythm, often dance-like, though formed through syncopation; a continuous, vital driving pulse; and a wealth of melodic ideas that may often be traced back to themes from the folk music of Turkey and its neighbours. In these respects, Fazıl Say stands to some extent in the tradition of composers like Béla Bartók, George Enescu, and György Ligeti, who also drew on the rich musical folklore of their countries. He attracted international attention with the piano piece Black Earth, Op. 8 (1997), in which he employs techniques made popular by John Cage's works for prepared piano.
After this, Say increasingly turned to the large orchestral forms. Taking his inspiration from the poetry (and the biographies) of the writers Nâzım Hikmet and Metin Altıok, he composed works for soloists, chorus and orchestra which, especially in the case of the oratorio Nâzim, Op. 9 (2001), clearly take up the tradition of composers such as Carl Orff. In addition to the modern European instrumentarium, Say also makes frequent and deliberate use in these compositions of instruments from his native Turkey, including kudüm and darbuka drums and the ney reed flute. This gives the music a colouring that sets it apart from many comparable creations in this genre. In 2007 he aroused international interest with his Violin Concerto 1001 Nights in the Harem, Op. 25, which is based on the celebrated tales of the same name, but deals specifically with the fate of seven women from a harem. Since its world premiere by Patricia Kopatchinskaja, the piece has already received further performances in many international concert halls.
Fazıl Say scored a further great success with his first symphony, the Istanbul Symphony Op. 28 (2009), premiered in 2010 at the conclusion of his five-year residency at the Konzerthaus Dortmund. Jointly commissioned by the WDR and the Konzerthaus Dortmund in the framework of Ruhr. 2010, the work constitutes a vibrant and poetic tribute to the metropolis on the Bosporus and its millions of inhabitants. The same year saw the composition, among other pieces, of his Divorce String Quartet, Op. 29, (based on atonal principles), and commissioned works like the Piano Concerto Nirvana Burning, Op. 30, for the Salzburg Festival and a Trumpet Concerto for the Mecklenburg-Vorpommern Festival, premiered by Gábor Boldoczki.
For Sabine Meyer Say has also written a Clarinet Concerto, Op. 36 (2011), that refers to the life and work of the Persian poet Omar Khayyam in response to a commission from the 2011 Schleswig-Holstein Musik Festival, and a Sonata for clarinet and piano (op. 42) for the Festival Kissinger Sommer in 2012. Fazıl Say's works are issued worldwide by the renowned music publishers Schott Music of Mainz.
In his works Gezi Park 1,2 and 3 (op. 48, op. 52, op. 54) from 2013/14 he musically processed the suppression of the protests at the Istanbul Gezi Park.
The lyrics for his song Insan Insan were taken from a centuries-old poem written by Alevi poet Muhyiddin Abdal. The track was orchestrated by Say with vocals from Selva Erdener (soprano), Burcu Uyar (coloratura soprano), Güvenç Dağüstün (baritone) and Cem Adrian ("ethnic vocals").
Fazıl Say is also known for being a passionate supporter of Fenerbahçe Spor Kulübü.
Blasphemy charge
In April 2012, Say came under investigation by the Istanbul Prosecutor's Office over statements made on Twitter, after declaring himself an atheist and retweeting a message poking fun at the Islamic conception of paradise. Say then announced that he was considering leaving Turkey to live in Japan because of the rise of conservative Islam and growing intolerance in his home country.
On 1 June 2012, an Istanbul court indicted Say with the crime of "publicly insulting religious values that are adopted by a part of the nation", a crime that carries a penalty of up to 18 months in prison. According to Anatolia news agency, Say told the Istanbul court he did not seek to insult anybody, but was merely expressing his uneasiness. The court adjourned the case to 18 February after rejecting his lawyers’ request for an immediate acquittal. “When I read them (Say’s tweets), I was heart-broken, I felt disgraced,” Turan Gümüş, one of the three plaintiffs, told the court. On 15 April 2013, Say was sentenced to 10 months in jail, reduced from 12 months for good behavior in court. The sentence was suspended, meaning he was allowed to move freely provided he did not repeat the offense in the next five years.
On appeal, Turkey's Supreme Court of Appeals reversed the conviction on 26 October 2015, ruling that Say's Twitter posts fell within the bounds of freedom of thought and freedom of expression.
Although he declared himself an atheist, in 2018, after photos of him praying at his mother's funeral surfaced, he denied those who called him an atheist, saying, "Later we heard that those who accused me of disbelief turned out to be women traders and were imprisoned."
Honors and awards
Winner of the Young Concert Artists International Auditions (1994)
Paul A. Fish Foundation Awards (1995)
Le Monde Awards (2000)
Echo Klassik (2001)
German Music Critics’ Best Recording of the Year Award (2001)
Ambassador of Intercultural Dialogue (2008)
"Echo" German Record Award (2009)
"ECHO Klassik 2013 Special Jury Award with Istanbul Symphony Album
Prix International de la Laïcité 2015 (Comité Laïcité République, France)
Beethoven Prize 2016 (Beethoven Academy)
Duisburger Musikpreis (2017)
Artist / Composer in residence
Staatskapelle Weimar, 2022/23
Alte Oper Frankfurt, 2015/2016
Laeiszhalle Hamburg, 2014/2015
Bodenseefestival, 2014
Wiener Konzerthaus, 2013/2014
Hessischer Rundfunk Frankfurt, 2012/2013
Konzerthaus Berlin, 2010/2011
Schleswig-Holstein Musik Festival 2011
Merano Festival, 2010
Elbphilharmonie Hamburg, 2010
Théâtre des Champs-Élysées, Paris 2010
Festspiele Mecklenburg-Vorpommern 2010
Sumida Triphony Hall, Tokyo 2008
Konzerthaus Dortmund, 2005–2010
Musikfest Bremen 2005
Radio France 2003 & 2005
Recordings
1993 CD / (SFB) (Scarlatti–Berg–Say)
1996 CD / Troppenote Records (Say)
1998 CD / Warner Music (Mozart Sonatas)
1999 CD / Teldec (Bach)
2000 CD / Teldec (Gershwin)
2000 CD / Teldec (Stravinski–Le sacre)
2001 CD / Teldec (Liszt–Tchaikovski)
2002 CD / İmaj (Nazım)
2003 CD / Naive (Say/Black Earth)
2003 CD / İmaj (Metin Altıok ağıtı)
2003 CD / Bilkent (Nazım)
2004 CD / Naive (Mozart Concertos)
2005 CD / Naive (Beethoven Sonatas for Piano)
2006 CD / Naive (Haydn Sonatas)
2006 CD / Avex (Live in Tokyo)
2007 CD / Naive (Kopatchinskaja–Say / Beethoven / Bartok / Ravel)
2008 CD / Naive (Kopatchinskaja–Say 1001 Nights in the Harem)
2011 Fazil Say: Pictures (CD / DVD)
2012 Istanbul Symphony & Hezarfen Ney Concerto (CD / DVD)
2019 CD / Warner Bros. (Fazil Say plays Say: Troy Sonata, Yürüyen Köşk, two pieces from Art of Piano)
2019 CD / Winter & Winter (Ferhan & Ferzan Önder play Fazil Say: Winter Morning in Istanbul, Gezi Park – Concerto for two pianos & orchestra, Sonata for two pianos)
2019 CD / Sony (1001 Nights in the Harem: Violin Concerto, Grand Bazaar, China Rhapsody)
Chronological list of compositions
Other works
Books
Uçak Notları (Airplane Notes) Ankara (1999)
Metin Altıok Ağıtı (Requiem for Metin Altıok) (2003)
Yalnızlık Kederi (Sorrow of Solitude) (2009)
"Fazıl Say: Pianist – Komponist – Weltbürger" by Jürgen Otten (2011)
Videography
Fazıl Say – Alla Turca (DVD, 2008)
Fazıl Say – Live in Japan (DVD)
Fazıl Say – Nazım (DVD, 2001)
Fazıl Say – Fenerbahçe Senfonisi (DVD)
Fazıl Say – Istanbul Symphony Concert (DVD, 2012)
Fazıl Say – Istanbul Symphony Short Documentary (DVD, 2012)
See also
Bilkent University
Bilkent Symphony Orchestra
Borusan Istanbul Philharmonic Orchestra
Konzerthaus Dortmund
References
Other sources
Fazıl Say Biography
Fazıl Say biography, Istanbul University
External links
Charges against Turkish Star Pianist Fazil Say: Facing Trial for Joking on Twitter
Schott-Music Profile
echoklassik.de
1970 births
Living people
Musicians from Ankara
Turkish secularists
Turkish classical pianists
Turkish classical composers
21st-century classical composers
Hacettepe University Ankara State Conservatory alumni
20th-century classical composers
Robert Schumann Hochschule alumni
Male classical composers
Male classical pianists
21st-century classical pianists
20th-century male musicians
21st-century male musicians
Naïve Records artists
Turkish composers |
António José Serzedelo Silva Marques (Lisbon, 15 May 1945) is a Portuguese human rights activist, radio broadcaster, actor and a scholar. He is the oldest live LGBTI activist in Portugal (since May 1974). He was the author of the 1st LBGTI Manifesto in Portugal, "Freedom for the Sexual Minorities". He is the founder of Opus Gay, of which he is also currently president . He also founded and hosts a radio programme called Vidas Alternativas (Alternative Lives).
Biography
Academic Studies
Serzedelo attended secondary school in Lourenço Marques (now Maputo), Mozambique and later graduated from the with a degree in History.
Activism
Just 8 days after the Carnation Revolution, Serzedelo co-authored the manifesto "Freedom for the Sexual Minorities", which was written by the newly established "Homosexual Movement for the Revolutionary Action" and published on 13 May 1974 in the daily newspapers Diário de Lisboa and Diário de Notícias. It is considered the foundational document for the LGBTI cause in Portugal and had great repercussion at that time. From that point on, Serzedelo became involved in various causes and organizations, although he is still best known for his role in the LGBTI cause.
Between 1982 and 1992, he was the President for the Human Rights Portuguese Committee for the Palestinians. He was also a member of the Peace and Cooperation Council for the Anti-Apartheid Movement in Portugal until the end of the Apartheid in the Republic of South Africa and Rhodesia. In 1995, he got involved with "The Engravings Don't Know how to Swim" movement with the archaeologist Mila Simões de Abreu and Isabel do Carmo, which aimed to save the Côa Engravings, which were listed as World Heritage by UNESCO. He is one of the co-founders of the Abril Association along with several former-pintassilguistas (Pintassilgo's supporters).
On 28 June 1997 Serzedelo founded the Opus Gay Association, whose goal was to defend the human rights of sexual minorities. With the support of the Commission for Citizenship and Gender Equality and within the scope of the National Strategic Reference Framework, Serzedelo created an extension of Opus Gay against domestic violence and homophobia in Évora.
He is a member of the Association Republic and Secularism. He was a member of the Portuguese Social Forum. He founded and was a board member of the Portas Abertas Association – Servas Portugal, national representative for the federation Servas International, a network of hosts and travellers whose goal is to promote world peace. He is also co-founder of the Association "Men against Violence" and current member.
He signed a public petition, along with another 200 public personalities, against mistreatment of animals and in favour of the sterilisation of cats and dogs with, which was submitted to the Government. He was subsequently involved in the ministerial negotiations to implement this initiative.
Serzedelo was involved in the fight against pedophilia in Lisbon. He was an activist for the campaign in favour of the Right to Abortion in the Portuguese abortion referendum, 2007, along with several other civic associations.
In 2017, Serzedelo, along with the Municipality of Lisbon, placed an anti-homophobia monument in the Príncipe Real Garden, one of the central gardens of Lisbon.
Journalism
In 1974, Serzedelo completed his internship at the Centre de formation des journalistes from Le Monde, Paris, in 1974. In 1975 he was an intern at the Portuguese Diário de Notícias. Later on he became was the administrator and journalist for the weekly newspaper "O Ponto". He was also a correspondent in Lisbon for the Parisian Community Radio "Rádio Clube Português de Paris", until its closure.
In 1999, Serzedelo founded the radio programme "Vidas Alternativas", which was the first programme in Portugal to discuss LGBTI issues. It was initially broadcast on Voxx radio and aired on several university and local radios throughout the country. Nowadays the program is broadcast online at the MegaWeb website. Recently he created the programme Vidas Alternativas Brasil, in order to reach the Brazilian audience.
Serzedelo also co-founded of the independent blogs such as the "Forum Social Português" and "Sociofonia".
He regularly gives interviews for newspapers, magazines, radios, local and national TV, speaking about subjects such as the fight against homophobia, discrimination, equality, non-marital partnerships, same sex marriage, adoption, right to abortion and other civic movements.
Politics
He was part of General Franco Charais office, who was a member of the Revolution Council. Serzedelo remained in office until the council was dissolved.
Currently he is the substitute councilman for the Portuguese Socialist Party in the Lisbon City Council, elected in the last municipal elections.
Teaching
Serzedelo was a professor at Dom José I Secondary School, in Lisbon and a coordinator of a teacher trainee program for the Faculdade de Letras da Universidade de Lisboa and Universidade Lusíada de Lisboa.
Arts
He is an active member of the cinema cooperative called "Cinequipa".
See also
LGBT rights in Portugal
References
1945 births
Living people
Portuguese LGBT rights activists
Portuguese human rights activists
People from Lisbon
Portuguese radio presenters
Portuguese journalists
Male journalists
Portuguese LGBT journalists
LGBT history in Portugal
21st-century Portuguese LGBT people |
Tatiana De Fatima Palanca Lopes Pereira, (born October 13, 1986), known professionally as Miss Tati, is a Norwegian singer. She released 3 singles in 2015, followed by a solo album in 2017.
Biography
Born in Portugal to Angolan parents in 1986, the soul and R&B singer grew up in the city of Setúbal before moving to Bergen in Norway. In 2015, she gained international and national recognition. Her single, “Don’t Let Go”, got attention from Okayafrica, The Guardian playlist, and a shout out from former BBC Radio 1 host Rob da Bank. In 2019, she performed at festivals like Nattjazz, Bergenfest, Øyafestivalen and Oslo World Music Festival in Oslo.
Discography
Singles
2015: Don't Let Go Single
2015: Shakedown Single
2015: Be Free Single
Solo album
2017: Finally Miss Tati
References
External links
Angolan-Born Singer Miss Tati’s Smooth ‘Shakedown’ on OkayAfrica.com
Musicians from Bergen
1986 births
Living people
21st-century Norwegian singers
21st-century Norwegian women singers |
Bucecea (; ) is a town in Botoșani County, Western Moldavia, Romania. It administers two villages, Bohoghina and Călinești.
References
Populated places in Botoșani County
Localities in Western Moldavia
Towns in Romania
Monotowns in Romania
Jewish communities in Romania |
Drew Park is a neighborhood within the city limits of Tampa, Florida. As of the 2010 census the neighborhood had a population of 1,780. The ZIP Codes serving the neighborhood are 33607 and 33614.
Geography
Drew Park boundaries are Hillsborough Avenue to the north, Tampa Bay Blvd. to the south, Tampa International Airport to the west, and Dale Mabry Highway to the east.
The area is flat but above any flood zones.
History
Drew Park was originally Drew Field, named for cattleman and land developer John H. Drew. It was Tampa's first municipal airport, a grass airfield that opened in 1928. At the onset of World War II, the federal government took over the field and developed a military base containing airstrips, barracks, field hospitals, and a German and Italian POW camp. The City of Tampa leased the field to the army for one dollar a year. During this period, a weekly newspaper called Drew Field Echoeswas published that covered news from the base.
Parts of the film Air Force were filmed here. The base theater is still standing today as the Playhouse Adult Theater. Dale Mabry Highway was built in 1943 to link Drew Field with MacDill Air Force Base to the south.
Drew Park was where the W. T. Edwards Tuberculosis Hospital was located before it was demolished.
In 1988, Hillsborough County Aviation Authority announced long-term plans to acquire several hundred acres in Drew Park for the expansion of Tampa International. This will include the redevelopment of the Airport's air cargo facility, aircraft maintenance, fuel farms, equipment maintenance, Aircraft Rescue Fire Training facilities and other aviation-related facilities. To date, the authority has acquired 96% of the parcels in the land acquisition area.
Drew Park is now home to the main campus of the Hillsborough Community College and George M. Steinbrenner Field. Auto dealerships populate much of the Dale Mabry edge of Drew Park and shopping and restaurants make up the Hillsborough Ave edge. The core of Drew Park is occupied by light industry, adult entertainment establishments and several homes, due to its mixed-use zoning. Law enforcement has conducted many raids on the businesses in the area accusing them of prostitution, operating without licenses, and illegally selling alcohol.
Durex Industrial
On June 13, 1992, two nine-year-old boys, Scotty Perez and Anthony Storman, died after climbing into an open dumpster containing toxic chemicals. The dumpster was used by Durex Industrial, Inc. at 4815 N West Shore Blvd. to illegally dispose of toluene which was used in the manufacturing of printing rollers. Two employees, William C. Whitman and Duane C. Whitman, were sentenced to 27-month prison sentences for illegally handling, storing or disposing of toluene. Durex Industries was fined $1.5-million. A Hillsborough county jury awarded the families a $500-million verdict against the company. The corporation itself was broke and no money was paid to the families. In 1998, the owner William Recht Jr. agreed to pay each family $400,000 and a $200,000 fine after pleading guilty to storing hazardous wastes without a permit. He was sentenced to 30 months of probation.
The incident caused many businesses in the area to install locks on their dumpsters. It later inspired the play The Toxic Wave by Susan Hussey, co-founder of the Drew Park-based Gorilla Theatre.
Demographics
Source: Hillsborough County Atlas
As of the census of 2010, there were 1,780 people and 654 households residing in the neighborhood. The population density was 1,376/mi2. The racial makeup of the neighborhood was 66% White, 15% African American, 2% Native American, 2% Asian, 11% from some other race and 4% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 58% of the population.
There were 654 households, out of which 22% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 21% were married couples living together, 13% had a female householder with no husband present, and 25% were non-families. 32% of all households were made up of individuals.
In the neighborhood the population was spread out, with 20% under the age of 18, 39% from 18 to 34, 20% from 35 to 49, 25% from 50 to 64, and 7% who were 65 years of age or older. For every 100 females, there were 142.9 males.
The per capita income for the neighborhood was $9,887. About 26% of the population were below the poverty line, 19% of those under age 18 and 12% of those age 65 or over.
See also
Neighborhoods in Tampa, Florida
References
Drew Park neighbors struggle in transition St. Petersburg Times
Raid on adult video store leads to 14 arrests St. Petersburg Times
Raids on businesses result in 36 arrests St. Petersburg Times
Durex plant owner sorry about deaths St. Petersburg Times
Tampa Airport Drew Park page
External links
Drew Field Echoes, military newspaper for 1942-1945 when Drew Park was a military air field
Neighborhoods in Tampa, Florida |
Iryna Lyubomyrivna Shepetyuk (; born 13 February 1982) is a Ukrainian sprint athlete who specializes in the 100 metres.
She was born in Kolomiya, and represents the club Dynamo Ivano-Frankivska. In the 4 x 400 metres relay she won a bronze medal at the 2007 Summer Universiade. She also competed at the 2005 World Championships without reaching the final, The Ukrainian team failed to finish the race at the 2007 World Championships, and was disqualified at the 2008 Olympic Games.
Her personal best times are 7.35 seconds in the 60 metres (indoor), achieved in February 2004 in Sumy; 11.37 seconds in the 100 metres, achieved in May 2004 in Kyiv; and 23.31 seconds in the 200 metres, achieved in July 2004 in Kyiv.
Competition record
References
1982 births
Living people
Ukrainian female sprinters
Athletes (track and field) at the 2008 Summer Olympics
Olympic athletes for Ukraine
Universiade medalists in athletics (track and field)
Universiade bronze medalists for Ukraine
Medalists at the 2007 Summer Universiade
Olympic female sprinters
People from Kolomyia
Sportspeople from Ivano-Frankivsk Oblast |
Tacchini is a lunar impact crater on the northwestern edge of the Mare Smythii, near the eastern limb of the Moon. It was named after Italian astronomer Pietro Tacchini. It lies just to the south of the prominent crater Neper, and was designated Neper K before being given its current name by the IAU. To the west-southwest of Tacchini is the crater pair of Schubert and Back.
This crater is roughly circular in form, with a rim that is better defined along the eastern side. The northwestern half of the floor is elevated, along the side where ejecta from the younger Neper intrudes into the interior. There is a pair of small craters along the northwestern inner wall.
References
External links
LTO-63C2 Tacchini — L&PI topographic map
Impact craters on the Moon |
Lead ( ) is a city in Lawrence County, South Dakota, United States. The population was 2,982 at the 2020 census. Lead is located in western South Dakota, in the Black Hills near the Wyoming state line.
History
The city was officially founded on July 10, 1876, after the discovery of gold. The city was named for the leads or lodes of the deposits of valuable ores. It is the site of the Homestake Mine, the largest, deepest () and most productive gold mine in the Western Hemisphere before closing in January 2002. By 1910, Lead had a population of 8,382, making it the second largest town in South Dakota.
Lead was founded as a company town by the Homestake Mining Company, which ran the nearby Homestake Mine. Phoebe Hearst, wife of George Hearst, one of the principals, was instrumental in making Lead more livable. She established the Hearst Free Public Library in town, and in 1900 the Hearst Free Kindergarten. Phoebe Hearst and Thomas Grier, the Homestake Mine superintendent, worked together to create the Homestake Opera House and Recreation Center for the benefit of miner workers and their families. Phoebe Hearst donated regularly to Lead's churches, and provided college scholarships from Lead–Deadwood school which holds a staff of over 130 to the children of mine and mill workers.
In the early 1930s, due to fear of cave-ins of the miles of tunnels under Lead's Homestake Mine, many of the town's buildings located in the bottom of a canyon were moved further uphill to safer locations.
Lead and the Homestake Mine have been selected as the site of the Deep Underground Science and Engineering Laboratory, a proposed NSF facility for low-background experiments on neutrinos, dark matter, and other nuclear physics topics, as well as biology and mine engineering studies.
In 1974, most of Lead was added to the National Register of Historic Places under the name of the "Lead Historic District". Over four hundred buildings and were included in the historic district, which has boundaries roughly equivalent to the city limits.
Geography
According to the United States Census Bureau, the city has a total area of , all land.
Two prominent manmade features of Lead's geography are the giant open cut, which was used for surface gold mining by the Homestake Mine, and the resulting ridge nearby built with the non-producing material from the cut.
Climate
Lead has a humid continental climate (Köppen Dfb) with warm summers and cold, very snowy winters with the typical extremely variable temperatures of the western Great Plains.
Its high elevation in the Black Hills makes Lead one of the wettest places in South Dakota and among the snowiest places in the contiguous United States with a mean snowfall of . During the cold and snowy winter of 1993–94, a whopping of snow fell and three years later snowfall totalled . However, frequent chinook winds mean that most of the enormous snowfall melts during the winter: the highest snow cover on record is on March 1, 1998 – during a storm that totalled of snow (water equivalent ) over six days ending March 2. Mean snow depth in January is only and the median even less at . 12.9 mornings can be expected to fall to or below , with the average window for zero temperatures being December 7 to March 3; on the other hand during winter 12.8 afternoons can be expected to get to or above . The coldest temperature has been on February 8, 1936.
During the spring, weather becomes very changeable with frequent severe storms: the first maximum of at least can be expected on April 17, but the last spring freeze normally does not occur until May 24. The spring is also the wettest season owing to the frequent storms, with the wettest month of May 1965 seeing of precipitation. The wettest year – and a South Dakota calendar year record – has been 2013 with and the driest 1936 with . Summers are very warm in the afternoon, but mornings are pleasantly cool: frost-level temperatures occurred in July 1921 and in the Augusts of 1910 and 1911, with August 1910 seeing a freak snowstorm of . The hottest temperature has been on July 7, 1936, during a notorious Plains heat wave. Precipitation is lower in summer than in spring, and declines further into the fall and winter as temperatures cool. Fall weather is similarly variable in temperature, as is the spring; however, the fall period tends to be less prone to severe weather.
Demographics
2010 census
At the 2010 census there were 3,124 people in 1,420 households, including 828 families, in the city. The population density was . There were 1,694 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 94.6% White, 0.3% African American, 2.0% Native American, 0.4% Asian, 0.4% from other races, and 2.3% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 2.9%.
Of the 1,420 households 27.6% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 40.6% were married couples living together, 13.0% had a female householder with no husband present, 4.7% had a male householder with no wife present, and 41.7% were non-families. 35.1% of households were one person and 10.8% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.19 and the average family size was 2.82.
The median age was 40.5 years. 23.1% of residents were under the age of 18; 7.4% were between the ages of 18 and 24; 25.3% were from 25 to 44; 31.5% were from 45 to 64; and 12.7% were 65 or older. The gender makeup of the city was 50.3% male and 49.7% female.
2000 census
At the 2000 census there were 3,027 people in 1,279 households, including 832 families, in the city. The population density was . There were 1,617 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the city was 95.74% White, 0.23% African American, 2.25% Native American, 0.20% Asian, 0.59% from other races, and 0.99% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino people of any race were 2.71%. 36.5% were of German, 8.1% English, 7.8% Irish, 7.1% Norwegian and 6.7% American ancestry according to Census 2000.
Of the 1,279 households 33.2% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 47.8% were married couples living together, 12.4% had a female householder with no husband present, and 34.9% were non-families. 29.2% of households were one person and 11.8% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 2.35 and the average family size was 2.89.
The age distribution was 26.1% under the age of 18, 8.5% from 18 to 24, 30.2% from 25 to 44, 22.2% from 45 to 64, and 13.0% 65 or older. The median age was 37 years. For every 100 females, there were 100.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 96.8 males.
As of 2000 the median income for a household in the city was $29,485, and the median family income was $35,855. Males had a median income of $25,958 versus $18,841 for females. The per capita income for the city was $15,726. About 10.7% of families and 12.9% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.7% of those under age 18 and 12.9% of those age 65 or over.
Recreation
In the summer, there are numerous trails for hiking, mountain biking, and horse back riding. The George S. Mickelson Trail, which runs from Edgemont to Deadwood, runs through the city. Several man made lakes, including Sheridan Lake provide fishing and swimming. Spearfish Canyon to the north has many places to rock climb.
Local media
AM radio
KBHB 810
KKLS 920
KDSJ 980
KTOQ 1340
KBFS 1450
FM radio
KRCS 93.1
KKMK 93.9
KSQY 95.1
KZZI 95.9
KOUT 98.7
KFXS 100.3
KDDX 101.1
KFMH 101.9
KYDT 103.1
KIQK 104.1
Television
KHSD Ch. 11 ABC
KCLO Ch. 16 CBS
KNBN Ch. 21 NBC
KBHE-TV Ch. 26 PBS
Notable people
Richard Bullock (1847–1921), American pioneer
Sean Covel (b. 1976), film producer
James B. Dunn (1927–2016), South Dakota legislator
Thomas D. Edwards, Consul General of the United States to Ciudad Juarez
Stan Gibilisco, writer
John Miljan (1892–1960), actor
Charles Moyer (1866–1929), labor leader and former president of the Western Federation of Miners
William H. Parker (1905–1966), former chief of the Los Angeles Police Department
Len Rice (1918–1992), baseball player
Mina P. Shaughnessy (1924–1978), professor at the City University of New York and pioneering scholar of basic writing
Mike Steponovich (1908–1974), football player with the Boston Redskins
Charles Windolph (1851–1950), recipient of the Medal of Honor and the last surviving white participant in the Battle of Little Bighorn
References
External links
Lead Tourism
Black Hills
Cities in South Dakota
Historic districts on the National Register of Historic Places in South Dakota
Cities in Lawrence County, South Dakota
Populated places established in 1876
1876 establishments in Dakota Territory
Mining communities in South Dakota
National Register of Historic Places in Lawrence County, South Dakota
Populated places on the National Register of Historic Places |
The California Department of Social Services (CDSS) is a California state agency for many of the programs defined as part of the social safety net in the United States, and is within the auspices of the California Health and Human Services Agency. Federal and State funds for adoptions, the largest SNAP program in the country (known as CalFresh, formerly led by current Department of Aging Director Kim McCoy Wade), CalWORKs program, foster care, aid for people with disabilities, family crisis counseling, subsistence payments to poor families with children, child welfare services and many other efforts are distributed through this department.
On June 27, 2019, Governor Gavin Newsom appointed Kimberley Johnson as CDSS Director. Johnson previously served in other capacities at CDSS, including as deputy director of the Family Engagement and Empowerment Division, branch chief of CalWorks and Child Care, and branch chief of Child Care and Refugee Programs.
Its mission is "to serve, aid and protect the needy and vulnerable children and adults in ways that strengthen and preserve families, encourage personal responsibility, and foster independence."
Responsibilities
CDSS has more than 4,000 employees in 54 offices throughout the state and is responsible for:
CalWORKs, the Temporary Assistance for Needy Families (TANF) welfare-to-work program
CalFresh is the California implementation of the federal Supplemental Nutrition Assistance Program (SNAP), formerly known as the Food Stamp program, which provides financial assistance for purchasing food for those in Poverty in California
Ensuring efficient, accurate and equitable delivery of payments and benefits
Providing services that foster self-sufficiency and dignity
Providing social services to the elderly, blind, disabled and other children and adults
Licensing and regulating foster homes, group homes, residential care facilities, day care facilities, child care facilities and preschools
Evaluating eligibility of applicants for disability-related benefits for certain federal and state programs, including Supplemental Security Income, Social Security Disability and Medi-Cal
Organization
The Department of Social Services is divided into 10 divisions, with programs, branches, and agencies under those divisions:
Administration
Legal
Children and Family Services
Community Care Licensing
Disability Determination Service
Adult Programs
Family Engagement and Empowerment
State Hearings
Information Systems
References
External links
Official website
Licensing of Community Care Facilities in the California Code of Regulations
Child Care Facility Licensing Regulations in the California Code of Regulations
California Department of Social Services on USAspending.gov
Social Services
Department of Social Services |
Franz Wendelin Schmidt Silva (born 3 May 2000) is a Peruvian footballer who plays as a centre-back for Peruvian Segunda División side Alianza Universidad.
Career
Schmidt was promoted to Alianza Lima's reserve squad in February 2018. On 5 September 2019, Schmidt was loaned out to Peruvian Segunda División club Unión Huaral. He made his debut for the club on 12 October 2019 against Sport Loreto.
In January 2020, Schmidt was loaned out once again, this time alongside his teammate José Gallardo to Peruvian Primera División side Carlos A. Mannucci for the rest of the year.
In April 2021, Schmidt returned to Unión Huaral once again on a loan deal for the rest of the year. On 20 January 2022, Schmidt left Alianza Lima permanently, to join Peruvian Segunda División side Alianza Universidad.
References
External links
Living people
2000 births
Men's association football defenders
Peruvian men's footballers
Footballers from Lima
Peruvian Segunda División players
Club Deportivo Universidad de San Martín de Porres players
Club Alianza Lima footballers
Unión Huaral footballers
Carlos A. Mannucci players
Alianza Universidad footballers |
Mandinga Airport is an airport serving the platinum mining town of Condoto in the Chocó Department of Colombia.
The airport is southwest of the town. The Condoto non-directional beacon (Ident: CDT) is located on the field.
See also
Transport in Colombia
List of airports in Colombia
References
External links
OpenStreetMap - Mandinga
OurAirports - Mandinga
SkyVector - Mandinga
FallingRain - Mandinga Airport
Airports in Colombia |
In mathematics, and especially general topology, the Euclidean topology is the natural topology induced on -dimensional Euclidean space by the Euclidean metric.
Definition
The Euclidean norm on is the non-negative function defined by
Like all norms, it induces a canonical metric defined by The metric induced by the Euclidean norm is called the Euclidean metric or the Euclidean distance and the distance between points and is
In any metric space, the open balls form a base for a topology on that space.
The Euclidean topology on is the topology by these balls.
In other words, the open sets of the Euclidean topology on are given by (arbitrary) unions of the open balls defined as for all real and all where is the Euclidean metric.
Properties
When endowed with this topology, the real line is a T5 space.
Given two subsets say and of with where denotes the closure of there exist open sets and with and such that
See also
References
Topology
Euclid |
WLCV may refer to:
WLCV-LP, a low-power radio station (103.9 FM) licensed to serve Ludington, Michigan, United States
the student radio station at the University of Louisville |
The Hong Kong Film Award for Best Asian Chinese Language Film is an annual Hong Kong industry award presented for a film considered the best of the year. In order to be eligible for the award films must be in a Chinese language and have either at least one film company legally registered in Asia Region or at least one distribution company legally registered in Hong Kong.
History
This award replaced the Hong Kong Film Award for Best Film from Mainland and Taiwan.
The first award was presented during the 2020 39th Hong Kong Film Awards ceremony.
Winners and nominees
References
External links
Awards established in 2020
Hong Kong Film Awards |
Anthony McKnight (1954 – October 17, 2019) was an American serial killer, rapist, kidnapper, and sex offender who killed five women and assaulted five others in Oakland, California, over a period of five months in late 1985 and early 1986. In 2008, he was found guilty of these murders and sentenced to death, but died awaiting execution in 2019.
Early life
Little is known about McKnight's early life. He was born in 1954, and enlisted in the United States Army in 1982. He also enlisted in the Navy and later served at Naval Air Station Alameda, located in the San Francisco Bay Area near the cities of Alameda and Oakland. Also in 1982, McKnight was arrested by Oakland police while attempting to rape a girl who refused to have sex with him. He was not convicted and got off with a fine, but his information was entered in a sex offender database and his fingerprints entered in the U.S. criminal database.
In 1983 he got married, and had a child. McKnight was known as a lively and friendly man, making him popular in the area, with his many friends describing him very positively, unaware that he was a sex offender.
Crimes and convictions
McKnight's first attack was in October when he stabbed a girl in the neck and chest, then raping her and leaving her unconscious on the outskirts of one of the western districts of Oakland, where she was found and taken to a hospital. A few days later, he raped and beat up another girl at one of the city's construction sites. The victim managed to escape McKnight and hide in a drainage ditch. She then notified the police.
By December 1985, McKnight had carried out two more similar attacks, in one case inflicting 10 stab wounds on the victim, and stabbing the other in the face, but both survived and subsequently gave law enforcement officers a description of the offender, saying that he was a black man, early 30s and with a beard and mustache. One of them also gave a description of his vehicle and part of the license plate. In January 1986, McKnight carried out another attack, during which he raped the victim and attempted to strangle her, dumping her in Oakland's industrial area. She survived the ordeal.
In late 1985, the Oakland Police Department (OPD) became aware of the serial rapist targeting young black women in city's suburbs and outskirt areas. Over time, the unknown rapist became the main suspect in the murder of at least seven women and girls in Oakland and its suburbs, as the exact same modus operandi and pattern were used. Now that the OPD had a vehicle description, they started examining men in the area who matched the physical and vehicle descriptions.
They came across McKnight, who immediately stuck out to investigators because of his criminal background. They found out that at the time of the rapes, McKnight had been stationed at Treasure Island in the San Francisco bay area as part of the Navy. In January, he was taken to a police station and interrogated. He denied attacking anyone, and since there was not enough evidence to arrest him, he was soon released. In January 1986, investigators were able to obtain a photograph of McKnight and showed it to three of the victims, all of whom identified him as their rapist, and he was arrested on January 24, 1986. He was again interrogated, but still insisted his innocence. Despite being originally suspected in the seven murders, police found no evidence connecting McKnight to them, so he was only charged with the rapes and attempted murders. He did not plead guilty.
The results of a complete blood count showed his blood matched that of the rapist. On August 24, 1987, McKnight was found guilty of several cases of kidnapping, assault, rape and attempted murder, receiving 63 years imprisonment.
He was incarcerated at Salinas Valley State Prison. Twelve years into his sentence, investigators again tried to tie McKnight with unsolved murders in the Oakland area and possibly other areas in or around the east bay. They got permission to take a DNA sample from McKnight and enter it into California's Combined DNA Index System, (CODIS). McKnight obliged with a blood and saliva sample. In subsequent years, thanks to a DNA profiling test, McKnight was connected to five rape-murders:
22-year-old Betty Stewart. Her throat was slit on September 22, 1985.
17-year-old Diana Stone. Her corpse was found on the grounds of a primary school in Oakland with knife wounds to the neck on September 29, 1985.
13-year-old Talita Dixon. She was stabbed to death on October 8, 1985.
18-year-old Monique Davis. She was killed by several blows to the head with a blunt object on December 9, 1985.
24-year-old Beverly Bryant. She was beaten to death on December 25, 1985.
His trial started in August 2008. McKnight was charged with all five murders, which made him death penalty eligible. McKnight himself pled not guilty to all charges, but the prosecution cited the overwhelming DNA evidence that tied him to the crime scenes. After almost two months, the jury of seven women and five men found McKnight guilty of the murders, and he was sentenced to death on November 17, 2008. He did not admit his guilt. He was transferred to San Quentin State Prison to await his execution.
Death
In the years after, McKnight sat on death row awaiting execution. On October 17, 2019, after having spent more than 33 years behind bars, and 11 years on death row, McKnight died at the age of 65 from unspecified causes.
See also
Charles Jackson
Joseph James DeAngelo
Joseph Naso
Philip Joseph Hughes Jr.
Roger Kibbe
Franklin Lynch
General
List of serial killers in the United States
References
Links
1954 births
2019 deaths
20th-century American criminals
American murderers of children
American people convicted of murder
American people convicted of rape
American serial killers
Criminals from California
Criminals of the San Francisco Bay Area
People convicted of murder by California
Prisoners sentenced to death by California
Prisoners who died in California detention
Serial killers from California
Serial killers who died in prison custody
Violence against women in the United States |
Hapgood could refer to:
People
Isabel Florence Hapgood (1851–1928), American writer and translator of Russian texts
Norman Hapgood (1868–1937), American writer and journalist
Hutchins Hapgood (1869–1944), American journalist and individualist anarchist
Powers Hapgood (1899–1949), American Trade Union Organizer and Socialist Party leader
Charles Hapgood (1904–1982), American college professor, known for his catastrophic pole shift theories
Eddie Hapgood (1908–1973), English football player, who captained both Arsenal and England
Tony Hapgood (1930–2011), English football player
Leon Hapgood (born 1979), English football player
Buildings
Hapgood House (built 1726), historic house in Stow, Massachusetts
Richard Hapgood House (built 1889), historic house in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Other
Hapgood, a 1988 play by Tom Stoppard |
Saudi Arabia competed at the 2022 Asian Games in Hangzhou, Zhejiang, China, which was held from 23 September 2023 to 8 October 2023.
Competitors
Medal summary
Medals by sports
Football
Kurash
Women
Taekwondo
Poomsae
Kyorugi
Tennis
Singles
Mixed
References
Nations at the 2022 Asian Games
2022
Asian Games |
EMD E-units were a line of passenger train streamliner diesel locomotives built by the General Motors Electro-Motive Division (EMD) and its predecessor the Electro-Motive Corporation (EMC). Final assembly for all E-units was in La Grange, Illinois. Production ran from May 1937, to December, 1963. The name E-units refers to the model numbers given to each successive type, which all began with E. The E originally stood for eighteen hundred horsepower (1800 hp = 1300 kW), the power of the earliest model, but the letter was kept for later models of higher power.
The predecessors of the E-units were the EMC 1800 hp B-B locomotives built in 1935. These had similar power and mechanical layouts to the E-units, but in boxcab bodies on AAR type B two-axle trucks.
EMC also introduced the TA model in 1937, selling six to the Rock Island. This had similar carbody styling, but otherwise had more in common with UP M-10001, M-10002, and M-10003 to M-10006, in that it was a 1,200 hp (900 kW), single-engined unit on B-B trucks instead of the E-units' A1A-A1A wheel arrangement. It is not part of the E-unit series.
The EMD F-units followed the basic B-B truck design of the TA model, but with a V-16 EMD 567 prime mover generating 1350 hp as introduced in 1939.
E-units standardized the two engine configuration for passenger locomotives to maximize power and, while the less-reliable Winton Diesel prime movers were in use, faced a less severe loss of power should one of the engines become disabled. While E-units were used singly for shorter trains, longer trains needed multiple locomotive units; many railroads used triple units. E-units could be purchased with or without cabs; units with a cab are called A units or lead units, while cabless units are called B units or booster units. B units did contain hostler controls, but they could not be so controlled on the main line. The locomotive units were linked together with cables which enabled the crew in the lead unit to control the trailing units. Railroads tended to buy either ABA sets (two cab-equipped units facing in opposite directions with a booster in between) or ABB sets (a single cab with a pair of boosters). The former did not need to be turned to pull in either direction, but B units were less expensive than A units and gave a smoother line to the train.
As locomotives of EMC's own standardized design produced in-house, expandable to meet various power requirements, the E-units marked the arrival of Diesel power benefiting from economies of scale and were adequate for full-sized consists, a significant threshold in the viability of Diesel motive power as a replacement for steam in passenger service.
Development
The EA/EB, E1, and E2 models were powered by twin 900 hp Winton 201A V-12 engines in each power unit. They were standardized mechanically and in overall design. Union Pacific's E2 cab unit was distinguished from the slant-nosed EA and E1 units by its bulbous nose, round porthole style windows, and stainless steel ornamentation on the pilot and nose. The "E" designation originated to denote the locomotive units' Eighteen hundred horsepower, as opposed to the Twelve hundred horsepower "T" units but was later used to refer to all carbody constructed twin-engine mainline passenger locomotives units produced by EMC. Their twin V-12 diesel engine layout, Blomberg A-1-A trucks, and wheelbase would become the standard for all future E models. EMC/EMD has built all of its major components since 1939.
The E3, E4, E5, and E6 had the new GM-EMC 567 purpose-designed locomotive engines, for a total of . They had the sharply raked "slant nose", and square windows on the sides (with the exception of Union Pacific orders with porthole style windows). Production stopped in 1942. The E5 designation was used for Chicago Burlington and Quincy's stainless steel clad locomotives in keeping with their Zephyr theme.
The EA/EB, E1, E2, E4, and E5 model names reflected EMC's early convention of assigning a model name for each individual customer order. EMC started to change that convention with the multiple-customer E3 model and the new naming convention was fully incorporated with the E6 model.
The E7 was introduced in 1945, and became the best selling E model. It had the improved 567 "A" engine, and the F style "bulldog nose".
The E8 and E9 were the final E models. The E8 had 12-V567B engines ( total), while the E9 had uprated 12V-567C engines ( total). They both used the same body style, with a grille along the top of the sides the length of the loco, and several "porthole" windows below it.
Model descriptions are as originally built; EMC/EMD locomotives are often rebuilt to newer standards.
Engines
While there were some cosmetic differences between E-unit models, the major line of development was technological, and largely that of increasing power. The first model, the EA/EB, was rated at 1800 hp (1300 kW), then the E3 was rated at 2,000 hp. The last model, the E9, was rated at 2,400 hp (1800 kW).
Early models (EA/EB through E2) used the Winton 201-A engine that had been developed in the early 1930s by the partnership of General Motors and Winton. While this engine represented a breakthrough in power-to-weight ratios and output flexibility for Diesel engines, it was a compromise between marine and locomotive requirements and wasn't well suited to the sustained full throttle operation often needed in railroad service. It was not unusual for heavy repairs to be done en route on one engine while the other engine propelled the train at reduced speed. The 201-A engines used in E-units were 900 hp (700 kW) V12s. Experience with the 201-A, which was the first two-stroke Diesel engine in operational use, was invaluable in the development of the next-generation Diesel engine, the EMD 567, a purpose-designed engine that achieved a factor-of-five improvement in piston life for locomotive use.
The E3 introduced the 567 series engine, which would power all later E units, the 567 being a mechanically aspirated two stroke 45 degree V-type with displacement per cylinder, a total of per engine. Models E3 through E9 used the EMD model 567 engine, named after its engine displacement in cubic inches per cylinder. The 567 model had been developed by EMD specifically for locomotive use, and exhibited excellent performance and reliability in high speed passenger train service. The 567 had a greater displacement per cylinder than the 201-A and ran at a higher maximum rpm, elements which when combined gave greater engine output. The 12V-567 V12 model used in the E3 through E6 developed 1000 hp (750 kW). The E7 model used the 12V-567A rated at 1000 hp (750 kW). The E8 used the more advanced 567B unit, with improved exhaust manifolds and other enhancements to give 1,125 hp each. More development resulted in the 1200 hp (900 kW) 567C engine used in the E9.
Trucks
All E-units used the same EMD passenger truck design by engineer Martin Blomberg. This was an A1A-A1A truck, with the outer axles powered and the center axle unpowered. Like the well-known two-axle Blomberg B trucks, these trucks had outside spring hangers between the wheels for better cushioning of side-to-side motion. Also like the Blomberg B, there were no drop equalizers between the axles. Two direct current generators powered four traction motors, two on each truck, in an A1A-A1A arrangement. This truck design was used on all E units and on CB&Q 9908 and MP 7100 power cars. The success of the design is shown by the few changes to it over the years.
Styling
The EA and E1 had sloping noses with recessed headlights, while the E2 had a more bulbous "bulldog" nose. Models E3 through E6 had a sloping nose but with a protruding headlight, while models E7 through E9 used a less sloped (closer to vertical) style like the freight F-units. A patent of 1937 signed by several EMC engineers defined the styling.
Many older E-units were updated to newer styles. The E8 introduced the one-piece stamped Farr stainless-steel side grilles that made a continuous band from front to rear just below the roof, but these were often retrofitted to earlier units. Side windows were half-rounded on the EA/EB, square on the E1, round on the E2, square on most E3 through E7 units, and rounded portholes again on the E8 and E9, but again many railroads updated older locomotives.
The E5 units were unique, produced for the Chicago, Burlington and Quincy Railroad in all stainless steel with fluted lower carbody sides, to match the railroad's Zephyr passenger trains.
Other changes
Other improvements occurred independently of the change in engine design. The E8, for example, was the first model to incorporate electric cooling fans, and offer dynamic braking as an option.
Models
Surviving E-units
A number of E-units survive, many are in good running order. Several railroads retain sets that haul passenger specials, management inspection specials, etc. Others survive in museums or on short lines.
The Illinois Railway Museum in Union, Illinois has one of the largest collections of operable and preserved E's including CB&Q E5 9911A and WSOR 102, one of the few remaining operable B units.
The Southeastern Railway Museum in Duluth, Georgia has Southern Railway #6901, an E8 that once powered the Southern Crescent.
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
E
A1A-A1A locomotives
North American streamliner trains
Passenger locomotives
Diesel locomotives of the United States
Locomotives with cabless variants
Standard gauge locomotives of the United States |
Tompson is a surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Charles Tompson (1807–1883), Australian public servant and poet
Frederick A. Tompson (1857–1919), American architect
Nockold Tompson (1714–1777), English mayor
Ruthie Tompson (1910–2021), American animator and artist
See also
Thompson (surname)
English-language surnames
Surnames from given names |
The Society of the Faith is a Church of England charity founded in 1905. Its objects are to bring together Christians in communion with the See of Canterbury for mutual assistance, and to support and further charitable undertakings, particularly those that popularise the Catholic faith. It is registered with the Charity Commission.
History
The society was founded in August 1905, by two brothers, the Revd Canon John Albert Douglas, then Vicar of St Luke, Camberwell, and the Revd Charles Edward Douglas, both notable figures in the Anglo Catholic revival. The object of the society was to create:
"an Association of Christians in communion with the See of Canterbury for mutual assistance in the work of Christ's Church and for the furtherance of such charitable undertakings as may from time to time be decided upon, more especially for the popularisation of the Catholic faith."
The Douglas brothers also intended to create a collegiate institution with resident and non-resident members, but this never came into being.
In 1926 the society became a charitable limited company. In 1935, it took on the lease of Faith House in Westminster, which provided a base for activities of the society, in particular a bookshop for the Faith Press and workspaces for Faith-Craft (see below). Faith House had been built as a church institute for the parish of St John the Evangelist, Westminster. The parish church of this parish was bombed in World War II and is now a concert hall.
Faith Press
The Revd C. E. Douglas had the idea of encouraging attendance at Sunday School by a system of stamp collecting. The stamps were originally printed in London. Douglas moved the enterprise to Leighton Buzzard in Bedfordshire, where a local printer, Henry Rutherford, began producing the stamps. This was so successful that in July 1907 the Faith Press was founded, at first in a converted cow-shed behind a pub, but from 1910 in a converted brewery in Leighton Buzzard.
In 1909 the Manchester based "Church Printing Company" was taken over by the society and run as the Manchester Faith Press. It closed in 1921 as a consequence of the post-first World War depression.
The main company flourished, and became a limited liability company in 1913. As well as the "stamps" it published religious books, various periodicals and from 1917 church music. From 1915 a parish insert called "The Symbol" was printed, to provide Anglo-Catholic priests with good material for sermons and other instructions. The London offices of the press were at 22, Buckingham Street, Charing Cross; they were later moved to 7, Tufton Street, Westminster, S.W. 1.
Rising costs and reduced demand led to Faith Press being closed down in 1973.
Faith-Craft Studio
In 1916 the society began to make vestments to order. The business grew and in 1921 Faith-Craft was founded. From 1938 a workshop for joinery and statue work was opened in St Albans, Hertfordshire, with vestments and stained-glass being produced at Faith House. In 1955 Faith-Craft works moved to new premises in the Abbey Mill in St Albans. The post-war restoration and furnishing of St Mary-le-Bow, Cheapside from 1956 to 1964 was Faith-Craft's largest single commission; everything was made by Faith-Craft including the stained glass windows, designed by John Hayward. By the end of the 1960s changes in fashions in church furnishings had changed, reducing demand and the costs of running the businesses were rising. As a result, in 1973 the society closed down Faith-Craft.
The Society and Eastern Churches
The Douglas brothers had travelled in the Near East and were ahead of their time in having an interest in the Eastern Churches. As a result, the society had a role in the foundation of the Catholic Literature Association and the Anglican and Eastern Churches Association. It also supported the Nikæan Club and provided grants for visiting Orthodox theological students.
Difficult times
Charles Douglas died in 1955 and his brother John in 1956. For the next twenty years, the Faith Press and Faith-Craft Studio continued to produce notable works. Faith Press published the Archbishop of Canterbury’s Lent Book as well as important texts such as Peter Anson's ‘Building up the Waste Places’. Faith-Craft, using distinguished designers such as John Hayward and Francis Stephens, created high quality stained glass and ornaments. But costs were rising and tastes were changing. In the late 1960s, Watts and Company moved into Faith House to take the place of Faith-Craft. In the 1970s, the society, led by its secretary, Ivor Bulmer-Thomas, invited the Church Union into Faith House to run the bookshop. Faith House continued to be an iconic building but the cost of running it was becoming a serious burden for the society.
The Society today
By the late 1990s, the board of trustees knew that it needed to take urgent action to make Faith House self-financing and to provide income to pursue its objects. It obtained permission from the freeholders to let out the top floor for profit and, although its main tenant was a charity serving young people in developing countries, the income enabled the society to restore its finances. With Watts and Company now in the basement, the society found itself in the position of that unusual phenomenon, a benevolent landlord, fostering good relations with its tenants, which included a bookshop run by SPCK from 2003 to 2006, followed by the St Stephen the Great Charitable Trust (SSG) until its closure in April 2008. The ground floor is now in active use as the headquarters of Restless Development, a charity for young people.
The main activities of the society are now –
Making reasonably-priced accommodation available in Faith House for organisations and companies that promote the Christian faith and the Anglican Communion, as well as for other charitable organisations
Promoting the revival and reissue of Faith Press publications and sponsoring new publications, including the Archbishop of York’s Advent Book
Conserving an archive of Faith-craft drawings and Faith Press publications
Administering the Hoare Trust, which grant-aids conservation and provision of ecclesiastical needlework
Administering the Liddon fund, a restricted fund that finances the annual Liddon Lecture and grants to young people for advanced theological study
The society is administered by trustees, known as the Court of Fellows, assisted by the secretary and treasurer.
Gallery
References
Inline
General
The Society of the Faith 1905–1955 – a Commemorative tribute to the Society and its Founders July 1955 Faith Press Ltd
External links
Society of the Failth website
Papers of J A Douglas
Anglo-Catholicism
Christian organisations based in the United Kingdom
Christian organizations established in 1905
Anglican organizations established in the 20th century
1905 establishments in England |
The Mughal Empire was an early modern empire in South Asia. At its peak, the empire stretched from the outer fringes of the Indus River Basin in the west, northern Afghanistan in the northwest, and Kashmir in the north, to the highlands of present-day Assam and Bangladesh in the east, and the uplands of the Deccan Plateau in South India.
The Mughal Empire is conventionally said to have been founded in 1526 by Babur, a chieftain from what is today Uzbekistan, who employed aid from the neighboring Safavid and Ottoman Empires, to defeat the Sultan of Delhi, Ibrahim Lodi, in the First Battle of Panipat, and to sweep down the plains of North India. The Mughal imperial structure, however, is sometimes dated to 1600, to the rule of Babur's grandson, Akbar. This imperial structure lasted until 1720, until shortly after the death of the last major emperor, Aurangzeb, during whose reign the empire also achieved its maximum geographical extent. Reduced subsequently to the region in and around Old Delhi by 1760, the empire was formally dissolved by the British Raj after the Indian Rebellion of 1857.
Although the Mughal Empire was created and sustained by military warfare, it did not vigorously suppress the cultures and peoples it came to rule; rather it equalized and placated them through new administrative practices, and diverse ruling elites, leading to more efficient, centralised, and standardized rule. The base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in the well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.
The relative peace maintained by the empire during much of the 17th century was a factor in India's economic expansion. The burgeoning European presence in the Indian Ocean and an increasing demand for Indian raw and finished products generated much wealth for the Mughal court. There was more conspicuous consumption among the Mughal elite, resulting in greater patronage of painting, literary forms, textiles, and architecture, especially during the reign of Shah Jahan. Among the Mughal UNESCO World Heritage Sites in South Asia are: Agra Fort, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Humayun's Tomb, Lahore Fort, Shalamar Gardens, and the Taj Mahal, which is described as "the jewel of Muslim art in India, and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage."
Name
The closest to an official name for the empire was Hindustan, which was documented in the Ain-i-Akbari. Mughal administrative records also refer to the empire as "Land of Hindustan" (), "Dominions of Hindustan" (), or "Sultanate of Al-Hind" (Arabic: سلطنة الهندية, Saltanat(i) Al-Hindiyyah) as observed in the epithet of emperor Aurangzeb. The contemporary Qing chronicles referred to the Mughal emperors as the "Lords of Hindustan" (Mandarin: Undustan i noyan). In the west, the term "Mughal" was used for the emperor, and by extension, the empire as a whole.
The Mughal designation for their own dynasty was Gurkani (). The use of "Mughal" and "Moghul" derived from the Arabic and Persian corruption of "Mongol", and it emphasised the Mongol origins of the Timurid dynasty. The term gained currency during the 19th century, but remains disputed by Indologists. Similar transliterations had been used to refer to the empire, including "Mogul" and "Moghul". Nevertheless, Babur's ancestors were sharply distinguished from the classical Mongols insofar as they were oriented towards Persian rather than Turco-Mongol culture. The Mughals themselves claimed ultimate descent from the founder of the Mongol Empire, Genghis Khan.
History
Babur and Humayun (1526–1556)
The Mughal Empire was founded by Babur (reigned 1526–1530), a Central Asian ruler who was descended from the Turco-Mongol conqueror Timur (the founder of the Timurid Empire) on his father's side, and from Genghis Khan on his mother's side. Paternally, Babur belonged to the Turkicized Barlas tribe of Mongol origin. Ousted from his ancestral domains in Central Asia, Babur turned to India to satisfy his ambitions. He established himself in Kabul and then pushed steadily southward into India from Afghanistan through the Khyber Pass. Babur's forces defeated Ibrahim Lodi in the First Battle of Panipat in 1526. Before the battle, Babur sought divine favour by abjuring liquor, breaking the wine vessels and pouring the wine down a well.
However, by this time Lodi's empire was already crumbling, and it was actually the Rajput Confederacy which was the strongest power of Northern India under the capable rule of Rana Sanga of Mewar. He defeated Babur in the Battle of Bayana. However, in the decisive Battle of Khanwa which was fought near Agra, the Timurid forces of Babur defeated the Rajput army of Sanga. This battle was one of the most decisive and historic battles in Indian history, as it sealed the fate of Northern India for the next two centuries.
After the battle, the centre of Mughal power became Agra instead of Kabul. The preoccupation with wars and military campaigns, however, did not allow the new emperor to consolidate the gains he had made in India. The instability of the empire became evident under his son, Humayun (reigned 1530–1556), who was forced into exile in Persia by rebels. The Sur Empire (1540–1555), founded by Sher Shah Suri (reigned 1540–1545), briefly interrupted Mughal rule. Humayun's exile in Persia established diplomatic ties between the Safavid and Mughal Courts, and led to increasing Persian cultural influence in the later restored Mughal Empire. Humayun's triumphant return from Persia in 1555 restored Mughal rule in some parts of India, but he died in an accident the next year.
Akbar to Aurangzeb (1556–1707)
Akbar (reigned 1556–1605) was born Jalal-ud-din Muhammad in the Rajput Umarkot Fort, to Humayun and his wife Hamida Banu Begum, a Persian princess. Akbar succeeded to the throne under a regent, Bairam Khan, who helped consolidate the Mughal Empire in India. Through warfare and diplomacy, Akbar was able to extend the empire in all directions and controlled almost the entire Indian subcontinent north of the Godavari River. He created a new ruling elite loyal to him, implemented a modern administration, and encouraged cultural developments. He increased trade with European trading companies. India developed a strong and stable economy, leading to commercial expansion and economic development. Akbar allowed freedom of religion at his court, and attempted to resolve socio-political and cultural differences in his empire by establishing a new religion, Din-i-Ilahi, with strong characteristics of a ruler cult. He left his son an internally stable state, which was in the midst of its golden age, but before long signs of political weakness would emerge.
Jahangir (born Salim, reigned 1605–1627) was born to Akbar and his wife Mariam-uz-Zamani, an Indian Rajput princess. Salim was named after the Indian Sufi saint, Salim Chishti. He "was addicted to opium, neglected the affairs of the state, and came under the influence of rival court cliques". Jahangir distinguished himself from Akbar by making substantial efforts to gain the support of the Islamic religious establishment. One way he did this was by bestowing many more madad-i-ma'ash (tax-free personal land revenue grants given to religiously learned or spiritually worthy individuals) than Akbar had. In contrast to Akbar, Jahangir came into conflict with non-Muslim religious leaders, notably the Sikh guru Arjan, whose execution was the first of many conflicts between the Mughal empire and the Sikh community.
Shah Jahan (reigned 1628–1658) was born to Jahangir and his wife Jagat Gosain, a Rajput princess. His reign ushered in the golden age of Mughal architecture. During the reign of Shah Jahan, the splendour of the Mughal court reached its peak, as exemplified by the Taj Mahal.The cost of maintaining the court, however, began to exceed the revenue coming in. His reign was called as "The Golden Age of Mughal Architecture". Shah Jahan extended the Mughal empire to the Deccan by ending the Nizam Shahi dynasty, and forced the Adil Shahis and Qutb Shahis to pay tribute.
Shah Jahan's eldest son, the liberal Dara Shikoh, became regent in 1658, as a result of his father's illness. Dara championed a syncretistic Hindu-Muslim culture, emulating his great-grandfather Akbar. With the support of the Islamic orthodoxy, however, a younger son of Shah Jahan, Aurangzeb (), seized the throne. Aurangzeb defeated Dara in 1659 and had him executed. Although Shah Jahan fully recovered from his illness, Aurangzeb kept Shah Jahan imprisoned until his death in 1666. Aurangzeb oversaw an increase in the Islamicization of the Mughal state. He encouraged conversion to Islam, reinstated the jizya on non-Muslims, and compiled the Fatawa 'Alamgiri, a collection of Islamic law. Aurangzeb also ordered the execution of the Sikh guru Tegh Bahadur, leading to the militarization of the Sikh community. From the imperial perspective, conversion to Islam integrated local elites into the king's vision of network of shared identity that would join disparate groups throughout the empire in obedience to the Mughal emperor. His campaign to conquer South and Western India nominally increased the size of Mughal Empire, but had a ruinous effect on Mughal Empire. Matthew White estimates that about 2.5 million of Aurangzeb's army were killed during the Mughal–Maratha Wars (100,000 annually during a quarter-century), while 2 million civilians in war-torn lands died due to drought, plague and famine. This campaign also had a ruinous effect on Mughal Treasury, and Emperor's absence led to a severe decline in Governance in Northern India. Marathas started expanding northwards shortly after the death of Aurangzeb, defeated the Mughals in Delhi and Bhopal, and extended their empire up to Peshawar by 1758.
Aurangzeb is considered India's most controversial king, with some historians arguing his religious conservatism and intolerance undermined the stability of Mughal society, while other historians question this, noting that he built Hindu temples, employed significantly more Hindus in his imperial bureaucracy than his predecessors did, opposed bigotry against Hindus and Shia Muslims. Despite these allegations, it has been acknowledged that Emperor Aurangzeh enacted repressive policies towards non-Muslims, which also resulted to a major rebellion by the Marathas.
Decline (1707–1857)
Aurangzeb's son, Bahadur Shah I, repealed the religious policies of his father and attempted to reform the administration. "However, after his death in 1712, the Mughal dynasty sank into chaos and violent feuds. In 1719 alone, four emperors successively ascended the throne", as figureheads under the rule of a brotherhood of nobles belonging to the Indian Muslim caste known as the Sadaat-e-Bara, whose leaders, the Sayyid Brothers, became the de facto sovereigns of the empire.
During the reign of Muhammad Shah (reigned 1719–1748), the empire began to break up, and vast tracts of central India passed from Mughal to Maratha hands. As the Mughals tried to suppress the independence of the Nizam in the Deccan, he encouraged the Marathas to invade central and northern India. The far-off Indian campaign of Nader Shah, who had previously reestablished Iranian suzerainty over most of West Asia, the Caucasus, and Central Asia, culminated with the Sack of Delhi and shattered the remnants of Mughal power and prestige. Many of the empire's elites now sought to control their own affairs, and broke away to form independent kingdoms. But, according to Sugata Bose and Ayesha Jalal, the Mughal Emperor continued to be the highest manifestation of sovereignty. Not only the Muslim gentry, but the Maratha, Hindu, and Sikh leaders took part in ceremonial acknowledgments of the emperor as the sovereign of India.
Meanwhile, some regional polities within the increasingly fragmented Mughal Empire, involved themselves and the state in global conflicts, leading only to defeat and loss of territory during the Carnatic Wars and the Bengal War.
The Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II (1759–1806) made futile attempts to reverse the Mughal decline but ultimately had to seek the protection of the Emir of Afghanistan, Ahmed Shah Abdali, which led to the Third Battle of Panipat between the Maratha Empire and the Afghans (led by Abdali) in 1761. In 1771, the Marathas recaptured Delhi from Afghan control and in 1784 they officially became the protectors of the emperor in Delhi, a state of affairs that continued until the Second Anglo-Maratha War. Thereafter, the British East India Company became the protectors of the Mughal dynasty in Delhi. The British East India Company took control of the former Mughal province of Bengal-Bihar in 1793 after it abolished local rule (Nizamat) that lasted until 1858, marking the beginning of British colonial era over the Indian subcontinent. By 1857 a considerable part of former Mughal India was under the East India Company's control. After a crushing defeat in the war of 1857–1858 which he nominally led, the last Mughal, Bahadur Shah Zafar, was deposed by the British East India Company and exiled in 1858. Zafar was exiled to Rangoon, Burma. His wife Zeenat Mahal and some of the remaining members of the family accompanied him. At 4 am on 7 October 1858, Zafar along with his wives, two remaining sons began his journey towards Rangoon in bullock carts escorted by 9th Lancers under command of Lieutenant Ommaney. Through the Government of India Act 1858 the British Crown assumed direct control of East India Company-held territories in India in the form of the new British Raj. In 1876 the British Queen Victoria assumed the title of Empress of India.
Causes of decline
Historians have offered numerous explanations for the rapid collapse of the Mughal Empire between 1707 and 1720, after a century of growth and prosperity. In fiscal terms, the throne lost the revenues needed to pay its chief officers, the emirs (nobles) and their entourages. The emperor lost authority, as the widely scattered imperial officers lost confidence in the central authorities, and made their own deals with local men of influence. The imperial army, bogged down in long, futile wars against the more aggressive Marathas, lost its fighting spirit. Finally came a series of violent political feuds over control of the throne. After the execution of Emperor Farrukhsiyar in 1719, local Mughal successor states took power in region after region.
Contemporary chroniclers bewailed the decay they witnessed, a theme picked up by the first British historians who wanted to underscore the need for a British-led rejuvenation.
Modern views on the decline
Since the 1970s historians have taken multiple approaches to the decline, with little consensus on which factor was dominant. The psychological interpretations emphasise depravity in high places, excessive luxury, and increasingly narrow views that left the rulers unprepared for an external challenge. A Marxist school (led by Irfan Habib and based at Aligarh Muslim University) emphasises excessive exploitation of the peasantry by the rich, which stripped away the will and the means to support the regime. Karen Leonard has focused on the failure of the regime to work with Hindu bankers, whose financial support was increasingly needed; the bankers then helped the Maratha and the British. In a religious interpretation, some scholars argue that the Hindu powers revolted against the rule of a Muslim dynasty. Finally, other scholars argue that the very prosperity of the Empire inspired the provinces to achieve a high degree of independence, thus weakening the imperial court.
Jeffrey G. Williamson has argued that the Indian economy went through deindustrialization in the latter half of the 18th century as an indirect outcome of the collapse of the Mughal Empire, with British rule later causing further deindustrialization. According to Williamson, the decline of the Mughal Empire led to a decline in agricultural productivity, which drove up food prices, then nominal wages, and then textile prices, which led to India losing a share of the world textile market to Britain even before it had superior factory technology. Indian textiles, however, still maintained a competitive advantage over British textiles up until the 19th century.
Administration and state
The Mughal Empire had a highly centralised, bureaucratic government, most of which was instituted during the rule of the third Mughal emperor Akbar. The central government was headed by the Mughal emperor; immediately beneath him were four ministries. The finance/revenue ministry was responsible for controlling revenues from the empire's territories, calculating tax revenues, and using this information to distribute assignments. The ministry of the military (army/intelligence) was headed by an official titled mir bakhshi, who was in charge of military organisation, messenger service, and the mansabdari system. The ministry in charge of law/religious patronage was the responsibility of the sadr as-sudr, who appointed judges and managed charities and stipends. Another ministry was dedicated to the imperial household and public works.
Administrative divisions
The empire was divided into Subah (provinces), each of which were headed by a provincial governor called a subadar. The structure of the central government was mirrored at the provincial level; each suba had its own bakhshi, sadr as-sudr, and finance minister that reported directly to the central government rather than the subahdar. Subas were subdivided into administrative units known as sarkars, which were further divided into groups of villages known as parganas. Mughal government in the pargana consisted of a Muslim judge and local tax collector. Parganas were the basic administrative unit of the Mughal empire.
Mughal administrative divisions were not static. Territories were often rearranged and reconstituted for better administrative control, and to extend cultivation. For example, a sarkar could turn into a subah, and parganas were often transferred between sarkars. The hierarchy of division was ambiguous sometimes, as a territory could fall under multiple overlapping jurisdictions. Administrative divisions were also vague in their geography – the Mughal state did not have enough resources or authority to undertake detailed land surveys, and hence the geographical limits of these divisions were not formalised and maps not created. The Mughals instead recorded detailed statistics about each division, in order to assess the territory's capacity for revenue, on the basis of simpler land surveys.
Capitals
The Mughals had multiple imperial capitals, established over the course of their rule. These were the cities of Agra, Delhi, Lahore, and Fatehpur Sikri. Power often shifted back and forth between these capitals. Sometimes this was necessitated by political and military demands, but shifts also occurred for ideological reasons (for example, Akbar's establishment of Fatehpur Sikri), or even simply because the cost of establishing a new capital was marginal. Situations where there were two simultaneous capitals happened multiple times in Mughal history. Certain cities also served as short-term, provincial capitals, as was the case with Aurangzeb's shift to Aurangabad in the Deccan. Kabul was the summer capital of Mughals from 1526 to 1681.
The imperial camp, used for military expeditions and royal tours, also served as a kind of mobile, "de facto" administrative capital. From the time of Akbar, Mughal camps were huge in scale, accompanied by numerous personages associated with the royal court, as well as soldiers and labourers. All administration and governance was carried out within them. The Mughal Emperors spent a significant portion of their ruling period within these camps.
After Aurangzeb, the Mughal capital definitively became the walled city of Shahjahanabad (Old Delhi).
Law
The Mughal Empire's legal system was context-specific and evolved over the course of the empire's rule. Being a Muslim state, the empire employed fiqh (Islamic jurisprudence) and therefore the fundamental institutions of Islamic law such as those of the qadi (judge), mufti (jurisconsult), and muhtasib (censor and market supervisor) were well-established in the Mughal Empire. However, the dispensation of justice also depended on other factors, such as administrative rules, local customs, and political convenience. This was due to Persianate influences on Mughal ideology, and the fact that the Mughal Empire governed a non-Muslim majority.
Legal ideology
The Mughal Empire followed the Sunni Hanafi system of jurisprudence. In its early years, the empire relied on Hanafi legal references inherited from its predecessor, the Delhi Sultanate. These included the al-Hidayah (the best guidance) and the Fatawa al-Tatarkhaniyya (religious decisions of the Emire Tatarkhan). During the Mughal Empire's peak, the Fatawa 'Alamgiri was commissioned by Emperor Aurangzeb. This compendium of Hanafi law sought to serve as a central reference for the Mughal state that dealt with the specifics of the South Asian context.
The Mughal Empire also drew on Persianate notions of kingship. Particularly, this meant that the Mughal emperor was considered the supreme authority on legal affairs.
Courts of law
Various kinds of courts existed in the Mughal empire. One such court was that of the qadi. The Mughal qadi was responsible for dispensing justice; this included settling disputes, judging people for crimes, and dealing with inheritances and orphans. The qadi also had additional importance with regards to documents, as the seal of the qadi was required to validate deeds and tax records. Qadis did not constitute a single position, but made up a hierarchy. For example, the most basic kind was the pargana (district) qadi. More prestigious positions were those of the qadi al-quddat (judge of judges) who accompanied the mobile imperial camp, and the qadi-yi lashkar (judge of the army). Qadis were usually appointed by the emperor or the sadr-us-sudr (chief of charities). The jurisdiction of the qadi was availed by Muslims and non-Muslims alike.
The jagirdar (local tax collector) was another kind of official approached, especially for high-stakes cases. Subjects of the Mughal Empire also took their grievances to the courts of superior officials who held more authority and punitive power than the local qadi. Such officials included the kotwal (local police), the faujdar (an officer controlling multiple districts and troops of soldiers), and the most powerful, the subahdar (provincial governor). In some cases, the emperor themself dispensed justice directly. Jahangir was known to have installed a "chain of justice" in the Agra Fort that any aggrieved subject could shake to get the attention of the emperor and bypass the inefficacy of officials.
Self-regulating tribunals operating at the community or village level were common, but sparse documentation of them exists. For example, it is unclear how panchayats (village councils) operated in the Mughal era.
Economy
The economy in the Indian Subcontinent during the Mughal era performed just as it did in ancient times, though now it would face the stress of extensive regional tensions. The Mughal economy was large and prosperous. India was producing 24.5% of the world's manufacturing output up until 1750. India's economy has been described as a form of proto-industrialization, like that of 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.
The Mughals were responsible for building an extensive road system, creating a uniform currency, and the unification of the country. The empire had an extensive road network, which was vital to the economic infrastructure, built by a public works department set up by the Mughals which designed, constructed and maintained roads linking towns and cities across the empire, making trade easier to conduct.
The main base of the empire's collective wealth was agricultural taxes, instituted by the third Mughal emperor, Akbar. These taxes, which amounted to well over half the output of a peasant cultivator, were paid in the well-regulated silver currency, and caused peasants and artisans to enter larger markets.
Coinage
The Mughals adopted and standardised the rupee (rupiya, or silver) and dam (copper) currencies introduced by Sur Emperor Sher Shah Suri during his brief rule. The currency was initially 48 dams to a single rupee in the beginning of Akbar's reign, before it later became 38 dams to a rupee in the 1580s, with the dam's value rising further in the 17th century as a result of new industrial uses for copper, such as in bronze cannons and brass utensils. The dam was initially the most common coin in Akbar's time, before being replaced by the rupee as the most common coin in succeeding reigns. The dam's value was later worth 30 to a rupee towards the end of Jahangir's reign, and then 16 to a rupee by the 1660s. The Mughals minted coins with high purity, never dropping below 96%, and without debasement until the 1720s.
Despite India having its own stocks of gold and silver, the Mughals produced minimal gold of their own, but mostly minted coins from imported bullion, as a result of the empire's strong export-driven economy, with global demand for Indian agricultural and industrial products drawing a steady stream of precious metals into India. Around 80% of Mughal India's imports were bullion, mostly silver, with major sources of imported bullion including the New World and Japan, which in turn imported large quantities of textiles and silk from the Bengal Subah province.
Labour
The historian Shireen Moosvi estimates that in terms of contributions to the Mughal economy, in the late 16th century, the primary sector contributed 52%, the secondary sector 18% and the tertiary sector 29%; the secondary sector contributed a higher percentage than in early 20th-century British India, where the secondary sector only contributed 11% to the economy. In terms of urban-rural divide, 18% of Mughal India's labour force were urban and 82% were rural, contributing 52% and 48% to the economy, respectively.
According to Stephen Broadberry and Bishnupriya Gupta, grain wages in India were comparable to England in the 16th and 17th centuries, but diverged in the 18th century when they fell to 20-40% of England's wages. This, however, is disputed by Parthasarathi and Sivramkrishna. Parthasarathi cites his estimates that grain wages for weaving and spinning in mid-18 century Bengal and South India was comparable to Britain. Similarly, Sivramkrishna analyzed agricultural surveys conducted in Mysore by Francis Buchanan during 1800–1801, arrived at estimates using a "subsistence basket" that aggregated millet income could be almost five times subsistence level, while corresponding rice income was three times that much. That could be comparable to advance part of Europe. Due to the scarcity of data, however, more research is needed before drawing any conclusion.
According to Moosvi, Mughal India had a per-capita income, in terms of wheat, 1.24% higher in the late 16th century than British India did in the early 20th century. This income, however, would have to be revised downwards if manufactured goods, like clothing, would be considered. Compared to food per-capita, expenditure on clothing was much smaller though, so relative income between 1595 and 1596 should be comparable to 1901–1910. However, in a system where wealth was hoarded by elites, wages were depressed for manual labour. In Mughal India, there was a generally tolerant attitude towards manual labourers, with some religious cults in northern India proudly asserting a high status for manual labour. While slavery also existed, it was limited largely to household servants.
Agriculture
Indian agricultural production increased under the Mughal Empire. A variety of crops were grown, including food crops such as wheat, rice, and barley, and non-food cash crops such as cotton, indigo and opium. By the mid-17th century, Indian cultivators begun to extensively grow two new crops from the Americas, maize and tobacco.
The Mughal administration emphasised agrarian reform, which began under the non-Mughal emperor Sher Shah Suri, the work of which Akbar adopted and furthered with more reforms. The civil administration was organised in a hierarchical manner on the basis of merit, with promotions based on performance. The Mughal government funded the building of irrigation systems across the empire, which produced much higher crop yields and increased the net revenue base, leading to increased agricultural production.
A major Mughal reform introduced by Akbar was a new land revenue system called zabt. He replaced the tribute system, previously common in India and used by Tokugawa Japan at the time, with a monetary tax system based on a uniform currency. The revenue system was biased in favour of higher value cash crops such as cotton, indigo, sugar cane, tree-crops, and opium, providing state incentives to grow cash crops, in addition to rising market demand. Under the zabt system, the Mughals also conducted extensive cadastral surveying to assess the area of land under plow cultivation, with the Mughal state encouraging greater land cultivation by offering tax-free periods to those who brought new land under cultivation. The expansion of agriculture and cultivation continued under later Mughal emperors including Aurangzeb, whose 1665 firman edict stated: "the entire elevated attention and desires of the Emperor are devoted to the increase in the population and cultivation of the Empire and the welfare of the whole peasantry and the entire people."
Mughal agriculture was in some ways advanced compared to European agriculture at the time, exemplified by the common use of the seed drill among Indian peasants before its adoption in Europe. While the average peasant across the world was only skilled in growing very few crops, the average Indian peasant was skilled in growing a wide variety of food and non-food crops, increasing their productivity. Indian peasants were also quick to adapt to profitable new crops, such as maize and tobacco from the New World being rapidly adopted and widely cultivated across Mughal India between 1600 and 1650. Bengali farmers rapidly learned techniques of mulberry cultivation and sericulture, establishing Bengal Subah as a major silk-producing region of the world. Sugar mills appeared in India shortly before the Mughal era. Evidence for the use of a draw bar for sugar-milling appears at Delhi in 1540, but may also date back earlier, and was mainly used in the northern Indian subcontinent. Geared sugar rolling mills first appeared in Mughal India, using the principle of rollers as well as worm gearing, by the 17th century.
According to economic historian Immanuel Wallerstein, citing evidence from Irfan Habib, Percival Spear, and Ashok Desai, per-capita agricultural output and standards of consumption in 17th-century Mughal India were probably higher than in 17th-century Europe and certainly higher than early 20th-century British India. The increased agricultural productivity led to lower food prices. In turn, this benefited the Indian textile industry. Compared to Britain, the price of grain was about one-half in South India and one-third in Bengal, in terms of silver coinage. This resulted in lower silver coin prices for Indian textiles, giving them a price advantage in global markets.
Industrial manufacturing
Up until 1750, India produced about 25% of the world's industrial output. Manufactured goods and cash crops from the Mughal Empire were sold throughout the world. Key industries included textiles, shipbuilding, and steel. Processed products included cotton textiles, yarns, thread, silk, jute products, metalware, and foods such as sugar, oils and butter. The growth of manufacturing industries in the Indian subcontinent during the Mughal era in the 17th–18th centuries has been referred to as a form of proto-industrialization, similar to 18th-century Western Europe prior to the Industrial Revolution.
In early modern Europe, there was significant demand for products from Mughal India, particularly cotton textiles, as well as goods such as spices, peppers, indigo, silks, and saltpeter (for use in munitions). European fashion, for example, became increasingly dependent on Mughal Indian textiles and silks. From the late 17th century to the early 18th century, Mughal India accounted for 95% of British imports from Asia, and the Bengal Subah province alone accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia. In contrast, there was very little demand for European goods in Mughal India, which was largely self-sufficient, thus Europeans had very little to offer, except for some woolens, unprocessed metals and a few luxury items. The trade imbalance caused Europeans to export large quantities of gold and silver to Mughal India in order to pay for South Asian imports. Indian goods, especially those from Bengal, were also exported in large quantities to other Asian markets, such as Indonesia and Japan.
Textile industry
The largest manufacturing industry in the Mughal Empire was textile manufacturing, particularly cotton textile manufacturing, which included the production of piece goods, calicos, and muslins, available unbleached and in a variety of colours. The cotton textile industry was responsible for a large part of the empire's international trade. India had a 25% share of the global textile trade in the early 18th century. Indian cotton textiles were the most important manufactured goods in world trade in the 18th century, consumed across the world from the Americas to Japan. By the early 18th century, Mughal Indian textiles were clothing people across the Indian subcontinent, Southeast Asia, Europe, the Americas, Africa, and the Middle East. The most important centre of cotton production was the Bengal province, particularly around its capital city of Dhaka.
Bengal accounted for more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks imported by the Dutch from Asia, Bengali silk and cotton textiles were exported in large quantities to Europe, Indonesia, and Japan, and Bengali muslin textiles from Dhaka were sold in Central Asia, where they were known as "Dhaka textiles". Indian textiles dominated the Indian Ocean trade for centuries, were sold in the Atlantic Ocean trade, and had a 38% share of the West African trade in the early 18th century, while Indian calicos were a major force in Europe, and Indian textiles accounted for 20% of total English trade with Southern Europe in the early 18th century.
The worm gear roller cotton gin, which was invented in India during the early Delhi Sultanate era of the 13th–14th centuries, came into use in the Mughal Empire sometime around the 16th century, and is still used in India through to the present day. Another innovation, the incorporation of the crank handle in the cotton gin, first appeared in India sometime during the late Delhi Sultanate or the early Mughal Empire. The production of cotton, which may have largely been spun in the villages and then taken to towns in the form of yarn to be woven into cloth textiles, was advanced by the diffusion of the spinning wheel across India shortly before the Mughal era, lowering the costs of yarn and helping to increase demand for cotton. The diffusion of the spinning wheel, and the incorporation of the worm gear and crank handle into the roller cotton gin led to greatly expanded Indian cotton textile production during the Mughal era.
Once, the Mughal emperor Akbar asked his courtiers, which was the most beautiful flower. Some said rose, from whose petals were distilled the precious ittar, others, the lotus, glory of every Indian village. But Birbal said, "The cotton boll". There was a scornful laughter and Akbar asked for an explanation. Birbal said, "Your Majesty, from the cotton boll comes the fine fabric prized by merchants across the seas that has made your empire famous throughout the world. The perfume of your fame far exceeds the scent of roses and jasmine. That is why I say the cotton boll is the most beautiful flower.
Shipbuilding industry
Mughal India had a large shipbuilding industry, which was also largely centred in the Bengal province. Economic historian Indrajit Ray estimates shipbuilding output of Bengal during the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries at 223,250 tons annually, compared with 23,061 tons produced in nineteen colonies in North America from 1769 to 1771. He also assesses ship repairing as very advanced in Bengal.
An important innovation in shipbuilding was the introduction of a flushed deck design in Bengal rice ships, resulting in hulls that were stronger and less prone to leak than the structurally weak hulls of traditional European ships built with a stepped deck design. The British East India Company later duplicated the flushed deck and hull designs of Bengal rice ships in the 1760s, leading to significant improvements in seaworthiness and navigation for European ships during the Industrial Revolution.
Bengal Subah
The Bengal Subah province was especially prosperous from the time of its takeover by the Mughals in 1590 until the British East India Company seized control in 1757. Historian C. A. Bayly wrote that it was probably the Mughal Empire's wealthiest province. Domestically, much of India depended on Bengali products such as rice, silks and cotton textiles. Overseas, Europeans depended on Bengali products such as cotton textiles, silks, and opium; Bengal accounted for 40% of Dutch imports from Asia, for example, including more than 50% of textiles and around 80% of silks. From Bengal, saltpeter was also shipped to Europe, opium was sold in Indonesia, raw silk was exported to Japan and the Netherlands, and cotton and silk textiles were exported to Europe, Indonesia and Japan.
Akbar played a key role in establishing Bengal as a leading economic centre, as he began transforming many of the jungles there into farms. As soon as he conquered the region, he brought tools and men to clear jungles in order to expand cultivation and brought Sufis to open the jungles to farming. Bengal was later described as the Paradise of Nations by Mughal emperors. The Mughals introduced agrarian reforms, including the modern Bengali calendar. The calendar played a vital role in developing and organising harvests, tax collection and Bengali culture in general, including the New Year and Autumn festivals. The province was a leading producer of grains, salt, fruits, liquors and wines, precious metals and ornaments.
After 150 years of rule by Mughal viceroys, Bengal gained semi-independence as a dominion under the Nawab of Bengal in 1717. The Nawabs permitted European companies to set up trading posts across the region, including firms from Britain, France, the Netherlands, Denmark, Portugal and Austria. An Armenian community dominated banking and shipping in major cities and towns. The Europeans regarded Bengal as the richest place for trade. By the late 18th century, the British displaced the Mughal ruling class in Bengal.
Demographics
Population
India's population growth accelerated under the Mughal Empire, with an unprecedented economic and demographic upsurge which boosted the Indian population by 60% to 253% in 200 years during 1500–1700. The Indian population had a faster growth during the Mughal era than at any known point in Indian history prior to the Mughal era. By the time of Aurangzeb's reign, there were a total of 455,698 villages in the Mughal Empire.
The following table gives population estimates for the Mughal Empire, compared to the total population of South Asia including the regions of modern India, Pakistan, and Bangladesh, and compared to the world population:
Urbanization
According to Irfan Habib Cities and towns boomed under the Mughal Empire, which had a relatively high degree of urbanization for its time, with 15% of its population living in urban centres. This was higher than the percentage of the urban population in contemporary Europe at the time and higher than that of British India in the 19th century; the level of urbanization in Europe did not reach 15% until the 19th century.
Under Akbar's reign in 1600, the Mughal Empire's urban population was up to 17 million people, 15% of the empire's total population. This was larger than the entire urban population in Europe at the time, and even a century later in 1700, the urban population of England, Scotland and Wales did not exceed 13% of its total population, while British India had an urban population that was under 13% of its total population in 1800 and 9% in 1881, a decline from the earlier Mughal era. By 1700, Mughal India had an urban population of 23 million people, larger than British India's urban population of 22.3 million in 1871.
Those estimates were criticised by Tim Dyson, who consider them exaggerations. According to Dyson urbanization of Mughal empire was less than 9%.
The historian Nizamuddin Ahmad (1551–1621) reported that, under Akbar's reign, there were 120 large cities and 3200 townships. A number of cities in India had a population between a quarter-million and half-million people, with larger cities including Agra (in Agra Subah) with up to 800,000 people, Lahore (in Lahore Subah) with up to 700,000 people, Dhaka (in Bengal Subah) with over 1 million people, and Delhi (in Delhi Subah) with over 600,000 people.
Cities acted as markets for the sale of goods, and provided homes for a variety of merchants, traders, shopkeepers, artisans, moneylenders, weavers, craftspeople, officials, and religious figures. However, a number of cities were military and political centres, rather than manufacturing or commerce centres.
Culture
The Mughal Empire was definitive in the early-modern and modern periods of South Asian history, with its legacy in India, Pakistan, Bangladesh and Afghanistan seen in cultural contributions such as:
Centralised imperial rule that consolidated the smaller polities of South Asia.
The amalgamation of Persian art and literature with Indian art.
The development of Mughlai cuisine, an amalgamation of South Asian, Iranian and Central Asian culinary styles.
The development of Mughal clothing, jewelry and fashion, utilizing richly decorated fabrics such as muslin, silk, brocade and velvet.
The Persian and Arabic language mixed with Hindi grammar, thus the development of Urdu.
The introduction of sophisticated Iranian-style waterworks and horticulture through Mughal gardening.
The introduction of Turkish baths into the Indian subcontinent.
The evolution and refinement of Mughal and Indian architecture and in turn, the development of later Rajput and Sikh palatial architecture. A famous Mughal landmark is the Taj Mahal.
The development of the Pehlwani style of Indian wrestling, a combination of Indian malla-yuddha and Persian varzesh-e bastani.
The construction of Maktab schools, where youth were taught the Quran and Islamic law such as the Fatawa 'Alamgiri in their indigenous languages.
The development of Hindustani classical music, and instruments such as the sitar.
Architecture
The Mughals made a major contribution to the Indian subcontinent with the development of their unique Indo-Persian architecture. Many monuments were built during the Mughal era by the Muslim emperors, especially Shah Jahan, including the Taj Mahal—a UNESCO World Heritage Site considered "the jewel of Muslim art in India and one of the universally admired masterpieces of the world's heritage", attracting 7–8 million unique visitors a year. The palaces, tombs, gardens and forts built by the dynasty stand today in Agra, Aurangabad, Delhi, Dhaka, Fatehpur Sikri, Jaipur, Lahore, Kabul, Sheikhupura, and many other cities of India, Pakistan, Afghanistan, and Bangladesh, such as:
Art and literature
The Mughal artistic tradition, mainly expressed in painted miniatures, as well as small luxury objects, was eclectic, borrowing from Iranian, Indian, Chinese and Renaissance European stylistic and thematic elements. Mughal emperors often took in Iranian bookbinders, illustrators, painters and calligraphers from the Safavid court due to the commonalities of their Timurid styles, and due to the Mughal affinity for Iranian art and calligraphy. Miniatures commissioned by the Mughal emperors initially focused on large projects illustrating books with eventful historical scenes and court life, but later included more single images for albums, with portraits and animal paintings displaying a profound appreciation for the serenity and beauty of the natural world. For example, Emperor Jahangir commissioned brilliant artists such as Ustad Mansur to realistically portray unusual flora and fauna throughout the empire.
The literary works Akbar and Jahangir ordered to be illustrated ranged from epics like the Razmnama (a Persian translation of the Hindu epic, the Mahabharata) to historical memoirs or biographies of the dynasty such as the Baburnama and Akbarnama, and Tuzk-e-Jahangiri. Richly-finished albums (muraqqa) decorated with calligraphy and artistic scenes were mounted onto pages with decorative borders and then bound with covers of stamped and gilded or painted and lacquered leather. Aurangzeb (1658–1707) was never an enthusiastic patron of painting, largely for religious reasons, and took a turn away from the pomp and ceremonial of the court around 1668, after which he probably commissioned no more paintings.
Language
According to Qazvini, by the time of Shah Jahan, the emperor was only familiar with a few Turki words and showed little interest in the study of the language as a child. Though the Mughals were of Turko-Mongol origin, their reign enacted the revival and height of the Persian language in the Indian subcontinent. Accompanied by literary patronage was the institutionalisation of Persian as official and courtly language; this led to Persian reaching nearly the status of a first language for many inhabitants of Mughal India. Muzaffar Alam argues that the Mughals used Persian purposefully as the vehicle of an overarching Indo-Persian political culture, to unite their diverse empire. Persian had a profound impact on the languages of South Asia; one such language, today known as Urdu, developed in the imperial capital of Delhi in the late Mughal era. It began to be used as a literary language in the Mughal court from the reign of Shah Alam II, who described it as the language of his dastans, and replaced Persian as the language of the Muslim elite. According to Mir Taqi Mir, "Urdu was the language of Hindustan by the authority of the King."
Military
Gunpowder warfare
Mughal India was one of the three Islamic gunpowder empires, along with the Ottoman Empire and Safavid Persia. By the time he was invited by Lodi governor of Lahore, Daulat Khan, to support his rebellion against Lodi Sultan Ibrahim Khan, Babur was familiar with gunpowder firearms and field artillery, and a method for deploying them. Babur had employed Ottoman expert Ustad Ali Quli, who showed Babur the standard Ottoman formation—artillery and firearm-equipped infantry protected by wagons in the centre and the mounted archers on both wings. Babur used this formation at the First Battle of Panipat in 1526, where the Afghan and Rajput forces loyal to the Delhi Sultanate, though superior in numbers but without the gunpowder weapons, were defeated. The decisive victory of the Timurid forces is one reason opponents rarely met Mughal princes in pitched battle over the course of the empire's history. In India, guns made of bronze were recovered from Calicut (1504) and Diu (1533).
Fathullah Shirazi (), a Persian polymath and mechanical engineer who worked for Akbar, developed an early multi gun shot. As opposed to the polybolos and repeating crossbows used earlier in ancient Greece and China, respectively, Shirazi's rapid-firing gun had multiple gun barrels that fired hand cannons loaded with gunpowder. It may be considered a version of a volley gun.
By the 17th century, Indians were manufacturing a diverse variety of firearms; large guns in particular, became visible in Tanjore, Dacca, Bijapur and Murshidabad.
Rocketry and explosives
In the sixteenth century, Akbar was the first to initiate and use metal cylinder rockets known as bans, particularly against war elephants, during the Battle of Sanbal. In 1657, the Mughal Army used rockets during the Siege of Bidar. Prince Aurangzeb's forces discharged rockets and grenades while scaling the walls. Sidi Marjan was mortally wounded when a rocket struck his large gunpowder depot, and after twenty-seven days of hard fighting Bidar was captured by the Mughals.
In A History of Greek Fire and Gunpowder, James Riddick Partington described Indian rockets and explosive mines:
The Indian war rockets ... were formidable weapons before such rockets were used in Europe. They had bam-boo rods, a rocket-body lashed to the rod, and iron points. They were directed at the target and fired by lighting the fuse, but the trajectory was rather erratic. The use of mines and counter-mines with explosive charges of gunpowder is mentioned for the times of Akbar and Jahangir.
Later, the Mysorean rockets were upgraded versions of Mughal rockets used during the Siege of Jinji by the progeny of the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali's father Fatah Muhammad the constable at Budikote, commanded a corps consisting of 50 rocketmen (Cushoon) for the Nawab of Arcot. Hyder Ali realised the importance of rockets and introduced advanced versions of metal cylinder rockets. These rockets turned fortunes in favour of the Sultanate of Mysore during the Second Anglo-Mysore War, particularly during the Battle of Pollilur. In turn, the Mysorean rockets were the basis for the Congreve rockets, which Britain deployed in the Napoleonic Wars against France and the War of 1812 against the United States.
Science
Astronomy
While there appears to have been little concern for theoretical astronomy, Mughal astronomers made advances in observational astronomy and produced nearly a hundred Zij treatises. Humayun built a personal observatory near Delhi; Jahangir and Shah Jahan were also intending to build observatories, but were unable to do so. The astronomical instruments and observational techniques used at the Mughal observatories were mainly derived from Islamic astronomy. In the 17th century, the Mughal Empire saw a synthesis between Islamic and Hindu astronomy, where Islamic observational instruments were combined with Hindu computational techniques.
During the decline of the Mughal Empire, the Hindu king Jai Singh II of Amber continued the work of Mughal astronomy. In the early 18th century, he built several large observatories called Yantra Mandirs, in order to rival Ulugh Beg's Samarkand observatory, and in order to improve on the earlier Hindu computations in the Siddhantas and Islamic observations in Zij-i-Sultani. The instruments he used were influenced by Islamic astronomy, while the computational techniques were derived from Hindu astronomy.
Chemistry
Sake Dean Mahomed had learned much of Mughal chemistry and understood the techniques used to produce various alkali and soaps to produce shampoo. He was also a notable writer who described the Mughal Emperor Shah Alam II and the cities of Allahabad and Delhi in rich detail and also made note of the glories of the Mughal Empire.
In Britain, Sake Dean Mahomed was appointed as shampooing surgeon to both Kings George IV and William IV.
Metallurgy
One of the most remarkable astronomical instruments invented in Mughal India is the lost-wax cast, hollow, seamless, celestial globe. It was invented in Kashmir by Ali Kashmiri ibn Luqman in 998 AH (1589–90 CE), and twenty other such globes were later produced in Lahore and Kashmir during the Mughal Empire. Before they were rediscovered in the 1980s, it was believed by modern metallurgists to be technically impossible to produce hollow metal globes without any seams.
A 17th century celestial globe was also made by Diya’ ad-din Muhammad in Lahore, 1668 (now in Pakistan). It is now housed at the National Museum of Scotland.
List of Mughal Emperors
See also
Mughal dynasty
Flags of the Mughal Empire
Mughal emperors
List of Mongol states
Mansabdar
Mughal people
Mughal Harem
Mughal weapons
Mughal architecture
Mughlai cuisine
Mughal-Mongol genealogy
Islam in South Asia
Siege of Orchha
References
Footnotes
Citations
Further reading
Alam, Muzaffar. Crisis of Empire in Mughal North India: Awadh & the Punjab, 1707–48 (1988)
, on the causes of its collapse
Black, Jeremy. "The Mughals Strike Twice", History Today (April 2012) 62#4 pp. 22–26. full text online
Dale, Stephen F. The Muslim Empires of the Ottomans, Safavids and Mughals (Cambridge U.P. 2009)
, on Akbar and his brother
Gommans; Jos. Mughal Warfare: Indian Frontiers and Highroads to Empire, 1500–1700 (Routledge, 2002) online edition
Gordon, S. The New Cambridge History of India, II, 4: The Marathas 1600–1818 (Cambridge, 1993).
Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
Srivastava, Ashirbadi Lal. The Mughul Empire, 1526–1803 (1952) online.
Culture
Berinstain, V. Mughal India: Splendour of the Peacock Throne (London, 1998).
Busch, Allison. Poetry of Kings: The Classical Hindi Literature of Mughal India (2011) excerpt and text search
Schimmel, Annemarie. The Empire of the Great Mughals: History, Art and Culture (Reaktion 2006)
Society and economy
Habib, Irfan. Atlas of the Mughal Empire: Political and Economic Maps (1982).
Habib, Irfan. Agrarian System of Mughal India (1963, revised edition 1999).
Rothermund, Dietmar. An Economic History of India: From Pre-Colonial Times to 1991 (1993)
Primary sources
Hiro, Dilip, ed, Journal of Emperor Babur (Penguin Classics 2007)
The Baburnama: Memoirs of Babur, Prince and Emperor ed. by W.M. Thackston Jr. (2002); this was the first autobiography in Islamic literature
Jackson, A.V. et al., eds. History of India (1907) v. 9. Historic accounts of India by foreign travellers, classic, oriental, and occidental, by A.V.W. Jackson online edition
Older histories
Elliot, Sir H.M., Edited by Dowson, John. The History of India, as Told by Its Own Historians. The Muhammadan Period; published by London Trubner Company 1867–1877. (Online Copy at Packard Humanities Institute – Other Persian Texts in Translation; historical books: Author List and Title List)
External links
Mughal India an interactive experience from the British Museum
The Mughal Empire, BBC Radio 4 discussion with Sanjay Subrahmanyam, Susan Stronge & Chandrika Kaul (In Our Time, 26 February 2004)
Sunil Khilnani's "Akbar", From BBC Radio 4's Incarnations: India in 50 Lives.
States and territories established in 1526
States and territories disestablished in 1857
Empires and kingdoms of Afghanistan
Medieval India
Mongol states
1526 establishments in the Mughal Empire
1857 disestablishments in the Mughal Empire
History of Pakistan |
George Parry may refer to:
George Parry (cricketer) (1794–1872), English amateur cricketer
George Parry (MP) (1600–1660), English lawyer and politician
George Herbert Parry (1882–1951), Western Australian architect
George Parry (Ontario politician) (1889–1968), Canadian politician
George Parry (umpire) (1908-1979), South African cricket umpire |
JUICE is a widely used non-commercial software package for editing and analysing phytosociological data.
It was developed at the Masaryk University in Brno, Czech Republic in 1998, and is fully described in English manual. It makes use of the previously-developed TURBOVEG software for entering and storing such data) and it offers a quite powerful tool for vegetation data analysis, including:
creation of synoptic tables
determination of diagnostic species according to their fidelity
calculation of Ellenberg indicator values for relevés, various indices of alpha and beta diversity
classification of relevés using TWINSPAN or cluster analysis
expert system for vegetation classification based on COCKTAIL method etc.
See also
Phytosociology
Phytogeography
Biogeography
External links
Tichy, L. 2002. JUICE, software for vegetation classification. J. Veg. Sci. 13: 451-453. (Basic scientific article on the program).
Uses in scientific journals
Pyšek P., Jarošík V., Chytrý M., Kropáč Z., Tichý L. & Wild J. 2005. Alien plants in temperate weed communities: prehistoric and recent invaders occupy different habitats. Ecology 86: 772–785.
Ewald, J A critique for phytosociology Journal of Vegetation Science (April 2003) 14(2)291-296
Science software
Botany
Biogeography
Ecological data |
Opeatocerata cooperi is a species of dance flies, in the fly family Empididae.
References
Empididae
Insects described in 1991
Diptera of South America |
Paradisi may refer to:
People
Domenico Paradisi, Italian painter, active in Rome in the late 17th century
Giulio Paradisi, an Italian film director, actor and screenwriter
Pietro Domenico Paradisi, an Italian composer
Peculiars
Indian paradise flycatcher (Terpsiphone paradisi) A bird that inhabits the southern Asian Continent.
Places
Paradisi, Greece, a village on the Greek island of Rhodes
Paradisi (Laconia), Greece, a village in the Greek municipality of Vatika |
Black Friday is a 2004 Indian Hindi-language crime film written and directed by Anurag Kashyap. Based on Black Friday: The True Story of the Bombay Bomb Blasts, a book by Hussain Zaidi about the 1993 Bombay bombings, it chronicles the events that led to the blasts and the subsequent police investigation. Produced by Arindam Mitra of Mid-Day, the film stars Pawan Malhotra, Kay Kay Menon, Aditya Srivastava, Kishor Kadam and Zakir Hussain.
Mitra, director of operations for Mid Day, approached Kashyap with the book and wanted him to write a television series based on it for the Aaj Tak TV news channel. Kashyap wrote the script in episodes for the six-part miniseries but later felt a feature film was more appropriate for the topic. Aaj Tak backed away from the project, and it was shelved. Kashyap then suggested to the director Aditya Bhattacharya that he make it into a film. When Kashyap told him he felt there was a film to be made about the event, Bhattacharya gave it to him to direct. The film's soundtrack album and the background score were composed by the band Indian Ocean, while the lyrics were written by Piyush Mishra. Natarajan Subramaniam served as the director of photography, while Aarti Bajaj was its editor.
Black Friday premiered at the 2004 Locarno International Film Festival and was supposed to be released the same year in India. However, after a petition filed by a group accused of the 1993 bomb blasts challenging the film's release, the Bombay High Court issued a stay. Until judgement was delivered on the case, it could not be released. On 9 February 2007, after the verdict was announced, the Supreme Court of India allowed its release. The film received critical acclaim. It won the Grand Jury Prize at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles and was a nominee for the Golden Leopard award at the Locarno International Film Festival. Made on a production budget of , it grossed a total of at the box office.
Plot
On 9 March 1993, a small-time thug, Gul Mohammed, is detained at the Nav Pada police station in Bombay and confesses to a conspiracy underway to bomb major locations around the city. The police dismiss his confession as bluff and three days later, a series of explosions take place in the city, leaving 257 dead and close to 1400 injured. Investigators discover the bombs, made of RDX, were smuggled into the city with the aid of customs officials and the border police.
Tiger Memon is an underworld don whose office is burned during the Bombay riots. The persecution of Muslim minorities in the riots leads to a meeting of underworld leaders in Dubai who take it upon themselves to seek retribution. Memon suggests an attack on Bombay would send the strongest message of retaliation.
Asgar Muqadam, his secretary, is arrested on 14 March 1993. He is beaten until he provides whatever information he has about the bomb blasts. This initiates a full-scale police inquiry. Deputy Commissioner of Police, Rakesh Maria, is put in charge of the case. Badshah Khan, one of the henchmen who had left Bombay and gone into hiding, is arrested by the police on 10 May 1993. Following the blast, accomplices to the crime are forced to lead a life of anonymity and secrecy as it becomes evident the Mumbai police have begun picking up the suspects one by one. To make matters worse, their passports seem to have been destroyed at the behest of Memon.
Despite assurances to the contrary, the high command blatantly refuses any help once the bombings have occurred. Tired of being let down by his own people, and without a place to hide, Badshah Khan realises there is no justification for his acts and decides to become a police witness. On 4 November 1993, the police file a charge sheet against 189 accused. The Central Bureau of Investigation takes over the case. On 5 August 1994, Tiger's brother, Yaqub Memon, willingly turns himself in to the authorities. In a candid Newstrack interview on national television, Yaqub states that it was Tiger and his underworld associates who orchestrated the conspiracy.
Cast
Production
On 12 March 1993, a series of 12 bomb blasts took place in Mumbai, Maharashtra. The attacks were carried out in retaliation for the Bombay riots that occurred earlier in the year. They resulted in 257 deaths and 713 injuries. Anurag Kashyap's feature film directorial debut Paanch ran into censorship trouble and had been shelved when Arindam Mitra, director of operations for Mid-Day, approached him with the book Black Friday: The True Story of the Bombay Bomb Blasts written by Hussain Zaidi, their chief crime correspondent. He wanted Kashyap to write a television series based on it for Aaj Tak, to be directed by Aditya Bhattacharya. Kashyap read an unedited version of the book, which had not been released at that point, and was "fascinated" by it. He wrote the script in episodes for the mini series but later felt it was better suited as a feature film.
Aaj Tak backed off from the project after their executives read the first episode and the project was abandoned. Kashyap then suggested Bhattacharya to make it into a film to which Bhattacharya offered him to direct instead. Zaidi wrote the book following three years of research on the subject. Kashyap researched for a year, including attending court to see how criminals look and to observe how court procedures work. He discovered criminals look normal and cast his actors based on this observation. The film's characters are all real people, including: Kay Kay Menon playing investigating officer Rakesh Maria, Pawan Malhotra as Tiger Memon and Aditya Srivastava as Badshah Khan, the police approver who helped them crack the case. Filmmaker Imtiaz Ali portrayed the role of Yakub Memon. To get their perspective, Kashyap also read Voices, a book recommended by Zaidi, which includes the testimony of several individuals who were arrested. He asked Devashish Makhija, who was his assistant director, to do the research. Makhija described the research material he found, and Kashyap continued to write. This resulted in the script being completed in 36 hours.
To recreate several of the film's locations, Kashyap watched actual footage from the government's Film Division, read all the newspapers describing the incident, and looked at press photographs. The most challenging thing for the crew, since the film was being shot in 2003, was to recreate 1993 when there were no cell phones or satellite television in India. The film was shot on the streets of Mumbai to avoid modern cars. It could not be shot from low angles because the hoardings and neon signs were contemporary. The crew had to make sure there were no mobile phones visible in the film. Kashyap said in an interview that he needed the city and had to "trim" it: "I shot mostly from the top angle and focused on my characters. There was a lot of guerrilla type shooting where nobody in the city came to know-we shot with hidden cameras. The police were [sic] supportive, Mid Day was at the job for permissions and all those things." He retained the actual names of people in the film who were involved in the blast.
Kashyap shot the film without permission on actual locations. In the film, Dawood's house was shot in three locations including Dubai and Lonavala. Because of the film's low-budget, the crew slept inside buses at night, shot the film during the day and moved to the next location. Kashyap shot at Behrampura, the site where the actual bomb was planted, using two hidden cameras, while the crew used walkie-talkies to communicate to avoid attracting a crowd. The film's principal photography began in October 2003 and was completed in 70 days. A twelve-minute police chase sequence in the film was improvised and shot in the Dharavi slums. It was neither in the script nor in the book. Kashyap wanted it because he felt it was boring to show normal arrests. He also wanted to use the chase to show the criminals' background and the exhaustion of the police. Natarajan Subramaniam served as the director of photography, while Aarti Bajaj was the editor.
Soundtrack
The band Indian Ocean composed the soundtrack album and the background score, while Piyush Mishra wrote the lyrics. It was Indian Ocean's first film soundtrack and consisted of nine tracks—three songs and six instrumentals. The album was released on 15 June 2005 under the Times Music label, and in DVD format on 23 July 2005. Kashyap said he opted for the band because he "wanted to use someone away from the pollution of Mumbai kind of music, sounds that are virgin, which have an eccentricity too". K. J. Singh served as the sound producer.
The album received a generally positive response. Devdulal Das of The Times of India wrote that songs like "Bandey" "just re-established this quartet from Delhi as having a distinct sound of their own - something that most bands from India can't boast of." Bhasker Gupta of AllMusic called it a "full-blown and outright stylish contemporary and musically rich album" and wrote: "It's rare that one hears Indian classical music amalgamated with Western electric jazz and Sufi music, and this is where the beauty of this album lies."
Release
Black Friday premiered at the 2004 Locarno International Film Festival and was screened at festivals in Germany, Estonia, South Korea and the United States. It was ready for screening in India on 29 December 2005. A petition was filed by Mustaq Moosa Tarani, one of the accused, who stated the film could prejudice the case. His petition noted the final verdict in the trial had not yet been released and demanded a ban on the film until then. The Bombay High Court agreed and directed that the film not be released. Mid Day appealed to the Supreme Court, challenging the High Court's judgment. However, the court lifted the ban only after the verdicts were delivered in 2006.
Kashyap did not feel the long delay before the film's release would "impair" its impact. He said: "It's a timeless film with a universal theme of religious intolerance leading to terrorism." He said that he was getting dressed in a suit, ready for the film's premiere on the release day, when he heard of the ban. He wore the same suit for a month and went into depression. The film was released after a twenty-month ban on 9 February 2007 on 100 screens in India, 10 in the United States, and three in South Africa. The worldwide distribution rights were acquired by Adlabs Films. The film was released in DVD format on 5 April 2007 and is also available on online streaming services Hotstar and Netflix.
Black Friday was made on a production budget of and grossed a total of at the box office. It won the Grand Jury Prize at the Indian Film Festival of Los Angeles, and was a nominee for the Golden Leopard (Best Film) at the 57th Locarno International Film Festival.
Critical reception
Upon its release, Black Friday received critical acclaim. Rajeev Masand gave it a positive review and said it is "one of the best" films he'd watched in recent years. He wrote: "Please don't dismiss it as a boring art film, don't confuse it for a documentary, it's a dramatic feature that will rock your boat." Prithiviraj Hegde of Rediff.com noted: "While the film stays true as a dark, brooding, evil tale, it is told with a droll, dry humour that brings a smile even as the protagonists head toward their final unforgiving denouement." Anupama Chopra said the film had "several memorable sequences" but felt it was "static" as the screenplay does not allow the "characters to evolve or engage". Taran Adarsh praised the actors' performances calling the film "hard-hitting" with "the courage to say what it says". Nikhat Kazmi called it a "powerful, pointed and hard-hitting cinema that needs to be seen."
Deepa Gahlot of Sify called it a "fabulously crafted and superbly enacted film, but not stark enough to be documentary and not fictional enough to be a feature". She felt that Kashyap tried to justify Memon's actions in the film. Rahul Desai of Film Companion wrote that the film is "more of a feeling—singularly shocking, stirring, cataclysmic, yet journalistic and depressingly objective, and one of the great achievements in Indian cinema". Baradwaj Rangan mentioned in his review that the film is a series of "superbly-orchestrated sequences" saying the "only thing you could fault it for is that it doesn't know when to stop". Namrata Joshi of Outlook called it an "audacious, daring and explosive piece of cinema". In 2014, Raja Sen called it Kashyap's "possibly best" and a "gripping, gloriously gritty film". Khalid Mohamed called the film "defiantly uncompromising" and Kashyap's direction "unbelievably mature and searching". A review carried by The Hindu cited it as "one of the finest Indian films of recent years".
Among overseas critics, Matt Zoller Seitz of The New York Times described the film as "epic and raw, and cut out from the same bloody cloth as Salvador and Munich". The Hollywood Reporters Kirk Honeycutt compared the film's "journalistic inquiry into cataclysmic social and political events" to that of Gillo Pontecorvo's The Battle of Algiers. He noted the film is objective without any "lurid sensationalism". Maitland McDonagh felt the film "humanizes the bombers without excusing their actions". She also said it "owes more to films like Munich than mainstream commercial spectacle".
David Chute of LA Weekly described it as "a rigorously naturalistic docudrama about a complex police investigation". Ethan Alter of Film Journal International called it "a potent reminder that Indian filmmaking isn't limited to Bollywood super-productions". Varietys Derek Elley called it a "fact-based procedural whose drama gets lost amid its analytical detail." A review carried by Time Out called the film a "post-9/11 food for thought and a vivid reminder not to get arrested in India, where the prisoners' bill of rights is very short".
Legacy
Black Friday is cited by several critics and film scholars as Kashyap's best work. The film was included in IBN Live's 2013 list of the 100 greatest Indian films of all time and Mint list of 70 iconic films of Indian cinema. In 2010, Raja Sen mentioned it in The Top 75 Hindi Films of the Decade list. It was included in critic and author Shubhra Gupta's book, 50 Films That Changed Bollywood, 1995-2015. Danny Boyle cited Black Friday as an inspiration for his 2008 Academy award-winning film Slumdog Millionaire. He stated that a chase in one of the opening scenes was based on a "12-minute police chase through the crowded Dharavi slum" in Black Friday. In 2014 filmmaker Vikramaditya Motwane, when asked about the most important films in last decade, replied Lage Raho Munna Bhai (2006) and Black Friday.
References
External links
2004 films
Indian crime drama films
Indian crime thriller films
Indian crime action films
Indian police films
2000s Hindi-language films
Indian docudrama films
Films shot in Mumbai
Films set in India
Films set in Pakistan
Films set in the United Arab Emirates
Films set in Dubai
2004 crime drama films
2004 crime thriller films
2000s crime action films
Indian gangster films
Films set in 1993
1993 Bombay bombings
D-Company
Film censorship in India
Fictional portrayals of the Maharashtra Police
Films based on non-fiction books
India–Pakistan relations in popular culture
Films set in Delhi
Films set in Mumbai
Films shot in Maharashtra
Films set in Rajasthan
Films set in Uttar Pradesh
Indian films about revenge
Films about Islamic terrorism in India
Films about jihadism
Films about corruption in India
Films about organised crime in India
Films about religious violence in India
Films directed by Anurag Kashyap
Films with screenplays by Anurag Kashyap
Films based on Indian novels
Cockfighting in film
Censored films
Works subject to a lawsuit |
Dương Văn Dương (1900 – February 20, 1946) was a Vietnamese military leader of Bình Xuyên. His nickname was Ba Dương (three oceans). He was born in 1900 to a family of poor peasants in Bến Tre Province. During the 1920s, Ba Dương became the leader of the Bình Xuyên, then a coalition of river pirates who extorted protection money from the sampans that traveled the canals on their way to the Cholon docks. Known for stealing from the rich and giving to the poor, the Bình Xuyên became popular heroes among the inhabitants in the jungle. In 1936, Dương started his criminal activities by providing protection services to the Tây Ninh-Phnom Penh bus station in Saigon. By 1940, he had become a kingpin of South Vietnam. When the Empire of Japan invaded Vietnam in 1940, Ba Dương organized a dare-to-die group of youth to organize resistance to their occupation with his younger brother Năm Hà along with some "inferiors" Bảy Viễn, Mười Trí, ... When the Japanese surrendered in 1945, he cooperated with the Viet Minh against the Anglo-French reoccupation of the country.
Death
In 1946, Dương Văn Dương commanded a section of Bình Xuyên troops crossing the Soài Rạp River from Sát Forest to Bến Tre to rescue the An Hoá - Giao Hoà front. He was shot dead by a French plane Spitfire at Bình Khương hamlet, Châu Bình commune on February 20, 1946 (some documents said that Ba Dương was killed on February 7, 1946).
Memorial
In modern Vietnam, he was made an honorary member of the People's Army of Vietnam with the rank of major general. Duong is honored with several places named after him in Ho Chi Minh City.
References
External links
Vietnamese generals
People from Bến Tre Province
1900 births
1946 deaths |
Kilimanjaro Region (Mkoa wa Kilimanjaro in Swahili) is one of Tanzania's 31 administrative regions. The regional capital and largest city is the municipality of Moshi. With the 3rd highest HDI of 0.640 in the country, Kilimanjaro is one among the top five most developed regions of Tanzania. According to the 2012 national census, the region had a population of 1,640,087, which was lower than the pre-census projection of 1,702,207. For 2002–2012, the region's 1.8 percent average annual population growth rate was the 24th highest in the country. It was also the eighth most densely populated region with 124 people per square kilometer. The most well-known tribes in the Kilimanjaro region are the chagga, rombos (also known as Warombos), and pare.
The region forms part of the Northern Tourism Circuit in Tanzania. It is home to the Kilimanjaro National Park (which contains Mount Kilimanjaro), the Mkomazi National Park, the Pare Mountains, Lake Jipe, and Lake Chala. The region is bordered to the north and east by Kenya, to the south by the Tanga Region, to the southwest by the Manyara Region, and to the west by the Arusha Region.
Etymology
In the early 19th century, the Swahili already referred to the mountain as "Kilima Ndsharo" (or "Dscharo"), "The Country of Dschagga," near the coast. In 1848 and 1849, Rebmann said the mountain Swahili names mean "Great Mountain" and "the Mountain of the Caravans" in reference to the mountain that could be seen for a long distance and served as a guide for travelers. He and Krapf found that the term was referred to differently by several nearby populations: the Taita just shortened the coastal Swahili word to "Ndscharo." It was known as "Kima ja Jeu," which is Kamba for "Mountain of Whiteness." It was known as "Ol Donyo Eibor," which is Maasai for "White Mountain." The Chagga themselves, especially the Kilema and Machame, simply called it "Kibo". Kilimandscharo, which Rebmann spelled in German between 1848 and 1849, was changed to "Kilimanjaro" by 1860.
Administrative divisions
Districts
Kilimanjaro Region is divided into one city and six districts, each administered by a council, except Moshi District which has two, one of which serves as the capital of the region.
History
Kilimanjaro Region was officially established in 1963 with two districts: Kilimanjaro and Pare. The region was part of the Northern Province in the pre-independence Tanganyika. Northern Province's districts included Arusha and Mbulu, while Pare District was a part of Tanga Province.
Of the region's six districts, four traditionally had Chagga settlements, which are Hai District, Moshi District, Rombo District, and Siha District. The other two, Mwanga District and Same District, have historically included Pare settlements. However, during colonial rule in the late 19th century to the middle of the 20th century, the region was divided into two main districts: Moshi district, which was composed of all the areas settled by the Chagga people on the slopes of the mountain, and Pare district, which was a Pare tribe settlement. The region, from earlier times, had been settled by the people collectively called the Chagga, the Maasai, Wakwavi, and Waarusha (in the lower parts of Mount Kilimanjaro), and the Pare on the Pare mountains. These have been intermingling, trading, and even fighting from time to time for various socio-political reasons. Later, other tribes also migrated to the area.
Geology
Mount Kilimanjaro lies on a tectonic plate line intersection east of the tectonically active Rift Valley. The activity that created this stratovolcano dates back less than a million years. Steam and sulphur fumaroles here are indicative of residual activity.
At one stage, most of the summit of Kilimanjaro was covered by an ice cap, probably more than deep. Glaciers extended well down the mountain forming moraine ridges, clearly visible now on the southern flanks down to about . At present only a small fraction of the glacial cover remains.
Notable people
Elieshi Lema, writer
Leonard Shayo, scholar and mathematician
Lucas Mkenda, musician
Nandy, musician
Maua Sama, musician
Nathaniel Mtui, first Tanzanian historian
Freeman Mbowe, Politician
Cleopa Msuya, 3rd Tanzanian Prime Minister
Bruno Tarimo, boxer
Irene Tarimo, scientist
Barnaba Classic, musician
Flower Msuya, scientist
See also
Chagga people
Kilimanjaro National Park
Marangu
Mkomazi National Park
Moshi, Tanzania
Pare people
Pare Mountains
Lake Chala
References
External links
Regions of Tanzania
States and territories established in 1963 |
Mary Hopkin (born 3 May 1950), credited on some recordings as Mary Visconti from her marriage to Tony Visconti, is a Welsh singer best known for her 1968 UK number 1 single "Those Were the Days". She was one of the first artists to be signed to the Beatles' Apple label.
Biography
Early singing career
Hopkin was born into a Welsh-speaking family in Pontardawe, Wales. She took weekly singing lessons as a child and began her musical career as a folk singer with a local group called the Selby Set and Mary. She released an EP of Welsh-language songs for a local record label called Cambrian, based in her hometown, before signing to Apple Records, owned by the Beatles, one of the first artists to do so. The model Twiggy saw her winning the ITV television talent show Opportunity Knocks and recommended her to Paul McCartney.
Her debut single, "Those Were the Days", produced by McCartney, was released in the UK on 30 August 1968. Despite competition from well-established star Sandie Shaw, whose own single version of the song was also released that year, Hopkin's version became a number 1 hit on the UK Singles Chart. It reached number 2 on the US Billboard Hot 100, where for three weeks it was held out of the top spot by the Beatles' "Hey Jude", and spent two weeks at number 1 on Canada's RPM singles chart. It sold over 1,500,000 copies in the United States alone, and was awarded a gold disc by the RIAA. Global sales topped 8,000,000.
On 2 October 1968, Hopkin appeared at St Paul's Cathedral in London for the Pop Experience, where she sang "Morning of My Life", "Turn Turn Turn" and "Plaisir d'amour". In December that year, the NME music magazine reported that Hopkin was considering a lead acting role in Stanley Baker's planned film Rape of the Fair Country, which was to be based on Alexander Cordell's book of the same name. That particular project did not materialise but Hopkin did sing the title songs to two of Baker's films, Where's Jack? and Kidnapped.
On 21 February 1969, Hopkin's debut album, Post Card, again produced by McCartney, was released. It included covers of three songs from Donovan, who also played on the album, and one song each from George Martin and Harry Nilsson. It reached number 3 on the UK Albums Chart, although it proved to be her solitary success in that chart. In the United States, Post Card reached number 28 on the Billboard albums chart.
The next single was "Goodbye", written by McCartney (credited to Lennon–McCartney), and released on 26 March 1969. It reached number 2 on the UK Singles Chart, number 13 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 15 on the RPM chart in Canada. Hopkin said she interpreted "Goodbye" as McCartney pledging to stop "micromanaging" her career, since she was uncomfortable with his positioning of her as a pop chanteuse. She also expressed dissatisfaction with her manager at this time, Terry Doran.
Hopkin's third single, "Temma Harbour", was a re-arrangement of a Philamore Lincoln song. Her first single not to be produced by McCartney, it was released on 16 January 1970 and peaked at number 6 in the UK and number 42 in Canada. In the US, "Temma Harbour" reached number 39 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 4 on the magazine's Easy Listening chart. Along with Donovan and Billy Preston, Hopkin was one of the chorus singers on the Radha Krishna Temple's 1970 hit single "Govinda", produced by George Harrison for Apple Records.
Eurovision
In March 1970, Hopkin represented the United Kingdom in the 1970 Eurovision Song Contest, achieving second place with "Knock, Knock Who's There?" Despite being the pre-contest favourite, Hopkin lost to "All Kinds of Everything", performed by Irish singer Dana. Produced by Mickie Most, "Knock, Knock Who's There?" was released as a single on 23 March 1970 and peaked at number 2 in the UK. It was a worldwide hit, selling over a million.
Hopkin's final big hit was "Think About Your Children", released in October 1970, which reached number 19 in the UK. Hopkin has expressed dissatisfaction with the material produced by Most, who had taken over as her producer with "Temma Harbour". After appearing in Eurovision, Hopkin wanted to return to her folk-music roots.
After Eurovision
At McCartney's insistence, Hopkin had recorded a cover of "Que Sera, Sera" in August 1969. Hopkin had no wish to record the song and refused to have the single released in Britain. Initially issued in France in September 1969, it was released in North America in June 1970. The single peaked at number 77 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 47 in Canada, and was also a hit in Japan, Australia, New Zealand, and Rhodesia (present-day Zimbabwe).
The last single to hit the British charts was "Let My Name Be Sorrow", which reached number 46 in July 1971. It was produced by Tony Visconti, whom Hopkin had met earlier for a Welsh recording of "Sparrow". "Let My Name Be Sorrow" was a hit in Poland in January 1972.
Hopkin's second album, Earth Song, Ocean Song, was released by Apple on 1 October 1971. The album was produced by Visconti and included cover versions of songs written by Cat Stevens, Gallagher and Lyle and Ralph McTell, as well as the two title tracks by Liz Thorsen. Hopkin felt it was the album she had always wanted to make, so, coinciding with her marriage to Visconti and with little left to prove, she left the music scene. The album's single, "Water, Paper and Clay", missed the Billboard Hot 100. It was Hopkin's last single for Apple Records, which she left in March 1972.
After Hopkin's departure from Apple, a compilation album titled Those Were the Days was released in the latter part of 1972. The album featured all of Hopkin's hits but failed to chart. "Knock Knock, Who's There?" was released as a single in the United States and Canada, both countries having been excluded from the first release of that record in 1970. The single reached number 92 on the Billboard Hot 100 and number 11 on the Easy Listening chart in December 1972, giving Hopkin her last US hit.
Television series
Following her appearance in the Eurovision contest, Hopkin had her own peak time TV series, Mary Hopkin in the Land of ..., on BBC 1. Created by Eric Merriman, each episode featured Hopkin looking at a different aspect of storytelling through music and dance. The six 30-minute programmes were broadcast in 1970 and were repeated in 1971.
After the hit singles
After marrying Visconti in 1971, Hopkin withdrew from the pop-music scene to have a family. Although reportedly unhappy with show business, she did not stop recording. She travelled to Australia with Visconti in January 1972 and performed at a large outdoor rock festival in South Australia, in addition to giving concerts in several major cities. In March, Hopkin announced her departure from Apple Records; her manager, Jo Lustig, said they were considering offers from "three major [record] companies". In June, the single "Summertime Summertime" / "Sweet and Low" was released on Bell Records under the name of Hobby Horse. The A-side was a cover of a 1958 song by the Jamies. With Visconti's assistance, she released the 1972 Christmas single "Mary Had a Baby" / "Cherry Tree Carol" on Regal Zonophone Records.
Hopkin starred in her own, one-off TV special for BBC 1 on 29 July 1972. Titled Sing Hi, Sing Lo, it was billed simply as "light entertainment starring Mary Hopkin".
Although no other singles or albums came out in her name until 1976, she sang on numerous recordings that her husband produced, such as those featuring Tom Paxton, Ralph McTell, David Bowie (Low), Bert Jansch, The Radiators from Space, Thin Lizzy, Carmen, Sarstedt Brothers, Osibisa, Sparks, Hazel O'Connor, and Elaine Paige. On all of these recordings (and also on her husband's own Inventory album) she is credited as "Mary Visconti". During this time, she also appeared on various TV shows such as Cilla Black's, and various radio programmes.
Return to recording
In 1976, she returned to recording under her birth name and released the single "If You Love Me (Really Love Me)" (originally recorded by Édith Piaf as "Hymne à l'amour"), which reached Number 32 in the UK chart. The B-side, "Tell Me Now", was an original composition by Hopkin. Her next single was "Wrap Me in Your Arms", with the B-side again written by Hopkin ("Just A Dreamer"). These singles came out on Visconti's Good Earth Records label. Several songs recorded for an album at the time have now been released under Hopkin's own label, Mary Hopkin Music.
Two members of Steeleye Span (Bob Johnson and Pete Knight) chose Hopkin to play "Princess Lirazel" on their concept album The King of Elfland's Daughter. She also appeared at the Cambridge Folk Festival with Bert Jansch. In 1976, her second child was born. Before the 1970s ended, Decca released a compilation album of Hopkin's Cambrian recordings, The Welsh World of Mary Hopkin.
1980s
Hopkin's first project in the 1980s was a well-reviewed stint playing the Virgin Mary in Rock Nativity at the Hexagon Theatre in Reading, Berkshire. After this, Mike Hurst (record producer and formerly of the Springfields) asked her to sing lead in a new group named Sundance that he had formed with Mike de Albuquerque of ELO. Their only single, "What's Love", allowed them to tour the UK with Dr. Hook but Hopkin quickly left the group, dissatisfied with the gigs. "What's Love" proved very popular in South Africa, albeit the only territory where it charted, peaking at no.10 in April 1982. In 2002, Hurst released recordings from this time on the Angel Air label.
Hopkin and Visconti divorced in 1981. The following year she provided vocals on "Rachael's Song" for the Vangelis soundtrack of Blade Runner. Around 1984, Peter Skellern asked her to join him and Julian Lloyd Webber in a group called Oasis. Their self-titled and only album, Oasis, was released on WEA along with two singles. The album reached number 23 on the UK album chart in 1984 and remained there for 14 weeks. A tour of the UK was planned but was brought to an abrupt end because Hopkin became ill. The group disbanded shortly afterwards.
During the 1980s, Hopkin appeared in several charity shows, including an appearance at the London Palladium with Ralph McTell. In 1988, she took part in George Martin's production of Dylan Thomas' Under Milk Wood. She played the character Rosie Probert and performed a piece called "Love Duet" with Freddie Jones as Captain Cat. The making of the record was filmed and made into a special edition of The South Bank Show, where Hopkin and Jones were shown rehearsing and recording "Love Duet". In 1992, the cast reunited for a performance of the play as a tribute to Thomas in the presence of Prince Charles for The Prince's Trust.
Hopkin recorded an album called Spirit in 1989. This was released on the Trax label and is a collection of light classical songs and featured the single "Ave Maria". The record was produced by Benny Gallagher, of Gallagher and Lyle, who had contributed songs to her during her days at Apple Records.
1990s
Early in 1990, Hopkin sang with The Chieftains at the London Palladium in a charity show and later joined them on a tour of the UK.
She continued to do projects of her choosing, working with people such as Julian Colbeck; she wrote the lyrics and performed a song on his CD Back to Bach. Also, there was Marc Cerrone's The Collector, a stage play/opera, for which she performed two songs on the CD and video. She worked again with old friends, the guitarist Brian Willoughby and Dave Cousins (of Strawbs) on their CD The Bridge. She also appeared on a Beatles' tribute album by RAM Pietsch.
In 1996, the Welsh label Sain bought Cambrian's back catalogue and released all of Hopkin's Welsh recordings on a CD called Y Caneuon Cynnar/The Early Recordings, which removed the overdubbed drums found on the Decca recordings.
In 1999, she again joined The Chieftains on their UK tour and, later that year, performed concerts in Scotland with Benny Gallagher and Jim Diamond. There were also three TV documentaries about her, one each for HTV (1998), BBC Television (1998) and S4C (2000).
She made a guest appearance on The Crocketts' album The Great Brain Robbery, sang the theme song for Billy Connolly's BBC TV series World Tour of England, Ireland and Wales and re-recorded "Those Were The Days" with Robin Williams rapping. She also appeared in the Sara Sugarman film Very Annie Mary.
2000s
In September 2005, she released a retrospective album on a label run by her daughter, Mary Hopkin Music, titled Live at the Royal Festival Hall 1972. It was followed in December 2006 by a Christmas recording, "Snowed Under", released on download only.
To celebrate her 57th birthday in 2007, she released an album called Valentine on her new eponymous label. It included 12 previously unheard tracks dating from 1972 to 1980, three of which were written by Hopkin. In 2008, a new album, Recollections, was released on her own label. It included 11 tracks that were originally recorded between 1970 and 1986, alongside a CD of three Christmas songs which included "Mary Had a Baby" and "The Cherry-Tree Carol" (these tracks were first released on Regal Zonophone in 1972) and "Snowed Under", which was released in 2006 as a download only.
Her final archival CD, Now and Then, was released in May 2009. It comprises 14 tracks recorded between 1970 and 1988. She sang the song "Y 'deryn pur" ("Gentle Bird") on the album Blodeugerdd: Song of the Flowers – An Anthology of Welsh Music and Song released by Smithsonian Folkways Recordings in June 2009.
2010s
Hopkin's daughter, Jessica Lee Morgan, released her first CD, called I Am Not, on which Hopkin sings on several songs.
In October 2010, Hopkin and her son, Morgan Visconti, released You Look Familiar, a collaboration which brings together Hopkin's melodies, lyrics and vocals with her son's instrumentation and arrangements.
In 2013, Painting by Numbers was released on Mary Hopkin Music. The album includes 10 tracks written by Hopkin, two of which are co-written with friends; "Love Belongs Right Here" with Brian Willoughby and "Love, Long Distance" with Benny Gallagher.
For Christmas 2014, Hopkin recorded a single with her son and daughter. The traditional carol, "Iesu Faban" (meaning "Baby Jesus" in Welsh), was described on her website as a "close, intimate choral performance of a traditional Welsh Christmas carol".
To celebrate the 50th anniversary of the release of "Those Were the Days", on 30 August 2018 Hopkin released a new acoustic version, on an EP also featuring the live version from her 1972 "farewell" concert at the Royal Festival Hall. Also included are the versions of "Those Were the Days" and "Goodbye" released in 1977, produced by her then husband, Tony Visconti.
2020s
Hopkin released an album called Two Hearts, alongside her daughter Jessica Lee Morgan. The album featured newly written material and well loved covers from The Bangles to Dire Straits. It was released on 3 May 2023, Mary's 73rd birthday.
Discography
Post Card (1969)
Earth Song, Ocean Song (1971)
Spirit (1989)
Valentine (2007)
Recollections (2008)
Now and Then (2009)
You Look Familiar (with Morgan Visconti; 2010)
Painting by Numbers (2013)
Another Road (2020)
A Christmas Chorale (2020)
Pieces (2022)
Two Hearts (2023) with Jessica Lee Morgan
See also
Apple Records discography
References
External links
Mary Hopkin on Facebook
Biography on BBC Wales
Interview on BBC Wales
1950 births
Living people
Apple Records artists
Bards of the Gorsedd
Eurovision Song Contest entrants for the United Kingdom
Eurovision Song Contest entrants of 1970
People from Pontardawe
20th-century Welsh women singers
Welsh women songwriters
Welsh-language singers
21st-century Welsh women singers
Oasis (1980s band) members
Welsh folk singers |
The 2015 Formula Renault 2.0 Alps Series was the fifth year of the Formula Renault 2.0 Alps series, and the fourteenth season of the former Swiss Formula Renault Championship. The championship began on 12 April at Imola and finished on 11 October at Jerez after sixteen races held at seven meetings. The 2015 season featured a new three-race weekend format for rounds at the Red Bull Ring and Monza.
In a final-race decider, British driver Jack Aitken secured the drivers' championship title by five points ahead of his Koiranen GP team-mate Jake Hughes. Aitken trailed Hughes by five points going into the race at Jerez, but Aitken's third-place finish – behind Ben Barnicoat and Anthoine Hubert, who were both ineligible to score championship points – to Hughes' ninth-place finish (third amongst Alps runners) gave him the honours. Aitken took four overall wins during the season, as well as taking three further class wins as the best Alps runner behind drivers ineligible for the drivers' championship. Hughes took three overall wins, adding a fourth class win at Pau. Third place in the championship was also settled in the final race, in favour of Thiago Vivacqua ahead of JD Motorsport team-mate Matevos Isaakyan. Vivacqua, a race-winner at Monza, prevailed by four points over Isaakyan, who took two overall wins and a further class win.
The only other championship-eligible driver to take a race victory was Vasily Romanov, who took a race victory at Monza for Cram Motorsport; he ultimately finished the season in sixth place in the championship. Two guest drivers took race victories during the season; Hubert won four races from six starts for Tech 1 Racing, while Barnicoat won the final race at Jerez for Fortec Motorsports. In the teams' championship, the performances of Aitken and Hughes saw Koiranen GP comfortably win the title, by almost 200 points ahead of JD Motorsport. In the junior championship for drivers under the age of 18, Isaakyan took eleven victories and finished 83 points clear of his nearest challenger, Philip Hamprecht.
Drivers and teams
Race calendar and results
The seven-event calendar for the 2015 season was announced on 5 October 2014. As in 2014, only three rounds were held in Italy – at Monza, Imola and Misano. The Pau Grand Prix, Red Bull Ring, Spa-Francorchamps and Jerez were the remaining four rounds.
Championship standings
Points system
Points were awarded to the top 10 classified finishers.
Drivers' championship
Juniors' championship
Teams' championship
Prior to each round of the championship, two drivers from each team – if applicable – were nominated to score teams' championship points.
References
External links
Official website of the Formula Renault 2.0 Alps championship
Alps
Formula Renault 2.0 Alps
Formula Renault 2.0 Alps
Renault Alps |
Wacław Struszyński (; 1904–1980) was a Polish electronics engineer who made a vital contribution to the defeat of U-boats in the Battle of the Atlantic. He designed an exceptional radio antenna which enabled effective high frequency (HF) radio direction finding systems to be installed on Royal Navy convoy escort ships. Such direction finding systems were referred to as HF/DF or Huff-Duff, and enabled the bearings of U-boats to be determined when the U-boats made high frequency radio transmissions.
Early life
Struszynski was born in Wieruszów near Łódź (now in Poland) in 1904. He spent his youth in Moscow, but the family returned to Poland in 1918. He received his master's degree in Engineering (Dipl. Ing.) at the Warsaw University of Technology in 1929, and joined the Polish State Telecommunication Establishment, where he became head of the Direction Finding Division. When Poland was invaded in 1939, he was evacuated from Warsaw, and reached England in 1940.
Struszynski's father was chemist Professor Marceli Struszynski of the Warsaw University of Technology. During the Second World War, he worked with the Polish resistance, and analyzed the fuel used in the V2 rocket.
Career
World War II
Radio direction finding and U-boat tracking
In World War II, the U-boat wolf packs were organised by high frequency radio, in which long range communication was achieved by the reflection of radio signals from the ionosphere. German radio signals were decoded at Bletchley Park in England (termed Ultra intelligence), and when this revealed the intentions of the U-boats, convoys could be routed to avoid them. However, the convoys always had to be prepared for possible attacks.
There was an urgent need for convoy escort ships to know the bearings of U-boats, by determining the direction of the source of their radio transmissions. However, the technical problems of realising a seaborne high-frequency direction finding system were severe in comparison to those of a land based system. This was mainly due to the very detrimental effect of radio signal reflections from the ship's superstructure, which could cause severe errors in the required measurement of U-boat bearings.
The key to an operational system was the design of an effective seaborne direction finding antenna, which was an extremely difficult task.
Struszynski's solution
On his arrival in England, Struszynski joined the staff of HM Signal School (later called the Admiralty Signal Establishment), and in a very short time, he not only proposed a solution to the problem of signal reflection, but also introduced 'sense' into the antenna, to distinguish between radio signals arriving from the correct direction to those offset by 180 degrees. He also led a team at HM Signal School that developed a practical antenna, which enabled effective high frequency direction finding systems to be installed on Royal Navy convoy escort ships.
A comprehensive account of the work on HF/DF at HM Signal School is given by Redgment, who worked with Struszynski during and after the war, and details of the antenna are described by Struszynski et al., and by Bauer.
Importance of seaborne HF/DF
The Germans considered that the technical problems of seaborne radio direction finding could not be adequately solved, and U-boats continued to use their high frequency radios, revealing their bearings to convoy escorts. An escort ship could then steer in the direction of a U-boat, forcing it to be defensive, and possibly destroying it. Alternatively, Allied aircraft could be advised of the bearings.
In his authoritative book 'Hitler's U-Boat War: The Hunted, 1942–1945', the American naval historian Clay Blair Jr. refers to Struszynski's achievement of antenna design as "a breakthrough of transcendent importance." He also states that "The popular rush to credit radar, and later codebreaking, for the defeat of the U-boat left the equally effective but less glamorous and more difficult to understand Huff-Duff in the shadows".
Enigma historian Ralph Erskine ('Military Communications: from ancient times to the 21st Century') states, "An operational research report based on Ultra estimated that without shipborne high frequency direction finding, Allied convoy losses in early 1943 would have been 25 to 50 percent higher, with U-boat kills being reduced by one-third." This was the time of the essential defeat of the U-boat in the North Atlantic.
Also, the German naval historian Jürgen Rohwer ('The Critical Convoy Battles of March 1943') concludes, after examination of official British and German records, and many lengthy discussions with the wartime Commander of U-boats, Karl Dönitz, "If we analyse the great convoy battles between June 1942 and May 1943—including both those operations which the Germans regarded as successful and those which ended as either minor successes or failures—the remarkable fact is that the outcome always depended decisively on the efficient use of high frequency direction finding".
Rohwer also notes that, during the war, the Germans, being unaware of seaborne high frequency direction finding, concluded that their U-boat failures were due to Allied radar developments. Thus German records stress the relevance of radar, and not of seaborne HF/DF. Both radar and HF/DF (and ASDIC) were vital electronic techniques in the defeat of the U-boats, but HF/DF had the advantage of being able to determine the bearing of a U-boat at a range far greater than seaborne radar could achieve.
Later career
Struszynski subsequently worked at the Marconi Research Laboratories, later renamed the Marconi Research Centre, Great Baddow, England, where he was a consultant in communications research until his retirement.
See also
Anti-submarine warfare
List of World War II British naval radar
List of World War II electronic warfare equipment
Radar in World War II
Radio direction finder
Signals intelligence
References
External links
"HF/DF An Allied Weapon against German U-Boats 1939-1945"
Improvements in and relating to radio direction-finding systems, particularly for use at high-frequency
1904 births
1980 deaths
20th-century Polish engineers
British people of World War II
History of air traffic control
20th-century Polish inventors
20th-century British inventors
Polish emigrants to the United Kingdom |
The 1954 Cleveland Browns season was the team's fifth season with the National Football League. The Browns' defense became the first defense in the history of the NFL to lead the league in fewest rushing yards allowed, fewest passing yards allowed, and fewest total yards allowed.
The Browns were 9–3 in the regular season and won the Eastern Conference. They hosted the NFL Championship Game, and met the two-time defending champion Detroit Lions for the third straight year. This year's result was different, as the Browns won with a 56–10 blowout.
The teams had met on the same field the previous week, in a meaningless game won 14–10 by the Lions. Both teams had already clinched their respective conference titles; it was postponed from early October due to the World Series. After the win, Detroit was a slight favorite for the title game.
Offseason
Defensive Back Don Paul arrived via a trade with the Washington Redskins, who acquired him from the Chicago Cardinals. Upon his arrival in Washington, he fell in disfavor with George Preston Marshall of the Redskins.
In January 1954, assistant coach Weeb Ewbank departed to become head coach of the Baltimore Colts.
NFL draft
The 1954 NFL Draft was one of the biggest busts in the team's history. With the first overall pick in the draft, the Browns selected quarterback Bobby Garrett out of Stanford University. The plan was that he would be the heir to Otto Graham. Garrett suffered from a stuttering problem which hindered his performance in the huddle. Eventually, Garrett was traded to the Green Bay Packers in exchange for Babe Parilli, although Parilli would not play for the Browns until 1956. Later in the first round, the club selected John Bauer, who never played for the Browns and only played in two NFL games in his career.
Roster
Exhibition schedule
Regular season
Schedule
Note: Intra-division opponents are in bold text.
Standings
NFL Championship Game
References
External links
1954 Cleveland Browns at Pro Football Reference (profootballreference.com)
1954 Cleveland Browns Statistics at jt-sw.com
1954 Cleveland Browns Schedule at jt-sw.com
1954 Cleveland Browns at DatabaseFootball.com
Cleveland
Cleveland Browns seasons
National Football League championship seasons
Cleveland Browns |
The San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea was adopted in June 1994 by the International Institute of Humanitarian Law after a series of round table discussions held between 1988 and 1994 by diplomats and naval and legal experts. It is "the only comprehensive international instrument that has been drafted on the law of naval warfare since 1913."
Overview
The manual is a legally recognized document but is not binding on states. The Manual is a codification of customary international law, an integration of existing legal standards for naval conflict with the Geneva Conventions of 1949 and Protocol I of 1977. The Manual is broken into six parts that each discuss a different section of the law, these being:
General provisions, which deals with the scope of the law, various international naval events and the law, and definitions.
Regions of operations, which discusses the legal aspects of conflict in internal waters, territorial seas, archipelagic and international straits, exclusive economic zones, the continental shelf, and the high seas.
Basic Rules and target discrimination, which places limits on who and what can be targeted, warnings, exemptions offered to civilians and neutral states, and so on.
Methods and means of warfare at sea, which details the conditional use of missile, torpedoes, mines, blockades, blockade zones and ruses of war.
Measures short of attack: interception, visit, search, diversion and capture, which discusses the requirements to board and seize enemy and neutral ships, as well as cargo (also sometimes known as prize law).
Protected persons, medical transports, and medical aircraft, which discusses protections offered for craft and people of this nature.
Application
2010 Gaza flotilla raid
The San Remo Manual was cited by the Israeli government to justify its boarding and seizure of ships trying to break the Gaza blockade (see Legal assessments of the Gaza flotilla raid), as well as by the United Nations Human Rights Council's international fact-finding mission to support their finding that the seizure was illegal. In 2011 the UN-Secretary-General's Panel of Inquiry came to the conclusion that the Gaza blockade had been "imposed as a legitimate security measure", and that the flotilla should not have acted in a way that escalated the potential for conflict.
Paragraph 67 of the Manual states that belligerents may attack merchant vessels flying the flag of neutral states outside of neutral waters if they "are believed on reasonable grounds to be carrying contraband or breaching a blockade, and if after prior warning they intentionally and clearly refuse to stop, or intentionally and clearly resist visit, search or capture". Paragraph 146 states that it is permitted to capture neutral merchant vessels outside neutral waters if they are engaged in any of the activities referred to in paragraph 67. Further, while article 102 of the San Remo Manual states that a blockade is prohibited if it has the sole purpose of starving the civilian population or denying it other objects essential for its survival, the Inquiry panel found that there was a legitimate military objective (to prevent the influx of weapons).
However, the report also noted that Israel's use of force against the passengers was excessive, and recommended that Israel immediately report its use of force to the United Nations Security Council so it could find a permanent solution, as is required of Israel by the United Nations Charter.
References
External links
San Remo Manual on International Law Applicable to Armed Conflicts at Sea, 12 June 1994
Blockades
Law of the sea
1994 in international relations
1994 in Italy
International humanitarian law |
Lawrence Joseph Elgart (March 20, 1922 – August 29, 2017) was an American jazz bandleader. With his brother Les, he recorded "Bandstand Boogie", the theme to the long-running dance show American Bandstand.
Biography
Elgart was born in 1922 in New London, Connecticut, four years younger than his brother Les, and grew up in Pompton Lakes, New Jersey. Their mother was a concert pianist; their father also played piano, though not professionally. Larry and Les both attended Pompton Lakes High School. Both brothers began playing in jazz ensembles in their teens, and while young Larry played with jazz musicians such as Charlie Spivak, Woody Herman, Red Norvo, Freddie Slack and Tommy Dorsey.
In the mid-1940s, Les and Larry started up their own ensemble, hiring Nelson Riddle, Bill Finegan and Ralph Flanagan to arrange tunes for them. Their ensemble was not successful, and after a few years, they scuttled the band and sold the arrangements they had commissioned to Tommy Dorsey. Both returned to sideman positions in various orchestras.
In 1953, Larry met Charles Albertine and recorded two of his experimental compositions, "Impressions of Outer Space" and "Music for Barefoot Ballerinas". Released on 10" vinyl, these recordings became collectors' items for fans of avant-garde jazz, but they were not commercially successful.
Larry and Albertine put together a more traditional ensemble and began recording them using precise microphone placements, producing what came to be known as the "Elgart Sound". This proved to be very commercially successful, and throughout the 1950s, Larry and Les enjoyed a run of successful albums and singles on the Columbia label. Their initial LP, "Sophisticated Swing," released in late 1953, was credited to The Les Elgart Orchestra, because, according to Larry, Les was more interested than his brother in fronting the band.
In 1954, the Elgarts left their permanent mark on music history in recording Albertine's "Bandstand Boogie," for the legendary television show originally hosted by Bob Horn, and two years later, by Dick Clark. In 1956, Clark took the show from its local broadcast in Philadelphia, to ABC-TV for national distribution as "American Bandstand." He remained host for another 32 years. Variations of the original song surfaced as the show's theme in later years.
In 1955, the band became The Les and Larry Elgart Orchestra, but the brothers split in 1959, each subsequently releasing his own series of LPs. Larry signed with RCA Victor. His 1959 album, "New Sounds At the Roosevelt," was nominated that year for a Grammy Award. From 1960 to 1962, he released music on MGM Records. Larry and Les reunited in 1963 and recorded several more albums, ending with 1967's "Wonderful World of Today's Hits," after which they went their separate ways. Les moved to Texas and performed with The Les Elgart Orchestra until his death in 1995.
In 1969, Larry was invited to London to make three records for Swampfire Records under the imprint of Les and Larry Elgart. The albums claimed a Nashville sound and bore no relationship to the Elgart Sound of the early 1950s.
In 1981, in a stark departure from the fabled Elgart Sound, Larry produced Flight of the Condor for the RCA Victor label, described as an album in the Jazz-funk and fusion genres. In a bid to garner interest, RCA released one of the tracks, "No Big Thing," as a 45 rpm single. Billboard magazine said of the release:
This is an intense album that should not be misunderstood. It is not old big band, although it has some roots there. It is not disco-dance, although it has flavorings in that direction, particularly on "No Big Thing." It does have a good deal of Latin flavorings with Elgart's alto sax and Patti Coyle Bunham's wordless high register vocalise blending gracefully.
Elgart's biggest exposure came in 1982, with the smash success of a recording titled "Hooked on Swing". The instrumental was a medley of swing jazz hits - "In the Mood", "Cherokee", "Don't Sit Under the Apple Tree", "American Patrol", "Sing, Sing, Sing", "Don't Be That Way", "Little Brown Jug", "Opus #1", "Take the A Train", "Zing Went the Strings of My Heart" and "A String of Pearls" - that became so popular it even cracked the US Billboard Pop Singles chart (at No. 31) and Adult Contemporary chart (No. 20). This was the final hit for any artist in the year-long "medley craze," that lasted from 1981 to 1982. Billed as "Larry Elgart and His Manhattan Swing Orchestra," the LP from which the tune was taken hit No. 24 on the US charts. The follow-up, Hooked on Swing 2, debuted at No. 89 on the album charts, and soon after Larry was back to the jazz touring circuit. He continued to tour internationally and record into the 2000s.
A resident of Longboat Key, Florida, Elgart died in 2017 at a hospice center in Sarasota, Florida, at the age of 95.
Discography
Impressions Of Outer Space (Brunswick, 1953)
Band with Strings (Decca, 1954)
Until The Real Thing Comes Along (Decca, 1954)
Larry Elgart & His Orchestra (Decca, 1954)
Barefoot Ballerina (Decca, 1955)
Larry Elgart and His Orchestra (RCA Victor, 1959)
New Sounds at The Roosevelt (RCA Victor, 1959)
Saratoga (RCA Victor, 1960)
Easy Goin' Swing (RCA Victor, 1960)
Sophisticated Sixties (MGM, 1960)
The Shape of Sounds to Come (MGM, 1961)
Visions American Legends: A New Look And A New Sound (MGM, 1961)
Music in Motion! (MGM, 1962)
More Music in Motion (MGM, 1962)
The City (MGM, 1963)
The Larry Elgart Dance Band (Project 3, 1979) (reissue of New Sounds at the Roosevelt)
Flight of the Condor (RCA Victor, 1981)
Hooked on Swing (RCA Victor, 1982)
Hooked on Swing 2 (RCA Victor, 1983)
Larry Elgart and His Swing Orchestra (RCA Victor, 1983)
Let My People Swing (K-Tel, 1995) (reissue of New Sounds at the Roosevelt)
Live at the Ambassador (Quicksilver, 1998)
Latin Obsession (Sony, 2000)
Bandstand Boogie (2003)
Nashville Country Piano (Swampfire 1969)
Nashville Country Brass (Swampfire 1969)
Nashville Country Guitars (Swampfire 1969)
Bridge Over Troubled Water (Swampfire 1970)
With Les Elgart
Sophisticated Swing (Columbia, 1953)
Prom Date (Columbia, 1954)
Campus Hop (Columbia, 1954)
More of Les (Columbia, 1955)
Just One More Dance (Columbia, 1954)
Bazoom (Columbia EP, 1954)
The Band of the Year (Columbia, 1955)
The Dancing Sound (Columbia, 1955)
For Dancers Only (Columbia, 1955)
The Elgart Touch, (Columbia, 1955)
Les Elgart & His Orchestra Present, (Columbia EP, 1955)
The Most Happy Fella (Columbia, 1956)
For Dancers Also (Columbia, 1956)
Les & Larry Elgart & Their Orchestra (Columbia, 1958)
Sound Ideas (Columbia, 1958)
Big Band Hootenany (Columbia, 1963)
Command Performance (Columbia, 1964)
The New Elgart Touch (Columbia, 1965)
Elgart au Go-Go, (Columbia, 1965)
Sound of the Times (Columbia, 1966)
Warm and Sensuous (Columbia, 1966)
Girl Watchers (Columbia, 1967)
Wonderful World of Today's Hits, (Columbia, 1967)
Bibliography
References
External links
Larry Elgart Interview NAMM Oral History Library (1994)
1922 births
2017 deaths
People from Longboat Key, Florida
Musicians from New London, Connecticut
People from Pompton Lakes, New Jersey
Pompton Lakes High School alumni
American jazz alto saxophonists
American male jazz musicians
American male saxophonists
American jazz bandleaders
Swing bandleaders
Jazz musicians from New York (state)
Jazz musicians from Connecticut
RCA Victor artists
20th-century American saxophonists |
Gulshan-e-Sheraz () is one of the neighbourhoods of Gadap Town in Karachi, Sindh, Pakistan.
There are several ethnic groups in Gulshan-e-Sheraz including Muhajirs, Sindhis, Punjabis, Kashmiris, Seraikis, Pakhtuns, Balochis, Memons, Bohras, Ismailis, etc. Over 99% of the population is Muslim. The population of Gadap Town is estimated to be nearly one million.
See also
Ahsanabad
Darsano Chana
Gabol Town
Gadap
Gujro
Gulshan-e-Maymar
Gadap Town
Khuda Ki Basti
Manghopir Hills
Manghopir
Maymarabad
Murad Memon Goth
Songal
Surjani Town
Yousuf Goth
Sohrab Goth
References
Neighbourhoods of Karachi |
Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl is a rearrangement product of 7-hydroxymitragynine and active metabolite of mitragynine. It is an analgesic being more potent than morphine.
Pharmacology
Mitragynine pseudoindoxyl is a μ opioid receptor agonist and δ opioid receptor antagonist and acts as a G protein biased agonist at μ opioid receptors and possesses a favourable side effect profile compared to conventional opioids. Cryo-EM structures of μOR-Gi1 complex with mitragynine pseudoindoxyl and lofentanil (one of the most potent opioids) revealed that the two ligands engage distinct subpockets, and molecular dynamics simulations showed additional differences in the binding site that promote distinct active-state conformations on the intracellular side of the receptor where G proteins and β-arrestins bind. Importantly, studies have shown that oxidative metabolism is capable of transforming mitragynine (the main alkaloid in kratom) into mitragynine pseudoindoxyl in two steps, which is likely to influence kratom's complex pharmacological effects.
Chemistry
Mitragynine pseuodoindoxyl was first accessible via biomimetic semisynthesis from mitragynine. Total synthesis of an unnatural analogue was reported featuring an interrupted Ugi reaction as the key step. Scalable and modular total synthesis of the natural product has been also accomplished using a chiral pool based strategy. This study also demonstrated structural plasticity in biological systems.
See also
Mitraphylline
References
Indole alkaloids
Indolizidines
Mu-opioid receptor agonists
Ethers
Euphoriants
Spiro compounds
Biased ligands |
John Crichton (7 July 1917 – 7 January 1993) was a New Zealand furniture and interior designer.
Early life
Crichton was born in Bombay in 1917 and moved to England as a child. He studied at Birmingham College of Art. During World War II, he served as an official war photographer with the rank of Captain in the Royal Warwickshire Regiment, 1939–1945, assigned to the Fourteenth Army in Burma.
Design
He moved to New Zealand in 1949, establishing John Crichton Limited, a business and shop located on Kitchener Street in Auckland. He offered interior design services and designed and sold furniture. According to Douglas Lloyd Jenkins, Crichton "can lay claim to being the father of the modern New Zealand interior…" showing New Zealanders "how to blend a fascination with the materials and textures of the Pacific with the international vision of modern design."
He was a founder of the New Zealand Society of Industrial Designers (NZSID) in 1959, elected to membership soon after the Society's incorporation in 1960, and served on its council to 1966.
Crichton died in New Zealand on 7 January 1993, and he was buried at Purewa Cemetery, Auckland.
Collections
Examples of is work are held in the collections of Museum of New Zealand Te Papa Tongarewa.
References
1917 births
1993 deaths
British people in colonial India
Alumni of the Birmingham School of Art
Royal Warwickshire Fusiliers officers
War photographers
British emigrants to New Zealand
New Zealand furniture designers
New Zealand industrial designers
New Zealand interior designers
New Zealand photographers
People from Auckland
Burials at Purewa Cemetery
Photographers from Auckland |
```python
#
#
# path_to_url
#
# Unless required by applicable law or agreed to in writing, software
# WITHOUT WARRANTIES OR CONDITIONS OF ANY KIND, either express or implied.
import os
import tempfile
import unittest
import numpy as np
from get_gpt_model import FakeDataset, create_data_holder, generate_model
import paddle
from paddle.distributed.fleet import auto
paddle.enable_static()
def apply_pass():
dist_strategy = auto.Strategy()
dist_strategy.auto_mode = "semi"
amp = dist_strategy.amp
amp.enable = True
amp.dtype = "float16"
amp.level = "o2"
amp.custom_white_list = ["lookup_table", "lookup_table_v2"]
amp.custom_black_list = [
"reduce_sum",
"c_softmax_with_cross_entropy",
"elementwise_div",
]
amp.init_loss_scaling = 32768
qat = dist_strategy.qat
qat.enable = True
qat.channel_wise_abs_max = True
qat.weight_bits = 8
qat.activation_bits = 8
qat.not_quant_pattern = ['skip_quant']
qat.onnx_format = True
return dist_strategy
class TestQuantizationPassTrain(unittest.TestCase):
def test_qat_pass_training(self):
batch_size = 1
batch_num = 10
strategy = apply_pass()
model, loss = generate_model("mp")
opt = paddle.optimizer.AdamW(learning_rate=0.00001)
engine = auto.Engine(model, loss, opt, strategy=strategy)
dataset = FakeDataset(batch_size * batch_num)
engine.fit(dataset, 3, batch_size=batch_size)
self.check_program(engine.main_program)
def check_program(self, program):
quantizable_op_and_inputs = {'matmul_v2': ['X', 'Y']}
quantizable_grad_op_inputs = {'matmul_v2_grad': ['X', 'Y']}
quantized_ops = set()
for block in program.blocks:
for idx, op in enumerate(block.ops):
is_quantized = False
if op.type in quantizable_op_and_inputs:
for arg_name in op.input_arg_names:
if ".quantized" in arg_name:
is_quantized = True
if not is_quantized:
continue
# check forward
if op.type in quantizable_op_and_inputs:
for arg_name in op.input_arg_names:
if "c_identity" in arg_name:
arg_name = block.ops[idx - 1].input_arg_names[0]
assert arg_name.endswith('.quantized.dequantized')
quantized_ops.add(arg_name)
for op in block.ops:
is_quantized = False
if op.type in quantizable_grad_op_inputs:
for pname in quantizable_grad_op_inputs[op.type]:
arg_name = op.input(pname)[0]
if ".quantized" in arg_name:
is_quantized = True
if not is_quantized:
continue
# check backward
if op.type in quantizable_grad_op_inputs:
for pname in quantizable_grad_op_inputs[op.type]:
arg_name = op.input(pname)[0]
assert arg_name.endswith('.quantized.dequantized')
assert arg_name in quantized_ops
class TestQuantizationPassExport(unittest.TestCase):
def setUp(self):
self.temp_dir = tempfile.TemporaryDirectory()
def tearDown(self):
self.temp_dir.cleanup()
def test_qat_pass_2(self):
strategy = apply_pass()
model, loss = generate_model("mp")
engine = auto.Engine(model, loss, strategy=strategy)
inputs_spec, labels_spec = create_data_holder(batch_size=1)
engine.prepare(inputs_spec, labels_spec, mode="predict")
path = os.path.join(self.temp_dir.name, 'inf')
engine.save(path, training=False)
self.check_export(engine._executor)
def check_export(self, exe):
sequence_len = 512
vocab_size = 1000
tokens = [np.random.randint(vocab_size, size=sequence_len)]
position_ids = [np.arange(sequence_len)]
attention_mask = [np.tril(np.ones(sequence_len))]
path_prefix = os.path.join(
self.temp_dir.name,
f'inf_dist{paddle.distributed.get_rank()}',
)
[
inference_program,
feed_target_names,
fetch_targets,
] = paddle.static.load_inference_model(
path_prefix=path_prefix, executor=exe
)
out = exe.run(
inference_program,
feed={
"tokens": tokens,
"position_ids": position_ids,
"attention_mask": attention_mask,
},
fetch_list=fetch_targets,
)
if __name__ == "__main__":
unittest.main()
``` |
The Association of American Editorial Cartoonists (AAEC) is a professional association concerned with promoting the interests of staff, freelance and student editorial cartoonists in the United States, Canada and Mexico. With nearly 200 members, it is the world's largest organization of political cartoonists.
The AAEC has filed friend-of-the-court briefs in several cases dealing with freedom of the press, including the 1988 Supreme Court case Flynt v. Falwell (Hustler Magazine v. Falwell). Aside from First Amendment issues, the Association does not take sides in political controversies.
Formed in 1957 by a small group of newspaper cartoonists led by John Stampone of the Army Times, the AAEC was created to promote and stimulate public interest in the editorial page cartoon and to create closer contact among political cartoonists. Each year, the annual AAEC convention is held in a different North American city, allowing cartoonists and other association members—including publishers, writers, historians and collectors—the chance to meet face-to-face, talk shop, and generally kvetch.
Publications and programs
The AAEC follows the publishing industry and member artists through news updates at its web site EditorialCartoonists.com, and in its annual magazine, the Notebook. The AAEC site also offers dozens of new editorial cartoons each day.
The AAEC also sponsors a Cartoons for the Classroom program designed to aid educators at all levels in teaching history, economics, social studies and current events.
History
In 2007, the AAEC met over the 4th of July weekend in Washington D.C. to celebrate its 50th Anniversary.
In 2008, AAEC joined over 60 other art licensing businesses (including the Artists Rights Society, Society of Children's Book Writers and Illustrators, the Stock Artists Alliance, Illustrator's Partnership of America and the Advertising Photographers of America, among others) in opposing both The Orphan Works Act of 2008 and The Shawn Bentley Orphan Works Act of 2008. Known collectively as "Artists United Against the U.S. Orphan Works Acts," the diverse organizations joined forces to oppose the bills, which the groups believe "permits, and even encourages, wide-scale infringements while depriving creators of protections currently available under the Copyright Act."
In 2022, in response to the Pulitzer Prize committee replacing the Pulitzer Prize for Editorial Cartooning with the revamped category the Pulitzer Prize for Illustrated Reporting and Commentary, the AAEC "issued a statement calling for the Pulitzer board to reinstate Editorial Cartooning as its own category while also recognizing Illustrated Reporting as a separate form." They wrote:
Awards
The AAEC sponsors two awards for cartoonists: the John Locher Memorial Award, given each year to the most promising young cartoonist, age 17-25. The Award was named in honor of the late son of Dick and Mary Locher, who felt the need to establish an award that would not only honor the memory of John Locher but also would help discover young cartoonists and stimulate interest in editorial cartooning among college-age students in North America.
In 2017, the AAEC launched the Rex Babin Memorial Award for Excellence in Local Cartooning, named in honor of the late Sacramento Bee cartoonist, who died of cancer in 2012. As the cartoonist for daily newspapers in two state capitals, Rex Babin saw how effective satire could sometimes be when directed at targets across the street, and often lamented that such work was overlooked by the big industry awards.
References
External links
The Billy Ireland Cartoon Library & Museum
Editorial cartooning
.
Professional associations based in the United States
Arts organizations established in 1957
1957 establishments in the United States |
The history of the United States debt ceiling deals with movements in the United States debt ceiling since it was created in 1917. Management of the United States public debt is an important part of the macroeconomics of the United States economy and finance system, and the debt ceiling is a limitation on the federal government's ability to manage the economy and finance system. The debt ceiling is also a limitation on the federal government's ability to finance government operations, and the failure of Congress to authorize an increase in the debt ceiling has resulted in crises, especially in recent years.
Overview
A statutorily imposed debt ceiling has been in effect since 1917 when the US Congress passed the Second Liberty Bond Act. Before 1917 there was no debt ceiling in force, but there were parliamentary procedural limitations on the amount of debt that could be issued by the government.
Except for about a year during 1835–1836, the United States has continuously had a fluctuating public debt since the US Constitution legally went into effect on March 4, 1789. Debts incurred during the American Revolutionary War and under the Articles of Confederation led to the first yearly report on the amount of the debt ($75,463,476.52 on January 1, 1791). The national debt, as expressed in absolute dollars, has increased under every presidential administration since Herbert Hoover.
Early history
Prior to 1917, the United States did not have a debt ceiling, with Congress either authorizing specific loans or allowing the Treasury to issue certain debt instruments and individual debt issues for specific purposes. Sometimes Congress gave the Treasury discretion over what type of debt instrument would be issued.
Between 1788 and 1917, Congress would authorize each bond issued by the United States Treasury by passing a legislative act that approved the issue and the amount.
In 1917, during World War I, Congress created the debt ceiling with the Second Liberty Bond Act of 1917, which allowed the Treasury to issue bonds and take on other debt without specific Congressional approval, as long as the total debt fell under the statutory debt ceiling. The 1917 legislation set limits on the aggregate amount of debt that could be accumulated through individual categories of debt (such as bonds and bills).
Public Debt Acts
In 1939, Congress instituted the first limit on total accumulated debt over all kinds of instruments. The debt ceiling, in which an aggregate limit is applied to nearly all federal debt, was substantially established by Public Debt Acts passed in 1939 and 1941 and subsequently amended. The United States Public Debt Act of 1939 eliminated separate limits on different types of debt. The Public Debt Act of 1941 raised the aggregate debt limit on all obligations to $65 billion, and consolidated nearly all federal borrowing under the U.S. Treasury and eliminated the tax-exemption of interest and profit on government debt.
Subsequent Public Debt Acts amended the aggregate debt limit: the 1942, 1943, 1944, and 1945 acts raised the limit to $125 billion, $210 billion, $260 billion, and $300 billion respectively. In 1946, the Public Debt Act was amended to reduce the debt limit to $275 billion. The limit stayed unchanged until 1954, the Korean War being financed through taxation. The U.S. Treasury nearly hit the debt ceiling in fall 1953, plus the Senate refused to raise it until summer 1954, but the federal government managed to avoid reaching it through using various measures, such as monetizing leftover gold.
A feature of the Public Debt Acts, unlike the 1919 Victory Liberty Bond Act which financed American costs in the First World War, was that the new ceiling was set about 10% above the actual federal debt at the time.
1970s
Prior to the Budget and Impoundment Control Act of 1974, the debt ceiling played an important role since Congress had few opportunities to hold hearings and debates on the budget. James Surowiecki argued that the debt ceiling lost its usefulness after these reforms to the budget process.
In 1979, noting the potential problems of hitting a default, Dick Gephardt (Rep, D-MO) imposed the "Gephardt Rule," a parliamentary rule that deemed the debt ceiling raised when a budget was passed. This resolved the contradiction in voting for appropriations but not voting to fund them. The rule stood until it was repealed by Congress in 1995.
Number of requests for increase
Depending on who is doing the research, it is said that the US has raised its debt ceiling (in some form or other) at least 90 times in the 20th century.
The debt ceiling was raised 74 times from March 1962 to May 2011, including 18 times under Ronald Reagan, eight times under Bill Clinton, and seven times under George W. Bush.
Congress has raised the debt ceiling 14 times from 2001 to 2016. The debt ceiling was raised a total of 7 times (total increase of $5365bil) during Pres. Bush's eight-year term and it was raised 11 times (as of 03/2015 a total increase of $6498bil) during Pres. Obama's eight years in office.
1995 debt ceiling crisis
The 1995 request for a debt ceiling increase led to debate in Congress on reduction of the size of the federal government, which led to the non-passage of the federal budget, and the United States federal government shutdown of 1995–96. The ceiling was eventually increased and the government shutdown resolved.
2011 debt ceiling crisis
In 2011, Republicans in Congress used the debt ceiling as leverage for deficit reduction because of the lack of Congressional normal order for fiscal year budget votes on the chamber floors and subsequent conference reconciliations between the House and the Senate for final budgets. The credit downgrade and debt ceiling debacle contributed to the Dow Jones Industrial Average falling 2,000 points in late July and August. Following the downgrade itself, the DJIA had one of its worst days in history and fell 635 points on August 8. The GAO estimated that the delay in raising the debt ceiling raised borrowing costs for the government by $1.3 billion (~$ in ) in 2011 and noted that the delay would also raise costs in later years. The Bipartisan Policy Center extended the GAO's estimates and found that the delay raised borrowing costs by $18.9 billion over ten years.
2013 debt ceiling crisis
Following the increase in the debt ceiling to $16.394 trillion in 2011, the United States again reached the debt ceiling on December 31, 2012 and the Treasury began taking extraordinary measures. The fiscal cliff was resolved with the passage of the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 (ATRA), but no action was taken on the debt ceiling. With the ATRA tax cuts, the government indicated that the debt ceiling needed to raise by $700 billion (~$ in ) for it to continue financing operations for the rest of the 2013 fiscal year and that extraordinary measures were expected to be exhausted by February 15. Treasury has said it is not set up to prioritize payments, and it's not clear that it would be legal to do so. Given this situation, Treasury would simply delay payments if funds could not be raised through extraordinary measures and the debt ceiling had not been raised. This would put a freeze on 7% of the nation's GDP, a contraction greater than the Great Recession. The economic damage would worsen as recipients of social security benefits, government contracts, and other government payments cut back on spending in response to having the freeze in their revenue.
The No Budget, No Pay Act of 2013 suspended the debt ceiling from February 4, 2013 until May 19, 2013. On May 19, the debt ceiling was formally raised to approximately $16.699 trillion to accommodate the borrowing done during the suspension period. However, after the end of the suspension, the ceiling was raised only to the actual debt at that time, and Treasury needed to activate extraordinary measures to avoid a default. With the impacts of the American Taxpayer Relief Act of 2012 tax increases on those who make $400,000 per year, the 2013 sequester, and a $60 billion payment from Fannie Mae and Freddie Mac that reached the Treasury on June 28, 2013, the extraordinary measures were predicted to last until October 17 by the Treasury, but financial firms suggested funds might have lasted a little longer. Jefferies Group said extraordinary measures might have lasted until the end of October while Credit Suisse estimated mid-November.
The US Treasury began taking extraordinary measures to enable payments, and stated that it would delay payments if funds could not be raised through extraordinary measures, and the debt ceiling was not raised. During the crisis, approval ratings for the Republican Party declined.
2021 debt ceiling crisis
Following the July 2021 expiration of the debt ceiling suspension, the U.S. Treasury began taking "extraordinary measures" which were set to expire around October 18. Senate Republicans blocked attempts to raise the ceiling using the filibuster, insisting that Democrats should act on their own and use reconciliation to raise the limit. The Senate voted to raise it on October 7, 2021, but only to grant the U.S. Treasury authority to borrow money until that December. That month, Congress voted to increase it by $2.5 (~$ in ) trillion, which President Biden signed into effect on December 16, 2021. At that point, it was set at about $31.4 trillion.
2023 debt ceiling crisis
On January 19, 2023, the United States again reached the debt ceiling.
President Biden at first refused to negotiate, instead insisting on a clean debt ceiling raise. Many news outlets and pundits have talked about this leading to a significant risk that the US defaults on its obligations, though default is not the only possible outcome of the debt ceiling not being raised, the alternative being shutting down portions of government operations. The Treasury has, however, explicitly stated that this would be technically impossible. Many news outlets have also claimed that the federal government has not defaulted on financial obligations before, including President Biden calling such a situation "unprecedented", however a more accurate statement is that the US has defaulted on obligations several times in history, but never because of the debt ceiling. These included late interest payments in 1814 due to the financial strain of the War of 1812 (the last time the US experienced a “major default on its financial obligations"), and briefly in 1979, due to technical glitches.
Historical debt ceiling levels
Note that this table does not go back to 1917 when the debt ceiling started.
Reference for values between 1993 and 2015:
Note that:
The figures are unadjusted for the time value of money, such as interest and inflation and the size of the economy that generated a debt.
The debt ceiling is an aggregate of gross debt, which includes debt in hands of public and in intragovernment accounts.
The debt ceiling does not necessarily reflect the level of actual debt.
From March 15 to October 30, 2015 there was a de facto debt limit of $18.153 trillion, due to use of extraordinary measures.
Notes
References
Sources
Austin, D. Andrew (5 June 2017). "The Debt Limit Since 2011" Congressional Research Service.
External links
History and Recent Increases (2008)
History and Recent Increases (2010)
US Treasury Debt to the Penny (Daily)
Estimated Debt to the Penny (Real Time)
Financial history of the United States
Debt ceiling history
Debt ceiling history |
Section 23 of the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms is the section of the Constitution of Canada that guarantees minority language educational rights to French-speaking communities outside Quebec, and, to a lesser extent, English-speaking minorities in Quebec. The section may be particularly notable, in that some scholars believe that section 23 "was the only part of the Charter with which Pierre Trudeau was truly concerned." Trudeau was the prime minister who fought for the inclusion of the Charter of Rights in the Constitution of Canada in 1982.
Section 23(1)(b), or section 23 as a whole, are also known as the "Canada clause."
Text
Under the heading "Minority Language Educational Rights," the section reads,
Section 23 must be read in conjunction with Section 59 of the Constitution Act, 1982:
History
As a strong federalist, Trudeau had fought to ensure linguistic rights in the constitution to promote national unity. Section 23 (1)(b) had its origins in a unanimous agreement between the provincial leaders and Trudeau reached in 1978 in St. Andrews, New Brunswick, in which children of citizens could receive schooling in their language. When this idea was brought to the Charter in the 1980s, Trudeau also successfully secured agreement from provincial leaders that section 23 could not be nullified by the section 33 notwithstanding clause.
When the government of Quebec had passed the Charter of the French Language in 1977, only parents who had gone to English schools in Quebec could have their children educated in English. Concerns for the erosion of the educational rights of English-speaking Quebeckers thus led to section 23(1)(b) being written so that that part of the Quebec law would become unconstitutional. This portion of the Charter of the French Language was indeed struck down by the courts in Attorney General of Quebec v. Quebec Protestant School Boards (1984). The verdict prompted the passing of Bill 86 in 1993 which amended the Charter of the French Language, stating that any child of a Canadian citizen whose parent or sibling had received English-medium education in Canada (rather than Quebec specifically) could attend English-medium schools.
While there was decreased minority language education in Quebec at the time when the Charter was adopted, several other provinces (where English Canadians were the majority) had no French language schools at all. In contrast, in 2005 all provinces had minority language education schools. In 1986, 152,225 French Canadian students outside of Quebec were going to French-language schools in accordance with section 23, and in 2001 the number was 149,042. There have been some roadblocks to minority-language education since the Charter came into effect, such as a need for more French-speaking teachers and decreased enrolment in English-language education in rural Quebec, as well as challenges from both francophone and anglophone minority parents that education of equal quality is not being provided by their provincial government. The relative lack of French-language post secondary education opportunities (colleges and universities) outside of Quebec influences the choice of some French Canadian students to switch to English language instruction, especially as they advance towards the end of their compulsory education. The rights of official language minority students remains a topic contested in provincial and federal courts, with funding for legal costs for court actions being provided by federal governments Court Challenges Program.
Application
Section 23 is a positive right. It has been found that section 23 thus guards against linguistic minorities being assimilated if their educational rights are denied for a long period of time, and this has led to section 24 of the Charter, which provides remedies for rights infringements, to be applied flexibly and creatively. For example, in Doucet-Boudreau v. Nova Scotia (Minister of Education) (2003), it was found that the government could be forced to report to a judge as construction on schools progressed, in order to ensure the schools were built within a sufficient amount of time.
While much of section 23 can apply to Quebec, section 59 of the Constitution Act, 1982 states that section 23(1)(a) is of no force or effect there. This was a conciliatory gesture made by the authors of the Charter, which failed to obtain Quebec's agreement changes in 1982. This provision will not be valid in Quebec until the provincial government chooses to ratify it.
Sufficient numbers
While section 23 guarantees its rights to Canadian citizens who are also parents, as long as they speak English or French as a minority, the ability to exercise this right to send one's child to minority language education is limited by the possibility that the minority language community in which one lives may be too small. Sections 23(3)(a) and (b) state the "number of children" must be "sufficient to warrant" government spending for either schooling or the building of school facilities.
These limits were defined by the Supreme Court of Canada in the 1990 case Mahe v. Alberta. The Court declared that section 23 guaranteed a "sliding scale." In certain circumstances, the children whose parents could exercise the right might be so few that literally no minority language education may be provided by the government. With a greater number of children, some schools might be required to provide classrooms in which the children could receive minority language education. An even greater number would require the construction of new schools dedicated solely to minority language education.
The Court also ruled that the right to "facilities" in section 23(3)(b) could include more than classrooms and schools. Namely, a large number of children could mandate that minority language schools have their own school boards. Somewhere between the right to a school and a right to a school board was a right for the minority language community to have some members on a larger school board.
In the case Arsenault-Cameron v. Prince Edward Island (2000), the Court further defined sufficient numbers. As 49 French Canadian children were ready for minority language instruction in Summerside, Prince Edward Island, it was argued by the province that a number this low would only require school buses to transport them to a nearby French language school, rather than the construction of a separate school. The Court, however, ruled that if a new school were actually built, it could draw in more people than those whose families had previously expressed interest, and thus the number could be somewhat fewer than 100. While even a school this small might struggle with providing certain educational services, protecting the culture of the minority language community was considered too important and the number of students was ruled sufficient for the building of a new school.
Manitoba
The decision to allow for minority education rights along a sliding scale (according to legal decisions based on Article 23) had already been nascent in Manitoba and was foreshadowed by the Laurier-Greenway compromise of 1896. This compromise came in response to what was argued to be unconstitutional provincial school legislation (Public Schools Act of 1890) in relation to the constitutionally entrenched Manitoba Act, 1870. In Manitoba, where the Public Schools Act had been reformed along the lines of minority versus majority language rights and a changing proportion of English to French (where English speakers out-numbered French by the 1890s), the Laurier-Greenway compromise allowed for a school districts on a community-by-community basis to offer French language instruction if the French population was large enough and requested such instruction.
In 1916 under Premier T.C. Norris, the prior compromise was rescinded and the Franco-Manitoban minority lost their right to receive instruction in French in Manitoba's public schools. Section 93 of the Constitution Act, 1867 in the province's opinion had been contravened by the Laurier-Greenway compromise and no longer had legal standing. Moreover, in section 93 the province had ultimate authority to decide on minority language instruction. The latter remained the practice in place until two changes were made to Manitoba's Public Schools Act: in 1966 and 1970, when French language instruction was once again recognized as an official language of instruction.
Manitoba's minority French language instruction rights have developed since the introduction of the Charter and section 23 to a point where they have allowed for the inclusion of a separate school board (La Division Scolaire Franco-Manitobaine) that is fully funded by the provincial treasury and operates throughout the Province. Significant with regards to the province's interpretation of section 23 is how the "number of students" and not "mother tongue" is the basis upon which French language (minority) instruction rights are respected. Minority language instruction in Manitoba is in transition and still presents various legal issues and related constitutionally charged questions (see Manitoba Act 1870, Louis Riel, Manitoba Schools Question, Laurier-Greenway Compromise).
Notes
See also
Legal dispute over Quebec's language policy
References
Dyck, Rand. Canadian Politics: Critical Approaches. Third ed. Scarborough, Ontario: Nelson Thomson Learning, 2000.
Hogg, Peter W. Constitutional Law of Canada. 2003 Student Ed. Scarborough, Ontario: Thomson Canada Limited, 2003.
External links
Digest of court decisions relating to Section 23(1) in the Canadian Legal Information Institute's Canadian Charter of Rights Decisions Digest
Digest of court decisions relating to Section 23(2) in the Canadian Legal Information Institute's Canadian Charter of Rights Decisions Digest
Digest of court decisions relating to Section 23(3) in the Canadian Legal Information Institute's Canadian Charter of Rights Decisions Digest
Section 23
Section 23
Education policy
Bilingualism in Canada
Minority rights
Minority schools
Language policy in Canada
Language legislation
Minority languages |
Sir Colin William Carstairs Turner CBE DFC (4 January 1922 – 21 March 2014) was a British businessman and Conservative Party politician.
The son of Colin C.W. Turner, he was educated at Highgate School. He had one sister and two half brothers. In 1949 he married Evelyn Mary, daughter of late Claude H. Buckard, Enfield. Together they had three sons and one daughter; 14 grandchildren and 2 great grandchildren. He died in 2014 at the age of 92, at his home in West Runton in Norfolk.
The Colin Turner Group (founded in 1927 by Colin C.W. Turner as the 'Colin Turner London Ltd') International Media Representatives and Marketing Consultants, chairman 1985–1988, president 1988–1997.
Military service WWII and after
He served in World War II with the Royal Air Force, 1940–1945, Air Observer; S Africa and E Africa, 223 Squadron; Desert Air Force, N. Africa, 1942–44; commissioned, 1943; invalided out as flying officer, 1945 after air crash.
He was a member of the Royal Air Forces Association (RAFA): 223 Squadron Association, chairman 1975–93; RAFA Enfield Branch, chairman 1979–93; Sheringham and District Branch, chairman 1994–99, president 2000–09.
Politics
A member of Enfield Borough Council 1956–58.
He contested Enfield (East) Parliament Constituency, 1950 and 1951; Member of Parliament (MP) for Woolwich West from the 1959 general election until his defeat at the 1964 general election. He did not stand again at the 1966 election.
Member of the National Executive of the Conservative Party, 1946–53, 1968–73, 1976–82; Enfield North Conservative Association, chairman 1979–84, president 1984–93; North Norfolk Conservative Association, president 1996–99; Conservative European Constituency Council, London North, chairman 1984–89. Conservative Commonwealth and Overseas Council, deputy chairman 1975, chairman 1976–82; Conservative Foreign and Commonwealth Council, vice-president 1985–2008.
Media
Overseas Press and Media Association, president 1965–67, honorary secretary. 1967, honorary treasurer 1974–82, life president 1982; Overseas Media Guide, editor 1968, 69, 70, 71, 72, 73, 74; Commonwealth Press Union, chairman PR Committee 1970–87;
Old Cholmeleian Society (Highgate School former pupils association), president 1985–86, editor of The Cholmeleian, 1982–95.
See also
Politics of the United Kingdom
References
External links
1922 births
2014 deaths
Conservative Party (UK) MPs for English constituencies
People educated at Highgate School
People from Enfield, London
People from West Runton
Knights Bachelor
UK MPs 1959–1964
Royal Air Force personnel of World War II
Royal Air Force officers |
The Turkic peoples are a collection of diverse ethnic groups of West, Central, East, and North Asia as well as parts of Europe, who speak Turkic languages.
According to historians and linguists, the Proto-Turkic language originated in Central-East Asia, potentially in Altai-Sayan region, Mongolia or Tuva. Initially, Proto-Turkic speakers were potentially both hunter-gatherers and farmers, but later became nomadic pastoralists. Early and medieval Turkic groups exhibited a wide range of both East Asian and West-Eurasian physical appearances and genetic origins, in part through long-term contact with neighboring peoples such as Iranian, Mongolic, Tocharian, Uralic and Yeniseian peoples, and others.
Many vastly differing ethnic groups have throughout history become part of the Turkic peoples through language shift, acculturation, conquest, intermixing, adoption, and religious conversion. Nevertheless, Turkic peoples share, to varying degrees, non-linguistic characteristics like cultural traits, ancestry from a common gene pool, and historical experiences. Some of the most notable modern Turkic ethnic groups include the Altai people, Azerbaijanis, Chuvash people, Gagauz people, Kazakhs, Kyrgyz people, Turkmens, Turkish people, Tuvans, Uyghurs, Uzbeks, and Yakuts.
Etymology
The first known mention of the term Turk (Old Turkic: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰 Türük or 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰:𐰜𐰇𐰛 Kök Türük, , Pinyin: Tūjué < Middle Chinese *tɦut-kyat < *dwət-kuɑt, Old Tibetan: drugu) applied to only one Turkic group, namely, the Göktürks, who were also mentioned, as türüg ~ török, in the 6th-century Khüis Tolgoi inscription, most likely not later than 587 AD. A letter by Ishbara Qaghan to Emperor Wen of Sui in 585 described him as "the Great Turk Khan". The Bugut (584 CE) and Orkhon inscriptions (735 CE) use the terms Türküt, Türk and Türük.
During the first century CE, Pomponius Mela refers to the Turcae in the forests north of the Sea of Azov, and Pliny the Elder lists the Tyrcae among the people of the same area. However, English archaeologist Ellis Minns contended that Tyrcae Τῦρκαι is "a false correction" for Iyrcae Ἱύρκαι, a people who dwelt beyond the Thyssagetae, according to Herodotus (Histories, iv. 22), and were likely Ugric ancestors of Magyars. There are references to certain groups in antiquity whose names might have been foreign transcriptions of Tür(ü)k, such as Togarma, Turukha/Turuška, Turukku and so on; but the information gap is so substantial that any connection of these ancient people to the modern Turks is not possible.
It is generally accepted that the name Türk is ultimately derived from the Old-Turkic migration-term 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰 Türük/Törük,< which means 'created, born' or 'strong'. Scholars, including Toru Haneda, Onogawa Hidemi, and Geng Shimin believed that Di, Dili, Dingling, Chile and Tujue all came from the Turkic word Türk, which means 'powerful' and 'strength', and its plural form is Türküt. Even though Gerhard Doerfer supports the proposal that türk means 'strong' in general, Gerard Clauson points out that "the word türk is never used in the generalized sense of 'strong'" and that türk was originally a noun and meant "'the culminating point of maturity' (of a fruit, human being, etc.), but more often used as an [adjective] meaning (of a fruit) 'just fully ripe'; (of a human being) 'in the prime of life, young, and vigorous'". Turkologist Peter B. Golden agrees that the term Turk has roots in Old Turkic, yet is not convinced by attempts to link Dili, Dingling, Chile, Tele, and Tiele, which possibly transcribed *tegrek (probably meaning 'cart'), to Tujue, which transliterated to Türküt. The Chinese Book of Zhou (7th century) presents an etymology of the name Turk as derived from 'helmet', explaining that this name comes from the shape of a mountain where they worked in the Altai Mountains. Hungarian scholar András Róna-Tas (1991) pointed to a Khotanese-Saka word, tturakä 'lid', semantically stretchable to 'helmet', as a possible source for this folk etymology, yet Golden thinks this connection requires more data.
The earliest Turkic-speaking peoples identifiable in Chinese sources are the Yenisei Kyrgyz and Xinli, located in South Siberia. Another example of an early Turkic population would be the Dingling. Medieval European chroniclers subsumed various Turkic peoples of the Eurasian steppe under the "umbrella-identity" of the "Scythians". Between 400 CE and the 16th century, Byzantine sources use the name Σκύθαι (Skuthai) in reference to twelve different Turkic peoples.
In the modern Turkish language as used in the Republic of Turkey, a distinction is made between "Turks" and the "Turkic peoples" in loosely speaking: the term Türk corresponds specifically to the "Turkish-speaking" people (in this context, "Turkish-speaking" is considered the same as "Turkic-speaking"), while the term Türki refers generally to the people of modern "Turkic Republics" (Türki Cumhuriyetler or Türk Cumhuriyetleri). However, the proper usage of the term is based on the linguistic classification in order to avoid any political sense. In short, the term Türki can be used for Türk or vice versa.
List of ethnic groups
Historical Turkic groups
Az
Dingling
Bulgars
Esegel
Barsils
Alat
Basmyl
Onogurs
Saragurs
Sabirs
Shatuo
Ongud (from Shatuo)
Göktürks
Oghuz Turks
Kanglys
Khazars
Kipchaks
Kurykans
Kumans
Pechenegs
Karluks
Tiele
Turgesh
Tukhsi
Yenisei Kirghiz
Chigils
Toquz Oghuz
Orkhon Uyghurs
Yagma
Nushibi
Duolu
Kutrigurs
Utigurs
Yabaku
Yueban
Bulaqs
Xueyantuo
Torks
Chorni Klobuky
Berendei
Yemeks
Naimans (partly)
Keraites (partly)
Merkits (partly)
Uriankhai (partly)
Possible Proto-Turkic ancestry, at least partial, has been posited for Xiongnu, Huns and Pannonian Avars, as well as Tuoba and Rouran, who were of Proto-Mongolic Donghu ancestry. as well as Tatars, Rourans' supposed descendants.
Remarks
Language
Distribution
The Turkic languages constitute a language family of some 30 languages, spoken across a vast area from Eastern Europe and the Mediterranean, to Siberia and Manchuria and through to the Middle East. Some 170 million people have a Turkic language as their native language; an additional 20 million people speak a Turkic language as a second language. The Turkic language with the greatest number of speakers is Turkish proper, or Anatolian Turkish, the speakers of which account for about 40% of all Turkic speakers. More than one third of these are ethnic Turks of Turkey, dwelling predominantly in Turkey proper and formerly Ottoman-dominated areas of Southern and Eastern Europe and West Asia; as well as in Western Europe, Australia and the Americas as a result of immigration. The remainder of the Turkic people are concentrated in Central Asia, Russia, the Caucasus, China, and northern Iraq.
The Turkic language family is traditionally considered to be part of the proposed Altaic language family. Howeover since the 1950s, many comparative linguists have rejected the proposal, after supposed cognates were found not to be valid, hypothesized sound shifts were not found, and Turkic and Mongolic languages were found to be converging rather than diverging over the centuries. Opponents of the theory proposed that the similarities are due to mutual linguistic influences between the groups concerned.
Alphabet
The Turkic alphabets are sets of related alphabets with letters (formerly known as runes), used for writing mostly Turkic languages. Inscriptions in Turkic alphabets were found in Mongolia. Most of the preserved inscriptions were dated to between 8th and 10th centuries CE.
The earliest positively dated and read Turkic inscriptions date from the 8th century, and the alphabets were generally replaced by the Old Uyghur alphabet in the East and Central Asia, Arabic script in the Middle and Western Asia, Cyrillic in Eastern Europe and in the Balkans, and Latin alphabet in Central Europe. The latest recorded use of Turkic alphabet was recorded in Central Europe's Hungary in 1699 CE.
The Turkic runiform scripts, unlike other typologically close scripts of the world, do not have a uniform palaeography as do, for example, the Gothic runiform scripts, noted for their exceptional uniformity of language and paleography. The Turkic alphabets are divided into four groups, the best known of which is the Orkhon version of the Enisei group. The Orkhon script is the alphabet used by the Göktürks from the 8th century to record the Old Turkic language. It was later used by the Uyghur Empire; a Yenisei variant is known from 9th-century Kyrgyz inscriptions, and it has likely cousins in the Talas Valley of Turkestan and the Old Hungarian script of the 10th century. Irk Bitig is the only known complete manuscript text written in the Old Turkic script.
History
Origins
The origins of the Turkic peoples has been a topic of much discussion. Peter Benjamin Golden listed Proto-Turkic lexical items about the climate, topography, flora, fauna, people's modes of subsistence in the hypothetical Proto-Turkic Urheimat and proposed that the Proto-Turkic Urheimat was located at the southern Altai-Sayan region in Siberia and Mongolia. Linguistic and genetic evidence strongly suggest an early presence of Turkic peoples in Mongolia.
A possible genealogical link of the Turkic languages to Mongolic and Tungusic languages, specifically a hypothetical homeland in Manchuria, such as proposed in the Transeurasian hypothesis, by Martine Robbeets, has received support but also criticism, with opponents attributing similarities to long-term contact. The proto-Turkic-speakers may be linked to Neolithic East Asian agricultural societies in Northeastern China, which is to be associated with the Xinglongwa culture and the succeeding Hongshan culture, based on varying degrees of specific East Asian genetic substratum among modern Turkic speakers. According to historians, "the Proto-Turkic subsistence strategy included an agricultural component, a tradition that ultimately went back to the origin of millet agriculture in Northeast China". This view is however questioned by other geneticists, who found no evidence for a shared "Neolithic Hongshan ancestry", but in contrary primary Ancient Northeast Asian (ANA) Neolithic ancestry from the Amur region, supporting an origin from Northeast Asia rather than Manchuria.
Around 2,200 BC, the (agricultural) ancestors of the Turkic peoples probably migrated westwards into Mongolia, where they adopted a pastoral lifestyle, in part borrowed from Iranian peoples. Given nomadic peoples such as Xiongnu, Rouran and Xianbei share underlying genetic ancestry "that falls into or close to the northeast Asian gene pool", the proto-Turkic language likely originated in northeastern Asia.
A 2018 autosomal single-nucleotide polymorphism study suggested that Eurasian Steppe slowly transitioned from Indo European and Iranian-speaking groups with largely western Eurasian ancestry to increasing East Asian ancestry with Turkic and Mongolian groups in the past 4000 years, including extensive Turkic migrations out of Mongolia and slow assimilation of local populations.
Genetic data found that almost all modern Turkic peoples retained shared ancestry associated with "Southern Siberian and Mongolian" (SSM) populations, supporting this region as the "Inner Asian Homeland (IAH) of the pioneer carriers of Turkic languages" which subsequently expanded into Central Asia. The main Turkic expansion took place during the 5th–16th centuries, partially overlapping with the Mongol Empire period. Based on single-path IBD tracts, the common Turkic ancestral population lived prior to these migration events, and likely stem from a similar source population as Mongolic peoples further East. Historical data suggests that the Mongol Empire period acted as secondary force of "turkification", as the Mongol conquest "did not involve massive re-settlements of Mongols over the conquered territories. Instead, the Mongol war machine was progressively augmented by various Turkic tribes as they expanded, and in this way Turkic peoples eventually reinforced their expansion over the Eurasian steppe and beyond."
The admixture with West Eurasian sources was found to be "in accordance with the linguistically documented language borrowing in Turkic languages".
Modern Central Asian Turkic-speaking peoples are characterized by a dominant Northeast Asian ancestry component (samplified by "Baikal hunter-gatherers" shared with other Northeast Asians and Eastern Siberians), while Iranian-speaking Central Asians, specifically Tajiks, display genetic continuity to Indo-Iranians of the Iron Age.
A 2023 study published in the Journal of Systematics and Evolution analyzed the DNA of Empress Ashina (568–578 AD), a Royal Göktürk, whose remains were recovered from a mausoleum in Xianyang, China. The authors determined that Empress Ashina belonged to the North-East Asian mtDNA haplogroup F1d, and that approximately 96-98% of her autosomal ancestry was of Ancient Northeast Asian origin, while roughly 2-4% was of West Eurasian origin, indicating ancient admixture. This study weakened the Indo-Iranian hypothesis of Ashina tribe and the Göktürk. However, they also noted that central-steppe Türks and early medieval Türks exhibit a high (but variable) degree of West Eurasian ancestry, which indicates that there was genetic sub-structure within the Türkic empire.
Early historical attestation
The earliest separate Turkic peoples, such as the Gekun (鬲昆) and Xinli (薪犁), appeared on the peripheries of the late Xiongnu confederation about 200 BCE (contemporaneous with the Chinese Han Dynasty) and later among the Turkic-speaking Tiele as Hegu (紇骨) and Xue (薛).
The Tiele (also known as Gaoche 高車, lit. "High Carts"), may be related to the Xiongnu and the Dingling. According to the Book of Wei, the Tiele people were the remnants of the Chidi (赤狄), the red Di people competing with the Jin in the Spring and Autumn period. Historically they were established after the 6th century BCE.
The Tiele were first mentioned in Chinese literature from the 6th to 8th centuries. Some scholars (Haneda, Onogawa, Geng, etc.) proposed that Tiele, Dili, Dingling, Chile, Tele, & Tujue all transliterated underlying Türk; however, Golden proposed that Dili, Dingling, Chile, Tele, & Tiele transliterated Tegrek while Tujue transliterated Türküt, plural of Türk. The appellation Türük (Old Turkic: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰰) ~ Türk (OT: 𐱅𐰇𐰼𐰚) (whence Middle Chinese 突厥 *dwət-kuɑt > *tɦut-kyat > standard Chinese: Tūjué) was initially reserved exclusively for the Göktürks by Chinese, Tibetans, and even the Turkic-speaking Uyghurs. In contrast, medieval Muslim writers, including Turkic speakers like Ottoman historian Mustafa Âlî and explorer Evliya Çelebi as well as Timurid scientist Ulugh Beg, often viewed Inner Asian tribes, "as forming a single entity regardless of their linguistic affiliation" commonly used Turk as a generic name for Inner Asians (whether Turkic- or Mongolic-speaking). Only in modern era do modern historians use Turks to refer to all peoples speaking Turkic languages, differentiated from non-Turkic speakers.
According to some researchers (Duan, Xue, Tang, Lung, Onogawa, etc.) the later Ashina tribe descended from the Tiele confederation. The Tiele however were probably one of many early Turkic groups, ancestral to later Turkic populations. However, according to Lee & Kuang (2017), Chinese histories do not describe the Ashina and the Göktürks as descending from the Dingling or the Tiele confederation.
Xiongnu (3rd c. BCE – 1st c. CE)
It has even been suggested that the Xiongnu themselves, who were mentioned in Han Dynasty records, were Proto-Turkic speakers. The Turks may ultimately have been of Xiongnu descent. Although little is known for certain about the Xiongnu language(s), it seems likely that at least a considerable part of Xiongnu tribes spoke a Turkic language. Some scholars believe they were probably a confederation of various ethnic and linguistic groups. According to a study by Alexander Savelyev and Choongwon Jeong, published in 2020 in the journal Evolutionary Human Sciences by Cambridge University Press, "the predominant part of the Xiongnu population is likely to have spoken Turkic". However, genetic studies found a mixture of western and eastern Eurasian ancestries, suggesting a large genetic diversity within the Xiongnu. The Turkic-related component may be brought by eastern Eurasian genetic substratum.
Using the only extant possibly Xiongnu writings, the rock art of the Yinshan and Helan Mountains, some scholars argue that the older Xiongnu writings are precursors to the earliest known Turkic alphabet, the Orkhon script. Petroglyphs of this region dates from the 9th millennium BCE to the 19th century, and consists mainly of engraved signs (petroglyphs) and few painted images. Excavations done during 1924–1925 in Noin-Ula kurgans located in the Selenga River in the northern Mongolian hills north of Ulaanbaatar produced objects with over 20 carved characters, which were either identical or very similar to the runic letters of the Turkic Orkhon script discovered in the Orkhon Valley.
Huns (4th–6th c. CE)
In the 18th century, the French scholar Joseph de Guignes became the first to propose a link between the Huns and the Xiongnu people, who were northern neighbours of China in the 3rd century BC. The Hun hordes ruled by Attila, who invaded and conquered much of Europe in the 5th century, might have been, at least partially, Turkic and descendants of the Xiongnu. Since Guignes' time, considerable scholarly effort has been devoted to investigating such a connection. The issue remains controversial. Their relationship to other peoples known collectively as the Iranian Huns is generally accepted, but whether these groups are all inter-related remains controversial.
Some scholars claimed Huns as Proto-Mongolian or Yeniseian in origin. Linguistic studies by Otto Maenchen-Helfen and others have suggested that the language used by the Huns in Europe was too little documented to be classified. Nevertheless, the majority of the proper names used by Huns appear to be Turkic in origin, though they are "far from unambiguous, so no firm conclusion can be drawn from this type of data".
Steppe expansions
Göktürks – Turkic Khaganate (5th–8th c.)
The earliest certain mentioning of the politonym "Turk" was in the Chinese Book of Zhou. In the 540s AD, this text mentions that the Turks came to China's border seeking silk goods and a trade relationship. A Sogdian diplomat represented China in a series of embassies between the Western Wei dynasty and the Turks in the years 545 and 546.
According to the Book of Sui and the Tongdian, they were "mixed barbarians" (; záhú) who migrated from Pingliang (now in modern Gansu province, China) to the Rourans seeking inclusion in their confederacy and protection from the prevailing dynasty. Alternatively, according to the Book of Zhou, History of the Northern Dynasties, and New Book of Tang, the Ashina clan was a component of the Xiongnu confederation. Göktürks were also posited as having originated from an obscure Suo state (索國), north of the Xiongnu. The Ashina tribe were famed metalsmiths and were granted land south of the Altai Mountains (金山 Jinshan), which looked like a helmet, from which they were said to have gotten their name 突厥 (Tūjué), the first recorded use of "Turk" as a political name. In the 6th-century, Ashina's power had increased such that they conquered the Tiele on their Rouran overlords' behalf and even overthrew Rourans and established the First Turkic Khaganate.
The original Old Turkic name Kök Türk derives from kök ~ kö:k, "sky, sky-coloured, blue, blue-grey". Unlike its Xiongnu predecessor, the Göktürk Khaganate had its temporary Khagans from the Ashina clan, who were subordinate to a sovereign authority controlled by a council of tribal chiefs. The Khaganate retained elements of its original animistic- shamanistic religion, that later evolved into Tengriism, although it received missionaries of Buddhist monks and practiced a syncretic religion. The Göktürks were the first Turkic people to write Old Turkic in a runic script, the Orkhon script. The Khaganate was also the first state known as "Turk". It eventually collapsed due to a series of dynastic conflicts, but many states and peoples later used the name "Turk".
The Göktürks (First Turkic Kaganate) quickly spread west to the Caspian Sea. Between 581 and 603 the Western Turkic Khaganate in Kazakhstan separated from the Eastern Turkic Khaganate in Mongolia and Manchuria during a civil war. The Han-Chinese successfully overthrew the Eastern Turks in 630 and created a military Protectorate until 682. After that time the Second Turkic Khaganate ruled large parts of the former Göktürk area. After several wars between Turks, Chinese and Tibetans, the weakened Second Turkic Khaganate was replaced by the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 744.
Bulgars, Golden Horde and the Siberian Khanate
The Bulgars established themselves in between the Caspian and Black Seas in the 5th and 6th centuries, followed by their conquerors, the Khazars who converted to Judaism in the 8th or 9th century. After them came the Pechenegs who created a large confederacy, which was subsequently taken over by the Cumans and the Kipchaks. One group of Bulgars settled in the Volga region and mixed with local Volga Finns to become the Volga Bulgars in what is today Tatarstan. These Bulgars were conquered by the Mongols following their westward sweep under Ogedei Khan in the 13th century. Other Bulgars settled in Southeastern Europe in the 7th and 8th centuries, and mixed with the Slavic population, adopting what eventually became the Slavic Bulgarian language. Everywhere, Turkic groups mixed with the local populations to varying degrees.
The Volga Bulgaria became an Islamic state in 922 and influenced the region as it controlled many trade routes. In the 13th century, Mongols invaded Europe and established the Golden Horde in Eastern Europe, western & northern Central Asia, and even western Siberia. The Cuman-Kipchak Confederation and Islamic Volga Bulgaria were absorbed by the Golden Horde in the 13th century; in the 14th century, Islam became the official religion under Uzbeg Khan where the general population (Turks) as well as the aristocracy (Mongols) came to speak the Kipchak language and were collectively known as "Tatars" by Russians and Westerners. This country was also known as the Kipchak Khanate and covered most of what is today Ukraine, as well as the entirety of modern-day southern and eastern Russia (the European section). The Golden Horde disintegrated into several khanates and hordes in the 15th and 16th century including the Crimean Khanate, Khanate of Kazan, and Kazakh Khanate (among others), which were one by one conquered and annexed by the Russian Empire in the 16th through 19th centuries.
In Siberia, the Siberian Khanate was established in the 1490s by fleeing Tatar aristocrats of the disintegrating Golden Horde who established Islam as the official religion in western Siberia over the partly Islamized native Siberian Tatars and indigenous Uralic peoples. It was the northernmost Islamic state in recorded history and it survived up until 1598 when it was conquered by Russia.
Uyghur Khaganate (8th–9th c.)
The Uyghur Khaganate had established itself by the year 744 AD. Through trade relations established with China, its capital city of Ordu Baliq in central Mongolia's Orkhon Valley became a wealthy center of commerce, and a significant portion of the Uyghur population abandoned their nomadic lifestyle for a sedentary one. The Uyghur Khaganate produced extensive literature, and a relatively high number of its inhabitants were literate.
The official state religion of the early Uyghur Khaganate was Manichaeism, which was introduced through the conversion of Bögü Qaghan by the Sogdians after the An Lushan rebellion. The Uyghur Khaganate was tolerant of religious diversity and practiced variety of religions including Buddhism, Christianity, shamanism and Manichaeism.
During the same time period, the Shatuo Turks emerged as power factor in Northern and Central China and were recognized by the Tang Empire as allied power.
The Shatuo Turks had founded several short-lived sinicized dynasties in northern China during the Five Dynasties and Ten Kingdoms period. The official language of these dynasties was Chinese and they used Chinese titles and names. Some Shaotuo Turks emperors also claimed patrilineal Han Chinese ancestry.
After the fall of the Tang-Dynasty in 907, the Shatuo Turks replaced them and created the Later Tang Dynasty in 923. The Shatuo Turks ruled over a large part of northern China, including Beijing. They adopted Chinese names and united Turkic and Chinese traditions. Later Tang fell in 937 but the Shatuo rose to become one of the most powerful clans of China. They created several other dynasies, including the Later Jin and Later Han. The Shatuo Turks were later assimilated into the Han Chinese ethnic group after they were conquered by the Song dynasty.
The Yenisei Kyrgyz allied with China to destroy the Uyghur Khaganate in the year 840 AD. From the Yenisei River, the Kyrgyz pushed south and eastward in to Xinjiang and the Orkhon Valley in central Mongolia, leaving much of the Uyghur civilization in ruins. Much of the Uyghur population relocated to the south in modern-day China, establishing kingdoms in Gansu and Turpan.
Central Asia
Kangar union (659–750)
The Kangar Union (Qanghar Odaghu) was a Turkic state in the former territory of the Western Turkic Khaganate (the entire present-day state of Kazakhstan, without Zhetysu). The capital of the Kangar union was located in the Ulytau mountains. Among the Pechenegs, the Kangar formed the elite of the Pecheneg tribes. After being defeated by the Kipchaks, Oghuz Turks, and the Khazars, they migrated west and defeated Magyars, and after forming an alliance with the Bulgars, they defeated the Byzantine Army. The Pecheneg state was established by the 11th century and at its peak carried a population of over 2.5 million, composed of many different ethnic groups.
The elite of the Kangar tribes are believed to have had an Iranian origin, and they likely spoke an Iranian language, while most of the Pecheneg population spoke a Turkic language, with a significant percentage speaking Hunno-Bulgar dialects.
The Yatuks, a tribe within the Kangar state who could not accompany the Kangars as they migrated West, remained in the old lands, where they are known as the Kangly people, who are now part of the Uzbek, Kazakh, and Karakalpak tribes.
Oghuz Yabgu State (766–1055)
The Oguz Yabgu State (Oguz il, meaning "Oguz Land,", "Oguz Country")(750–1055) was a Turkic state, founded by Oghuz Turks in 766, located geographically in an area between the coasts of the Caspian and Aral Seas. Oguz tribes occupied a vast territory in Kazakhstan along the Irgiz, Yaik, Emba, and Uil rivers, the Aral Sea area, the Syr Darya valley, the foothills of the Karatau Mountains in Tien-Shan, and the Chui River valley (see map). The Oguz political association developed in the 9th and 10th centuries in the Syr Darya basin.
Iranian, Indian, Arabic, and Anatolian expansion
Turkic peoples and related groups migrated west from present-day Northeastern China, Mongolia, Siberia and the Turkestan-region towards the Iranian plateau, South Asia, and Anatolia (modern Turkey) in many waves. The date of the initial expansion remains unknown.
Persia
Ghaznavid dynasty (977–1186)
The Ghaznavid dynasty ( ġaznaviyān) was a Persianate Muslim dynasty of Turkic mamluk origin, at their greatest extent ruling large parts of Iran, Afghanistan, much of Transoxiana and the northwest Indian subcontinent (part of Pakistan) from 977 to 1186. The dynasty was founded by Sabuktigin upon his succession to rule of the region of Ghazna after the death of his father-in-law, Alp Tigin, who was a breakaway ex-general of the Samanid Empire from Balkh, north of the Hindu Kush in Greater Khorasan.
Although the dynasty was of Central Asian Turkic origin, it was thoroughly Persianised in terms of language, culture, literature and habits and hence is regarded by some as a "Persian dynasty".
Seljuk Empire (1037–1194)
The Seljuk Empire () or the Great Seljuq Empire was a high medieval Turko-Persian Sunni Muslim empire, originating from the Qiniq branch of Oghuz Turks. At its greatest extent, the Seljuk Empire controlled a vast area stretching from western Anatolia and the Levant to the Hindu Kush in the east, and from Central Asia to the Persian Gulf in the south.
The Seljuk empire was founded by Tughril Beg (1016–1063) and his brother Chaghri Beg (989–1060) in 1037. From their homelands near the Aral Sea, the Seljuks advanced first into Khorasan and then into mainland Persia, before eventually conquering eastern Anatolia. Here the Seljuks won the battle of Manzikert in 1071 and conquered most of Anatolia from the Byzantine Empire, which became one of the reasons for the first crusade (1095–1099). From c. 1150–1250, the Seljuk empire declined, and was invaded by the Mongols around 1260. The Mongols divided Anatolia into emirates. Eventually one of these, the Ottoman, would conquer the rest.
Timurid Empire (1370–1507)
The Timurid Empire was a Turko-Mongol empire founded in the late 14th century through military conquests led by Timurlane. The establishment of a cosmopolitan empire was followed by the Timurid Renaissance, a period of local enrichment in mathematics, astronomy, architecture, as well as newfound economic growth. The cultural progress of the Timurid period ended as soon as the empire collapsed in the early 16th century, leaving many intellecuals and artists to turn elsewhere in search of employment.
Central Asian khanates (1501–1920)
The Bukhara Khanate was an Uzbek state that existed from 1501 to 1785. The khanate was ruled by three dynasties of the Shaybanids, Janids and the Uzbek dynasty of Mangits. In 1785, Shahmurad, formalized the family's dynastic rule (Manghit dynasty), and the khanate became the Emirate of Bukhara (1785–1920). In 1710, the Kokand Khanate (1710–1876) separated from the Bukhara Khanate. In 1511–1920, Khwarazm (Khiva Khanate) was ruled by the Arabshahid dynasty and the Uzbek dynasty of Kungrats.
Afsharid dynasty (1736–1796)
The Afsharid dynasty was named after the Turkic Afshar tribe to which they belonged. The Afshars had migrated from Turkestan to Azerbaijan in the 13th century. The dynasty was founded in 1736 by the military commander Nader Shah who deposed the last member of the Safavid dynasty and proclaimed himself King of Iran. Nader belonged to the Qereqlu branch of the Afshars. During Nader's reign, Iran reached its greatest extent since the Sassanid Empire.
Qajar dynasty (1789–1925)
The Qajar dynasty was created by the Turkic Qajar tribe, ruling over Iran from 1789 to 1925. The Qajar family took full control of Iran in 1794, deposing Lotf 'Ali Khan, the last Shah of the Zand dynasty, and re-asserted Iranian sovereignty over large parts of the Caucasus. In 1796, Mohammad Khan Qajar seized Mashhad with ease, putting an end to the Afsharid dynasty, and Mohammad Khan was formally crowned as Shah after his punitive campaign against Iran's Georgian subjects. In the Caucasus, the Qajar dynasty permanently lost many of Iran's integral areas to the Russians over the course of the 19th century, comprising modern-day Georgia, Dagestan, Azerbaijan and Armenia. The dynasty was founded by Agha Mohammad Khan Qajar and continued until Ahmad Shah Qajar.
South Asia
The Delhi Sultanate is a term used to cover five short-lived, Delhi-based kingdoms, two of which were of Turkic origins: the Mamluk dynasty (1206–90) and the Tughlaq dynasty (1320–1414). Southern India saw rise of the Qutb Shahi dynasty, one of the Deccan sultanates.
The Mughal Empire was a Turko-Mongol empire that, at its greatest territorial extent, ruled most of South Asia, including Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Bangladesh and parts of Uzbekistan from the early 16th to the early 18th centuries. The Mughal dynasty was founded by a Turko-Mongol prince named Babur (reigned 1526–30), who was descended from Timur (Tamerlane) on his father's side and from Chagatai, second son of the Mongol ruler Genghis Khan, on his mother's side. A further distinction was the attempt of the Mughals to integrate Hindus and Muslims into a united Indian state.
Arab world
The Arab Muslim Umayyads and Abbasids fought against the pagan Turks in the Türgesh Khaganate in the Muslim conquest of Transoxiana. Turkic soldiers in the army of the Abbasid caliphs emerged as the de facto rulers of most of the Muslim Middle East (apart from Syria and Egypt), particularly after the 10th century. Examples of regional de facto independent states include the short lived Tulunids and Ikhshidids in Egypt. The Oghuz and other tribes captured and dominated various countries under the leadership of the Seljuk dynasty and eventually captured the territories of the Abbasid dynasty and the Byzantine Empire.
Anatolia – Ottomans
After many battles, the western Oghuz Turks established their own state and later constructed the Ottoman Empire. The main migration of the Oghuz Turks occurred in medieval times, when they spread across most of Asia and into Europe and the Middle East. They also took part in the military encounters of the Crusades. In 1090–91, the Turkic Pechenegs reached the walls of Constantinople, where Emperor Alexius I with the aid of the Kipchaks annihilated their army.
As the Seljuk Empire declined following the Mongol invasion, the Ottoman Empire emerged as the new important Turkic state, that came to dominate not only the Middle East, but even southeastern Europe, parts of southwestern Russia, and northern Africa.
Islamization
Turkic peoples like the Karluks (mainly 8th century), Uyghurs, Kyrgyz, Turkmens, and Kipchaks later came into contact with Muslims, and most of them gradually adopted Islam. Some groups of Turkic people practice other religions, including their original animistic-shamanistic religion, Christianity, Burkhanism, Judaism (Khazars, Krymchaks, Crimean Karaites), Buddhism, and a small number of Zoroastrians.
Modern history
The Ottoman Empire gradually grew weaker in the face of poor administration, repeated wars with Russia, Austria and Hungary, and the emergence of nationalist movements in the Balkans, and it finally gave way after World War I to the present-day Republic of Turkey.
Ethnic nationalism also developed in Ottoman Empire during the 19th century, taking the form of Pan-Turkism or Turanism.
The Turkic peoples of Central Asia were not organized in nation-states during most of the 20th century, after the collapse of the Russian Empire living either in the Soviet Union or (after a short-lived First East Turkestan Republic) in the Chinese Republic. For much of the 20th century, Turkey was the only independent Turkic country.
In 1991, after the disintegration of the Soviet Union, five Turkic states gained their independence. These were Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, and Uzbekistan. Other Turkic regions such as Tatarstan, Tuva, and Yakutia remained in the Russian Federation. Chinese Turkestan remained part of the People's Republic of China. Immediately after the independence of the Turkic states, Turkey began seeking diplomatic relations with them. Over time political meetings between the Turkic countries increased and led to the establishment of TÜRKSOY in 1993 and the Turkic Council in 2009, which later was renamed Organization of Turkic States in 2021.
Physiognomy
According to historians Joo-Yup Lee and Shuntu Kuang, Chinese official histories do not depict Turkic peoples as belonging to a single uniform entity called "Turks". However "Chinese histories also depict the Turkic-speaking peoples as typically possessing East/Inner Asian physiognomy, as well as occasionally having West Eurasian physiognomy." According to "fragmentary information on the Xiongnu language that can be found in the Chinese histories, the Xiongnu were Turkic", however historians have been unable to confirm whether or not they were Turkic. Sima Qian's description of their legendary origins suggest their physiognomy was "not too different from that of... Han (漢) Chinese population," but a subset of Xiongnu known as the Jie people were described having "deep-set eyes," "high nose bridges" and "heavy facial hair." The Jie may have been Yeniseian, although others maintaining an Iranian affiliation, and regardless of whether or not the Xiongnu were Turkic, they were a hybrid people. According to the Old Book of Tang, Ashina Simo "was not given a high military post by the Ashina rulers because of his Sogdian (huren 胡人) physiognomy." The Tang historian Yan Shigu described the Hu people of his day as "blue-eyed and red bearded" descendants of the Wusun, whereas "no comparable depiction of the Kök Türks or Tiele is found in the official Chinese histories."
A genetic analysis on the remains of the Turkic Empress Ashina (551–582) in 2023 by Xiaoming Yang et al. found nearly exclusively Ancient Northeast Asian ancestry (97,7%) next to minor West-Eurasian components (2,7%). This supports the Northeast Asian origin of the Ashina tribe and the Göktürk Khanate. The ancient Türkic royal family of the Göktürk Khaganate was found to share genetic affinities to post-Iron Age Tungusic and Mongolic pastoralists, while having heterogeneous relationships towards various Turkic-speaking groups, suggesting genetic heterogeneity and multiple sources of origin for the population of the Turkic Khaganate. According to the authors, these findings "once again validates a cultural diffusion model over a demic diffusion model for the spread of Turkic languages" and refutes "the western Eurasian origin and multiple origin hypotheses" in favor of an East Asian origin for the Türks.
Historian Peter Golden has reported that genetic testing of the proposed descendants of the Ashina tribe does seem to confirm a link to the Indo-Iranians, emphasizing that "the Turks as a whole ‘were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations". Historian Emel Esin and Professor Xue Zongzheng have argued that West Eurasian features were typical of the royal Ashina clan of the Eastern Turkic Khaganate and that their appearance shifted to an East Asian one due to intermarriage with foreign nobility. As a result, by the time of Kul Tigin (684 AD), members of the Ashina dynasty had East Asian features. "The Chinese sources of the Kök-Türk period describe the turcophone Kirgiz with green eyes and red hair. They must have been in majority Europeoids although intermarriages with the Chinese had begun long ago. The Kök-Türk kagan Mu-kan was also depicted with blue eyes and an elongated ruddy face. Probably as a result of the repeated marriages, the members of the Kök-Türk dynasty (pl. XLVII/a), and particularly Köl Tigin, had frankly Mongoloid features. Perhaps in the hope of finding an occasion to claim rulership over China, or because the high birth of the mother warranted seniority, the Inner Asian monarchs sought alliances165 with dynasties reigning in China." Lee and Kuang believe it is likely "early and medieval Turkic peoples themselves did not form a homogeneous entity and that some of them, non-Turkic by origin, had become Turkicised at some point in history." They also suggest that many modern Turkic-speaking populations are not directly descended from early Turkic peoples. Lee and Kuang concluded that "both medieval Chinese histories and modern DNA studies point to the fact that the early and medieval Turkic peoples were made up of heterogeneous and somatically dissimilar populations."
Like Chinese historians, Medieval Muslim writers generally depicted the Turks as having an East Asian appearance. Unlike Chinese historians, Medieval Muslim writers used the term "Turk" broadly to refer to not only Turkic-speaking peoples but also various non-Turkic speaking peoples, such as the Hephthalites, Rus, Magyars, and Tibetans. In the 13th century, Juzjani referred to the people of Tibet and the mountains between Tibet and Bengal as "Turks" and "people with Turkish features." Medieval Arab and Persian descriptions of Turks state that they looked strange from their perspective and were extremely physically different from Arabs. Turks were described as "broad faced people with small eyes", having light-colored, often reddish hair, and with pink skin, as being "short, with small eyes, nostrils, and mouths" (Sharaf al-Zaman al-Marwazi), as being "full-faced with small eyes" (Al-Tabari), as possessing "a large head (sar-i buzurg), a broad face (rūy-i pahn), narrow eyes (chashmhā-i tang), and a flat nose (bīnī-i pakhch), and unpleasing lips and teeth (lab va dandān na nīkū)" (Keikavus). On Western Turkic coins "the faces of the governor and governess are clearly Mongoloid (a roundish face, narrow eyes), and the portrait have definite old Türk features (long hair, absence of headdress of the governor, a tricorn headdress of the governess)". In the Ghaznavids' residential palace of Lashkari Bazar, there survives a partially conserved portrait depicting a turbaned and haloed adolescent figure with full cheeks, slanted eyes, and a small, sinuous mouth. The Armenian historian Movses Kaghankatvatsi describes the Turks of the Western Turkic Khaganate as "broad-faced, without eyelashes, and with long flowing hair like women".
Al-Masudi writes that the Oghuz Turks in Yengi-kent near the mouth of the Syr Darya "are distinguished from other Turks by their valour, their slanted eyes, and the smallness of their stature." Later Muslim writers noted a change in the physiognomy of Oghuz Turks. According to Rashid al-Din Hamadani, "because of the climate their features gradually changed into those of Tajiks. Since they were not Tajiks, the Tajik peoples called them turkmān, i.e. Turk-like (Turk-mānand)." Ḥāfiẓ Tanīsh Mīr Muḥammad Bukhārī also related that the Oghuz' ‘Turkic face did not remain as it was’ after their migration into Transoxiana and Iran. Khiva khan Abu al-Ghazi Bahadur wrote in his Chagatai language treatise Shajara-i Tarākima (Genealogy of the Turkmens) that "their chin started to become narrow, their eyes started to become large, their faces started to become small, and their noses started to become big’ after five or six generations". Ottoman historian Mustafa Âlî commented in Künhüʾl-aḫbār that Anatolian Turks and Ottoman elites are ethnically mixed: "Most of the inhabitants of Rûm are of confused ethnic origin. Among its notables there are few whose lineage does not go back to a convert to Islam."
Kevin Alan Brook states that like "most nomadic Turks, the Western Turkic Khazars were racially and ethnically mixed." Istakhri described Khazars as having black hair while Ibn Sa'id al-Maghribi described them as having blue eyes, light skin, and reddish hair. Istakhri mentions that there were "Black Khazars" and "White Khazars." Most scholars believe these were political designations: black being lower class while white being higher class. Constantin Zuckerman argues that these "had physical and racial differences and explained that they stemmed from the merger of the Khazars with the Barsils." Old East Slavic sources called the Khazars the "White Ugry" and the Magyars the "Black Ugry." Soviet excavated Khazar remains show Slavic-type, European-type, and a minority Mongoloid-type skulls.
The Yenisei Kyrgyz are mentioned in the New Book of Tang as having the same script and language as the Uyghurs but "The people are all tall and
big and have red hair, white faces, and green eyes." The New Book of Tang also states that the neighboring Boma tribe resembled the Kyrgyz but their language was different, which may imply the Kyrgyz were originally a non-Turkic people, who were later Turkicized through inter-tribal marriages. According to Lee & Kuang, the prevalence of West Eurasian features among the ancient Kirghiz was likely due to their genetic relation to Indo-Iranians. According to Gardizi, the Kyrgyz were mixed with "Saqlabs" (Slavs), which explains the red hair and white skin among the Kyrgyz, while the New Book states that the Kyrgyz "intermixed with the Dingling." The Kyrgyz "regarded those with black eyes as descending from [Li] Ling," a Han dynasty general who defected to the Xiongnu.
In a Chinese legal statute from the early period of the Ming dynasty, the Kipchaks are described as having blond hair and blue eyes. It also states that they had a "vile" and "peculiar" appearance, and that some Chinese people would not want to marry them. "To illustrate the complexity of the Ming-Muslim relationship, consider a legal statute" [...] "...Kipchaks have light hair and blue eyes. Their appearance is vile and peculiar, so there are those who do not wish to marry them." (Da Ming lü jijie fuli 6.36b) Russian anthropologist Oshanin (1964: 24, 32) notes that "the ‘Mongoloid’ phenotype, characteristic of modern Kazakhs and Qirghiz, prevails among the skulls of the Qipchaq and Pecheneg nomads found in the kurgans in eastern Ukraine"; Lee & Kuang (2017) propose that Oshanin's discovery is explainable by assuming that the historical Kipchaks' modern descendants are Kazakhs of the Lesser Horde, whose men possess a high frequency of haplogroup C2's subclade C2b1b1 (59.7 to 78%). Lee and Kuang also suggest that the high frequency (63.9%) of the Y-DNA haplogroup R-M73 among Karakypshaks (a tribe within the Kipchaks) allows inference about the genetics of Karakypshaks' medieval ancestors, thus explaining why some medieval Kipchaks were described as possessing "blue [or green] eyes and red hair.
Byzantine historians of the 11th-12th centuries provided description of Turkmens as very different from the Greeks. Bertrandon de la Broquière, a French traveller to the Ottoman Empire, met with sultan Murad II in Adrianople, and described him in the following terms: "In the first place, as I have seen him frequently, I shall say that he is a little, short, thick man, with the physiognomy of a Tartar. He has a broad and brown face, high cheek bones, a round beard, a great and crooked nose, with little eyes".
Remarks
Archaeology
Xinglongwa culture
Hongshan culture
Čaatas culture
Askiz culture
Kurumchi culture
Saltovo-Mayaki
Saymaluu-Tash
Bilär
Por-Bazhyn
Ordu-Baliq
Jankent
International organizations
There are several international organizations created with the purpose of furthering cooperation between countries with Turkic-speaking populations, such as the Joint Administration of Turkic Arts and Culture (TÜRKSOY) and the Parliamentary Assembly of Turkic-speaking Countries (TÜRKPA) and the Turkic Council.
The TAKM – Organization of the Eurasian Law Enforcement Agencies with Military Status, was established on 25 January 2013. It is an intergovernmental military law enforcement (gendarmerie) organization of currently three Turkic countries (Azerbaijan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkey) and Kazakhstan as observer.
TÜRKSOY
Türksoy carries out activities to strengthen cultural ties between Turkic peoples. One of the main goals to transmit their common cultural heritage to future generations and promote it around the world.
Every year, one city in the Turkic world is selected as the "Cultural Capital of the Turkic World". Within the framework of events to celebrate the Cultural Capital of the Turkic World, numerous cultural events are held, gathering artists, scholars and intellectuals, giving them the opportunity to exchange their experiences, as well as promoting the city in question internationally.
Organization of Turkic States
The Organization of Turkic States, founded on November 3, 2009, by the Nakhchivan Agreement confederation, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan and Turkey, aims to integrate these organizations into a tighter geopolitical framework.
The member countries are Azerbaijan, Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkey and Uzbekistan. The idea of setting up this cooperative council was first put forward by Kazakh President Nursultan Nazarbayev back in 2006. Hungary has announced to be interested in joining the Organization of Turkic States. Since August 2018, Hungary has official observer status in the Organization of Turkic States. Turkmenistan also joined as an observer state to the organization at 8th summit. Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus was admitted to the organization as observer member at the 2022 Samarkand Summit.
Demographics
The distribution of people of Turkic cultural background ranges from Siberia, across Central Asia, to Southern Europe. the largest groups of Turkic people live throughout Central Asia—Kazakhstan, Kyrgyzstan, Turkmenistan, Uzbekistan, and Azerbaijan, in addition to Turkey and Iran. Additionally, Turkic people are found within Crimea, Altishahr region of western China, northern Iraq, Israel, Russia, Afghanistan, Cyprus, and the Balkans: Moldova, Bulgaria, Romania, Greece and former Yugoslavia.
A small number of Turkic people also live in Vilnius, the capital of Lithuania. Small numbers inhabit eastern Poland and the south-eastern part of Finland. There are also considerable populations of Turkic people (originating mostly from Turkey) in Germany, United States, and Australia, largely because of migrations during the 20th century.
Sometimes ethnographers group Turkic people into six branches: the Oghuz Turks, Kipchak, Karluk, Siberian, Chuvash, and Sakha/Yakut branches. The Oghuz have been termed Western Turks, while the remaining five, in such a classificatory scheme, are called Eastern Turks.
The genetic distances between the different populations of Uzbeks scattered across Uzbekistan is no greater than the distance between many of them and the Karakalpaks. This suggests that Karakalpaks and Uzbeks have very similar origins. The Karakalpaks have a somewhat greater bias towards the eastern markers than the Uzbeks.Historical population:'''
The following incomplete list of Turkic people shows the respective groups' core areas of settlement and their estimated sizes (in millions):
Cuisine
Markets in the steppe region had a limited range of foodstuffs available—mostly grains, dried fruits, spices, and tea. Turks mostly herded sheep, goats and horses. Dairy was a staple of the nomadic diet and there are many Turkic words for various dairy products such as süt (milk), yagh (butter), ayran, qaymaq (similar to clotted cream), qi̅mi̅z (fermented mare's milk) and qurut (dried yoghurt). During the Middle Ages Kazakh, Kyrgyz and Tatars, who were historically part of the Turkic nomadic group known as the Golden Horde, continued to develop new variations of dairy products.
Nomadic Turks cooked their meals in a qazan, a pot similar to a cauldron; a wooden rack called a qasqan can be used to prepare certain steamed foods, like the traditional meat dumplings called manti. They also used a saj, a griddle that was traditionally placed on stones over a fire, and shish. In later times, the Persian tava was borrowed from the Persians for frying, but traditionally nomadic Turks did most of their cooking using the qazan, saj and shish. Meals were served in a bowl, called a chanaq, and eaten with a knife (bïchaq) and spoon (qashi̅q). Both bowl and spoon were historically made from wood. Other traditional utensils used in food preparation included a thin rolling pin called oqlaghu, a colander called süzgu̅çh, and a grinding stone called tāgirmān.
Medieval grain dishes included preparations of whole grains, soups, porridges, breads and pastries. Fried or toasted whole grains were called qawïrmach, while köchä was crushed grain that was cooked with dairy products. Salma were broad noodles that could be served with boiled or roasted meat; cut noodles were called tutmaj in the Middle Ages and are called kesme today.
There are many types of bread doughs in Turkic cuisine. Yupqa is the thinnest type of dough, bawi̅rsaq is a type of fried bread dough, and chälpäk is a deep fried flat bread. Qatlama is a fried bread that may be sprinkled with dried fruit or meat, rolled, and sliced like pinwheel sandwiches. Toqach and chöräk are varieties of bread, and böräk is a type of filled pie pastry.
Herd animals were usually slaughtered during the winter months and various types of sausages were prepared to preserve the meats, including a type of sausage called sujuk. Though prohibited by Islamic dietary restrictions, historically Turkic nomads also had a variety of blood sausage. One type of sausage, called qazi̅, was made from horsemeat and another variety was filled with a mixture of ground meat, offal and rice. Chopped meat was called qïyma and spit-roasted meat was söklünch—from the root sök- meaning "to tear off", the latter dish is known as kebab in modern times. Qawirma is a typical fried meat dish, and kullama is a soup of noodles and lamb.
Religion
Early Turkic mythology and Tengrism
Early Turkic mythology was dominated by Shamanism, Animism and Tengrism. The Turkic animistic traditions were mostly focused on ancestor worship, polytheistic-animism and shamanism. Later this animistic tradition would form the more organized Tengrism. The chief deity was Tengri, a sky god, worshipped by the upper classes of early Turkic society until Manichaeism was introduced as the official religion of the Uyghur Empire in 763.
The wolf symbolizes honour and is also considered the mother of most Turkic peoples. Ashina is the wolf mother of Tumen Il-Qağan, the first Khan of the Göktürks. The horse and predatory birds, such as the eagle or falcon, are also main figures of Turkic mythology.
Religious conversions
Buddhism
Buddhism played an important role in the history of Turkic peoples, with the first Turkic state adopting and supporting the spread of Buddhism being the Turkic Shahis and the Göktürks. The Göktürks syncretized Buddhism with their traditional religion Tengrism and also incorporated elements of the Iranian traditional religions, such as Zoroastrianism. Buddhism had its height among the Uyghurs in the Xinjiang region. Buddhism had also considerable impact and influence onto various other historical Turkic groups. In pre-Islamic times, Buddhism and Tengrism coexisted, with several Buddhist temples, monasteries, figures and steles, with images of Buddhist characters and sceneries, were constructed by various Turkic tribes. Throughout Kazakhstan, there exist various historical Buddhist sites, including an underground Buddhist cave monastery. After the Arab conquest of Central Asia, and the spread of Islam among locals, Buddhism (and Tengrism) started to lose ground, however a certain influence of the Buddhist teachings remained during the next centuries.
Tengri Bögü Khan initially made the now extinct Manichaeism the state religion of the Uyghur Khaganate in 763 and it was also popular among the Karluks. It was gradually replaced by the Mahayana Buddhism. It existed in the Buddhist Uyghur Gaochang up to the 12th century.
Tibetan Buddhism, or Vajrayana was the main religion after Manichaeism. They worshipped Täŋri Täŋrisi Burxan, Quanšï Im Pusar and Maitri Burxan. Turkic Muslim conquest in the Indian subcontinent and west Xinjiang attributed with a rapid and almost total disappearance of it and other religions in North India and Central Asia. The Sari Uygurs "Yellow Yughurs" of Western China, as well as the Tuvans of Russia are the only remaining Buddhist Turkic peoples.
Islam
Most Turkic people today are Sunni Muslims, although a significant number in Turkey are Alevis. Alevi Turks, who were once primarily dwelling in eastern Anatolia, are today concentrated in major urban centers in western Turkey with the increased urbanism. Azeris are traditionally Shiite Muslims. Religious observance is less strict in the Republic of Azerbaijan compared to Iranian Azerbaijan.
Christianity
The major Christian-Turkic peoples are the Chuvash of Chuvashia and the Gagauz (Gökoğuz) of Moldova, the vast majority of Chuvash and the Gagauz are Eastern Orthodox Christians. The traditional religion of the Chuvash of Russia, while containing many ancient Turkic concepts, also shares some elements with Zoroastrianism, Khazar Judaism, and Islam.
The Chuvash converted to Eastern Orthodox Christianity for the most part in the second half of the 19th century. As a result, festivals and rites were made to coincide with Orthodox feasts, and Christian rites replaced their traditional counterparts. A minority of the Chuvash still profess their traditional faith. Between the 9th and 14th centuries, Church of the East was popular among Turks such as the Naimans. It even revived in Gaochang and expanded in Xinjiang in the Yuan dynasty period. It disappeared after its collapse.
Kryashens are a sub-group of the Volga Tatars, and the vast majority are Orthodox Christians. Nağaybäk are an indigenous Turkic people in Russia, most Nağaybäk are Christian and were largely converted during the 18th century. Many Volga Tatars were Christianized by Ivan the Terrible during the 16th century, and continued to Christianized under subsequent Russian rulers and Orthodox clergy up to the mid-eighteenth century.
Animism
Today there are several groups that support a revival of the ancient traditions. Especially after the collapse of the Soviet Union, many in Central Asia converted or openly practice animistic and shamanistic rituals. It is estimated that about 60% of Kyrgyz people practice a form of animistic rituals. In Kazakhstan there are about 54,000 followers of the ancient traditions.
Muslim Turks and non-Muslim Turks
The Uyghur Turks, who once belonged to a variety of religions, were gradually Islamized during a period spanning the 10th and 13th centuries. Some scholars have linked the phenomenon of recently Islamized Uyghur soldiers recruited by the Mongol Empire to the slow conversion of Uyghur populations to Islam.
The non-Muslim Turks' worship of Tengri and other gods was mocked and insulted by the Muslim Turk Mahmud al-Kashgari, who wrote a verse referring to them – The Infidels – May God destroy them!The Basmil, Yabāḳu and Uyghur states were among the Turkic peoples who fought against the Kara-Khanids spread of Islam. The Islamic Kara-Khanids were made out of Tukhsi, Yaghma, Çiğil and Karluk.
Kashgari claimed that the Prophet assisted in a miraculous event where 700,000 Yabāqu infidels were defeated by 40,000 Muslims led by Arslān Tegīn claiming that fires shot sparks from gates located on a green mountain towards the Yabāqu. The Yabaqu were a Turkic people.
Mahmud al-Kashgari insulted the Uyghur Buddhists as "Uighur dogs" and called them "Tats", which referred to the "Uighur infidels" according to the Tuxsi and Taghma, while other Turks called Persians "tat". While Kashgari displayed a different attitude towards the Turks diviners beliefs and "national customs", he expressed towards Buddhism a hatred in his Diwan where he wrote the verse cycle on the war against Uighur Buddhists. Buddhist origin words like toyin (a cleric or priest) and Burxān or Furxan (meaning Buddha, acquiring the generic meaning of "idol" in the Turkic language of Kashgari) had negative connotations to Muslim Turks.
Old sports
Tepuk
Mahmud al-Kashgari in his Dīwān Lughāt al-Turk, described a game called "tepuk" among Turks in Central Asia. In the game, people try to attack each other's castle by kicking a ball made of sheep leather. (see also: Cuju)
Kyz kuu
Kyz kuu (chase the girl) has been played by Turkic people at festivals since time immemorial.
Jereed
Horses have been essential and even sacred animals for Turks living as nomadic tribes in the Central Asian steppes. Turks were born, grew up, lived, fought and died on horseback. Jereed became the most important sporting and ceremonial game of Turkish people.
Kokpar
The kokpar began with the nomadic Turkic peoples who have come from farther north and east spreading westward from China and Mongolia between the 10th and 15th centuries.
Jigit
"jigit" is used in the Caucasus and Central Asia to describe a skillful and brave equestrian, or a brave person in general.
Gallery
Battle, hunting and blacksmithing scenes in Turkic rock art of the early Middle Ages in Altai
Bezeklik caves and Mogao grottoes
Images of Buddhist and Manichean Old Uyghurs from the Bezeklik caves and Mogao grottoes.
Medieval times
Modern times
See also
Turkic history
Turkic migration
Turkic mythology
Turco-Persian tradition
Turco-Mongol tradition
Turkology
References
Sources
Text was copied from this source, which is available under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 International License.
Further reading
Amanjolov A.S., "History of the Ancient Turkic Script", Almaty, "Mektep", 2003,
Baichorov S.Ya., "Ancient Turkic runic monuments of the Europe", Stavropol, 1989 (in Russian).
Baskakov, N.A. 1962, 1969. Introduction to the study of the Turkic languages. Moscow (in Russian).
Beckwith, Christopher I. (2009): Empires of the Silk Road: A History of Central Eurasia from the Bronze Age to the Present. Princeton: Princeton University Press. .
Boeschoten, Hendrik & Lars Johanson. 2006. Turkic languages in contact. Turcologica, Bd. 61. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz. .
Chavannes, Édouard (1900): Documents sur les Tou-kiue (Turcs) occidentaux. Paris, Librairie d'Amérique et d'Orient. Reprint: Taipei. Cheng Wen Publishing Co. 1969.
Clausen, Gerard. 1972. An etymological dictionary of pre-thirteenth-century Turkish. Oxford: Oxford University Press.
Deny, Jean et al. 1959–1964. Philologiae Turcicae Fundamenta. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Findley, Carter Vaughn. 2005. The Turks in World History. Oxford University Press. ; (pbk.)
Golden, Peter B. An introduction to the history of the Turkic peoples: Ethnogenesis and state-formation in medieval and early modern Eurasia and the Middle East (Otto Harrassowitz (Wiesbaden) 1992)
Heywood, Colin. The Turks (The Peoples of Europe) (Blackwell 2005), .
Hostler, Charles Warren. The Turks of Central Asia (Greenwood Press, November 1993), .
Ishjatms N., "Nomads In Eastern Central Asia", in the "History of civilizations of Central Asia", Volume 2, UNESCO Publishing, 1996, .
Johanson, Lars & Éva Agnes Csató (ed.). 1998. The Turkic languages. London: Routledge. .
Johanson, Lars. 1998. "The history of Turkic." In: Johanson & Csató, pp. 81–125. Classification of Turkic languages
Johanson, Lars. 1998. "Turkic languages." In: Encyclopædia Britannica. CD 98. Encyclopædia Britannica Online, 5 September. 2007. Turkic languages: Linguistic history.
Karatay, Osman. The Genesis of the Turks: An Ethno-Linguistic Inquiry into the Prehistory of Central Eurasia. United Kingdom, Cambridge Scholars Publishing., 2022.
Kyzlasov I.L., "Runic Scripts of Eurasian Steppes", Moscow, Eastern Literature, 1994, .
Lebedynsky, Iaroslav. (2006). Les Saces: Les « Scythes » d'Asie, VIIIe siècle apr. J.-C. Editions Errance, Paris. .
Malov S.E., "Monuments of the ancient Turkic inscriptions. Texts and research", M.-L., 1951 (in Russian).
Mukhamadiev A., "Turanian Writing", in "Problems Of Lingo-Ethno-History Of The Tatar People", Kazan, 1995 (Азгар Мухамадиев, "Туранская Письменность", "Проблемы лингвоэтноистории татарского народа", Казань, 1995) (in Russian).
Menges, K. H. 1968. The Turkic languages and peoples: An introduction to Turkic studies. Wiesbaden: Harrassowitz.
Öztopçu, Kurtuluş. 1996. Dictionary of the Turkic languages: English, Azerbaijani, Kazakh, Kyrgyz, Tatar, Turkish, Turkmen, Uighur, Uzbek. London: Routledge.
Alpamysh, H.B. Paksoy: Central Asian Identity under Russian Rule (Hartford: AACAR, 1989)
Samoilovich, A. N. 1922. Some additions to the classification of the Turkish languages. Petrograd.
Schönig, Claus. 1997–1998. "A new attempt to classify the Turkic languages I-III." Turkic Languages 1:1.117–133, 1:2.262–277, 2:1.130–151.
Vasiliev D.D. Graphical fund of Turkic runiform writing monuments in Asian areal. М., 198 (in Russian).
Vasiliev D.D. Corpus of Turkic runiform monuments in the basin of Enisei. М., 1983 (in Russian).
Voegelin, C.F. & F.M. Voegelin. 1977. Classification and index of the World's languages''. New York: Elsevier.
External links
Turkish Studies – Turkic republics, regions, and peoples at University of Michigan
Ethnic groups in China
Central Asian people
Nomadic groups in Eurasia |
On 14 January 2023 at about 3:30p.m., a Russian Kh-22 missile struck a nine-story residential building in Dnipro, Ukraine, on , 118, Sobornyi District in the right-bank part of the city, destroying one entrance and 236 apartments. On 19 January the official casualty rate was stated as 46 people killed (including 6 children) and 80 injured (12 in critical condition) and 11 people reported missing. 14 children were reported injured, and 39 inhabitants were rescued. The destruction left about 400 people homeless. The strike was part of months-long campaign of Russian strikes on Ukrainian civilians and civilian infrastructure that also had hit Dnipro.
This strike became the most destructive Russian attack on a residential building in Ukraine in the last six months. A three-day period of mourning was declared in Dnipro.
Timeline
A local air alert began at 2:00 p.m. Ukrainian Air Defence Forces claimed it shot down 6 of 8 missiles over Dnipropetrovsk Oblast. An explosion was heard at approximately 3:41 p.m., when a Kh-22 missile hit a multi-storey building at , 118, Sobornyi District, Dnipro. At the moment, Ukraine does not have air defense systems to intercept such Kh-22 missiles. From the start of the February 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine (already) 210 rockets of this type had been fired on Ukraine with none being shot down by air defenses.
Initially it was reported that the attack had killed 20 people (including a 15-year-old girl) and injured 73 (including 14 children; the youngest three years old; a 9-year-old girl was reported to be in serious condition). Nothing was known about the fate of another 26 people. A 23-year old woman, who was in a state of shock in the bathroom on the seventh floor, survived the attack but lost her parents.
On 15 January the State Emergency Service of Ukraine reported that 23 people had been killed by a Russian missile strike on the building. By 1:15p.m. (the next day) 43 reports of missing persons had been received, 72 people sustained injuries, including 13 children, and 39 were rescued. In the afternoon of 15 January Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy on Telegram expressed his condolences to the families of 25 people who were killed in the attack. In the morning of 16 January Governor of Dnipropetrovsk Oblast Valentyn Reznichenko updated the death toll to 35 people, including two children. 39 people had been rescued and 75 wounded, 14 of these being children. 35 residents of the building continued to be missing. The destruction of the building left about 400 people homeless. 236 apartments were destroyed. The search and rescue operation was called off on Tuesday 17, when the death toll stood at 44 including five children. 79 people had been injured and 39 rescued.
Among the victims was Mykhailo Korenovsky the head coach of Ukraine's national boxing team from Dnipropetrovsk Oblast.
Weapon
The missile that struck the building was a Kh-22 anti-ship missile, the same type used in an attack on a shopping center in Kremenchuk on 27 June 2022. Ukrainian Air Force Commander, Lieutenant General Mykola Oleschuk, said that the Ukrainian army at the time of the incident had no weapons to shoot down such missiles, and that during the year of full-scale war, out of 210 Kh-22 missiles launched in Ukraine, not a single one was shot down. Oleshchuk called earlier reports about the downing of such missiles unreliable and erroneous.
Russia launched five Kh-22 missiles across Ukraine on 14 January.
Investigation
On 15 January 2023, the office of the Prosecutor General of Ukraine states that the attack could only have been carried out by the 52nd Guards Aviation Regiment based in Shaikivka. The same day, a list of military personnel directly involved in the missile launch was published on the Molfar Global website (OSINT community) in which 44 out of 52 people from the 52nd Guards Aviation Regiment were named. This was the same regiment that struck the Amstor shopping centre in Kremenchuk on June 27, 2022.
On 16 January 2023, the Security Service of Ukraine (SBU) confirmed the participation of the military of the 52nd Aviation Regiment of the Russian Federation in the missile attack. It singled out six Russian soldiers in particular.
Reactions
Ukrainian President Volodymyr Zelenskyy said the Russian attack targeted civilian apartment blocks and as result was a war crime. In his daily evening appeal of 15 January President Zelenskyy addressed the Russian citizens who had not spoken out against Russia's military invasion of Ukraine in Russian stating: "Your cowardly silence, an attempt to ride out what is happening, will end with these same terrorists coming for you one day."
Former Ukrainian presidential adviser Oleksii Arestovych initially stated that Ukrainian air defences had shot down the Russian missile, causing it to fall and detonate on the building. However, he later retracted his statement and apologized following widespread criticism of his remarks within Ukraine, and resigned from his position as well.
The United Nations called the images coming out from the aftermath of the attack "horrifying".
The French Ministry of Foreign Affairs called the attack a war crime and noted that it indicates Russia's intention to escalate the war.
President of Lithuania Gitanas Nausėda stated that Russia would definitely bear responsibility for attacks on peaceful cities. On January 14 a three-day mourning was declared in Dnipro.
Vladimir Putin's press secretary Dmitry Peskov stated that Russian forces never attack residential buildings and that the residential building had probably collapsed because of a Ukrainian air defense counterattack. The Russian Ministry of Defence meanwhile confirmed their responsibility for other missile strikes in Dnipro.
Dnipro mayor Borys Filatov said that the Russians might have intended to target a nearby thermal power station.
Memorials
An impromptu memorial to the victims of the attack appeared in Moscow as people brought flowers to the statue of Lesya Ukrainka. The police detained some of them.
A memorial square is planned to be created as a part of the site of the destroyed building , 118. It is planned that the "Monument to those killed by bombs" will become its central element. This monument is a copy of a sculpture by Vadim Sidur of a figure of a man pierced by a bomb. This sculpture is on display outside the in Würzburg, Germany.
See also
Zaporizhzhia residential building airstrike
References
External links
January 2023 events in Ukraine
Airstrikes during the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Attacks on buildings and structures in Ukraine
History of Dnipro
War crimes during the Russian invasion of Ukraine
Airstrikes conducted by Russia |
Francesco Zagatti (18 April 1932 – 7 March 2009) was an Italian professional footballer who played as a defender. He usually played as an attacking full-back on either flank, and was known to be a generous, tenacious, and hard-working player, with an ability to make runs down the flank and get on the end of his teammates' passes.
Playing career
Zagatti started his career at A.C. Milan. He played in their youth team, before making his senior debut in a Serie A game against S.S. Lazio, on 1 June 1952. He went on to spend his whole career with the Rossoneri, later captaining the squad, and winning four Scudetti, one European Cup and one Latin Cup.
After retirement
After his retirement, Zagatti stayed at Milan as the coach of the youth team and later as a scout. During the 1981–82 season, he also served as head coach for a couple of games.
Death
Zagatti died on 7 March 2009, aged 76, due to a serious form of Hepatitis.
Honours
A.C. Milan
Serie A: 1954–55, 1956–57, 1958–59, 1961–62
European Cup: 1962–63
Latin Cup: 1956
Individual
A.C. Milan Hall of Fame
References
External links
Profile at MagliaRossonera.it
1932 births
2009 deaths
Italian men's footballers
Men's association football defenders
Serie A players
AC Milan players
AC Milan non-playing staff
People from Venaria Reale
Footballers from Piedmont |
Dinah Watts Pace (1853–1933) was an American educator who founded black schools in Covington, Georgia and later founded the Covington Colored Children's Orphanage, which she ran for over forty years. Raised as a slave, she received her diploma in education from Atlanta University and gained a nationwide reputation for her charitable work with orphans.
Early life
Dinah Watts Pace was born as a slave on January 9, 1853, near Athens, Clarke County, Georgia to Emily and Sterling Watts, as the property of the Alexander family. By the time she was eight years old, Mrs. Alexander headed the household and was running a boarding house with around twelve 12 slaves. Watts and her siblings tried their best to learn as they were able. When the Civil War ended, Watts located to Atlanta, and lived in the Summerhill neighborhood, which at the time was the center of black society. While still a child, she was one of the founders of the Sunday school for the Pleasant Grove Baptist Church, which would later become the Reed Street Baptist Church and currently is known as the Paradise Missionary Baptist Church. After five years of attending Sunday schools, Watts entered Atlanta University and graduated in 1883.
Career
After graduating from university, in 1883, Watts went to Covington, Georgia for what was to be a short few months of teaching. Recognizing the need for education in that part of the state, she founded a school and began teaching. In 1884, she took in two young orphans and soon other abandoned children followed. That same year, she met a widower, James Pace, a local blacksmith and coffin maker. After his assurance that he would allow her to continue with her work, the two were married. In 1886, Pace resigned her teaching post to devote her time to raising funds for her orphans. She traveled the state trying to secure funds. In 1890, she incorporated the Covington Colored Orphans Home with the goal of providing care, education and training for orphans or abandoned children who had no one to care for them. Perhaps her most steadfast benefactor was her brother, Lewis Watts, a Pullman porter. He sent her portions of his pay to support her educational endeavors and helped her not only pay rent on the house she lived in, but helped her acquire the lot to build her orphanage on, as well as construct four buildings to house her 100 students. A sorority from Wellesley College took on the orphanage as a project and sent boxes of food and clothing.
Watts spoke widely at events to raise funds for her students, such as participating in events with W.E.B. DuBois and the Conference on Problems of Negro City Life held at Atlanta University, among others. Her work was widely covered in the black press nationwide and articles appeared in The Crisis about the orphanage. With $1000 seed money from Sarah M. Reed (Mrs. A. C. Reed) of Manchester Vermont, Pace began constructing the Reed Home and School, a two and a half-story, ten room facility. Eventually, Pace employed three Atlanta University graduates, including her niece Anne Mae Watts, to work at the school. Then in 1916, a benefactor from Boston donated funds to create the Annie Woods Memorial Hall, as a dormitory for boys, though the following year, her girls' dormitory was damaged by fire. Soon after the fire, James Pace died.
Pace continued to operate the school until her death, but struggled as she aged to keep it running without her fundraising. Her niece, Annie Mae Watts took over the school and ran it for two more years after Watts died, but then it was closed. The county later burned the buildings on the property and all that is left there is a green space and cemetery. A plaque at the Washington Street Community Center recognizes the importance of Pace and her school to Newton County history.
Death and legacy
Pace died on January 25, 1933, at the Douglass Infirmary in Atlanta as a result of burns sustained in an accidental fire on January 21, 1933, at her home in Covington. She was buried at South-View Cemetery in Atlanta, after her funeral service was held at the Reed Street Baptist Church, which she had helped establish. She came to be known as the "Mother of the Community" for her work as a social activist and business woman, but perhaps her biggest legacy was the education she provided for the more than 700 students who passed through her school.
References
Citations
Bibliography
1853 births
1933 deaths
19th-century American slaves
People from Athens, Georgia
Atlanta University alumni
American women educators
19th-century African-American educators
19th-century American educators
19th-century African-American women
20th-century African-American women
American educators
Burials at South-View Cemetery
20th-century American people
20th-century African-American educators
20th-century American educators |
The New Hampshire Union Leader is a daily newspaper from Manchester, the largest city in the U.S. state of New Hampshire. On Sundays, it publishes as the New Hampshire Sunday News.
Founded in 1863, the paper was best known for the conservative political opinions of its late publisher, William Loeb, and his wife, Elizabeth Scripps "Nackey" Loeb. The paper helped to derail the candidacy in 1972 of U.S. Senator Edmund Muskie of Maine, who unsuccessfully sought the Democratic presidential nomination. Loeb criticized Muskie's wife, Jane, in editorials. When he defended her in a press conference, there was a measured negative effect on voter perceptions of Muskie within New Hampshire.
Over the decades, the Loebs gained considerable influence and helped shape New Hampshire's political landscape. In 2000, after Nackey's death on January 8, Joseph McQuaid, the son and nephew of the founders of the New Hampshire Sunday News, Bernard J. and Elias McQuaid, took over as publisher. He was succeeded by his son, Brendan, in 2020.
History
Like many newspapers, the Union Leader has a complex history involving mergers and buyouts.
The weekly Union became the Manchester Daily Union on March 31, 1863. The afternoon Union became a morning Daily Union (dropping the "Manchester"). Although the Union began as a Democratic paper, by the early 1910s it had been purchased by Londonderry politician Rosecrans Pillsbury, a Republican.
In October 1912, the competing Manchester Leader was founded by Frank Knox, later Secretary of the Navy during World War II, and financed by then-Governor Robert P. Bass, a member of the Progressive (or Bull Moose) Party who was attempting to promote the Progressive cause in New Hampshire. The newspaper was so successful that Knox bought out the Union, and the two newspapers merged under the banner of the Union-Leader Corporation July 1913. Owing to Pillsbury's role in the company, both papers espoused a moderate Republican, pro-business stance.
Following Knox's death in 1944, William Loeb purchased the company, merging the Union and Leader into a single morning paper, the Manchester Union-Leader, in 1948. Under Loeb's watch, the Union-Leader moved sharply to the right. He often placed editorials on the front page and supported highly conservative candidates for public office. He dropped Manchester from the paper's masthead in the mid-1970s to emphasize the fact that it is the only statewide newspaper in New Hampshire.
On April 4, 2005, it changed its name to the New Hampshire Union Leader to reflect its statewide reach. However, it is still called the Manchester Union Leader by some residents due to its historical legacy.
The New Hampshire Sunday News was created in 1948 and later, after Loeb's attempts to start a Sunday edition of the Union-Leader failed, was purchased by the Union-Leader Corporation. The Union Leader still publishes the Sunday News as its Sunday edition.
Two notable early employees of the New Hampshire Sunday News were Ralph M. Blagden, the first managing editor, and an even more prominent journalist he mentored, Benjamin C. Bradlee. Bradlee was then a reporter but became executive editor of The Washington Post for nearly 30 years and was its vice president until his death in 2014.
Institutional pedigree
(Scroll to view more recent mergers and events which are to the right.)
Contributors
John DiStaso
Tom Fahey
Editorial style
Throughout their existence, the Union Leader and its predecessors have been closely involved in state politics and during the quadrennial United States presidential election, national politics. Ever since the Loebs bought the paper, its orientation has been unyieldingly conservative (though the paper was already a reliable supporter of the GOP long before the Loebs bought it), a tradition that continued after McQuaid took over the paper. The owner-publishers have invariably made their opinions known in print, which has frequently prompted harsh criticism and accusations that the paper is used for not-entirely-journalistic purposes.
The Union Leader endorsed Newt Gingrich in the 2012 New Hampshire Republican presidential primary, Chris Christie in 2016 for the 2016 Republican Party presidential primaries Both times the candidates lost the Primary.
In 2016, the Union Leader endorsed Libertarian candidate Gary Johnson for president—the first time in 100 years that the paper and its predecessors had not endorsed a Republican. In a signed editorial, McQuaid denounced Donald Trump as "a liar, a bully, a buffoon."
In 2020, the Union Leader endorsed Democratic candidate Joe Biden for president, stating, "Building this country up sits squarely within the skill set of Joseph Biden."
Cutbacks
In a message printed in the paper in early 2009, publisher Joseph McQuaid announced that owing to financial difficulties affecting the entire newspaper industry, the Saturday edition of the paper would no longer be distributed outside of the Greater Manchester area and that Saturday content would be moved to a combined Friday/Saturday edition.
In 2015, the paper's flagship building at 100 William Loeb Drive was subdivided into parcels and offered for lease. In 2017, the Union Leader building was sold to investor Peter Levine for $3.8 million after being on the market for about four years. The newspaper leased back space to remain in the building at 100 William Loeb Drive. Three other tenants, two of them charter schools and a distributor, also were occupying space in the building at the time of the sale.
NewHampshire.com
NewHampshire.com is a website created by the New Hampshire Union Leader in 1999 as an information portal for arts and entertainment, community news, recreation and local business information for the state of New Hampshire.
See also
Concord Monitor
Foster's Daily Democrat
The Keene Sentinel
The Portsmouth Herald
The Telegraph (Nashua)
References
Cash, Kevin. Who the Hell Is William Loeb? Manchester, NH: Amoskeag Press, 1975.
Roper, Scott. "Manchester Union-Leader. In Burt Feintuch and David Watters, editors, Encyclopedia of New England. New Haven, CT: Yale University Press, 2005.
Wright, James. The Progressive Yankees: Republican Reformers in New Hampshire, 1906–1916. Hanover, NH: University Press of New England, 1987.
External links
The Union Leader/New Hampshire Sunday News
NewHampshire.com
Neighborhood News, a subsidiary of the Union Leader
Democracy in Action 1999 transcript of interview with Joseph W. McQuaid
NHPR 2007 interview with Joseph W. McQuaid, "25 in 25: Joe McQuaid", by Laura Knoy
NHPR 2001 interview with Joseph W. McQuaid, "Carrying the Torch at the Union Leader", by John Walters
1863 establishments in New Hampshire
Newspapers established in 1863
Conservative media in the United States
Hillsborough County, New Hampshire
Manchester, New Hampshire
Newspapers published in New Hampshire |
"And This Is My Beloved" is a popular song from the 1953 musical Kismet, credited to Robert Wright and George Forrest. Like most other music in the show, this melody was based on music composed by Alexander Borodin, in this case the nocturne from the third movement of Borodin's String Quartet No. 2 in D.
The same melody had earlier (1946) been used for a song credited to William Engvick, Bert Reisfeld and Alec Wilder entitled "Spring Magic," which was recorded by Charlie Spivak and his Orchestra.
Recordings
Alfred Drake, Doretta Morrow, Richard Kiley and Henry Calvin from the album Alfred Drake & the Kismet Original Broadway Cast – Kismet (1954).
Jerry Vale – a single release (1953).
Sammy Davis Jr. – a single release on the Decca label (1954).
Sarah Vaughan – in the album The Divine Sarah (1954).
Howard Keel, Ann Blyth and Vic Damone – from the soundtrack of the 1955 film version of Kismet.
Vic Damone (1955).
Mario Lanza – his version became popular in 1956 and appears on the album Lanza On B'way.
Johnny Mathis – for his album Faithfully (1959).
Sergio Franchi sang this song in 1962 when he was discovered by Norman Luboff singing on Sunday Night at the London Palladium. A favorite guest of Ed Sullivan, Franchi sang it on the February 4, 1968, broadcast by CBS; and recorded on his 1964 RCA Victor album The Exciting Voice of Sergio Franchi.
Robert Goulet – included in his album Always You (1962).
Katherine Jenkins – included in her album Daydream (2011).
References
1953 songs
Songs from musicals
Songs written by Robert Wright (writer)
Songs written by George Forrest (author)
Popular songs based on classical music |
Qorban Ali Ajalli Vaseq (; pen name, Vassegh; born February 8, 1939) is a master calligrapher, painter, poet and educator, noted for founding the "Gol Gasht" style of calligraphy, characterised by a dense and interlocking play of the Arabic script, a distinctive style now regularly used by Arab and Iranian calligraphers in artworks.
Life and career
Ali Adjalli was born in Mianeh, Iran, on February 8, 1939. He was the son of Mohammed Ali, a Turkish calligraphy poet and a former pupil of calligrapher, Professor Seyed Hossein Mirkhani (1907–1982). His mother taught the Q'ran at Ferdowsi Elementary School and High School.
He attended the Ferdowsi Elementary School and Pahlavi Middle High School and graduated from the Iranian Razi High School in Tehran. He received his initial arts education at Tehran’s Lycée Français, following that with a master's degree in Architectural Engineering from Tehran's College of Design in 1960. Returning to his childhood love of painting, Adjalli then studied calligraphy and calligraphic painting under the direction of Professor Ibrahim Bouzari and Professor Ahmad Najafi Zanjani amongst others.
Shortly after completing his studies, Adjalli developed a new style of calligraphy which he called Gol Gasht, characterised by dense, interlocking style of Arabic script intended for use in painting rather than manuscripts. The script has been described as both "mesmerising and chaotic".
Apart from his work as an artist and poet (writing under the pen name of Vassegh), he began a career as an educator in 1974, becoming a university lecturer on fine arts, and then Master of Calligraphy at numerous institutions including the prestigious Calligraphy Academy of Iran.
Work
His paintings are inspired by his interests in scripture, spiritual poetry and Islamic architecture. He primarily uses acrylic on canvas an applies the medium in thick layers, painting and re-painting over each form until he achieves the desired look and feel. He consciously uses colours selected from the Islamic palette. His works combine non-figurative representation and abstraction.
Adjalli has exhibited his works at a number of international institutions and galleries, including solo exhibitions at the Tehran Museum of Contemporary Art and at the Niavaran Palace Institute and group exhibitions in Sydney, Australia (2012); Abu Dhabi (2010); Dubai (2010), Bahrain (2010) and Rome (2016)
The bulk of his Adjalli's work is now held in private collections. However, examples of his work can be found in the permanent collection of the Tehran Gallery.
Select List of Paintings
Autumn's Grace 2004
Sadness Days 2008
Charter Boat 2008
Allah, 2008–09
Love is Many Coloured date unknown
See also
Hurufiyya movement
Iranian art
Islamic art
Islamic calligraphy
List of Iranian artists
List of Persian calligraphers
Persian calligraphy
References
Iranian calligraphers
1939 births
Living people
Iranian art writers
20th-century pseudonymous writers
21st-century pseudonymous writers |
The Iconoclastic Caravans for Free Will (, CIPLA) were an anarchist cell active in the Santiago Metropolitan Region, being known for some attacks in the communes of Las Condes and Vitacura. The group gained attention from the authorities for its members being closely investigated during the investigation of the Bombas Case.
Background
Since the mid-2000s, the Santiago Metropolitan Area suffered several attacks with low-intensity explosives, including banks (approximately a third of the bombs detonated in national and international banks), police stations, Carabineros and army barracks, churches, embassies, the headquarters of political parties, company offices, courts and government buildings. Explosives (commonly made from household materials) included fire extinguishers filled with gunpowder or sometimes with explosives such as ANFO, TNT or TATP. They were transported by a group of two to four people late in the morning, leaving the explosive charge, to detonate minutes later, causing material damage.
The only fatality was a young anarchist, Mauricio Morales, who died on May 22, 2009, by a bomb that detonated prematurely, killing him instantly. Since then, several anarchist cells have claimed his death as the date for the beginning of their attacks.
Attacks
The CIPLA's first attack was on June 28, 2009, when militants abandoned an explosive device at the Bricrim Chilean Investigations Police headquarters in Ñuñoa, an attack that only caused material damage. The following day the group claimed responsibility for the attack, which was linked to the allegations of corruption and alleged actions of police officers in the sexual abuse of minors.
On August 12, 2009, two explosives detonated in Santiago, the first at the Sportlife gym in Las Condes, and the other at the Balthus gym on Monseñor Escrivá de Balaguer avenue in Vitacura, both explosions only causing material damage. Days later the Iconoclastic Caravans for Free Will claimed responsibility for the double attack in a statement where it justified its attacks in those areas (those with the highest Human Development Index in Santiago). Due to the magnitude of damage and the area where the events occurred, this has been the group's most publicized attack. On November 26, 2011, the group released its last statement together with several other cells where they showed solidarity with the arrests and dismantling of some cells belonging to the Conspiracy of Cells of Fire in Greece and how this phenomenon could be replicated in Chile.
References
2009 establishments in Chile
2012 disestablishments in Chile
Anarchist organisations in Chile
Guerrilla movements in Latin America
Defunct anarchist militant groups
Left-wing militant groups in Chile
Rebel groups in Chile |
Düvecik () is a village in the Kozluk District, Batman Province, Turkey. The village is populated by Kurds of the Reşkotan tribe and had a population of 146 in 2021.
References
Villages in Kozluk District
Kurdish settlements in Batman Province |
The M–sigma (or M–σ) relation is an empirical correlation between the stellar velocity dispersion σ of a galaxy bulge and the mass M of the supermassive black hole at its center.
The M–σ relation was first presented in 1999 during a conference at the Institut d'Astrophysique de Paris in France. The proposed form of the relation, which was called the "Faber–Jackson law for black holes", was
where is the solar mass. Publication of the relation in a refereed journal, by two groups, took place the following year.
One of many recent studies, based on the growing sample of published black hole masses in nearby galaxies, gives
Earlier work demonstrated a relationship between galaxy luminosity and black hole mass, which nowadays has a comparable level of scatter. The M–σ relation is generally interpreted as implying some source of mechanical feedback between the growth of supermassive black holes and the growth of galaxy bulges, although the source of this feedback is still uncertain.
Discovery of the M–σ relation was taken by many astronomers to imply that supermassive black holes are fundamental components of galaxies. Prior to about 2000, the main concern had been the simple detection of black holes, while afterward the interest changed to understanding the role of supermassive black holes as a critical component of galaxies. This led to the main uses of the relation to estimate black hole masses in galaxies that are too distant for direct mass measurements to be made, and to assay the overall black hole content of the Universe.
Origin
The tightness of the M–σ relation suggests that some kind of feedback acts to maintain the connection between black hole mass and stellar velocity dispersion, in spite of processes like galaxy mergers and gas accretion that might be expected to increase the scatter over time.
One such mechanism was suggested by Joseph Silk and Martin Rees in 1998. These authors proposed a model in which supermassive black holes first form via collapse of giant
gas clouds before most of the bulge mass has turned into stars. The black holes created in this way would then accrete and radiate, driving a wind which acts back on the accretion flow.
The flow would stall if the rate of deposition of mechanical energy into the infalling gas was large enough to unbind the protogalaxy in one crossing time. The Silk and Rees model predicts
a slope for the M–σ relation of , which is approximately correct. However, the predicted normalization of the relation is too small by about a factor of one thousand. The reason is that there is far more energy released in the formation of a supermassive black hole than is needed to completely unbind the stellar bulge.
A more successful feedback model was first presented by Andrew King at the University of Leicester in 2003. In King's model, feedback occurs through momentum transfer, rather than energy transfer as in the case of Silk & Rees's model. A "momentum-driven flow" is one in which the gas cooling time is so short that essentially all the energy in the flow is in the form of bulk motion. In such a flow, most of the energy released by the black hole is lost to radiation, and only a few percent is left to affect the gas mechanically. King's model predicts a slope of for the M–σ relation, and the normalization is exactly correct; it is roughly a factor times larger than in Silk & Rees's relation.
Importance
Before the M–σ relation was discovered in 2000, a large discrepancy existed between black hole masses derived using three techniques.
Direct, or dynamical, measurements based on the motion of stars or gas near the black hole seemed to give masses that averaged ≈1% of the bulge mass (the "Magorrian relation"). Two other techniques—reverberation mapping in active galactic nuclei, and the Sołtan argument, which computes the cosmological density in black holes needed to explain the quasar light—both gave a mean value of M/Mbulge that was a factor ≈10 smaller than implied by the Magorrian relation. The M–σ relation resolved this discrepancy by showing that most of the direct black hole masses published prior to 2000 were significantly in error, presumably because the data on which they were based were of insufficient quality to resolve the black hole's dynamical sphere of influence. The mean ratio of black hole mass to bulge mass in big early-type galaxies is now believed to be approximately , and increasingly smaller as one moves to less massive galaxies.
A common use of the M–σ relation is to estimate black hole masses in distant galaxies using the easily measured quantity σ. Black hole masses in thousands of galaxies have been estimated in this way. The M–σ relation is also used to calibrate so-called secondary and tertiary mass estimators, which relate the black hole mass to the strength of emission lines from hot gas in the nucleus or to the velocity dispersion of gas in the bulge.
The tightness of the M–σ relation has led to suggestions that every bulge must contain a supermassive black hole. However, the number of galaxies in which the effect of the black hole's gravity on the motion of stars or gas is unambiguously seen is still quite small. It is unclear whether the lack of black hole detections in many galaxies implies that these galaxies do not contain black holes; or that their masses are significantly below the value implied by the M–σ relation; or that the data are simply too poor to reveal the presence of the black hole.
The smallest supermassive black hole with a well-determined mass has . The existence of black holes in the mass range ("intermediate-mass black holes") is predicted by the M–σ relation in low-mass galaxies, and the existence of intermediate-mass black holes has been reasonably well established in a number of galaxies that contain active galactic nuclei, although the values of Mbh in these galaxies are very uncertain.
No clear evidence has been found for ultra-massive black holes with masses above , although this may be an expected consequence of the observed upper limit to σ.
See also
Faber–Jackson relation
Galaxy formation and evolution
Sigma-D relation
References
Astrophysics
Galaxies
Supermassive black holes
Equations of astronomy
Unsolved problems in astronomy |
Walter Robert Hadwen (3 August 1854 – 27 December 1932) was an English general practitioner, pharmaceutical chemist and writer. He was president of the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection (BUAV) and an anti-vaccination campaigner, known for his denial of the germ theory of disease.
Biography
Walter Robert Hadwen was born in Woolwich on 3 August 1854. He began his career as a pharmacist in Clapham then Somerset, then subsequently trained as a doctor at Bristol University. After qualifying, he moved to Gloucester in 1896. Hadwen was recruited as a member of the British Union for the Abolition of Vivisection by its founder and then president Frances Power Cobbe who hired a private investigator to assess his credentials (he was a vegetarian and total abstainer, had a reputation as a "firebrand" orator and was held in "high local esteem"). She subsequently selected him as her successor.
He later became a member of the Plymouth Brethren and married Alice Harral in 1878; they had three children. Hadwen was a frequent speaker for the National Anti-Vaccination League. He was also a member of the London Association for the Prevention of Premature Burial (founded in 1896). Hadwen stated that the "modern germ theory is all bosh".
Hadwen was active in general practice until he died from a severe heart attack in 1932, age 78. In his honour the Dr Hadwen Trust was founded in 1970 to fund exclusive non-animal techniques to replace animal experiments.
Vegetarianism
Hadwen became a vegetarian in his early twenties when taking a bet from a fellow student that he could live six months without eating meat. His bet was successful and he stated that "For my part I am quite satisfied with my trial of vegetarianism, and it would take more than mortal power to persuade me once again to make my stomach a graveyard for the purpose of burying dead bodies in."
Manslaughter trial
In 1924, having applied his rejection of the germ theory of disease, and his refusal to use diphtheria anti-serum produced by inoculation of animals to the treatment of Nellie Burnham, a young girl, she died and he was tried for manslaughter by criminal medical negligence. He was acquitted of all charges.
Selected publications
Is Flesh-Eating Harmful?, 1895
The Case Against Vaccination, 1896
Smallpox at Gloucester: A Reply to Dr. Coupland’s Report, 1902. Reprinted from "The Reformer," National Anti-Vaccination League: Gloucester.
Vivisection: Its Follies and Cruelties, 1905
A Debate on Should Vivisection be Abolished?, 1907
A Correspondence in "The Daily mail" Between Sir Victor Horsley and Walter R. Hadwen, on Vivisection (1908)
A Debate on Is Vivisection Immoral, Cruel, Useless and Unscientific? (1908)
Dr. Walter Robert Hadwen's Works, 1908
A Vivisection Controversy, 1911
Experiments on Living Animals, Useless and Cruel, 1914
The Difficulties of Dr. Deguerre, 1926
See also
Vaccine hesitancy
References
Further reading
Who Was Dr Hadwen Biography at Dr Hadwen Trust.
Walter Hadwen Biography by Walter Hawkins.
Bodily Matters: The Anti-Vaccination Movement in England, 1853-1907, Nadja Durbach, 2005, Duke University Press,
Hadwen of Gloucester: Man, Medico, Martyr, by Beatrice E. Kidd and M. Edith Richards, 1933, John Murray, London.
Obituary, The Times, Saturday, 25 February 1933 John Murray, London, 1933.
1854 births
1932 deaths
19th-century English male writers
20th-century English male writers
19th-century English medical doctors
20th-century English medical doctors
19th-century evangelicals
20th-century evangelicals
Alumni of the University of Bristol
Anti-vivisectionists
British anti-vaccination activists
British Plymouth Brethren
British vegetarianism activists
English male non-fiction writers
English medical writers
Germ theory denialists
People acquitted of manslaughter
People from Woolwich
Public orators |
This list of presidents of the Human Genetics Society of Australasia (HGSA) includes all presidents since the society's creation in 1977.
Presidents
References
Genetics societies
Human Genetics Society of Australasia
Lists of presidents of organizations
Organizations established in 1977 |
In the car industry, underglow or ground effects lighting refers to neon or LED aftermarket car customization in which lights are attached to the underside of the chassis so that they illuminate the ground underneath the car. Underglow has become popular in car shows to add aesthetic appeal to the cars. Some US states prohibit underglow on public roads, while other countries restrict their use.
Andrew Wilson, who holds 14 patents on ground effects lighting and other products, invented it in 1987. He changed his name from "Andrew" to "They" in 2004.
Types of underglow
Neon
Neon tubes are used for the underglow. Though neon gas only produces the color red, adding other elemental gases can produce up to 150 colors. Because neon tubes are gas compressed, they tend to break often while going over speed bumps. With the neon tubes, people are more able to adjust them to follow specific rhythms like music.
LED
LEDs are light-emitting diodes which can be arranged in clusters. LEDs generally last longer than neon tubes, while LED strips are also considerably less fragile. They have multi-color capabilities and can have strobe effects.
There are 3 major styles of underglow LED lights: pod style led lights, LED strips and flexible LED tubes. LED pods consist of a rigid housing containing several LED lights as well as a lens. LED strips are easy to install almost everywhere, including engine bays or air intake scoops. LED tubes produce steady light that resembles classic neon glow.
Recent LED developments have led to underglow that can respond to music, draw patterns and act as courtesy lights or brake lights. Sometimes this is done via Bluetooth and a smart phone or an RF remote.
Legality
United States
In the United States of America, certain underglow lights are illegal however this is largely based on individual states and varies state to state. Particularly the colors blue and red, as well as any kind of flashing light effects, are banned from public streets in some states as they can distract drivers or be confused with police cars. Almost all the states prohibit the colors green, red and blue because these are used for emergency purposes only. However, the laws governing the underglow of a car depend on the state. States where there is a lot of traffic and have a lot of cities have stricter regulations due to the high risk of crashes.
Ground effects lighting is illegal in the state of Michigan, Massachusetts and Maine. In California, underglow lights are allowed to be used in places other than public roads and there could be a penalty if found using them in public roads. Underglow is legal in Ohio. In Vermont, there is a penalty if underglow is turned on while driving. In Alaska, underglow lights are allowed as long as the color is white, yellow, or amber. In Florida, underglow use is not illegal, although several restrictions apply.
Canada
Underglow or ground effects lightings are illegal in the province of Alberta, Canada. The use of these lightings are prohibited under section 4 subsection (4) of Alberta's Vehicle Equipment Regulation.
In British Columbia, Canada. Underglow is considered to be "off road" lights and must be covered with an opaque cover anytime the vehicle is on a highway, parked or being driven on public roads.
Europe
Underglow is allowed in the UK, but color and positioning restrictions apply.
References
Automotive accessories |
The Nishnabotna River Bridge is located southwest of Manilla, Iowa, United States. It carries traffic on 310th Street over the Nishnabotna River. Steel was in short supply during World War II as a part of the war effort. Many bridges built across the state were built in this era with timber, especially small-scale bridges. Heavy flooding washed out 27 bridges and culverts in Crawford County in May 1945. The county board of supervisors used emergency funds to build new bridges. They bought several steel superstructures from the Des Moines Steel Company to replace the wash-out spans. The bowstring arch-truss structures appear to have been designed by H. Gene McKeown, a civil engineer from Council Bluffs. This bridge is one several similar structures built in the county, and one of five that still remain. The bridge was listed on the National Register of Historic Places in 1999.
See also
List of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in Iowa
References
External links
Bridges completed in 1945
Bridges in Crawford County, Iowa
Truss bridges in Iowa
Road bridges on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa
Historic American Engineering Record in Iowa
National Register of Historic Places in Crawford County, Iowa
Steel bridges in the United States
Bowstring truss bridges in the United States |
Thein Kyu (; born 25 February 1944) is a Myanmar dental professor. Thein Kyu was born in Yangon, Myanmar on 25 February 1944. He served as the rector in University of Dental Medicine, Mandalay from 2010 to 2012 and in University of Dental Medicine, Yangon from 2012 to 2014; he is the president of the Myanmar Dental Association (MDA) from 2016 to present.
Early life and education
Thein Kyu was born in Yangon, Myanmar. In 2015, he received an Honorary Doctorate from Tokyo Medical and Dental University.
See also
Myanmar Dental Council
References
Burmese dental professors
1944 births
Living people
People from Yangon |
"Original of the Species" is a song by rock band U2 and the tenth track from their 2004 album, How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb.
Promotion
A live video clip of this song from the DVD Vertigo 2005: Live From Chicago is featured in a television commercial promoting the video capable Apple iPod. During that performance, Bono dedicates it to his two daughters. The image of Bono singing this song from the live recording in Chicago was used as the icon Apple used for the artist tab in the music app on their devices until 2015. Bono has also said he believes this to be the best song on How to Dismantle an Atomic Bomb. In concerts in December 2005, Bono has said the song is one of many influenced by John Lennon's music. The music video for the single utilised animated computer-generated imagery by Spontaneous, something unprecedented for U2 videos.
Live performances
In concert form during the Vertigo Tour, the song was played with the Edge on piano, often accompanied by Bono on acoustic guitar. On rare occasions, it was played with the Edge on electric guitar, in a performance which was accompanied by a pianist and full orchestra, much similar to the performance of the album, and one of those performances was at their show in Milan, Italy in July 2005, which appeared on the Vertigo 05: Live from Milan bonus DVD for U2's 2006 compilation U218 Singles.
Reception
The song was added to the playlists of thirteen alternative rock radio stations in the US. However, it failed to break the top 40, thus not charting on the Modern Rock Tracks chart. Instead it hovered around #60, rising to #55 in mid-January. However, it never gained enough airplay to enter the chart. It was slated for a UK release and was playlisted by Xfm London, Virgin Radio, and made the B-List of BBC Radio 2.
Track listing
The U.S. promo was released in late 2005, while the U.K. promo was released in early 2006.
Charts
Release history
References
External links
U2 songs
2004 songs
Rock ballads
Song recordings produced by Jacknife Lee
Songs written by Bono
Songs written by the Edge
Songs written by Adam Clayton
Songs written by Larry Mullen Jr.
Song recordings produced by Steve Lillywhite |
P.T.B. is the second studio album from the group Kingspade. P.T.B. stands for P-Town Ballers. The album debuted at No. 7 on the Billboard Top Independent chart.
Track listing
Intro
Who Run This?
Takin It Back
Neighborhood Trends
That's The Sh*t
We Ridin'
Lookin Up
Havin Fun
Bring The Crowd
Brotha Brotha
Check Yo Bitch
Follow The Leader
That's How It Goes
Dreams
Inked Up
Singles
"Who Run This?"
"We Ridin"
"That's How It Goes"
2007 albums
Kingspade albums
Suburban Noize Records albums |
Pierre Zimmermann (born May 26, 1955) is a Swiss-born real estate developer and champion bridge player formerly resident in Monaco.
As a developer, Zimmermann is founder and CEO of Zimmermann Immobilier, a real estate company in Geneva. As a
bridge player, he is a quadruple world champion and playing captain formerly of the Monegasque team, and now of the Swiss team. He is also a tournament organizer, notably the biennial Monaco Cavendish since 2012 and the European championships by team from 2016 onwards on even years.
Biography
Pierre Zimmermann was born in Lausanne, Switzerland on 26 May 1955. He studied mathematics at the École Polytechnique Fédérale de Lausanne from 1973 to 1978 and, at the same time, business administration at HEC Lausanne from 1975 to 1979.
He has five children, including blogger, Tiffany Lea and Yann he had with ex-wife, artist Christine Zimmermann.
Professional career
In 1979, Pierre Zimmermann joined IBM in Zurich where he worked for five years. He then worked for Hill+Knowlton Strategies as an assistant corporate controller for Europe until 1985. From 1986 to 1988, he worked for Finagrain as a financial analyst, and then joined BBHQ (a venture capital firm) in 1988 again as a financial analyst.
In 1990, Pierre Zimmermann left BBHQ to create the Régie Zimmermann (today known as Zimmermann Immobilier), a real estate company in Geneva. In 2006, he opened a subsidiary in Lausanne. In 2013 Zimmermann Immobilier reached 100 million Swiss francs in gross rental income.
Bridge career
Pierre Zimmermann started playing bridge occasionally in 1975 during his studies, but only started to play seriously in 1998. He obtained his first World Champion's title in 2007 in Shanghai his second in 2009 in São Paulo. and his third one in Chennai.
For several years, Zimmermann partnered with the professional player Franck Multon. Together they formed teams with top professional pairs, most recently Geir Helgemo–Tor Helness of Norway and Fulvio Fantoni–Claudio Nunes of Italy. In 2010 these six players all moved to Monaco in order to establish residency and thus obtain eligibility to compete as a national team in international . They have represented Monaco in European Bridge League (EBL) and world championship tournaments and finished second in the Bermuda Bowl in Bali in 2013. Following controversies over cheating, the Zimmermann team withdrew just prior to competing in the 2015 Bermuda Bowl and after hearings by the EBL, and the CAS judgment Fantoni and Nunes were acquitted because the proofs were inconsistent.
Bridge accomplishments
Gold medals
46th World Team Championship, Marrakech, 2023
World Transnational Open Teams Championship 2007, 2009, 2015
North American Bridge Championships
Vanderbilt 2010
Reisinger 2012, 2013
Spingold 2011, 2012, 2018
European Bridge League
European Open Championships, mixed teams, 2011 Poznan
European Team Championships, open, 2012 Dublin
SportAccord, open, 2013 Beijing
Bermuda Bowl 2022
South American Bridge Festival, Buenos Aires, 2023
Other medals
Bermuda Bowl 2013 (2nd)
North American Bridge Championships
Vanderbilt 2014 (2nd)
Reisinger 2011 (2nd)
Spingold 2014 (2nd), 2015 (2nd), 2016 (2nd), 2019 (2nd)
European Bridge League
European Team Championships, open, 2014 Opatija (2nd)
European Team Championships, open, 2022 Funchal, Madeira (2nd)
World Bridge Championships
Rosenblum Cup 2010 Philadelphia (3rd), 2014 Sanya (2nd)
World Mind Sports Games, 2012 Lilles (3rd)
References
External links
Monegasque contract bridge players
Swiss contract bridge players
Bermuda Bowl players
Swiss emigrants to Monaco
Swiss expatriates in Monaco
Living people
1955 births
People from Lausanne |
Ad Dur is a village in Makkah Province, in western Saudi Arabia.
See also
List of cities and towns in Saudi Arabia
Regions of Saudi Arabia
References
Populated places in Mecca Province |
An esplanade or promenade is a long, open, level area, usually next to a river or large body of water, where people may walk. The historical definition of esplanade was a large, open, level area outside fortress or city walls to provide clear fields of fire for the fortress's guns. In modern usage, the space allows the area to be paved as a pedestrian walk; esplanades are often on sea fronts and allow walking whatever the state of the tide, without having to walk on the beach.
History
In the 19th century, the razing of city fortifications and the relocation of port facilities made it possible in many cities to create promenade paths on the former fortresses and ramparts. The parts of the former fortifications, such as hills, viewpoints, ditches, waterways and lakes have now been included in these promenades, making them popular excursion destinations as well as the location of cultural institutions. The rapid development of artificial street lighting in the 19th century also enabled safe use in the evening. One example of this is Vienna's Ringstrasse.
Esplanades became popular in Victorian times, when it was fashionable to visit seaside resorts. A promenade, often abbreviated to '(the) prom', was an area where people – couples and families especially – would go to walk for a while in order to 'be seen' and be considered part of 'society'. Beach promenades such as the Promenade de la Croisette in Cannes, the famous Promenade des Anglais on the Mediterranean coast in Nice or the Lungomare of Barcola in Trieste still play a central role in city life and in the real estate market.
In the United States, esplanade has another meaning, being also a median (strip of raised land) or berm dividing a roadway or boulevard. Sometimes they are just strips of grass, or some may have gardens and trees. Some roadway esplanades may be used as parks with a walking/jogging trail and benches.
Esplanade and promenade are sometimes used interchangeably. The derivation of "promenade" indicates a place specifically intended for walking, though many modern promenades and esplanades also allow bicycles and other nonmotorized transport. Some esplanades also include large boulevards or avenues where cars are permitted.
A similar term with the same meaning in the eastern coastal region of Spain is alameda Alameda de Hercules, Seville, o rambla, such as La Rambla in Barcelona, but more widely used terms in the rest of the Hispanic world are ("esplanade"), ("promenade") or ("esplanade").
Examples
Asia
India
Esplanade, also known as the Central Business District in Kolkata
Kamarajar Salai, Chennai in Chennai
Marine Drive, Kochi in Kochi
Marine Drive in Mumbai
Bandstand Promenade in Mumbai
Promenade Beach in Pondicherry
Malaysia
Esplanade, George Town, Penang
Gurney Drive, George Town, Penang
Karpal Singh Drive, George Town, Penang
Philippines
Baywalk, Manila
Dipolog Boulevard, Dipolog
Iloilo River Esplanade, Iloilo City
Paseo del Mar, Zamboanga City
United Arab Emirates
Al Seef
Corniche (Abu Dhabi)
Deira Corniche
Fujairah Corniche
Others
Tsim Sha Tsui East, Victoria Harbour in Hong Kong
West Kowloon Waterfront Promenade , West Kowloon Cultural District in Hong Kong
Tel Aviv Promenade, Tel Aviv, Israel
Corniche Beirut, Beirut, Lebanon
The Esplanade, Singapore
Galle Face Green, Colombo, Sri Lanka
Doha Corniche, Doha, Qatar
The Bund, Shanghai, China
Jehangir Kothari Parade, Pakistan
Jeddah Corniche, Saudi Arabia
Americas and Caribbean
United States
The Charles River Esplanade, Boston, Massachusetts
The Eastern Promenade, Portland, Maine
The Esplanade, Redondo Beach, California
Third Street Promenade, Santa Monica, Los Angeles County, California
Eastbank Esplanade, Portland, Oregon
The East River Greenway, New York, New York
Others
Calçadão de Copacabana and Calçadão de Ipanema, Rio de Janeiro, Brazil
Malecón, Puerto Vallarta, Mexico
Malecón, Havana, Cuba
Rambla de Montevideo, Uruguay
Terrasse Dufferin, Quebec City, Canada
Europe
Barcola, Trieste, Italy
Esplanaden, Copenhagen, Denmark
La Promenade des Anglais, in Nice, France
Esplanade de La Defense, France
Paseo Marítimo de Pontevedra, in Pontevedra, Spain
Usedom Beach Promenade, Western Pomerania, Germany (Europe's longest beach promenade)
Świnoujście, by the Baltic Sea, Poland
Trzebież, by the Szczecin Lagoon, Poland
The Esplanade, in Weymouth, England
Esplanadi, in Helsinki, Finland
Valletta Waterfront, in Floriana, Malta
Spianada, in Corfu town, Greece
Others
St Clair Esplanade in Dunedin, New Zealand
The Golden Mile, Durban, South Africa
Sea Point, Cape Town, South Africa
Inland
Esplanade of the European Parliament, in Brussels, Belgium
Ministries Esplanade, in Brasília, Brazil
The Esplanade (Toronto), in Toronto, Canada
Thames Embankment, in London, England
Brühl's Terrace, Dresden, Germany
The Danube Promenade in Budapest, Hungary
Esplanade, in Calcutta, India
Iloilo River Esplanade in Iloilo City, Philippines
Błonia, Kraków, Poland
L'Enfant Plaza in Washington, D.C., United States
Charles River Reservation, in Boston, Massachusetts, United States
The Eastbank Esplanade, in Portland, Oregon, United States
Gallery
See also
Boardwalk
Foreshoreway
Malecón
Oceanway
Processional walkway
Similar areas inland: Boulevard, mall
References
Types of streets
Waterfronts
Greenways |
The Linda McCartney Racing Team was a British professional road bicycle racing team.
History
The team began in 1998 with Linda McCartney Foods, maker of vegetarian food, sponsoring vegetarian riders and staff. The company was started by Sir Paul McCartney's wife, Linda. Team success would promote vegetarianism and Linda McCartney Foods.
The team was to compete in Britain before expanding to international events. It was initially composed of British riders with more experienced riders joining later to improve credentials for the UCI World Cup and the Grand Tours.
It was the first British team to ride the Giro d'Italia but the increase in cost as the team and its commitments grew — Linda McCartney Foods did not continue sponsorship — led the team to disband in 2001 with reported debts of more than US$1m and a dispute with the UCI over riders' wages.
In 2012, a British investigation was launched into the former team, with allegations that the management did not organise doping, but knew several riders used performance-enhancing drugs and turned a blind eye.
Notable riders
Íñigo Cuesta
Matt DeCanio
Pascal Richard
Max Sciandri
Matt Stephens
Bradley Wiggins
Charly Wegelius
David McKenzie
Ciarán Power
References
Further reading
Cycling teams based in the United Kingdom
Defunct cycling teams based in the United Kingdom
Cycling teams established in 1998
Cycling teams disestablished in 2001
Linda McCartney |
The 2012 Delaware gubernatorial election took place on November 6, 2012, to elect the governor of Delaware. Incumbent Democratic Governor Jack Markell won re-election to a second term, defeating Republican challenger Jeff Cragg in a landslide by a margin of over 40 points.
General election
Democrat and Republican candidates were unopposed in their party primaries, which were held on September 11. The Green Party candidate was endorsed by the Green Party of Delaware at their annual meeting on May 11.
Candidates
Jeff Cragg (R), businessman
Jack Markell (D), incumbent Governor
Mark Perri (G)
Predictions
Debates
Complete video of debate, October 17, 2012
Results
See also
2012 Delaware elections
2012 United States gubernatorial elections
2012 Delaware lieutenant gubernatorial election
2012 United States House of Representatives election in Delaware
2012 United States Senate election in Delaware
References
External links
Delaware Office of the Elections Commission
Official campaign websites (Archived)
Jeff Cragg for Governor
Jack Markell for Governor
Gubernatorial
2012
Delaware |
The Battle of Surabaya was fought in May 1677 during the Trunajaya rebellion, in which the Dutch East India Company (known by its Dutch acronym "VOC") defeated the forces of Trunajaya and took Surabaya on behalf of its ally, the Mataram Sultanate.
Background
The Trunajaya rebellion began in 1674 as rebel forces conducted raids against the cities of the Mataram Sultanate. In 1676, a rebel army of 9,000 invaded Java from their base in Madura and shortly after took Surabaya, the principal city of eastern Java. Mataram sent a much larger army to suppress them, but Trunajaya's forces routed this army at the Battle of Gegodog. The rebels continued to win victories and gain territories in the following month, taking most of the northern coast of Java as far west as Cirebon. Facing the imminent collapse of his authority, the Mataram King Amangkurat I sought help from the VOC in Batavia. On 20 January 1677, Admiral Cornelis Speelman, recently named commander of the VOC's forces in Java's north coast, arrived in Jepara to negotiate with Wangsadipara, the Mataram governor of the north coast. They agreed to a contract in February, which was ratified by the king in March.
VOC arrival off Surabaya
Speelman's fleet left Jepara, anchored off Surabaya in early April and tried to start negotiations with Trunajaya. Trunajaya was initially friendly towards the VOC, but he refused to meet Speelman on board a VOC ship. The VOC's impression of Trunajaya declined after he failed to keep an appointment on neutral waters, and after emissaries reported that he was a drunkard. By the end of April, Speelman had decided to attack Surabaya over negotiations.
Battle
Forces and terrain
Speelman had around 1,500 men under his command, including about 400 VOC troops from Jepara; the remainder had sailed with him from Batavia. The force from Batavia included 600 sailors, 310 European soldiers, and four "companies" (each about 50 strong) of Ambonese, Malays, Balinese and Mardijkers.
Surabaya was defended by fortifications, artillery and a "substantial" number of men. The defenders had at least 120 cannons. Trunajaya's forces were technologically on par with those of the VOC, since VOC technical innovations had been quickly adopted in Java. Two rivers, the Kali Mas and Kali Pegirian, flowed through the city into the Madura Strait in the north. Trunajaya established his court in an old royal citadel (around the location of today's East Java Governor's office) and diverted the Kali Mas to form a moat around it. However, during the battle, the moat was dry because of the dry season during the east monsoon. Trunajaya established his main line of defence along the river north of the citadel, building elevated fortifications and palisade barriers, and emplacing two artillery batteries. The more easterly Kali Pegirian flowed through Ampel, a district of Surabaya containing the grave of Sunan Ngampel-Denta, one of the Wali Songo. In contrast to the western sector, this sector (Trunajaya's right flank) was lightly defended; only palisade barriers were built across the river. The distance from the coast to Trunajaya's main defenses, around , mostly consisted of marshy ground covered with scrub, and were underwater at high tide.
Main fighting
VOC forces landed on 4–5 May on Trunajaya's right flank. Trunajaya did not expect an attack on this flank, and consequently it was only lightly defended. VOC took Ampel after little resistance. In the following days, the VOC established its battery in Ampel, simultaneously conducting desultory negotiations with Trunajaya. Trunajaya accused Speelman of being unknightly by attacking his right flank instead of his main position. Both Trunajaya and VOC moved their works forward until their artillery batteries faced each other at pistol-shot distance. Trunajaya dammed the river, the VOC's source of fresh water; afterwards, the VOC troops were limited to brackish water, and diseases soon spread.
At this point, time appeared to be on Trunajaya's side, as further delay would allow him to strengthen his fortifications and reinforcements, while disease would weaken the VOC's forces. Therefore, Speelman decided to attack. On 12–13 May, the VOC delivered a heavy artillery bombardment on Trunajaya's main works, followed by an assault. The attack succeeded after hard fighting, and Trunajaya retreated inland to establish his new capital at Kediri, capital city of the ancient Kediri Kingdom. In the retreat, he left behind sixty-nine iron cannons and thirty-four bronze cannons (twenty of them small ships' cannons, bassen) and only saved twenty bronze pieces.
Follow-up
VOC forces proceeded to clear the rebels from the area surrounding Surabaya. Two VOC detachments—Indonesian companies led by Dutch captains—were sent northwest along the coast, clearing the rebels in the areas surrounding Sidayu, Tuban and the Kendeng mountains with no losses. Speelman also sent envoys, including Indian traders, to Kraeng Galesong at Pasuruan. Galesong was a former ally of Trunajaya who had quarreled with him and remained neutral during the battle in Surabaya. This negotiation failed in early May, and Galesong refused to submit even after Trunajaya's defeat in Surabaya. The VOC also tried to gain the loyalties of the lords of Madura, Trunajaya's home island across the strait from Surabaya. Several Madurese lords submitted to the admiral as the representative of the Mataram king in late May, and Speelman tried to install one of them, Raden Martapati, as a proxy. However, Martapati's authority collapsed in the face of Trunajaya loyalists as soon as his VOC escorts left Madura, and he was forced to flee to Surabaya. Subsequently, Speelman himself sailed to Madura, defeated Trunajaya's allies there, and razed his residence, Maduretna. However, in late June the court of Mataram itself fell to Trunajaya's forces, and the king fled. Upon receiving this news, Speelman decided to sail immediately to defend the strategic point of Jepara and link up with the retreating royal forces.
Aftermath
Speelman planned to follow his victory with a further advance towards the interior of Java, but his campaign was cut short by the news of the Mataram capital's fall, after which he immediately sailed to defend Jepara. Furthermore, Speelman's superiors in the VOC hesitated to continue further involvement in the war. At the time, Batavia itself was facing threats from the Banten Sultanate in West Java, and the VOC post at Malacca was threatened by the Johor Sultanate. On 6 July, the VOC ordered a halt to Speelman's operation: "Not one of our people, great or small, is to go to Mataram".
Historian of Indonesia M. C. Ricklefs argued that the VOC victory in Surabaya probably accelerated the fall of Mataram. The defeated rebel forces retreated inland, driving closer to Mataram's capital and triggering an early attack on the court. Secondly, the alliance between the king and the foreign, Christian VOC strengthened the Islamic character of the rebellion. Amangkurat I's successor, Amangkurat II, later told the VOC that the alliance with the VOC pushed his cousin Pangeran Purbaya towards the rebel side, and Purbaya's forces were among those who later overran the capital.
The Trunajaya rebellion continued until 1680, when it was ultimately defeated by the Mataram-VOC alliance.
References
Footnotes
Bibliography
Trunajaya rebellion
History of Surabaya
Conflicts in 1677
1670s in Indonesia
Battles involving the Dutch East India Company |
1984 is the twenty-third studio album by Joan of Arc released in 2018 on Joyful Noise Recordings. The album was announced on April 4 for release on June 1. It is the second album featuring the JOA line-up that debuted on He's Got The Whole This Land Is Your Land In His Hands, consisting of Tim Kinsella, Theo Katsaounis, Melina Ausikaitis, Bobby Burg, and Jeremy Boyle.
On this album, Tim Kinsella (usually the band's lead vocalist) steps aside as front-man, building the album around Melina Ausikaitis's vocal tracks.
“We were thinking of it as a [late period] Black Flag record, where Melina would sing a song, then the next song was a jam,” said Kinsella, describing the structure and sequencing of the material appearing on the album. The album was produced by lead-singer Tim Kinsella's cousin, long-time collaborator and frequent bandmate Nate Kinsella (aka Birthmark).
In honor of the album's release, Joyful Noise Recordings produced a version of George Orwell's dystopian novel of the same name, 1984, that substituted the names of the Joan of Arc band members for all of the major characters (Winston Smith -> Tim Kinsella, O'Brien -> Bobby Burg, etc.) and set the story in Chicago (instead of London), posting the revision on 1984.com for a limited time.
Track listing
"Tiny Baby" - 4:29
"Vertigo" - 2:59
"Punk Kid" - 5:27
"Maine Guy" - 5:20
"People Pleaser" - 3:13
"Psy-Fi/Fantasy" – 2:38
"Truck" - 5:23
"Vermont Girl" - 4:06
"Forever Jung" - 1:49
References
Joan of Arc (band) albums
2018 albums
Joyful Noise Recordings albums |
Astata bicolor is a species of wasp in the family Crabronidae. It is found in Central America and North America.
References
Crabronidae
Articles created by Qbugbot
Insects described in 1823 |
The River Deerness in County Durham, England is a tributary to the River Browney, which is itself a tributary the River Wear. It rises near Tow Law and descends through the Deerness Valley for a distance of , passing the villages of Waterhouses, Ushaw Moor and Esh Winning. Its confluence with the River Browney is near Langley Moor.
Its tributaries include Stanley Beck, Crow Gill, Cuddy Burn, Hedleyhope Burn, Rowley Burn, Holburn Beck and Red Burn. and its overall catchment area is .
Its name is pre-Celtic and means 'rushing or roaring river'. It may be the oldest place-name in County Durham.
A recent restoration project has improved the water quality and reduced barriers to fish migration along the Deerness.
Route
The River Deerness rises at a spring on the eastern edge of the town of Tow Law, close to the contour. It flows along a well-defined valley for all of its length, heading in a broadly east-north-easterly direction to a point beyond Esh Winning, and then turning broadly east-south-east to reach its junction with the River Browney. The south bank of the river is soon wooded, and there is a small sewage treatment works which discharges into the river after about . After it passes Low West House, set back from the river on the north bank, the south bank becomes wooded and remains so for much of its remaining course. An air shaft and the remains of a drift mine are the first remnants of the industrial history of the valley. East Hedleyhope is a small village on the north bank, and here the woodland spreads briefly to the north bank as well. There are two more sewage treatment works, both on the north bank, while Stanley Wood is located on the south bank, on the northern flanks of Stanley Hill.
Hedleyhill Terrace is located on the north bank, just before the former course of the Deerness Valley Railway approaches from the south and crosses the river. It stays close to the river for most of the rest of its course. The line opened in 1858 to serve the coal mines of the region, but following its closure in 1964, it has become the Deerness Valley Railway Path, part of a network of long distance walkways in the Durham area. The railway bridge was one of two timber trestle viaducts on the branch line, but it was demolished in 1967/68 when the track was lifted, and the path crosses the river on a low level footbridge. Stanley Beck joins the river from the south, having flowed around the south side of Stanley Hill, and then Wolsingham Road crosses the river at the western edge of the village of Waterhouses. There are the remains of several mines in the woods to the south of the river. The large village of Esh Winning is located on the north bank, while two tributaries, Crow Gill and Holburn Beck join from the south. Two footbridges carry the Deerness Valley Railway Path over a loop in the river, and Rowley Burn, which has flowed parallel to the river but further to the north, joins at the eastern end of the village.
The woodland to the south is called Ragpath Wood, and covers on the steep side of the valley. It is a Planted Ancient Woodland Site, but most of the trees were cut down during the Second World War. It was subsequently replanted with broadleaf and conifer trees in 1967, and was bought by the Woodland Trust in 1996. Species growing in the wood include some oak and birch, with larger populations of European larch, Scots pine, Norway spruce, Sitka spruce, sycamore and beech. The Trust are managing the woodland, and gradually removing some of the conifers, to favour native broadleafed trees, with a view to reducing conifers to about one fifth of the population. Some of the restoration work has been funded by the Heritage Lottery Fund, and public access is encouraged by the maintenance of two bridleways and a public footpath through the woods. The course of the Roman road Dere Street passes through the woods to cross the river as it heads northwards to the site of the Roman fort at Lanchester.
A bridge carries a minor road to the village of New Brancepeth, and the former Deerness Valley Railway crosses to the south bank, where the railway bridge has been replaced by a footbridge. There is a weir, and the course stops its northwards progression, to begin heading gradually southwards. The railway crosses back to the north bank near to Station Road, to the south of the village of Ushaw Moor, with the road continuing over the river and the Red Burn tributary. The Edwardian river bridge was closed on 13 April 2016, when it was found to be suffering from structural defects. As a temporary measure, a Bailey bridge was erected above the bridge in May, but was moved to one side in July, to allow repairs to be made. The work involved replacing the steel truss supporting the deck, and diverting utility services which also crossed the river at this point. The new bridge, costing £1.5 million, was opened on 7 August 2018. There is a ford and a number of footbridges on the next section, before it is crossed by the former course of the Brandon to Bishop Auckland Railway. This is another long distance footpath, and the railway bridge has been replaced by a low level footbridge, to maintain the walkway. Finally, the river passes under the East Coast Main Line and the A690 road in quick succession, to meet the River Browney.
History
Prior to the nineteenth century, the Deerness Valley was sparsely populated, with those who lived in the farms and small villages engaged in agriculture. There had been some small scale extraction of coal from the deposits in the valley, but in 1836 the first commercial coal mine opened at Hedleyhope, and by the end of the century, there were at least 20 mines in operation, served by the railway. Records for 1896 show that there were a total of 6,974 men and boys employed as miners in the valley, with 5,186 working underground and 1,788 working on the surface. In addition to seven types of coal, clay and fireclay were extracted, while at Ushaw Moor and New Brancepeth, deposits of witherite and barites were also exploited.
As the mines opened, the population of the valley increased significantly, with workers arriving from Durham, Cumberland, Northumberland and Westmoreland, as well as from other areas of England and Wales. There were also a number of Irish emigrants, fleeing the famines of the 1840s and 1850s. There were no facilities for these workers, and the mine owners built housing, initially of wood, but gradually replaced by brick and stone dwellings. Schools, chapels and shops followed. While villages such as Waterhouses were described in glowing terms at the time, noting the garden plots, Miners Institute, school and Co-operative Store, sanitation was an issue, and there were outbreaks of typhoid and scarlet fever in the 1890s. There was also a long-running strike at Ushaw Moor from 1881 to 1883, with workers being thrown out of their houses which were then boarded up. Most of the mines closed in the 1950s and 1960s, with the last one being at Esh Winning, which closed in 1968. The population decreased as miners moved to other areas, and some of the housing has been demolished and returned to green fields and wooded areas.
One legacy of such piecemeal development of housing is often the lack of adequate provision of sewers and sewage treatment facilities. In 2013, the first of three major pollution incidents occurred, when sewage overflowed from manholes and found its way into the River Deerness. The incidents were also linked to the death of cattle from Black's Disease, which is caused by an organism often found in sewage. Northumbrian Water sought planning permission to build on online storage facility for sewage and storm water in early 2018, on a site at Alum Waters, to the east of New Brancepeth. The project involved building an underground holding tank with two compartments on the line of an existing sewer. Under normal conditions, the sewage flows through a fairly small part of the tank, but when flows increase, the liquid overflows into the rest of the tank, to be stored until flows return to normal. The tank is by with a depth of and a capacity of . Once constructed, the tank was covered with soil to a depth of between , to allow the field to be used for grazing cattle again. The total cost of the project was £2.6 million, which included the enlargement of some of sewer pipes, and the work was carried out by ESH & Stantec and Carlow Concrete.
The river has been used as a source of power in the past, and there are three mills that are known to have been driven by its water. The uppermost was Bricket Tile Works, near Ushaw Moor. It is shown on the Ordnance Survey map of 1861, with a sluice on the river and a clay pit nearby, but by 1895, only the sluice remained. The large weir a little further downstream was built after 1896 and before 1920. The other two mills were near New Brancepeth, and were fed from a weir downstream of the Ushaw Moor to New Brancepeth road. A long leat led to Sleet Burn Mill, which was used for grinding corn, and the tail race continued along the south side of the river to feed Primrose Side Mill, which was a bleaching mill. The tail race from this mill rejoined the river. Documentary evidence shows that Sleet Burn Mill was operational in 1747 Both had disappeared by 1896.
Between 2012 and 2015, a number of projects were carried out to remove barriers to the migration of fish on the river. Much of the funding came from the Environment Agency's Catchment Restoration Fund. At Cornsay, water levels in a stepped culvert were altered, and several pools were created to make it easier for fish to reach the culvert. There were plans to remove the vertical weir at Broadgate, but a gas main crossing the river a little further upstream would have created a new barrier, and so a bypass channel was built instead. At Ushaw Moor, erosion beneath the bridge had been addressed in 1933 by building four concrete steps, with no consideration of their effect on fish migration. A rock ramp was constructed down the steps, with stones and boulders used to create a more natural route for the fish to negotiate the structure. A number of pipe bridges were also removed or altered. In order to monitor the effectiveness of the measures, the movement of key species along the river was monitored by Durham University.
In 2016, Durham University carried out a survey of the migration of brown trout within the river for spawning. 16 fish were fitted with radio transmitters, and their locations were tracked by two remote logging stations on the river, and by manual tracking visits, four times a week, using a large hand-held antenna. Although data about the movement of the fish was collected, the study also revealed that predation by herons is a significant factor, as four of the transmitters were found in heron pellets under a single tree, and another three were found further downstream. Among the pellets there were also passive integrated transponder tags, which had been fitted to fish in 2014 for a different study. In 2017, the Environment Agency released stocks of grayling into the river at Ushaw Moor, part of a larger project which saw some 7,500 of the fish released into rivers in the North East. The fish were reared at Calverton in Nottinghamshire, and the costs of the project were met from the sale of fishing licences.
Water quality
The Environment Agency measure the water quality of the river systems in England. Each is given an overall ecological status, which may be one of five levels: high, good, moderate, poor and bad. There are several components that are used to determine this, including biological status, which looks at the quantity and varieties of invertebrates, angiosperms and fish. Chemical status, which compares the concentrations of various chemicals against known safe concentrations, is rated good or fail.
The water quality of the River Deerness system was as follows in 2019.
The reasons for the quality being less than good included bankside erosion and physical modification of the channel on the upper river, with sewage discharge affecting the lower river sections. The causes for the quality of the Hedleyhope Burn being less than good were not clearly understood in 2019, and needed further investigation. Like many rivers in the UK, the chemical status changed from good to fail in 2019, due to the presence of polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDE) and mercury compounds, neither of which had previously been included in the assessment.
Bibliography
References
External links
Rivers of County Durham |
Brody Tyler Koerner (born October 17, 1993) is an American former professional baseball pitcher. He played in Major League Baseball (MLB) for the New York Yankees.
Career
Koerner spent three seasons with Clemson Tigers. While there he was a three-time ACC Academic Roll member and had 100 strikeouts in 97.2 innings pitched over 31 appearances (19 starts) in his Clemson career (2013-15). In 2015 he pitched the best game of his college career, a four-hit shutout with seven strikeouts at No. 8 South Carolina on March 2. Later that year he was drafted by the New York Yankees in the 17th round of the 2015 Major League Baseball draft.
New York Yankees
In six minor league seasons at every level of the Yankee organization, Koerner is 24-20 with eight saves, a 3.79 ERA and 322 strikeouts in 434.0 innings pitched over 108 appearances (65 starts). He joined Gigantes del Cibao of the Dominican winter League during their 2019-20 season, leading all the teams starting pitchers with a 2.17 ERA over seven starts.
Koerner was called up by the Yankees on August 3, 2021, and made his major league debut the same night. He pitched the final two innings, allowing two hits and one run in the Yankees' 13-1 victory. Luis Gil started the game and Stephen Ridings also pitched. It was only the second time that three pitchers debuted in the same game for the Yankees, previously occurring on September 26, 1950. Koerner appeared in 2 games for the Yankees, posting an ERA of 3.00 with 1 strikeout. On August 21, Koerner was optioned to Triple-A Scraton. On August 26, Koerner was outrighted off the 40-man roster. On October 3, Koerner was re-selected to the 40-man roster, but was designated for assignment two days later prior to the team's Wild Card game appearance. On October 13, Koerner elected free agency.
Tecolotes de los Dos Laredos
On April 20, 2022, Koerner signed with the Tecolotes de los Dos Laredos of the Mexican League. He made one start, pitching 5 innings and giving up 2 earned runs.
Chicago White Sox
On May 3, 2022, Koerner signed a minor league deal with the Chicago White Sox. He was released on June 3, 2022.
References
External links
1993 births
Living people
People from Winchester, Virginia
Baseball players from Virginia
Major League Baseball pitchers
New York Yankees players
Clemson Tigers baseball players
Pulaski Yankees players
Charleston RiverDogs players
Tampa Yankees players
Scottsdale Scorpions players
Trenton Thunder players
Scranton/Wilkes-Barre RailRiders players
Gigantes del Cibao players
Tecolotes de los Dos Laredos players
American expatriate baseball players in the Dominican Republic
American expatriate baseball players in Mexico
Tigres del Licey players
Charlotte Knights players |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.