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Oaklawn Racing Casino Resort, formerly Oaklawn Park Race Track, is an American thoroughbred racetrack and casino in Hot Springs, Arkansas. It is the home to "The Racing Festival of the South", a four-day series of races that concludes with the Arkansas Derby.
In 2017, Oaklawn was ranked fifth among thoroughbred racetracks in North America by the Horseplayers Association of North America.
In 2015, a pair of victories at Oaklawn put American Pharoah on the path to becoming American Horse of the Year and the first Triple Crown winner in 37 years.
History
Oaklawn Park opened on February 24, 1904. The city declared a holiday to mark the occasion, and more than 3,000 people attended the first day of racing. In its early years, the track ran six races a day, similar to British cards.
In 1907, political problems in the state forced the closure of Oaklawn. Both original business partners had died, so the closed track was sold, to Louis Cella. The track reopened in 1916 under the auspices of the Business Men's League of Hot Springs.
In 1918, Cella died, and the track passed to his brother, Charles. For the next few years, the track was opened and closed periodically because of vagaries in the state's political climate. When it was dominated by conservatives, there were efforts to close down the track, which was believed to attract risqué people.
In 1929, during the Arkansas legislative session, a bill to allow horse racing and parimutuel betting came to a tie vote in the state House of Representatives. The only Republican member of the state House at the time, Osro Cobb of Montgomery County, had been out of the chamber when his name was called. Upon his return, Cobb cast the tie-breaking vote to allow racing and betting at the track.
In the 1930s, the track and "Spa" combined attracted many horse racing fans. In 1935, Oaklawn increased purses to become competitive with the best tracks across the country. The first Arkansas Derby was run in 1936 for a purse of $5,000. By this time, the track ran a 30-day race meeting. On October 29, 1940, Charles G. Cella died and the presidency of Oaklawn transferred to his son, John G. Cella (1909-1968). In 1941, purses again set Oaklawn records. By 1943, the Arkansas Derby had a purse of $10,000. Oaklawn stayed open in 1944, after most American tracks had closed because of World War II. It cancelled the spring season in 1945.
At the end of WWII, Oaklawn held a 30-day late-autumn-and-winter season; together with postwar exuberance and spending, it stimulated an unprecedented period of prosperity. This financed a major clubhouse renovation and a resurfacing of the track.
Throughout the 1950s, the track continued to climb in handle, attendance, and purses. In 1956, J. Sweeney Grant became manager of Oaklawn. In 1961, the track extended the season to 43 days. In 1962, the track notched the fifth-highest profit of North American tracks. By 1965, the Arkansas Derby was a $50,000 stakes that could attract top Kentucky Derby prospects. In 1968, Oaklawn president John G. Cella died suddenly and his son Charles J. Cella took over. Grant died in 1971, having led Oaklawn through 16 years of remarkable growth.
W. T. Bishop replaced Grant and the track continued to thrive. In 1972, the Arkansas Derby became a $100,000 stakes. The following year was the first for the running of the Fantasy Stakes, a prep race to the Kentucky Oaks. The Racing Festival of the South was created in 1974. The week-long festival has one stakes race each day, leading up to the Arkansas Derby.
In 1975, Oaklawn completed a renovation that added a five-level glass enclosure to the north end of the grandstand, near the top of the stretch. The addition included a general admission area, a 400-person box and 2,500 reserved seats, a kitchen, dining room, and private club.
The 1983 racing season set Oaklawn's all-time handle record: $168,740,923 wagered during the 56-day season. This was a daily average of $3,013,230, beating the track's goal of $3 million. Attendance for the season was 1,303,223, for a daily average of 23,272. That same year, the purse for the Arkansas Derby was increased to $250,000.
In 1984, the purse was lifted to $500,000.
By 1985, three decades of prosperity began to reverse. Betting declined 8.1% and attendance declined by 3.7% compared to 1984. Increased competition from neighboring states, a lack of Sunday racing, and a lack of race days were blamed.
By 1990, the track was opened for races on Sundays, the grandstand had been enlarged, and attendance began to recover.
Two years later, races began timing in hundredths of seconds, rather than fifths, as with other race tracks around the world.
In 2004, to celebrate its 100th anniversary, Oaklawn Park offered a $5 million bonus to any horse that could sweep its three-year-old graded stakes, the Rebel Stakes and the Arkansas Derby, and also take the Kentucky Derby. Smarty Jones collected the bonus.
In 2015, eventual Triple Crown winner American Pharoah began his Eclipse award-winning season with victories at Oaklawn in the Rebel Stakes and Arkansas Derby.
Just before the 2018 season opened, Oaklawn unveiled a life-sized bronze sculpture of American Pharoah and jockey Victor Espinoza at the grandstand's redesigned entrance. The work, by Philadelphia sculptor James Peniston, had been commissioned two years earlier by Oaklawn president Charles Cella to memorialize the horse's victories at the Hot Springs track.
Later in 2018, Oaklawn announced that it would start its 2019 racing season a few weeks later than usual, running from late January until early May, lasting the customary 57 days and ending on the day of the Kentucky Derby. Among the reasons given for the change were spring weather conditions and January racing cancellations over the previous decade.
Physical attributes
Oaklawn's dirt track is one mile in circumference, with a chute in the backstretch permitting sprint races at 6 furlongs. Oaklawn, like a few other US racetracks, employs two finish lines. Since the distance from the main finish line to the start of the first turn is very short, races at one mile start and end at the 1/16th pole. This reduces the length of the stretch from the usual 1,155 feet to 825 feet.
The original clubhouse was designed by Chicago architect Zachary Taylor Davis in 1904, who would later design Chicago's Old Comiskey Park and Wrigley Field. The track buildings have undergone many renovations, and updated barns provide stabling for the horses.
In 2008, Oaklawn began a $3 million addition to accommodate casino-style slot machines, poker tables, and an Instant Racing complex. The casino addition made Oaklawn the largest gambling facility in the state of Arkansas.
Casino
Until 2019, the state of Arkansas did not allow traditional slot machines. All games offered were "electronic games of skill," which was defined by section 10.17 of the Final Rules of the Arkansas Racing Commission Regulations for Franchise Holders Operating Electronic Games of skill as "game(s) played through any electronic device or machine that affords an opportunity for the exercise of skill or judgment where the outcome is not completely controlled by chance alone."
On April 1, 2019, Oaklawn became a full casino under Amendment 100 to the Constitution of Arkansas, approved by voters in 2018. It has since added live table games—blackjack, craps, roulette, and other games of chance—plus sports wagering and Las Vegas-style slot machines.
Racing
Stakes races run at Oaklawn Park in 2019 during the Racing Festival of the South and the Oaklawn Park meet include:
Grade I
Apple Blossom Handicap
Arkansas Derby
Grade II
Azeri Stakes
Oaklawn Handicap
Rebel Stakes
Grade III
Count Fleet Sprint Handicap
Bayakoa Stakes
Essex Handicap
Honeybee Stakes
Oaklawn Mile Stakes
Razorback Handicap
Southwest Stakes
Fantasy Stakes
Whitmore Stakes
Non-graded stakes:
Bachelor Stakes
Carousel Stakes
King Cotton Stakes
Mountain Valley Stakes
Smarty Jones Stakes
Fifth Season Stakes
The track also runs numerous overnight handicaps and minor stakes during the Winter and Spring Meets.
See also
List of casinos in Arkansas
References
External links
Zachary Taylor Davis
1904 establishments in Arkansas
Casinos in Arkansas
Horse racing venues in Arkansas
Buildings and structures in Hot Springs, Arkansas
Sports venues in Arkansas
Tourist attractions in Garland County, Arkansas
Sports venues completed in 1904 |
Tangible symbols are a type of augmentative and alternative communication (AAC) that uses objects or pictures that share a perceptual relationship with the items they represent as symbols. A tangible symbol's relation to the item it represents is perceptually obvious and concrete – the visual or tactile properties of the symbol resemble the intended item. Tangible Symbols can easily be manipulated and are most strongly associated with the sense of touch. These symbols can be used by individuals who are not able to communicate using speech or other abstract symbol systems, such as sign language. However, for those who have the ability to communicate using speech, learning to use tangible symbols does not hinder further developing acquisition of natural speech and/or language development, and may even facilitate it.
Definition
The term tangible symbols was first developed by Charity Rowland and Philip Schweigert, and refers to two-dimensional pictures or three-dimensional objects used as symbols to convey meaning. The items are termed "tangible" because they are concrete items that can be manipulated by the user and communication partner. Symbols can be used individually or combined with other symbols in order to create new messages. Tangible symbols are used as a means of communication for individuals who are unable to understand or communicate using abstract systems, such as speech or sign language.
Properties of tangible symbols include permanency, capacity to be manipulated by both the user and the communication partner, and an obvious relationship between the symbol and the referent. They can represent items, people, activities and/or events, and look or feel similar to what they refer to. For example, a cup can be used as three-dimensional tangible symbol to represent the action: "drink". A photograph of a cup can be used as a two-dimensional tangible symbol to also represent the action: "drink". Two- and three-dimensional symbols are used to fit the cognitive and sensory abilities of the individual, as well as the individual's unique experiences.
Rowland and Schweigert use the term tangible symbols to refer to conceptually tangible items like two-dimensional pictures or three-dimensional objects. However, other authors, such as Beukelman and Mirenda, use the term to exclusively describe three-dimensional physical objects that display concrete properties such as shape or texture.
According to Rowland and Schweigert, "for some individuals, the use of tangible symbols may be used to bridge the gap between gestural communication and the use of formal language systems. For others, tangible symbols may represent an ultimate level of communicative competence."
History
Historically, objects and pictures have frequently been used as communication devices. Many authors have also used picture symbols, such as line drawings and photographs to develop language in individuals with little or no speech and/or cognitive disabilities. Tangible symbols emerged from Van Dijk’s work in the 1960s using objects as symbols to develop language in deaf-blind children. In turn, Van Dijk’s work was based on the concept "symbol formation" developed by Werner and Kaplan (1963), who theorized that "symbol formation" referred to the process of developing language by creating symbols in our minds.
Types of tangible symbols
Rowland and Schweigert propose that tangible symbols can be divided into hierarchical categories, ranging from most concrete to most abstract symbols:
Identical objects are real items that are equal to their referent and are the most concrete type of tangible symbol. An example includes using a toothbrush to represent "brush your teeth". Beukelman and Mirenda includes in this category miniature objects: items that are smaller than what they symbolize, such as having a small toy toilet indicate "toilet".
Partial/associated objects refers to a portion of the object they represent, and therefore are less concrete than identical objects. For example, a shoelace would symbolize "shoes".
Symbols with one or two shared features have a resemblance to their referent, like using a mould of a loaf of bread for "bread". This category is sometimes included in the partial/associated objects category.
Artificial symbols are abstract symbols that do not have a direct resemblance to their referent, such as having a 3D shape (i.e. an apple) that is attached to a cafe door be used as the symbol for "cafe". Beukelman and Mirenda include textured symbols in this category. An example of a textured symbol is using a piece of spandex material to denote "bathing suit".
Three-dimensional symbols may be identical objects, parts of objects, or associated objects. A three-dimensional symbol will share similar features of the focused object, creating a meaningful symbol.
Two-dimensional pictures, such as photographs and line drawings, are the most abstract type of tangible symbols. They are commonly used for both expressive and receptive communication, whereas the three-dimensional symbols are often used for receptive only communication (i.e. to cue the individual for upcoming events).
The type of tangible symbol used is chosen based on the cognitive and sensory abilities of the learner/user. The meaning behind each symbol is not universal, but by using a symbol the individual is familiar with, a meaningful symbol is created. Tangible symbols should be constructed by meaningful and motivating symbols that will provide the individual with the most opportunities to practice using the new system.
Users of tangible symbols
Individuals who can benefit from using tangible symbols include those who may lack the skills to communicate using verbal speech or other various communication systems such as sign language. Users of tangible symbols may include individuals with cognitive disabilities (including developmental delay and intellectual disability), sensory and/or visual impairments (blindness and/or deafblindness), developmental disabilities (such as autism spectrum disorder), and orthopedic impairments. Rowland and Schweigert claim that tangible symbols do not require the use of high demands on the learner’s cognitive abilities, memory, visual perception, and motor abilities because they are:
Iconic and concrete: they have a clear connection what they refer to.
Permanent: the user does not need to recall the object, but simply be able to recognize them.
Manipulable: can be picked up and used by the learner and who s/he is communicating with.
Tactually discriminable: can be identified by touch.
May be indicated through a simple motor response: such as eye gazing, touching, or pointing.
Furthermore, simple behavioral responses can be used with tangible items. For example, learners that are unable to speak can simply point, touch, pick up, or look (in cases of severe motoric impairment) at the object to answer a question or make a request. Finally, three-dimensional objects can be distinguished from one another using touch, and therefore they are suitable for people with visual impairments or blindness.
A study by Rowland and Schweigert found individuals who were already able to communicate using gestures or vocalizations more readily learned to use tangible symbols than those who did not have intentional pre-symbolic communication skills.
Application of tangible symbols
Presentation format depends on the users visual scanning and motoric ability. The tangible symbols can placed in front of the user within reach, placed on a board for visual scanning, or placed in a book for access.
Typically, tangible symbols are custom made and tailored to the individual child. If pre-made sets are used, it is assumed that the symbols are familiar and motivating for the user. It is important to utilize frequently occurring and highly motivating symbols in order to optimize opportunities for use.
Tangible symbol system offers a manual and DVD as well as an online course. For more information on tangible symbol system instructional strategies, please reference: http://designtolearn.com/products/tangible_symbol_systems
Universal tangible symbol system
In 2009, Ellen Trief, Susan M. Bruce, Paul W. Cascella, and Sarah Ivy created a Universal Tangible Symbol System. They began by developing a survey to determine which tangible symbols were already in use, new activities and concepts for which tangible systems are needed, and participant preferences for tangible symbols from a pilot study. Participants included teachers and speech–language pathologists from four New York City schools. Following the survey, an advisory board consisting of directors of the New York City schools, speech-language pathologists, the designer and manufacturer of the symbols, a representative from the Perkins School for the Blind, college professors, and a graduate research assistant reviewed and discussed the results. This resulted in the establishment of the 55 universal tangible symbols seen in the chart below. However, this universal tangible symbol system should not replace a system already established for an individual.
Notes
References
Beukelman, D.R. & Mirenda, P. (2005). Augmentative and Alternative Communication: Supporting Children and Adults with Complex Communication Needs (3rd edition). Baltimore: Brookes.
Rowland, C., & Schweigert, P. (1996). Tangible Symbol Systems (DVD). Portland, OR: Oregon Health & Science University.
Rowland, C., & Schweigert, P. (2000). Tangible Symbol Systems (2nd Ed.). Portland, OR: Oregon Health & Science University.
Stephenson, J., & Linfoot, K. (1996). Pictures as communication symbols for students with severe intellectual disability. Augmentative and Alternative Communication, 12 (4), 244–256.
Trief, E., Cascella, P.W., & Bruce, S.M. (2013). A field study of a standardized tangible symbol system for learners who are visually impaired and have multiple disabilities. Journal of visual impairment & blindness. May–June 2013, 180–191.
Trief, E., Bruce, S.M., Cascella, P.W., & Ivy S. (2009). The development of a universal tangible symbol system. Journal of visual impairment & blindness. July 2009. 425–431.
Rowland, C., & Schweigert, P. (2000). Tangible systems, tangible outcomes. AAC augmentative and alternative communication. 16. pp. 61–78.
Rowland, C., & Schweigert, P. Tangible symbol systems primer. Design to learn website. pp. 1–20.
Symbols
Communication
Speech and language pathology
Blindness equipment
Augmentative and alternative communication |
Cape Kohlsaat (Russian: Мыс Кользат) is a point on the eastern shore of Graham Bell Island, the easternmost island of Franz Josef Land, Russia. It is also the easternmost limit of the Franz Josef Archipelago.
Its location is 81°14′N, 65°10′E, and it is important as a landmark, for Cape Kohlsaat marks the northwesternmost corner of the Kara Sea.
Being close to the area of permanent polar ice of the Arctic Ocean, the sea off Cape Kohlsaat has much pack ice almost the whole year round.
References
Zubov, N.N. (July 1933). The Circumnavigation of Franz Josef Land. Geographical Review. 2(3).
Kohlsaat |
Rita K. Almeida (born 1974) is a Portuguese economist who joined the World Bank in 2002 as a research economist. After serving as a senior economist with responsibilities for lending and analysis in support of education in Latin America, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East and North Africa, as of June 2020 she is human development programme leader for the countries of Central America. Over the years, Almeida has coordinated a range of World Bank and IZA publications in the areas of education, job training and public social spending. Since 2003, she has been a Research Fellow of the IZA Institute of Labor Economics.
Biography
Born on 16 August 1974 in Lisbon, Rita Almeida studied economics at the Catholic University of Portugal, graduating in 1997. She continued her economics studies at Pompeu Fabra University in Barcelona, earning an M.Sc. (1999) and a Ph.D. (2003).
From February 1997 to August 1998, Almeida worked in Lisbon for the Banco de Negócios Argentária as an equity research analyst. She then returned to Barcelona, working as a research assistant at Pompeu Fabra University. Since 2002 she has been employed by the World Bank, initially as a researcher, specializing in labour economics and development. She subsequently became a senior economist covering education, social protection and the labour market. In particular, she managed lending and analysis in Latin America, Eastern Europe, and the Middle East and North Africa. As of June 2020, she holds the post of lead economist and human development programme leader for the six countries of Central America.
Selected publications
Rita Almeida has published a wide range of books and papers, including:
References
1974 births
People from Lisbon
20th-century Portuguese economists
Portuguese women economists
World Bank people
Academic staff of Pompeu Fabra University
Pompeu Fabra University alumni
Catholic University of Portugal alumni
21st-century Portuguese economists
21st-century Portuguese women writers
Living people |
Bill J. Dukes (February 26, 1927 – December 18, 2014) was an American politician from Decatur, Alabama.
Born in Tarma, Kentucky, Dukes served in the United States Army. He then received his bachelor's degree from Bowling Green College of Commerce. He was an office manager, assistant to the Mayor of Decatur, Alabama. Dukes served on the Decatur City Council in 1968 and then served as Mayor of Decatur from 1976 until 1994. He received 75% or more in every election he ran in for both mayor and state representative. From 1994 until 2010, he served in the Alabama House of Representatives. Dukes died in Decatur, Alabama of Parkinson disease.
Notes
1927 births
2014 deaths
Politicians from Decatur, Alabama
People from Muhlenberg County, Kentucky
Military personnel from Kentucky
Western Kentucky University alumni
Alabama city council members
Mayors of places in Alabama
Members of the Alabama House of Representatives
Neurological disease deaths in Alabama
Deaths from Parkinson's disease
20th-century American politicians
21st-century American politicians |
Mount Lico is an inselberg mountain in the Alto Molocue District of Zambezia Province in northern Mozambique, most notable for its old-growth rainforest and its lack of penetration by humans. Mount Lico is approximately above sea level but is distinctive in having sheer rock walls of up to above the surrounding countryside that have all but prevented human intrusion. The forest on top, within a volcanic crater, covers only about .
In 2012, Mt Lico was "discovered", or more correctly, identified as a place of special scientific interest, by Julian Bayliss of Oxford Brookes University, who had earlier similarly identified Mount Mabu some southwest, by using Google Earth to search for significant landforms and vegetation features.
In May 2018, Bayliss led a multidisciplinary expedition to scale the sheer walls of Mount Lico and begin the study of its unique habitat. Although it had been considered unlikely that humans would have entered the mountain's forest prior to this expedition, evidence was discovered in the form of several pots which had been placed, possibly for religious reasons, at the source of a stream on the mountain top.
See also
Afromontane
Mount Mabu
References
External links
Audio: Exploring a hidden rainforest on an isolated mountain in Mozambique
Why we explored an undisturbed rainforest hidden on top of an African mountain
Lico: Mountain of Mystery
The story of an expedition into an unexplored forest...
Scientists are exploring a lost rainforest hidden in a Mozambique volcano for the first time
Mozambique: the secret rainforest at the heart of an African volcano
The Secret Garden: How Google Earth led a team of scientists to discover an untouched mountaintop rainforest
Mongabay: Secrets revealed: Researchers explore unique, isolated forest in Mozambique
Lonelyplanet: A hidden mountain rainforest has been uncovered using Google Earth
DMM Climbing: Monte Lico’s rainforest ‘lost world’
BBC News Mundo: El científico que descubrió gracias a Google Earth un bosque recóndito a más de 8.000 kilómetros de distancia de su casa (Spanish)
Julian Bayliss: Mount Lico photos (Feb17, Nov17, May18 expedition)
Outthere.fr: Comment Google Earth permet de faire d’incroyables découvertes naturelles (French)
The man who discovered an unseen world
Lico
Alto Molocue District
Lico
Lico
Inselbergs of Africa |
Joanna is an unincorporated community and census-designated place (CDP) in Laurens County, South Carolina, United States. The population was 1,539 at the 2010 census, down from 1,609 at the 2000 census. It is part of the Greenville–Mauldin–Easley Metropolitan Statistical Area.
History
The community was first settled in the 1760s. By the 1850s, the town was known as "Martin's Depot", in honor of a local planter, Martin Kinard, who had helped bring the Laurens Railroad through. On April 30, 1865, Confederate President Jefferson Davis and his cabinet passed through the town on their flight from Richmond and spent the night at the Lafayette Young house, to the southwest. Martin's Depot was renamed "Goldville" in 1872. In 1948 the name of the town was again changed, to "Joanna", the name of the wife of a local industrialist.
Geography
Joanna is located in eastern Laurens County at . U.S. Route 76 passes through the east side of the community, leading northwest to Clinton and to Laurens, the county seat, and southeast to Newberry. Interstate 26 passes northeast of Joanna, accessible from South Carolina Highway 66.
According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of , of which , or 0.18%, are water. The CDP extends west to the upper reaches of the Bush River, a southeast-flowing tributary of the Saluda River, and east to Indian Creek, an east-flowing tributary of the Enoree River and then the Broad River.
Demographics
As of the census of 2000, there were 1,609 people, 688 households, and 460 families residing in the CDP. The population density was . There were 758 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the CDP was 85.77% White, 11.75% African American, 0.12% Native American, 0.25% Asian, 1.24% from other races, and 0.87% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 2.05% of the population.
There were 688 households, out of which 27.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 48.8% were married couples living together, 12.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 33.0% were non-families. 29.4% of all households were made up of individuals, and 17.4% had someone living alone who was 65 years of age or older. The average household size was 2.33 and the average family size was 2.88.
In the CDP, the population was spread out, with 23.1% under the age of 18, 6.7% from 18 to 24, 26.1% from 25 to 44, 23.9% from 45 to 64, and 20.3% who were 65 years of age or older. The median age was 41 years. For every 100 females, there were 86.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 83.4 males.
The median income for a household in the CDP was $27,891, and the median income for a family was $35,000. Males had a median income of $27,271 versus $19,338 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $14,500. About 10.6% of families and 16.0% of the population were below the poverty line, including 26.3% of those under age 18 and 15.9% of those age 65 or over.
References
External links
Information about the community of Joanna from Laurens County
Census-designated places in Laurens County, South Carolina
Census-designated places in South Carolina
Upstate South Carolina |
Kalmunai Muslim Divisional Secretariat is a Divisional Secretariat of Ampara District, of Eastern Province, Sri Lanka.
References
Divisional Secretariats Portal
Divisional Secretariats of Ampara District |
Pavel Bartos may refer to:
Pavel Bartoș (born 1975), Romanian actor and television presenter
Pavel Bartoš (born 1994), Czech volleyball player |
Fred Masagazi (1937–2009) was a Ugandan "Afrojazz" musician. He was the first Ugandan artist to have his song played on the BBC, with his song "Kolazizo", in 1963.
Music
Masagazi started his music career in 1955 as a singer in a Congolese band, "Tinapa", where he sang both Congolese and Luganda. His first song was "Atanawa Musolo", which he released a year before Uganda's independence in 1961. He later released "Osaana Okole" in 1962 and "Lucy Tuula" in 1963. Masagazi was an accomplished composer who sang for more than fifty years. He was among the few Kadongo Kamu musicians who could sing, play the guitar and dramatize his music on stage. He founded his own band, "UK Jazz Band" in 1963. His band disintegrated, forcing him to perform in various bands like "King Jazz Band", "Kampala City 6 Band" and "BKG Band". His song "Atanawa Musolo" was ranked by Daily Monitor as one of "The 50 timeless songs that bring back memories" in one of its pieces for Uganda's fiftieth independence anniversary.
Discography
Songs
Atannawa musolo
Noonya Lukia
Osaana Okole
Lucy Tuula
Alululu
Ndiwuwo
Kyali Kyetagesa
References
External links
"The father of Uganda’s music recording industry"
"Lure of quick money keeps music quality poor - Wasula"
"Who will ensure our cultural identity?"
"We celebrate Uganda’s music legends"
"When Makeba, Mtukudzi visited "
1937 births
2009 deaths
20th-century Ugandan male singers
Kumusha
Jazz musicians
Ugandan musicians |
Bishop Kinkell is a small scattered crofting hamlet 1.5 miles south of Conon Bridge in Inverness-shire, Scottish Highlands and is in the Scottish council area of Highland.
References
Populated places on the Black Isle |
Eastern Orthodoxy in Vietnam is represented by 3 parishes of the Russian Orthodox Church: one in Vung Tau, named after the icon of Our Lady of Kazan, where there are many Russian-speaking employees of the Russian-Vietnamese joint venture "Vietsovpetro", and also parish of Xenia of Saint Petersburg in Hanoi and parish of Protection of Our Most Holy Lady Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary in Ho Chi Minh City.
The earliest parish in Vung Tau was opened in 2002 with the blessing of the Holy Synod of the Russian Orthodox Church, which had been given in Troitse-Sergiyeva Lavra.
Russian Orthodox Church in Vietnam
The Chairman of Russian Orthodox Church's Department for External Church Relations Metropolitan Kirill (since 2009 Patriarch of Moscow and All Rus) was the first Russian Orthodox hierarch to visit Vietnam in November 2001. Headed by Kirill the delegation had meetings with the Russian speaking community and Vietnamese officials, and held church services in Hanoi, Ho Chi Minh City and Vung Tau (about 600 people were present)
Since that time representatives of Russian Orthodox Church from time to time come to Vung Tau to conduct the Eastern Orthodox divine service.
In 2007, the mission of the Russian Orthodox Church organized Easter divine services in Vung Tau, General Consulate of Russia in Ho Chi Minh City and the Russian Center of science and culture in Hanoi.
In April, 2010, the delegation of the foreign relations department of the Russian Orthodox Church organized and conducted regular Easter services in Our Lady of Kazan icon parish in Vungtau.
Patriarchal Exarchate of the Russian Orthodox Church in South-East Asia was established on December 28, 2018, by its Holy Synod. Included in jurisdiction of that Exarchate new Philippinian-Vietnamese eparchy (Diocese) contains 3 parishes in Vietnam:
Parish of Our Lady of Kazan in Vung Tau (established in 2002),
Parish of Xenia of Saint Petersburg in Hanoi (established in 2019),
Parish of Protection of Our Most Holy Lady Theotokos and Ever-Virgin Mary in Ho Chi Minh city (established in 2019).
Metropolitan of Khanty-Mansiysk and Surgut Paul (Pavel Fokin) is governing hierarch of the Philippinian-Vietnamese eparchy (by February 2020).
Other Eastern Orthodox Churches
Vietnam is also mentioned as territory under the jurisdiction of the Orthodox Metropolitanate of Hong Kong and Southeast Asia (Ecumenical Patriarchate of Constantinople), though there is no information on its organized activities there.
See also
Religion in Vietnam
Christianity in Vietnam
References
Christianity in Vietnam
Religion in Vietnam |
Window Rock High School is a public high school in Fort Defiance, a census-designated place in unincorporated Apache County, Arizona. WRHS is the only high school in the Window Rock Unified School District.
WRUSD, and therefore the high school, serves several unincorporated areas, including Fort Defiance, Oak Springs, St. Michaels, Window Rock, and most of Sawmill.
History
The school district opened by the mid-1950s, with high school students two years later. The first students graduated in 1958 and 1959, and the school was completed in 1960.
A devastating fire burned the school to the ground early in April 1981, causing $5 million in damage. A new school was built later in the decade.
Demographics
Window Rock High School had an enrollment of 728 students on October 1, 2010. 99% of the students are of Navajo ancestry. The school serves students throughout the surrounding area including Fort Defiance, St. Michaels, Sawmill, Hunters Point, Oak Springs, and several others.
Athletics
The school's athletic programs are known as the "Fighting Scouts". It is a member of the Arizona Interscholastic Association's 3A Conference. The basketball program was previously led by Raul Mendoza.
Notable alumni
Ryneldi Becenti, the first Native American to play in the WNBA
Stephanie Yellowhair, Navajo transgender activist
References
External links
Window Rock High School Website
Remembering Window Rock High School
Public high schools in Arizona
Schools in Apache County, Arizona
Education on the Navajo Nation
1950s establishments in Arizona |
Walter Knödel (May 20, 1926 – October 19, 2018) was an Austrian mathematician and computer scientist. He was a computer science professor at the University of Stuttgart.
Born in Vienna, Walter Knödel studied mathematics and physics at the University of Vienna. Also in Vienna, Knödel received his PhD in 1948 for his work on number theory under the direction of Edmund Hlawka and got habilitated in 1953. In 1961, Walter Knödel became professor for mathematics at the University of Stuttgart.
Walter Knödel authored a number of books and scientific publications. He wrote the first German textbook on computer programming in 1961.
He was the founding dean of the faculty for computer science at the University of Stuttgart and founding member of the German Computer Society the Gesellschaft für Informatik.
The Knödel numbers became named after Walter Knödel. He died in Stuttgart on October 19, 2018.
References
20th-century Austrian mathematicians
Academic staff of the University of Stuttgart
1926 births
2018 deaths
University of Vienna alumni
Austrian expatriates in Germany
Scientists from Vienna |
Khurik (; ) is a rural locality (a selo) and the administrative centre of Khuriksky Selsoviet, Tabasaransky District, Republic of Dagestan, Russia. Population: There are 8 streets.
Geography
Khurik is located 8 km northwest of Khuchni (the district's administrative centre) by road. Rugudzh is the nearest rural locality.
References
Rural localities in Tabasaransky District |
Ždrelac is a village on the island of Pašman in Croatiaconnected by the D110 highway. At its northernmost tip, it is also connected to the island of Ugljan via the Ždrelac Bridge.
References
Populated places in Zadar County
Pašman |
The FIS Ski Flying World Ski Championships 1979 was held between 17–18 March in Planica, Yugoslavia for the second time in front of total 115,000 people in four days.
Schedule
Rules
Scoring system rules were changed in the last moment, just two days before official competition. Originally total 3 of 9 jumps, the best one of each three days was supposed to go into final score. But technical delegate of competition, Norwegian Torbjørn Yggeseth who is known as the founder of the World Cup, proposed the change of rules: total 6 of 9 jumps, the best two of each three days were incorporated. Although only 4 of 6 rounds counted at the end as first day of competition was canceled.
To perform on Saturday and Sunday competition, competitor had to reach 75% average of top 10 jumps in at least one round on official training on Thursday or at first day of competition on Friday.
Competition
On 14 March 1979 hill test in three rounds was on schedule. Križaj opened the hill with 142 metres, Bizjak's binds got off in the inrun and he managed to stop. Loštrek set the longest distance of the day at 158 metres.
On 15 March 1979 official training in front of 10,000 people was on schedule with two rounds in rain. František Novák set the distance of the day at 169 metres.
On 16 March 1979 first day of competition with three rounds was on schedule. Everything was over only after 8 testjumpers on a disappointment of 15,000 people due to heavy rain. Test jumper Ivo Zupan set the distance of the day at 159 metres.
On 17 March 1979 second day of competition with three rounds was on schedule in front of 40,000 people. Test jumper Ivo Zupan was first that day who set Yugoslavian record at 171 metres. In the second round East German Axel Zitzmann crashed at world record distance at 179 metres, second round was canceled and repeated right after. Zitzmann was leading after first 2 best of 3 jumps of second day of competition.
On 18 March 1979 the last day of competition with three rounds was on schedule in front of 50,000 people. A lot of inrun speed/gate testing were made before the first round. Kogler set the best distance of the second round at 156 metres. Just before the third round, East German test jumper Klaus Ostwald set the world record at 176 metres. Armin Kogler became the world champion after 4 of 6 best flights in two days of competition.
Hill test
10:00 AM — 14 March 1979 — Three rounds — test jumpers — chronological order
Official training
15 March 1979 — 2 rounds — test — chronological order incomplete
15 March 1979 — 2 rounds (the first repeated) — competitors — chronological order
Competition: Day 1
9:30 AM — 16 March 1979 — 3 rounds — test — chronological order
Competition: Day 2
17 March 1979 — 2 best of 3 rounds — second round was canceled and repeated — chronological order
Competition: Day 3
18 March 1979 — incomplete — test
18 March 1979 — 2 best of 3 rounds — competitors
Not recognized. Crash at WR! Didn't count into final results! Didn't count into final result! World record! Crash, touch!
Official results
17 to 18 March 1979 — 4 best of 6 rounds — first day canceled — originally 6 best of 9 rounds scheduled
Ski flying world records
Not recognized! Crash at world record distance.
Medal table
References
FIS Ski Flying World Championships
1979 in ski jumping
1979 in Slovenia
1979 in Yugoslav sport
Ski jumping competitions in Yugoslavia
International sports competitions hosted by Slovenia
International sports competitions hosted by Yugoslavia
March 1979 sports events in Europe |
```html
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<a name="boost_asio.reference.basic_socket.basic_socket.overload2"></a><a class="link" href="overload2.html" title="basic_socket::basic_socket (2 of 6 overloads)">basic_socket::basic_socket
(2 of 6 overloads)</a>
</h5></div></div></div>
<p>
Construct and open a <a class="link" href="../../basic_socket.html" title="basic_socket"><code class="computeroutput">basic_socket</code></a>.
</p>
<pre class="programlisting">basic_socket(
boost::asio::io_context & io_context,
const protocol_type & protocol);
</pre>
<p>
This constructor creates and opens a socket.
</p>
<h6>
<a name="boost_asio.reference.basic_socket.basic_socket.overload2.h0"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_asio.reference.basic_socket.basic_socket.overload2.parameters"></a></span><a class="link" href="overload2.html#boost_asio.reference.basic_socket.basic_socket.overload2.parameters">Parameters</a>
</h6>
<div class="variablelist">
<p class="title"><b></b></p>
<dl class="variablelist">
<dt><span class="term">io_context</span></dt>
<dd><p>
The <a class="link" href="../../io_context.html" title="io_context"><code class="computeroutput">io_context</code></a>
object that the socket will use to dispatch handlers for any asynchronous
operations performed on the socket.
</p></dd>
<dt><span class="term">protocol</span></dt>
<dd><p>
An object specifying protocol parameters to be used.
</p></dd>
</dl>
</div>
<h6>
<a name="boost_asio.reference.basic_socket.basic_socket.overload2.h1"></a>
<span class="phrase"><a name="boost_asio.reference.basic_socket.basic_socket.overload2.exceptions"></a></span><a class="link" href="overload2.html#boost_asio.reference.basic_socket.basic_socket.overload2.exceptions">Exceptions</a>
</h6>
<div class="variablelist">
<p class="title"><b></b></p>
<dl class="variablelist">
<dt><span class="term">boost::system::system_error</span></dt>
<dd><p>
Thrown on failure.
</p></dd>
</dl>
</div>
</div>
<table xmlns:rev="path_to_url~gregod/boost/tools/doc/revision" width="100%"><tr>
<td align="left"></td>
file LICENSE_1_0.txt or copy at <a href="path_to_url" target="_top">path_to_url
</p>
</div></td>
</tr></table>
<hr>
<div class="spirit-nav">
<a accesskey="p" href="overload1.html"><img src="../../../../../../doc/src/images/prev.png" alt="Prev"></a><a accesskey="u" href="../basic_socket.html"><img src="../../../../../../doc/src/images/up.png" alt="Up"></a><a accesskey="h" href="../../../../boost_asio.html"><img src="../../../../../../doc/src/images/home.png" alt="Home"></a><a accesskey="n" href="overload3.html"><img src="../../../../../../doc/src/images/next.png" alt="Next"></a>
</div>
</body>
</html>
``` |
Pantao Ragat, officially the Municipality of Pantao Ragat (Maranao: Inged a Pantao Ragat; ; ), is a 4th class municipality in the province of Lanao del Norte, Philippines. According to the 2020 census, it has a population of 30,247 people.
Pantao Ragat is the mother town of Matungao and Poona Piagapo.
Geography
Barangays
Pantao Ragat is politically subdivided into 20 barangays. Each barangay consists of puroks while some have sitios.
Aloon
Banday
Bubong Pantao Ragat
Bobonga Radapan
Cabasagan
Calawe
Culubun
Dilimbayan
Dimayon
Lomidong
Madaya
Maliwanag
Matampay
Natangcopan
Pansor
Pantao Marug
Poblacion East
Poblacion West
Tangcal
Tongcopan
Climate
Demographics
Economy
References
External links
Pantao Ragat Profile at the DTI Cities and Municipalities Competitive Index
[ Philippine Standard Geographic Code]
Philippine Census Information
Local Governance Performance Management System
Municipalities of Lanao del Norte |
The Laboring Sons Memorial Grounds is a memorial ground in Frederick, Maryland located between 5th and 6th Street on Chapel Alley. The cemetery was established by the Laboring Sons Beneficial Society in 1851 as a cemetery for free blacks in the city. In 1949 the cemetery would be given to the City of Frederick who destroyed the grounds and created a whites-only park. In 1999 the original nature of the grounds was rediscovered. In 2000, the City of Frederick promised to make amends for what happened with the grounds. In 2001 the site was dedicated as the Laboring Sons Memorial Grounds. Construction on the new memorial grounds finished in 2003.
Physical description
The memorial grounds are in size and are located between 5th and 6th Street on Chapel Alley; they take up most of the block. The park is surrounded by sidewalks on 3 sides. The entrance, located on the side bordering 6th Street, has a metal archway. The sidewalks bisect sidewalks and lead towards a hill in the center on which there stands a monument to those who are buried on the grounds. The monument lists of the names of the identifiable dead buried on the grounds, along with a brief history of the grounds, and a note commemorating the Laboring Sons Memorial Committee and the City of Frederick for their work to restore the grounds.
History
Establishment and decline
The Laboring Sons Beneficial Society was founded in 1837 "for the purpose of relieving or alleviating both spiritually and temporally any member of us who may be distressed and to see that his mortal remains be interred with decency." It would not see official incorporation though until 1867, when the Maryland General Assembly passed an act incorporating it. Its membership consisted of both free and enslaved blacks from Frederick; free blacks at the time numbered around 790 or about 16% of the city's population. They established the cemetery, purchasing 1.17 acres of land for $265, located between 5th and 6th Street on Chapel Alley, in the Historic District of Frederick, in 1851. At the time there were few cemeteries in which blacks could be buried in the city, and even in those the amount of available space was limited. In 1852, a quarter of the cemetery was divided in 12 foot by 16 foot plots with white marble corner posts. As time went on the remainder of the grounds were sold off as burial plots in order to fund the society's activities.
In 1862 half of the Laboring Sons Beneficial Society split off into the Workingmen's Society due to disagreements within the group.
By 1949 the cemetery had an estimated 1,500 bodies buried in it, but there was nobody left to care for the grounds, and they had deteriorated. A photo in a 1948 newspaper showed the cemetery covered in weeds and underbrush. Garland Makel Jr., grandson of one of the last of the society's officials, said, "There was nobody left to take care of it any more, everybody with any connection to the place had died or moved away." After a special meeting of the lot holders in Laboring Sons that took place on 1 October 1948, they gave the grounds to the City of Frederick, who in turn, promised to restore the grounds to their original condition. The agreement proposed to the city, which the city accepted, was: that the city would maintain the land as a public park and playground with the name Laboring Sons Memorial Park, that no further burials would be permitted unless the city decided to allow a black hero, scientist, artist, or athlete to be buried, that a monument be erected, that the park would be open to colored residents of the city, all the monuments and stones currently in the cemetery would be left undisturbed, and that the city would fund a study regarding juvenile delinquency amongst the colored youth and propose solutions to fix it. The memorial tablet that the city had promised to erect was never erected.
Instead of restoring the grounds, in 1949 the city removed the remaining grave stones and headstones from the cemetery. Newspapers at the time reported that some of the remains in the cemetery were disturbed. The workmen buried some of the headstones to provide a smooth surface for laying black-top. The city then covered the grounds in black-top, added recreational equipment (such as swings and a basketball court) and converted the grounds into a whites-only park which they named Chapel Park. During the construction, a list of the names of those interred at the site began to be compiled, but was stopped after reaching only 161 names.
Municipal workers who helped move the grave stones underground said that they had just done as they were told and that no bodies had been moved. Makel also said that no bodies were removed from the site, but an official from Fairview Cemetery has said that some of the bodies were moved to Fairview Cemetery. Lord Nickens, a civil rights activist in Frederick, also claims that some of the bodies were removed and moved to Fairview Cemetery. The city has no record of any objections at the time to what was done to the cemetery. William O. Lee Jr. speculated that most people who had living descendants probably had their remains moved to Fairview Cemetery and that those who remained had nobody to object for them. For some time after this the original use of the grounds was forgotten.
Rediscovery
In the 1990s, a Frederick resident, Jackie Berry, decided to research her great-great-uncle's burial location. His death certificate stated he was buried in Laboring Sons Cemetery. She made the connection that Laboring Sons Park might be the location of Laboring Sons Cemetery. Around the same time former alderman Bill Lee and Bernard Brown, grand master of the Black Elks Lodge, were urging the city to acknowledge what had happened and make amends.
In 1999, the City of Frederick decided to rename all of the alleys in the city, with a particular emphasis on naming them after historical prominent black citizens. The Gazette heard about the grounds because a local resident, living near Chapel Park, suggested that Chapel Alley ought to be named Laboring Sons Alley in recognition of Laboring Sons Beneficial Society and in memory of those buried under the park. The article, run in the Gazette in 2000, helped bolster support for restoring the grounds. A newspaper reporter noticed that, on an old map in city hall, the grounds were labeled "Colored Cemetery" dispelling the idea that the city may have destroyed the grounds out of ignorance of their purpose.
In January 2000, the board of alderman unanimously promised to make amends and honor those buried on the grounds with a plaque. In February 2000, a retired engineer, who remembered when the incident happened, and had worked on the grounds, and helped record the names of those interred there, showed city officials a map of the cemetery along with a partial list of names of those interred, allowing them to discover the location of the graves within the site. These documents put an end to speculation about whether or not there were any dead buried under the site. After the names were found the plans for the plaque were changed from a plaque simply describing the history of the grounds to a plaque that would also list the names of those buried there.
A committee was formed in June 2000 to research the site and plan a memorial. An archaeologist company in Frederick volunteered to do a remote sensing on the grounds for free and found 10 possible burial shafts in two areas of the park. The committee suggested to the city that it remove all recreational equipment from the site, remove the asphalt, erect a monument with the names, birth dates, and death dates of those interred, along with a description of the site, create paths and benches on the sites that were not over identified graves, build another play area in the community, and rededicate the location as Laboring Sons Memorial Park.
Restoration
Work on the memorial was fraught with "delay and inaction" for two and a half years after the committee issued its suggestions. Roelky Myers, director of parks and recreation for Frederick in 2003, said that the committee the city set up for the memorial were unaware that they would have to go through the Historic District Commission, leading to delays. In the week leading up to 13 September 2002 the Frederick Historic District Commission approved the basic design of the memorial park along with the design of the 4 foot tall and 11 foot wide granite monument to be erected there. The city's director of historic preservation, Barbara Wyatt, volunteered to design a memorial park to put on the site, and to champion the effort. William O. Lee Jr., a member of the committee formed in 2000, said, "Without her we wouldn't be this far". The design for the park evolved from a simple design with some benches and paths to a much more elaborate setup with trees, bisecting pathways, and retaining walls that are short enough to sit on. City officials promised to rename it Laboring Sons.
The city earmarked $40,000 of federal grant money for restoration of the park. Another $60,000 was acquired from a combination of donations and the city's capital improvement program.
Jennifer Dougherty, who was elected mayor of Frederick in 2002, promised during her campaign that she would restore the grounds, saying that, "It seems logical to say a burial ground should never become something other than a burial ground, or at least a place of honor." When she was elected Mayor she approved work to identify those who were buried in the grounds and made work on the grounds one of her priorities.
Construction of the memorial park was hindered by the discovery of bodies and having to bring in "copious amounts of dirt" in order to cover them. The dirt was used so that any construction would happen on the new top layer of soil and the bodies interred would remain undisturbed. As work was done on the site the State's Attorney was notified anytime that a new body was found.
In 2001 the site was dedicated as a memorial garden and the name changed to Laboring Sons Memorial Ground; in 2003, on Martin Luther King Jr. Day, the site was rededicated as a memorial ground and a plaque was erected listing the names of the 117 people known to be buried there. A second re-dedication ceremony was done on 20 June 2003 when construction on the site had finished
See also
List of cemeteries in Maryland
References
Cemeteries in Maryland
Historic sites in Maryland
Monuments and memorials in Maryland
African-American cemeteries in Maryland
Frederick, Maryland
1851 establishments in Maryland
1949 disestablishments in Maryland
Cemeteries established in the 1850s |
The 2020–21 Tennessee Lady Volunteers basketball team represented the University of Tennessee in the 2020–21 college basketball season. Led by former Lady Vol Kellie Harper, entering her second year as head coach, the team played their games at Thompson–Boling Arena and are members of the Southeastern Conference.
Previous season
The 2019–20 team finished the season 21–10, 10–6 for a third-place tie in SEC play. They lost in the quarterfinals of the SEC tournament to Kentucky.
Preseason
SEC media poll
The SEC media poll was released on November 17, 2020 with the Lady Volunteers selected to finish in sixth place in the SEC.
Preseason All-SEC teams
Rennia Davis was selected to the preseason all-SEC team, her third-straight honor.
Roster
Rankings
^Coaches' Poll did not release a second poll at the same time as the AP.
Schedule
|-
!colspan=9 style=""| Regular season
|-
!colspan=9 style=""| SEC tournament
|-
!colspan=9 style=""| NCAA tournament
References
Tennessee
Tennessee Lady Volunteers basketball seasons
Volunteers
Volunteers
Tennessee |
Afrasura crenulata is a moth of the subfamily Arctiinae. It is found in Angola.
References
Endemic fauna of Angola
crenulata
Insects of Angola
Moths of Africa
Moths described in 1911 |
Verkhnyakivtsi (, ), a village in Ukraine, is located within Chortkiv Raion of Ternopil Oblast. It belongs to Borshchiv urban hromada, one of the hromadas of Ukraine.
References
Notes
Sources
Villages in Chortkiv Raion |
```yaml
{{- /*
*/}}
{{- if and .Values.hubble.relay.enabled .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.enabled }}
kind: NetworkPolicy
apiVersion: {{ include "common.capabilities.networkPolicy.apiVersion" . }}
metadata:
name: {{ template "cilium.hubble.relay.fullname" . }}
namespace: {{ include "common.names.namespace" . | quote }}
labels: {{- include "common.labels.standard" ( dict "customLabels" .Values.commonLabels "context" $ ) | nindent 4 }}
app.kubernetes.io/part-of: cilium
app.kubernetes.io/component: hubble-relay
{{- if .Values.commonAnnotations }}
annotations: {{- include "common.tplvalues.render" ( dict "value" .Values.commonAnnotations "context" $ ) | nindent 4 }}
{{- end }}
spec:
{{- $podLabels := include "common.tplvalues.merge" ( dict "values" ( list .Values.hubble.relay.podLabels .Values.commonLabels ) "context" . ) }}
podSelector:
matchLabels: {{- include "common.labels.matchLabels" ( dict "customLabels" $podLabels "context" $ ) | nindent 6 }}
app.kubernetes.io/part-of: cilium
app.kubernetes.io/component: hubble-relay
policyTypes:
- Ingress
- Egress
egress:
{{- if .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.allowExternalEgress }}
- {}
{{- else }}
- ports:
# Allow dns resolution
- port: 53
protocol: UDP
- port: 53
protocol: TCP
{{- if .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.extraEgress }}
{{- include "common.tplvalues.render" ( dict "value" .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.extraEgress "context" $ ) | nindent 4 }}
{{- end }}
{{- end }}
ingress:
- ports:
- port: {{ .Values.hubble.relay.containerPorts.grpc }}
{{- if .Values.hubble.relay.metrics.enabled }}
- port: {{ .Values.hubble.relay.containerPorts.metrics }}
{{- end }}
{{- range .Values.hubble.relay.extraContainerPorts }}
- port: {{ .containerPort }}
{{- end }}
{{- if not .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.allowExternal }}
from:
- podSelector:
matchLabels: {{- include "common.labels.matchLabels" ( dict "customLabels" .Values.commonLabels "context" $ ) | nindent 14 }}
{{- if .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.addExternalClientAccess }}
- podSelector:
matchLabels:
{{ template "common.names.fullname" . }}-client: "true"
{{- end }}
{{- if .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.ingressPodMatchLabels }}
- podSelector:
matchLabels: {{- include "common.tplvalues.render" (dict "value" .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.ingressPodMatchLabels "context" $ ) | nindent 14 }}
{{- end }}
{{- if .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.ingressNSMatchLabels }}
- namespaceSelector:
matchLabels: {{- include "common.tplvalues.render" (dict "value" .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.ingressNSMatchLabels "context" $ ) | nindent 14 }}
{{- if .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.ingressNSPodMatchLabels }}
podSelector:
matchLabels: {{- include "common.tplvalues.render" (dict "value" .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.ingressNSPodMatchLabels "context" $ ) | nindent 14 }}
{{- end }}
{{- end }}
{{- end }}
{{- if .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.extraIngress }}
{{- include "common.tplvalues.render" ( dict "value" .Values.hubble.relay.networkPolicy.extraIngress "context" $ ) | nindent 4 }}
{{- end }}
{{- end }}
``` |
The Massif de l'Esterel (Occitan Provençal: Esterèu; English: Esterel Massif) is a Mediterranean coastal mountain range in the departments of Var and Alpes-Maritimes on the French Riviera. Neighbouring cities are Mandelieu-la-Napoule and Cannes on the east, as well as Saint-Raphaël and Fréjus on the west.
The soil and rocks of the range are of volcanic origin, composed mainly of rhyolite, which gives the hills a red color. The terrain is rugged, with deep ravines and oak forests. The highest point of the massif is Mont Vinaigre (618 metres or 2,028 feet).
The massif covers an area of 320 km² (123.5 sqmi), of which 130 km² (50.1 sqmi) are protected by the Forêt domaniale de l'Esterel (national forest). The nature reserve offers hiking and mountain biking trails including the GR 49 and GR 51. The Esterel mountains also host the Pierre & Vacances holiday village Cap Esterel. The Corniche d'Or, a touristic road along the coast and Île d'Or, links Saint-Raphaël and Cannes.
Gallery
References
External links
Esterel massif: Picture Gallery
Landforms of Var (department)
Mountains of Alpes-Maritimes
Mountain ranges of Provence-Alpes-Côte d'Azur
Volcanism of France |
```objective-c
/*
*
* in the file LICENSE in the source distribution or at
* path_to_url
*
* Originally written by Mike Hamburg
*/
#ifndef OSSL_CRYPTO_EC_CURVE448_ARCH_32_F_IMPL_H
# define OSSL_CRYPTO_EC_CURVE448_ARCH_32_F_IMPL_H
# define GF_HEADROOM 2
# define LIMB(x) ((x) & ((1 << 28) - 1)), ((x) >> 28)
# define FIELD_LITERAL(a, b, c, d, e, f, g, h) \
{{LIMB(a), LIMB(b), LIMB(c), LIMB(d), LIMB(e), LIMB(f), LIMB(g), LIMB(h)}}
# define LIMB_PLACE_VALUE(i) 28
void gf_add_RAW(gf out, const gf a, const gf b)
{
unsigned int i;
for (i = 0; i < NLIMBS; i++)
out->limb[i] = a->limb[i] + b->limb[i];
}
void gf_sub_RAW(gf out, const gf a, const gf b)
{
unsigned int i;
for (i = 0; i < NLIMBS; i++)
out->limb[i] = a->limb[i] - b->limb[i];
}
void gf_bias(gf a, int amt)
{
unsigned int i;
uint32_t co1 = ((1 << 28) - 1) * amt, co2 = co1 - amt;
for (i = 0; i < NLIMBS; i++)
a->limb[i] += (i == NLIMBS / 2) ? co2 : co1;
}
void gf_weak_reduce(gf a)
{
uint32_t mask = (1 << 28) - 1;
uint32_t tmp = a->limb[NLIMBS - 1] >> 28;
unsigned int i;
a->limb[NLIMBS / 2] += tmp;
for (i = NLIMBS - 1; i > 0; i--)
a->limb[i] = (a->limb[i] & mask) + (a->limb[i - 1] >> 28);
a->limb[0] = (a->limb[0] & mask) + tmp;
}
#endif /* OSSL_CRYPTO_EC_CURVE448_ARCH_32_F_IMPL_H */
``` |
Frantzeskos or Franghias Kavertzas (, 1590/1600-1648) was a Greek painter. His painting style resembles the late Cretan School or early Greek Baroque period. His work was influenced by Georgios Klontzas, Michael Damaskinos and Emmanuel Tzanfournaris. He was active in Crete during the early part of the 17th century roughly after the death of Georgios Klontzas. He painted two icons that are very similar to Klontzas's most notable pieces. Theodore Poulakis also painted similar themes. Kavertzas artwork incorporates the Venetian school. His works influenced Leos Moskos. His most notable works are the Last Judgement, In You Rejoiceth.
History
Kavertzas was born in Heraklion. His father's name was Pavlos. He married Manea Sophianou's sister. Kavertzas had three sons. His first son Pavlos was a painter. There are some records with his signature between 1615 and 1647. He owned property in Crete and Italy. On March 9, 1641, a nun named Evgenia Trapezontiopoulla owed him money for the Last Judgement painting. She could not pay him in money. She bartered with Kavertzas instead. A nun also appears in the lower portion of the Last Judgement painting. Kavertzas had an active and very successful workshop in Crete during the early part of the 17th century before it fell to the Ottomans.
Kavertzas belonged to the late Cretan School. His art was influenced by Georgios Klontzas and Michael Damaskinos. He influenced the art of Leos Moskos and his Last Judgment painting. Other artists active in Crete around this time were Emmanuel Tzanes, Philotheos Skoufos, and Ieremias Palladas. He painted icons for churches and private collections. His patrons were both Italian and Greek.
All Creation Rejoices In Thee
Kavertzas icon hymn In You rejoices was inspired by Klontzas and the hymn that was composed by the Syrian monk John of Damascus. It was used in the Divine Liturgy of Saint Basil the Great during the Liturgy of the Faithful. The hymn is as follows:
Both Kavertzas and Theodore Poulakis's paintings were influenced by Georgios Klontzas. Kavertzas does not include the pictural representation of the Hymn to the Virgin but is often referred to as the Hymn to the Virgin due to its similarity to both Poulakis and Klontzas work. The theme became extremely popular and desirable among patrons. Theodore Poulakis's version is similar to Klontzas's In Thee Rejoiceth while Kavertzas painting bears similarities but it exhibits its own characteristics. Kavertzas has fewer figures and the narratives are more apparent. However, Kavertzas grouping of the figures at the bottom clearly resembles Georgios Klontzas. The circles of themes also flow outwards.
See also
Greek scholars in the Renaissance
Andreas Karantinos
References
Bibliography
1648 deaths
Cretan Renaissance painters
People from Heraklion
17th-century Greek painters |
In cellular biology, inclusions are diverse intracellular non-living substances (ergastic substances) that are not bound by membranes. Inclusions are stored nutrients/deutoplasmic substances, secretory products, and pigment granules. Examples of inclusions are glycogen granules in the liver and muscle cells, lipid droplets in fat cells, pigment granules in certain cells of skin and hair, and crystals of various types. Cytoplasmic inclusions are an example of a biomolecular condensate arising by liquid-solid, liquid-gel or liquid-liquid phase separation.
These structures were first observed by O. F. Müller in 1786.
Examples
Glycogen: Glycogen is the most common form of glucose in animals and is especially abundant in cells of muscles, and liver. It appears in electron micrograph as clusters, or a rosette of beta particles that resemble ribosomes, located near the smooth endoplasmic reticulum. Glycogen is an important energy source of the cell; therefore, it will be available on demand. The enzymes responsible for glycogenolysis degrade glycogen into individual molecules of glucose and can be utilized by multiple organs of the body.
Lipids: Lipids are triglycerides in storage form is the common form of inclusions, not only are stored in specialized cells (adipocytes) but also are located as individuals droplets in various cell type especially hepatocytes. These are fluid at body temperature and appear in living cells as refractile spherical droplets. Lipid yields more than twice as many calories per gram as does carbohydrate. On demand, they serve as a local store of energy and a potential source of short carbon chains that are used by the cell in its synthesis of membranes and other lipid containing structural components or secretory products.
Crystals: Crystalline inclusions have long been recognized as normal constituents of certain cell types such as Sertoli cells and Leydig cells of the human testis, and occasionally in macrophages. It is believed that these structures are crystalline forms of certain proteins which is located everywhere in the cell such as in nucleus, mitochondria, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi body, and free in cytoplasmic matrix.
Pigments: The most common pigment in the body, besides hemoglobin of red blood cells is melanin, manufactured by melanocytes of the skin and hair, pigments cells of the retina and specialized nerve cells in the substantia nigra of the brain. These pigments have protective functions in skin and aid in the sense of sight in the retina but their functions in neurons is not understood completely. Furthermore, cardiac tissue and central nervous system neurons shows yellow to brown pigment called lipofuscin, some believed that they have lysosomal activity.
References
Biochemistry |
Primera División de Republica Dominicana was the former top division of the Federación Dominicana de Fútbol. Established in 1970, since 2002 this competition serves as second level to the Liga Mayor (see below). The 2005 edition also was played without clubs from the 2004–05 Liga Mayor - apart from the relegated teams Jarabacoa and Santo Domingo Savio (La Vega). In 2015 the league was replaced by Liga Dominicana de Fútbol, the first professional football league in Dominican Republic.
2012-13 standings
1.Moca FC 14 11 2 1 35- 5 35 Champions
2.Universidad O&M FC 14 9 3 2 29- 7 30
3.Bauger FC 14 8 3 3 27-14 27
4.Club Deportivo Pantoja 14 6 4 4 27-15 22
5.San Cristóbal FC 14 5 4 5 23-21 19
6.Bayaguana FC 14 4 2 8 15-35 14
7.Club Barcelona Atlético (Sporting Santo Domingo) 14 2 1 11 17-38 7
8.Jarabacoa FC 14 1 1 12 12-50 4
Liga Mayor - 2016 Teams
Atlántico FC (Puerto Plata)
Atlético San Cristóbal (San Cristóbal)
Atlético Vega Real (La Vega)
Bauger FC (Santo Domingo)
Cibao FC (Santiago de los Caballeros)
Club Atlético Pantoja (Santo Domingo)
Club Barcelona Atlético (Santo Domingo)
Delfines del Este FC (La Romana)
Moca FC (Moca)
O&M FC (Santo Domingo)
Previous winners
Primera División
1970 : España FC (Santo Domingo)
1971 : España FC (Santo Domingo)
1972 : UCMM (Santiago de los Caballeros)
1973 : UCMM (Santiago de los Caballeros)
1974 : UCMM (Santiago de los Caballeros)
1975 : Unknown
1976 : Don Bosco (Moca)
1977 : Don Bosco (Moca)
1978 : Don Bosco (Moca)
1979 : Unknown
1980 : Unknown
1981 : Universidad Autónoma (Santo Domingo)
1982 : Unknown
1983 : Unknown
1984 : Unknown
1985 : Don Bosco (Moca)
1986 : Don Bosco (Moca)
1987 : Don Bosco (Moca)
1988–89 : Universidad Autónoma (Santo Domingo)
1989–90 : Universidad Autónoma (Santo Domingo)
1991 : Bancredicard (San Cristóbal)
1992 : Bancredicard (San Cristóbal)
1993 : San Cristóbal FC
1994 : Bancredicard (San Cristóbal)
1995 : Don Bosco (Moca)
1997 : Domingo Savio (La Vega)
1998 : FC Santos (San Cristóbal)
1999 : Don Bosco (Moca)
2000–01 : CD Pantoja
2001–02 : Unknown
2002–03 : CD Pantoja (or Domingo Savio (La Vega))
2003–04 : Casa de España
2005 : Jarabacoa
2006 : Domingo Savio (La Vega)
Liga Mayor
2001–02 : Baninter (Jarabacoa)
2002–03 : Baninter (Jarabacoa)
2004–05 : CD Pantoja
2007 : Club Barcelona Atlético (Santo Domingo)
2009 : CD Pantoja
2010 : Moca FC
2011–12 : CD Pantoja
2012–13 : Moca FC
2014 : Moca FC
Best scorers
Multiple hat-tricks
References
External links
Official Website
Dominican Republic - List of Champions, RSSSF.com
Football competitions in the Dominican Republic
Dom
1970 establishments in the Dominican Republic
Sports leagues established in 1970
2015 disestablishments in the Dominican Republic
Sports leagues disestablished in 2015 |
Inamdar may refer to:
Inamdar (feudal title)
Inamdar (surname) |
Tucanje () is a village in the municipality of Petnjica, Montenegro.
The village has been subject to widespread ridicule (mostly over the internet) in recent years, due to the word "Tucanje" carrying an alternative meaning in Serbo-Croatian, as the Nominative case of a verb denoting sexual intercourse.
Demographics
According to the 2011 census, its population was 289.
References
Populated places in Petnjica Municipality |
Winogradskyella pulchriflava is a bacterium from the genus Winogradskyella which has been isolated from sediments from the Sea of Japan in Korea.
References
Flavobacteria
Bacteria described in 2013 |
"Gnat" is a song by American rapper Eminem from the deluxe edition of his eleventh studio album Music to Be Murdered By. It was released on December 18, 2020 along with the rest of Music to Be Murdered By: Side B (Deluxe Edition) and Cole Bennett-directed music video. It was written by Eminem and producer D.A. Got That Dope, alongside Anders Olofsson, Christopher S Torpey, Ezemdi Chikwendu, D. Levin, and K. Mars.
The song debuted at number 65 on the UK Singles Chart and number 11 on the UK R&B Singles Chart.
Music video
The music video for "Gnat" marks the second collaboration between Eminem and Lyrical Lemonade, as Cole Bennett previously directed music video for "Godzilla".
In the music video, Eminem fights off a swarm of oversized bats in a yellow hazmat suit and other personal protective equipment gear, wipes down every surface with Lysol, gets paranoid about catching the COVID-19 to earn his freedom from quarantine, gets shot in the chest by a cuckolded husband after he dissed his wife, and bites the head off a bat. In some parts of the music video, Eminem is seen wearing a red tuxedo, a homage to the music video of "My Name Is". Additionally, he also wears a similar outfit from the "Space Bound" music video.
Machine Gun Kelly line
In the chorus of the song, the lines "They come at me with machine guns, it's like trying to fight off a gnat" sparked an online debate about whether the "machine gun" mention was intended as a subliminal shot towards American rapper Machine Gun Kelly, who tweeted: "I'm under your skin" with an upside down smiley face emoji.
Personnel
Marshall Mathers – main artist, vocals, songwriter
David Doman – producer, songwriter
Luis Resto – keyboards
Mike Strange – recording, mixing
Tony Campana – recording
Charts
References
2020 songs
Eminem songs
Songs written by Eminem
Songs written by D.A. Got That Dope
Music videos directed by Cole Bennett |
Shahrdari Yasuj Football Club is an Iranian football club based in Yasuj, Iran. They currently compete in the Iran Football's 2nd Division.
History
Shahrdari Yasuj Football Club was founded in 2009, in their first year the team placed second in their grouping, gaining promotion to the Azadegan League.
In 2012, they historically beat Iran Pro League side Mes Kerman 4–1 in the Hazfi Cup to advance to the round of 16.
Season-by-season
The table below chronicles the achievements of the club in various competitions.
Players
As of July 1, 2013
First-team squad
References
Football clubs in Iran
Association football clubs established in 2009 |
The 2021 Ladbrokes Players Championship Finals was the fourteenth edition of the PDC darts tournament, which saw the top 64 players from the Players Championship events of 2021 taking part. The tournament took place from 26–28 November 2021 at the Butlin's Resort, Minehead, returning to its usual venue after being held behind closed doors at the Ricoh Arena in Coventry in 2020.
Michael van Gerwen was the two-time defending champion after defeating Mervyn King 11–10 in the 2020 final, but lost to Peter Wright at the quarter-final stage. This was the first time since 2014 that van Gerwen failed to reach the final.
Wright went on to win the tournament for the first time, defeating Ryan Searle 11–10 in the final.
Prize money
The 2021 Players Championship Finals had a total prize fund of £500,000, the same amount that was available in 2019 and 2020.
The following is the breakdown of the fund:
Qualification
The top 64 players from the Players Championships Order of Merit qualified, which is solely based on prize money won in the 30 Players Championships events during the season.
On 23 November, it was announced that Jamie Hughes was forced to withdraw after testing positive for COVID-19. His place in the draw was taken by Jelle Klaasen, who was next on the list.
The following players qualified:
Top 64 in the Players Championship Order of Merit
Draw
Finals
Top half
Section 1
Section 2
Bottom half
Section 3
Section 4
References
Players Championship Finals
Players
Players
Players |
Thornton Oakley (March 27, 1881 – April 4, 1953) was an American artist and illustrator.
Biography
Thornton Oakley was born on Sunday, March 27, 1881, in Pittsburgh. He was the son of John Milton Oakley and Imogen Brashear Oakley. He graduated from Shady Side Academy in 1897, and studied at the University of Pennsylvania, receiving B.S. and M.S. degrees in architecture in 1901 and 1902.
Oakley began his study of illustration with Howard Pyle in 1902, working with him for three years, both at Pyle's winter studio on North Franklin St. in Wilmington, Delaware, and at his summer studio in Chadds Ford, Pennsylvania, which was situated in the old mill that now houses the Brandywine River Museum. Almost half a century later, Oakley described his first day with Pyle in an address he delivered at the Free Library of Philadelphia, on the occasion of which he also presented his collection of Pyleana – drawings, prints, books and other items, including letters and sketchbooks – to the Free Library:
Commenting about Pyle's evaluation of Oakley, author and illustrator Henry C. Pitz opined, "As time and practice revealed to Pyle, neither guess was wholly correct. Thornton Oakley never learned the nuances of color but had an ingrained predilection for the primaries, red, yellow and blue."
In March 1910, Thornton Oakley married Amy Ewing (1882–1963) of Philadelphia. Their daughter Lansdale Oakley became a frequent companion on their many trips abroad, during which Amy gathered material for her travel books, all of which were illustrated by Thornton (see Book Illustrations below).
Oakley became an illustrator and writer for periodicals, including Century, Collier's, Harper's Monthly and Scribner's. In the years 1914–1919 and 1921–1936 he was in charge of the Department of Illustration at the Philadelphia Museum School of Industrial Art. In 1914–1915 he also taught drawing at the University of Pennsylvania, and gave lectures at the Art Institute of Chicago, the Metropolitan Museum of Art, and the Curtis Institute. He was a member of the jury of selection and advisory committee of the Department of Fine Arts at the Panama–Pacific International Exposition in San Francisco in 1915 and the Philadelphia Sesquicentennial Exposition in 1926.
During World War I, lithographs of his patriotic drawings of war work at the shipyard at Hog Island, Philadelphia were distributed by the United States government. In 1938–1939 he did six 12-foot mural panels for the Franklin Institute in Philadelphia on epochs in science. During World War II he did three sets of pictures of the war effort for National Geographic Magazine in 1942, 1943, and 1945. After the war he was commissioned to paint industrial subjects for the Pennsylvania Railroad, the Philadelphia Electric Company, Sun Oil, and other industries.
Oakley was deeply influenced by Howard Pyle's philosophy of illustration. In the 1951 address he delivered at the Free Library of Philadelphia, referred to above, he said, "We never heard one word from our beloved teacher concerning tools and methods. His utterances were only of the spirit, thought, philosophy, ideals, vision, purpose." Years earlier, in 1923, Oakley presided at the private viewing of the Howard Pyle Memorial Exhibition at the Philadelphia Art Alliance where reminiscences of Pyle were given by Elizabeth Green Elliott, Jessie Willcox Smith, George Harding, and Frank Schoonover. In praising Pyle, Oakley said, Oakley had previously expounded his own philosophy of illustration as a "pictorial making clear" in an entire essay on that subject in The American Magazine of Art in 1919.
Throughout his career, Oakley was a member of many cultural institutions and clubs. He was a charter member of the Philadelphia Water Color Club in 1903, serving as its secretary from 1912 to 1938, at that time becoming its president. In 1932, in recognition of his artistic services to France, the Third French Republic decorated Oakley with the Palmes d'Officier d'Académie, an honor rarely conferred upon foreigners.
Thornton Oakley died in Bryn Mawr, Pennsylvania on Saturday, April 4, 1953, and is buried with his wife Amy at the Lower Marion Baptist Church Cemetery in Bryn Mawr.
Book illustrations
Among the books Oakley illustrated are:
A Son of the Desert by Bradley Gilman (1909, Century), an adventure novel for young readers (which was also serialized in St. Nicholas Magazine, 1908–1909)
New Geography, Book One by Alexis Everett Frye (1917, Ginn), a geography textbook co-illustrated with N.C. Wyeth
Westward Ho! by Charles Kingsley (1920, George W. Jacobs), a newer edition of an 1855 historical novel
Philadelphia by Horace Mather Lippincott (1926, Macrae Smith), for which Oakley also wrote the foreword
The Autobiography of Benjamin Franklin - a student edition, with questions, notes, and a continuation of Franklin's life, by D.H. Montgomery (1927, Ginn)
Folk Tales of Brittany by Elsie Masson (1929, Macrae Smith), a book of fifteen Breton folk tales
Awake America! (1934, Macrae Smith), a book of 23 poems written by Oakley's mother, Imogen Brashear Oakley (1854-1933)
Six Historic Homesteads (1935 and 1962, University of Pennsylvania Press), a book describing six Colonial-era mansions, also written by his mother. Both of his mother's books were published posthumously to her death.
and, most notably, a series of eight travel books authored by his wife, Amy Oakley, each containing more than a hundred of his pen-and-ink illustrations:
Hill-Towns of the Pyrenees (1923, Century; 1924, John Long Ltd.)
Cloud-Lands of France (1927, Century)
Enchanted Brittany (1930, Century)
The Heart of Provence (1936, D. Appleton-Century)
Scandinavia Beckons (1938, D. Appleton-Century)
Behold the West Indies (1941 (1st), 1943 (2nd), D. Appleton-Century; 1951, Longmans Green)
Kaleidoscopic Quebec (1947, D. Appleton-Century; 1952, Longmans Green)
Our Pennsylvania: Keys to the Keystone State (1950, Bobbs-Merrill)
Though Oakley illustrated many books, he was the author of only one. In 1943, he published a short monograph as a tribute to his long-time friend and fellow artist, Cecilia Beaux, who had died in the previous year. Oakley met Beaux when he was only 17, and he remained one of Beaux's closest friends until the end of her life, even though she was 26 years his senior. Beaux achieved considerable fame as a portrait artist, and Oakley included a 1911 sketch that Beaux drew of him in the book. His wife Amy's book, The Heart of Provence (q.v.), was also dedicated to Beaux.
Magazine illustrations
The following list is representative of the many magazines for which Oakley produced illustrations.
In most instances, he illustrated the articles of others, but for some articles, he was both author and illustrator:
The American Magazine of Art - 1919, 1925
Appleton's Magazine - 1907
Asia - 1918
Century - 1905-1912, 1916-1919
Collier's - 1904-1918
Everybody's - 1906-1909
Harper's Monthly Magazine - 1905, 1906, 1907, 1908–1915, 1916, 1918
International Studio - 1913, 1915
Ladies' Home Journal - 1908
Leslie's - 1904
Metropolitan - 1907-1910
National Geographic Magazine - 1942, 1943, 1945
Nation's Business - 1919
Pennsylvania Magazine - 1947
Scientific American - 1918
St. Nicholas Magazine - 1908-1909
Scribner's Magazine - 1905-1916
System - 1909
The Forum - 1926-1927
Western Pennsylvania Historical Magazine - 1948
One notable magazine article, which Oakley wrote but did illustrate, was a tribute to his friend and fellow artist, Lucy Scarborough Conant, who had recently died.
In this article, written in 1921, Oakley presented his own definition of an artist:
See also
Brandywine School
References
External links
The Brandywine River Museum maintains a collection of Thornton Oakley memorabilia, including news clippings, business correspondence, sketchbooks, personal diaries, and other materials, all donated by his daughter Lansdale in 1981.
1881 births
1953 deaths
American illustrators
19th-century American painters
American male painters
20th-century American painters
University of the Arts (Philadelphia) faculty
University of Pennsylvania alumni
Shady Side Academy alumni
19th-century American male artists
20th-century American male artists |
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The Army Public School, Bhopal is a secondary school established in 1978 by the former Commander, Madhya Pradesh Sub Area, Brigadier K.P. Pande, MVC, FRGS in the form of Bal Vidya Vihar with the vision of providing low cost and quality education to the wards of defence personnel. It became Army Public School in Bairagarh in the barracks of 3 EME Centre.
It was inaugurated by Lt Gen Chandra Shekher, AVSM GOC21 Corps, and Founder Chairman Brig Ramesh Bhatia, VSM & Bar, Cdr MP Sub Area on 17 July 1995.
Class X started in 1997 and Class XII started in 2000. 11 batches have passed out since the 2000-01 session.
The school was renamed Army Public School, Bhopal, and is operated by the Indian Army.
Affiliation
Central Board of Secondary Education, Affiliation No. 1080008
Streams
Science, Commerce & Humanities (XI & XII)
Infrastructure
Army Public School, Bhopal is presently functioning in its new premises with all amenities and infrastructure constructed under Major Works Project of Army Headquarters, New Delhi, located at Dronanchal Neori Hills with its new identity as Army Public School, Bhopal. The new building at Dronanchal was inaugurated on 25 July 2008 by Kirti Kapoor (wife of General Deepak Kapoor PVSM, AVSM, SM, VSM, ADC), President, Central FWO (Family Welfare Organization).
School statistics
Number of students: 2160
Number of rooms: 116
Classrooms: 40
Number of sections: 52
Teaching staff: 82
Non Teaching staf: 41
Labs: 3
IT labs: 4
Libraries: 2
The school also has Mini Audi, Conf. Hall, Management Office, Visitor Room, AV Room, Canteen, Stationery Shop, Principal's Office, Art Room, Science Labs, Computer Labs, Library, Music Room, Sports Room, Dance Room, and Playway Room.
External links
Army School, Bhopal website
References
1978 establishments in Madhya Pradesh
Indian Army Public Schools
Educational institutions established in 1978
High schools and secondary schools in Madhya Pradesh
Schools in Bhopal |
Puppet on a String may refer to:
Puppet on a String (album), by Sandie Shaw, 1967
"Puppet on a String" (Sandie Shaw song)
"Puppet on a String" (Elvis Presley song), 1965
"Puppet on a String" (Jo Jo Zep & The Falcons song), 1980 |
The 2023–24 Maltese National Amateur League (referred to, for sponsorship reasons, as the IZIBet National Amateur League) is taking place between August 2023 and April 2024. This is the fourth season since the Second and Third divisions were unified into the two-group Amateur League system. The Maltese National Amateur League is Malta's third-highest professional football division. The 2023-24 League winners will be promoted to the Maltese Challenge League.
Team changes
The following teams have changed divisions since the 2022–23 season:
Teams
Twenty-Three teams competed in the 2023-24 League. These teams were split into two groups.
Managerial changes
Venues
League stage
Group A
<onlyinclude>
Group A Results
Group B
<onlyinclude>
Group B Results
Championship final
Relegation play-offs
Semi Finals
Final
Season statistics
Scoring
Top scorers
Hat-tricks
Notes
6 Player scored 6 goals
5 Player scored 5 goals
Clean sheets
Discipline
Player
Most yellow cards: 3
Jamie Mifsud (Marsaskala)
Dylan Zarb (Mqabba)
Shylon Vella (Siggiewi)
Most red cards: 2
Liam Ciantar (Vittoriosa Stars)
Club
Most yellow cards: 17
St. George's
Most red cards: 3
Mellieħa
Vittoriosa Stars
References
External links
Official website
2023–24 in European third tier association football leagues
2023–24 in Maltese football |
Maialen García Galarraga (born 5 April 1990) is a Spanish field hockey player for the Spanish national team.
She participated at the 2018 Women's Hockey World Cup.
References
1990 births
Living people
Spanish female field hockey players
Sportspeople from San Sebastián
Field hockey players from the Basque Country (autonomous community) |
Silakbo is a 1995 Philippine action crime film directed by Joel Lamangan. The film stars Cesar Montano, Alice Dixson, Anjanette Abayari, Marjorie Barretto and Joko Diaz.
Plot
Andy Gil, an agent of the National Bureau of Investigation was tasked to team-up with his ex-girlfriend Barbara "Bang" Briones and Rudy, to investigate the notorious serial killer. The serial killer has killed numerous women in Metro Manila, most of them are pick-up girls. His modus operandi, he would invite his victim, and there, he would kill them, by stabbing his victim from her throat, going down to her bellybutton. The latest victim is an accountant named Lolita Zacarias. But, Andy theorized that it might be a mimic killer, or someone who mimics the serial killer's style, who was behind the killing of Zacarias.
Andy is also in a toxic relationship with Tina Roman. The two began living together since Andy and Bang broke up. Andy is not comfortable with Bang, but Bang tried to be professional. Andy would met Cherry Acosta, who said that she knows about the serial killer. Saying, that she was threatened to kill by that killer and he attacked her. She would later identity the attacker as Mario Felix. Andy's superior Greg decided to have Cherry be put under the Witness Protection Program. She was then brought to a safehouse. Andy would develop an intimate relationship with Cherry. Bang then checked on her records in the company where she's working. Greg might think that Cherry might be assigned to a different branch, but Bang said that what she checked are central files. Andy said that she's only a trainee. Bang said that there was no Mario Felix in the record. But, Andy said that they should have a manhunt operation. Greg decided to do what Andy and Bang suggested, have a manhunt operation on Mario Felix and setup a trap on the serial killer. Bang would go undercover as a pick-up girl in order to hunt down the killer. But, nothing progresses as the serial killer once again killed another victim. While on a bar, Bang who identified herself as Bambi met David. As she is about to take off David's clothes, she noticed a hunting knife. She radioed Rudy and told them that she already hunted the killer. David tried to take advantage of Bang but she escaped. Bang and Rudy would then fought David until Andy came and helped them. David would then fall from a high-rise building killing him instantly.
Bang would investigate about the murder of Lolita Zacarias. She then discovered that at the night of the murder, Andy was with her. Rudy would also identity the man who fell from the building as Leopoldo Natividad. Bang had Andy's fingerprints checked. According her, there are five points of similarities on Andy's fingerprints and on Lolita Zacarias. For Bang, Andy is the prime suspect in the case. Andy confronted Bang about it. He said that what she's doing is having vengeance against him after they've broke up. Mario Felix was then apprehended. Greg said that Andy and Cherry should be here in order for Cherry to identify him. But Mario said that Cherry's real name is Arlene Abas, who was wanted of swindling and estafa. Bang said that Cherry is taking advantage of the Witness Protection Program so that she could hide to all of her victims. Tina then reported to Greg about Andy's relationship with Cherry, which is unethical and immoral. Andy also found out about Cherry's identity and was given a three-day suspension. Andy would became furious at Cherry and was given 24 hours to leave the safe house. Andy then threaten Tina for slandering him. While Cherry was about to leave, the power switch suddenly turned off and she was stabbed. She has the same stabbing pattern as the pattern of the serial killer. She also learned that Andy was the last person with Cherry. Bang would then entrap Andy. Andy attempted to escape, but he was later arrested. He was released for bail. Tina called Bang and told her that Andy threatened her. She said that she has every evidence that will send him to jail. Bang went to a house where Tina would often go when she and Andy would fight. Bang said that she will protect Tina from Andy. Tina saw that Bang brought a gun. Bang called Rudy and he told her that Leopoldo Natividad is the serial killer. Because the textile fibers matched with the textile fibers of the first 5 victims except for Lolita Zacarias and Cherry Acosta. When asked if Andy is the mimic killer, Rudy said that its negative, and the skin cell of the killer that was found at Cherry's didn't match to Andy. Rudy theorized that the mimic killer is someone who has a huge grudge on Andy and to all women he had relationships with.
Tina would about to kill Bang, indicating that she's the mimic killer. Both Tina and Bang fought until Tina hit Bang with a rock. Rudy came and he was about to be killed by Tina. Andy would came and shot Tina as she was about to kill him. Both Andy and Rudy fought and as Tina is about to stab Andy, he stabbed her and she died. As Greg and the police came, Andy insisted that Tina is the mimic killer and he came to rescue Bang. But, Bang and Rudy told Andy that they now believe in him. Bang apologized to Andy for accusing him and indicting him in this case. Andy said that he was deeply hurt when he and Bang broke up. Bang said that she only wants to be the only woman in Andy's life and the two rekindled their love for each other.
Cast
Cesar Montano as Andy Gil
Alice Dixson as Barbara "Bang" Briones
Anjanette Abayari as Tin Roman
Marjorie Barretto as Cherry Acosta/Arlene Abas
Joko Diaz as Rudy
Robert Arevalo as Greg Macaspac
Rey PJ Abellana as David/Leopoldo Natividad
Alicia Alonzo as Lolit Zacarias' Mother
Dan Fernandez as Mario Felix
Renato del Prado as Mang Pete
Jim Pebanco as Young Executive
Alma Lerma as Landlady
Pocholo Montes as Attorney
Michelle Parton as Lolit Zacarias
Chiqui Pineda as Singer
Manding Fernandez as Dirty Old Man
Glydel Mercado as Chiqui
Dante Javier as Dante
Production
The initial cut of the film included a scene where a private part of Anjanette Abayari was shown while she was dancing. When director Joel Lamangan refused to remove that scene during post-production, Abayari consulted a lawyer. When the film was submitted to the Movie and Television Review and Classification Board for review, the board ruled in favor of Abayari and that scene was excluded on the final cut of the film.
References
External links
1995 films
1995 action films
Filipino-language films
Philippine action films
Viva Films films
Films directed by Joel Lamangan |
Run Uje Run () is a 2020 Swedish comedy-drama film directed by Henrik Schyffert and written by and starring . It won three Guldbagge Awards, including Best Film. The story follows a pop star with Parkinson's disease.
Run Uje Run marks Schyffert's feature film directorial debut. Brandelius' story is autobiographical.
Cast
Uje Brandelius – Uje
Bixi Brandelius
Vega Brandelius
Therese Hörnqvist
Irma Schultz – Radio producer
Release and reception
The film premiered at the 2020 Göteborg Film Festival, where it won the FIPRESCI Prize. Sveriges Television's review praised the film as both sad and humorous, and credited Brandelius with a good screenplay. Dagens Nyheter also positively reviewed the film's sad and humorous tone and called it beautiful.
At the 2021 Guldbagge Awards, the film received honours for Best Film and Best Actor and Best Screenplay for Brandelius. It was also nominated for Best Director for Schyffert; Best Cinematography for Frida Wendel; and Best Editing for Adi Omanovic.
References
External links
2020 films
2020 comedy-drama films
Best Film Guldbagge Award winners
Swedish comedy-drama films
2020s Swedish-language films |
The Balangiga massacre was an incident during the latter stages of the Philippine–American War in which the residents of the town of Balangiga on the island of Samar conducted a surprise attack on an occupying unit of the U.S. 9th Infantry, killing 54. The incident is also known as the Balangiga Encounter, Balangiga Incident, or Balangiga Conflict, Some Filipino historians have asserted that the term Balangiga Massacre more appropriately refers to the March across Samar, a subsequent action on the island that resulted in an estimated 2,000 Filipino civilians killed and over 200 homes burned, which they see as retaliation by American soldiers.
Background
The battle was a military operation planned by Captain Eugenio Daza of Area Commander of Vicente Lukbán's forces for Southeastern Samar, that took place in Balangiga in 1901 during the Philippine–American War. The attack was led by Valeriano Abanador the Jefe de la Policía (Chief of Police).
The operation
Prelude
Samar was a major centre for the production of Manila hemp, the trade of which was financing Philippine forces on the island. At the same time United States interests were eager to secure control of the hemp trade, which was a vital material both for the United States Navy and American agro-industries such as cotton.
Filipino forces in the area were under the command of General Vicente Lukbán who had been sent there in December 1898 to govern the island on behalf of the First Philippine Republic under Emilio Aguinaldo. Aguinaldo had been captured by American forces on March 23, 1901. On April 1, he had sworn allegiance to the U.S. and told his followers to lay down their arms and give up the fight.
On May 30, 1901, prior to the stationing of any Americans in Balangiga, town mayor Pedro Abayan had written to Lukban pledging to "observe a deceptive policy with [Americans] doing whatever they may like, and when a favorable opportunity arises, the people will strategically rise against them."
In the summer of 1901, Brigadier General Robert P. Hughes, who commanded the Department of the Visayas and was responsible for Samar, instigated an aggressive policy of food deprivation and property destruction on the island. The objective was to force the end of Philippine resistance. Part of his strategy was to close three key ports on the southern coast, Basey, Balangiga and Guiuan.
On August 11, 1901, Company C of the 9th U.S. Infantry Regiment, arrived in Balangiga—the third largest town on the southern coast of Samar island—to close its port and prevent supplies reaching Philippine forces in the interior, Abaya's letter to Lukban had been among papers captured by American troops on August 18; it read, in translation:
However, this information never reached the American troops in Balangiga.
Relations between the soldiers and the townspeople seemed amicable for the first month of the American presence in the town; indeed it was marked by extensive fraternization between the two parties. This took the form of tuba (palm wine) drinking among the soldiers and male villagers, baseball games and arnis demonstrations. However, tensions rose due to several reasons: Captain Thomas W. Connell, commanding officer of the American unit in Balangiga, ordered the town cleaned up in preparation for a visit by the U.S. Army's inspector-general. However, in complying with his directive, the townspeople inadvertently cut down vegetation with food value, in violation of Lukbán's policies regarding food security. As a consequence, on September 18, 1901, around 400 guerrillas sent by Lukbán appeared in the vicinity of Balangiga. They were to mete sanctions upon the town officials and local residents for violating Lukbán's orders regarding food security and for fraternizing with the Americans. The threat was probably defused by Captain Eugenio Daza, a member of Lukbán's staff, and by the parish priest, Father Donato Guimbaolibot.
A few days later, Connell had the town's male residents rounded up and detained for the purpose of hastening his clean-up operations. Around 80 men were kept in two Sibley tents unfed overnight. In addition, Connell had the men's bolos and the stored rice for their tables confiscated. These events sufficiently insulted and angered the townspeople, and they planned revenge against the Americans.
A few days before the attack, Valeriano Abanador, the town's police chief, and Captain Daza met to plan the attack on the American unit. To address the issue of sufficient manpower to offset the Americans' advantage in firepower, Abanador and Daza disguised the congregation of men as a work force aimed at preparing the town for a local fiesta which, incidentally, also served to address Connell's preparations for his superior's visit. Abanador also brought in a group of "tax evaders" to bolster their numbers. Much palm wine was brought in to ensure that the American soldiers would be drunk the day after the fiesta. Hours before the attack, women and children were sent away to safety. To mask the disappearance of the women from the dawn service in the church, 34 men from Barrio Lawaan cross-dressed as women worshippers. These "women", carrying small coffins, were challenged by Sergeant Scharer of the sentry post about the town plaza near the church. Opening one of the coffins with his bayonet, he saw the body of a dead child who, he was told, was a victim of a cholera epidemic. Abashed, he let the women pass on. Unbeknownst to the sentries, the other coffins hid the bolos and other weapons of the attackers.
There is much conflict between accounts by members of Company C. That day, the 27th, was the 52nd anniversary of the founding of the parish, an occasion on which an image of a recumbent Christ known as a Santo Entierro would have been carried around the parish. In modern times these Santo Entierros are enclosed in a glass case but at the time were commonly enclosed in a wooden box.
Attack on American soldiers
Between 6:20 and 6:45 in the morning of September 28, 1901, the villagers made their move. Abanador, who had been supervising the prisoners' communal labor in the town plaza, grabbed the rifle of Private Adolph Gamlin, one of the American sentries, and stunned him with a blow to the head. This served as the signal for the rest of the communal laborers in the plaza to rush the other sentries and soldiers of Company C, who were mostly having breakfast in the mess area. Abanador then gave a shout, signaling the other Philippine men to the attack and fired Gamlin's rifle at the mess tent, hitting one of the soldiers. The pealing of the church bells and the sounds from conch shells being blown followed seconds later. Some of the Company C troopers were attacked and hacked to death before they could grab their rifles; the few who survived the initial onslaught fought almost bare-handed, using kitchen utensils, steak knives, and chairs. One private used a baseball bat to fend off the attackers before being overwhelmed.
The men detained in the Sibley tents broke out and made their way to the municipal hall. Simultaneously, the attackers hidden in the church broke into the parish house and killed the three American officers there. An unarmed Company C soldier was ignored, as was Captain Connell's Philippine houseboy. The attackers initially occupied the parish house and the municipal hall; however, the attack at the mess tents and the barracks failed, with Pvt. Gamlin, recovering consciousness and managing to secure another rifle, caused considerable casualties among the Philippine forces. With the initial surprise wearing off and the attack degrading, Abanador called for the attackers to break off and retreat. The surviving Company C soldiers, led by Sergeant Frank Betron, escaped by sea to Basey and Tanauan, Leyte. The townspeople buried their dead and abandoned the town.
Of the 74 men in Company C, 36 were killed in action, including all its commissioned officers: Captain Thomas W. Connell, First Lieutenant Edward A. Bumpus and Major Richard S. Griswold. Twenty-two were wounded in action and four were missing in action. Eight died later of wounds received in combat; only four escaped unscathed. The villagers captured about 100 rifles and 25,000 rounds of ammunition and suffered 28 dead and 22 wounded.
Aftermath
This was described as the "worst defeat of United States Army soldiers since the Battle of the Little Bighorn in 1876".
Legacy
The attack and subsequent actions on Samar remain some of the longest-running and most controversial issues between the Philippines and the United States. Conflicting interpretations by American and Philippine historians have confused the issue. The attack has been termed Balangiga Massacre in many English language sources. However, Philippine historian Teodoro Agoncillo has asserted that the term Balangiga massacre properly refers to the burning of the town by U.S. forces following the attack and to retaliatory acts during the March across Samar. Other Philippine sources also employ this usage. In U.S. sources, however, the term massacre is used to refer to this attack.
Factual disputes
Several factual inaccuracies in early published accounts have surfaced over the years as historians continue to re-investigate the Balangiga incident. These include:
Schott and Rey Imperial assert that Company C of the 9th US Infantry was sent to Balangiga in response to a request by its then-Mayor Pedro Abayan. This is based solely on a claim by George Meyer, a Company C survivor, in support of efforts to secure the Medal of Honor. Author Bob Couttie asserts that the American unit was sent there to close Balangiga's port.
James Taylor's account inspired another author, William T. Sexton, to write that the American soldiers were "butchered like hogs" in Soldiers in the Sun. However, Eugenio Daza wrote, "The Filipino believes that the profanation of the dead necessarily brings bad luck and misfortune ... there was no time to lose for such acts [after the Balangiga attack]."
Gallery
Cultural references
See also
Balangiga bells, on the taking of the bells as spoils of war in 1901 and their return to the Philippines in 2018
Eugenio Daza
Vicente Lukban
History of the Philippines (1898–1946)
Timeline of the Philippine–American War
Campaigns of the Philippine–American War
Notes
References
Further reading
, (e-book)
1901 in the Philippines
Massacres in 1901
Conflicts in 1901
Battles involving the United States
Battles of the Philippine–American War
History of Eastern Samar
September 1901 events
Visayan history
Mass murder in the Philippines
Anti-Americanism |
Dr. Thomas "Tommy" Oliver is a fictional character and the overarching main protagonist of the American live-action television franchise Power Rangers. He is best known as being the original Green Ranger and the first evil Ranger who fought and nearly defeated the original Power Rangers while under the control of Rita Repulsa. He was eventually freed from Rita’s spell and aligned himself with the other Power Rangers. He is a main character in the Mighty Morphin Power Rangers TV series, as well as four of its successive incarnations Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers, Power Rangers Zeo, Power Rangers Turbo, and Power Rangers Dino Thunder (where he returns as a legendary Power Ranger veteran). He also appeared in the Power Rangers Wild Force episode "Forever Red", the Power Rangers S.P.D. episode "Wormhole", the Power Rangers Super Megaforce episode "Legendary Battle", and in the Power Rangers Super Ninja Steel episode "Dimensions in Danger". He was portrayed by actor Jason David Frank in all of his appearances from the Zordon era until Saban Brands era's seasons of the franchise prior to his death in November 2022, with the exception of the episode "Wormhole", where he appeared only in Ranger form and was voiced by actor Jeffrey Parazzo (who played Trent Mercer in Dino Thunder). He was also infrequently portrayed by actor Michael Gotto in instances where the story required the character during childhood, such as in the series Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers.
According to the character's history, Tommy is a legend among the Power Rangers community and is considered to be the greatest Power Ranger of all time, having been six different Power Rangers — The Green Ranger, The White Ranger, The White Ninja Ranger, Zeo Ranger V – Red, The Red Turbo Ranger, and The Black Dino Ranger — and a part of four Ranger teams over the years. In addition, Tommy is a lifelong practitioner of the martial arts; during the first season of Power Rangers, he was referred to as having a third-degree black belt in karate. By Power Rangers Dino Thunder, he is a 6th degree black belt. ("Return of the Ranger", Power Rangers Dino Thunder – Collision Course DVD). Tommy serves as a love interest to the original Pink Ranger Kimberly Hart before their separation. He later pursues a relationship with Kimberly's successor Kat Hillard.
Fictional character history
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers
As the Green Ranger
Tommy Oliver is first introduced in the Mighty Morphin Power Rangers five-part episode "Green With Evil" as a new student at Angel Grove High School. After he spars with Jason Lee Scott (Red Power Ranger) in a martial arts tournament, they begin to develop a friendship, and he catches the eye of both Kimberly Hart (Pink Power Ranger) and the evil witch Rita Repulsa. Rita decides to enchant Tommy to be her loyal servant, granting him the Dragon Power Coin to give him the power to transform into the evil Green Power Ranger. Unlike the other Power Rangers, his outfit includes golden chest armor, two golden armbands, triangles instead of diamonds on the gloves and boots, and his power morpher was golden instead of silver. Tommy was the only ranger to also carry his main weapon, The Dragon Dagger or Dragon Flute in a holster at all times which had the ability to call on his zords. While under Rita’s spell, Tommy was completely under her control and followed every command given. He was also significantly stronger than the other Rangers and could fire powerful energy blasts from his hands. To ensure Tommy’s loyalty, Rita granted him the Sword of Darkness which not only made him more powerful but also made her spell indefinite unless the sword was destroyed.
She orders him to destroy the Power Rangers and their guardian Zordon so she may be able to conquer the Earth unopposed. He succeeds in his mission, dispatching Zordon, destroying the Power Rangers' Command Center, and infecting the robot Alpha 5 with a computer virus, leaving the Rangers defenseless against attacks, but they are still able to ward him off with the Megazord. With the return of Goldar's wife Scorpina, the two wreak havoc in Angel Grove, leading the Power Rangers to use the Megazord once more, only to be attacked by Goldar, Scorpina, and the Green Ranger at once, putting the Megazord out of commission when it is thrown into the Earth's core.
After this battle, the Power Rangers discover that their foe is none other than their classmate Tommy. After Tommy escapes, he is given the Dragon Dagger to summon the Dragonzord to attack the city. Zordon is revived and reveals the Power Rangers' Dinozords have been restored by the Earth's lava, allowing them to counter the Dragonzord's attack. The Red Ranger is then able to battle the Green Ranger one-on-one, and destroys the Sword of Darkness, freeing Tommy from Rita's spell. Zordon then offers Tommy a part on the team to atone for his misdeeds, and he agrees. In the original draft script for the Green Dream, Lord Zedd claims the Sword of Power was created from the remains of the Sword of Darkness. This is also stated by the announcer's intro to The Green Dream episode claiming it to be the Sword of Darkness.
During his time with the group, Tommy recognizes Kimberly's feelings, having broken her heart while he was under Rita's spell, and he now begins to show affections for her. However, Rita's plan to use the evil Green Candle to get revenge on Tommy for leaving her employ, weakening Tommy, just as Kimberly returns his affections. Tommy is captured by Goldar and kept imprisoned in the Dark Dimension as the Green Candle burns down, draining him of his strength, due to the fact that Tommy's presence within the proximity of the Candle accelerates the Candle's burning process. Tommy is ultimately freed, but not before the Green Candle burns through completely. His powers nearly gone, after using them in one final battle with a powerful monster, he decides to give the Dragon Coin to Jason, permanently preventing Rita from attaining its power once more while allowing Jason to use Tommy's weapons and the Dragonzord. Tommy then leaves Angel Grove to recover from the endeavour.
After Rita kidnaps all of the parents of the students of Angel Grove High School, the Power Rangers are forced to pay her ransom with their Power Coins, preventing them from using their powers. When they are double-crossed, and Rita acquires the Dragon Dagger by enchanting Billy Cranston, all seems hopeless, but Jason reveals he still has the Dragon Power Coin. The group finds Tommy once more, and with help from Zordon, Tommy is able to morph into the Green Ranger and retrieve the Power Coins and Dragon Dagger. However, his powers are now unstable and he requires constant energy boosts from Zordon in order to maintain his place as the Green Ranger.
With the arrival of the evil Lord Zedd in season 2, the other Power Rangers are given new Thunderzords to battle his stronger monsters, but because of Tommy's unstable power reserves, the Dragonzord cannot be empowered into a new form. While under a spell Tommy suggests that if he had the Sword of Power that might increase his powers. When the other rangers agree they summon the Sword of Power together and Tommy's evil spell was revealed. The spell where's off and Tommy fights Robogoat to recover the Sword of Power. With this knowledge in mind, Lord Zedd sends several energy draining monsters to steal the Green Ranger's powers to the point where Zordon can no longer safely maintain himself and the Green Ranger. This culminates in the attack of the monster Turbanshell, who drains Tommy of his Green Ranger powers, trapping everyone in the Otherworld dimension, while charging the Dark Crystal to power Lord Zedd's evil Dark Rangers to attack the Earth. Tommy uses the last of his powers to destroy the Dark Crystal, ending the reign of terror of the Dark Rangers and allowing the others to defeat Turbanshell. With his powers gone once again, Tommy leaves Angel Grove, again, spending time at his uncle's lakeside cabin.
As the White Ranger
In season 2's two-part "White Light" saga, Lord Zedd sends his monsters Nimrod, A.C., and D.C. to attack, who easily overpower the Power Rangers, leading Zordon and Alpha to come up with a plan to recruit a new Ranger. Initially the teens are put off at the idea of a newcomer out of their loyalty to Tommy, but are thrilled once they discover that it is actually Tommy himself, who has now become the White Power Ranger with his powers created by the Light of Goodness, which are unable to be stolen by the forces of evil. Unlike other Power Rangers, his costume includes a black and golden shield armor as well as golden bands instead of the diamond shapes on the gloves and chest, and the mouthpiece on his helmet lacks sculpted lips. After being installed as the team's new leader (also becoming the main protagonist), Tommy goes into battle using his new powers to defeat the monsters, including summoning the Tigerzord with his talking saber Saba. Tommy then meets Rocky DeSantos, Adam Park and Aisha Campbell as they were trying to save a baby who belongs to their teacher.
After Rocky, Adam and Aisha discover Tommy's identity as the White Ranger while Tommy and Kimberly were trying to save Billy by removing his helmet, Jason, Zack and Trini were called to the peace conference in Switzerland as Tommy transfers their powers to Rocky, Adam and Aisha and allows them to join the team. Tommy later contends with a clone of his named "Tom", created and controlled by Lord Zedd's Wizard of Deception, who is given the powers of the Green Ranger, restored by using portion of the White Ranger's powers. With his worst fear from his past brought to life in front of him, Tommy battles Tom, initially seeks to destroy his clone under distress but he later recognizes that Tom is actually not evil but under the Wizard's spell as he was under Rita's, and then fights to save him. After the Wizard of Deception is destroyed during a series of battles that sends everyone back to the colonial era, Tom is freed from the spell and given free will. Tommy persuades his clone to fight to save people, and Tom decides to remain in the past to protect colonial Angel Grove despite Tommy offering Tom to join the Power Rangers, while the others return to the present time. Tom also keeps the Green Ranger powers.
As the White Ninja Ranger
In season 3, Rita's brother Rito Revolto comes to Earth and manages to destroy the Rangers Zords and Power Coins. After the group seeks out the Power Coins creator Ninjor, he grants the team new Ninja Power Coins, and Tommy as the White Ninja Ranger receives the Falcon Power Coin and the new Falconzord. Later, Tommy meets Kat Hillard, who has been enchanted by Rita into serving her, resulting in Kimberly's powers being stolen as well as the Falconzord. When Kimberly is kidnapped by Kat and Goldar, the Power Rangers are forced by Lord Zedd to use the Shogunzords to destroy the Earth or Kimberly will be harmed. While Billy manages to take control of the Zords away from Zedd, Tommy saves Kimberly and Kat by freeing her from Rita's spell. When Kimberly is given the option to train for the Pan Global Games, she decides to give her powers to Kat, and she and Tommy keep a long-distance relationship. He and Kat also developed a close friendship due to their similar experiences with Rita; however, he is unaware that Kat is in love with him. The Falconzord is ultimately retrieved in time for Rita and Rito's father Master Vile's arrival on Earth, and the Rangers are able to use their new Metallic Armor to battle him. It is during this time that Tommy is tasked with retrieving the Zeo Crystal from beneath Rita and Zedd's palace, as only a being of pure heart can pass through its force field and survive. Tommy manages to traverse the Caves of Deception to find the Zeo Crystal, and the team uses their powers to split it into five pieces and send it to different parts of history so Master Vile can never use its powers to harm the Earth.
Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers
In the events of Mighty Morphin Alien Rangers, Tommy, the other Power Rangers, and all of Angel Grove are sent back in time by Master Vile's Orb of Doom, reverting the Power Rangers to children. While the Aquitian Rangers protect the Earth from Master Vile's monsters, Billy manages to create a device to restore them to their original age, using their six Ninja Power Coins to power it. Billy is restored to his original age, but the machine is stolen by Rito and Goldar, and Rita and Zedd destroy the Ninja Power Coins. The five child Power Rangers are sent through time to retrieve the pieces of the Zeo Crystal. Tommy is sent to a point in the past on Native American land, where he meets Sam Trueheart who leads him to a test where he must find the Red Sub-Crystal amongst two fakes. After succeeding, Tommy returns to the present time, but not before Sam gives him half of an arrowhead pendant.
Power Rangers Zeo
During Power Rangers Zeo, time is restored to normal and Tommy, with Kat, Rocky, Adam, and new friend Tanya Sloan replacing Aisha Campbell who chose to stay in Africa, is given the powers of the Zeo Crystal and the Zeo Rangers protect the Earth from the Machine Empire. Tommy remains the team's leader and is assigned to be the Red Zeo Ranger. Later, Kimberly, while she is living in Florida for the Pan Global Games, sends Tommy a Dear John letter, ending their relationship. Kat attempts to find a new girlfriend for Tommy despite her feelings for him, but their duties as Power Rangers prevent any relationship from blossoming. Ultimately, Tommy and Kat begin dating. A holiday special during the season shows an elderly Tommy and Kat entertaining their granddaughter, and their teenaged grandson, who is hinted to be a Power Ranger. When the Zeo Megazord is heavily damaged, Tommy is given the Red Battlezord to control with his mind. Unable to control his emotions to use the Red Battlezord, Tommy goes on a spiritual journey to find peace of mind, and meets up with his long-lost twin brother David Truehart (portrayed by Jason David Frank's real brother Erik Frank). He too possesses half of an arrowhead pendant, and he reveals to Tommy that if the two halves are joined the holder could use the spirits trapped within them to control a darkness powerful enough to destroy the world. When David is captured by King Mondo, Tommy frees him, and under the stress of protecting his brother from the Machine Empire who will not leave as they are both in trouble, he reveals his identity as a Power Ranger to him. When the Rangers' ally Trey of Triforia can no longer sustain his Gold Ranger powers after a battle, Tommy recruits Jason, who has returned from Switzerland to be the new temporary Gold Ranger, reuniting the old friends. This proves useful when Tommy is brainwashed by the Machine Empire's Prince Gasket into thinking his friends are a threat to the world, as Jason and Kat are able to return Tommy to his senses. Jason leaves when Trey's health is restored.
Power Rangers Turbo
In Turbo: A Power Rangers Movie, Tommy and Kat are sent to save the wizard Lerigot from the evil Space Pirate Divatox, who plans on wedding Maligore, a powerful monster, in order to take over the world. With their Zeo Ranger powers not strong enough, Tommy, with the other Power Rangers- and new member Justin Stewart replacing Rocky DeSantos due to a recent back injury- are given new powers to morph into the Turbo Rangers, with Tommy still serving as team leader as the Red Turbo Ranger. They use their new powers to save Jason and Kimberly, who have been kidnapped by Divatox as sacrifices for Maligore.
In Power Rangers Turbo, as he and his friends graduate from high school, Tommy becomes interested in stock car racing. The group also deals with the Blue Senturion who has been tricked by Divatox into thinking the Rangers are evil and preventing him from telling the Rangers the Millennium Message, a warning that the forces of evil are joining together out in space. After Zordon and Alpha 5 leave the Earth to deal this threat, the team's new guardian Dimitria eventually judges that Tommy, along with Kat, Adam, and Tanya, has fulfilled their duties as defenders of the Earth. In the episode "Passing the Torch", Divatox's mother Mama D convinces her that taking out Tommy will cause the fall of the rest of Power Rangers. Their new allies T.J. Johnson and Cassie Chan manage to help Kat fend off the Pirahantrons, and save Tommy from Divatox and Mama D's plans, resulting in Tommy (who is leaving for MIT university to become a teacher) deciding that T.J. should be his successor as the new Red Turbo Ranger.
Power Rangers Wild Force
Five years after Tommy gave his powers to T.J., Tommy returns in the Power Rangers Wild Force episode "Forever Red", where he is shown to own a resort with Bulk and Skull. Tommy leads a team made up of former Red Power Rangers, recruiting the current Red Ranger Cole Evans to help stop remnants of the Machine Empire from resurrecting Lord Zedd's evil Zord Serpentera and attack the Earth. Tommy uses his Zeo Ranger powers to combat the enemies.
Power Rangers Dino Thunder
Between the events in Turbo and Power Rangers Dino Thunder, Tommy earns a PhD in paleontology at MIT. He also meets Hayley Ziktor and goes into business as partners with Terrence "Smitty" Smith and Dr. Anton Mercer, who together work on research that results in the creation of the Tyrannodrones, Raptor Riders, and the new Dinozords. A lab accident turns Mercer into the evil Mesogog, and Smitty is left for dead, until he is revived by Mesogog into the cyborg Zeltrax. It is during these events that Tommy discovers the Dino Gems, hiding them in his lab, and the location of the Shield of Triumph. While Mesogog gains control of the Tyrannodrones, Tommy keeps the Raptor Riders and Dinozords, working with Hayley to create equipment to harness the Dino Gems' powers, while he gets a job at Reefside High School as a science teacher. Three of his students who received detention—Conner McKnight, Ethan James, and Kira Ford—discover his lab and use three of the Dino Gems to become the new Dino Thunder Power Rangers.
Tommy mentors the group, keeping his past secret, until he discovers the monsters attacking Reefside are controlled by Mesogog. His three students soon discover the man they know as "Dr. O" was one of the previous Power Rangers, a fact that Hayley corrects them on by saying that he was one of the best. Tommy, using the powers of the Black Dino Gem, joins the group as the Black Dino Ranger, controlling the Brachiozord and gaining the power of invisibility.
When the White Dino Ranger appears, Tommy's dedication to saving the lives of innocents seems to give the latter cause to show no mercy to him, even after he discovers that the White Dino Ranger is Trent Fernandez-Mercer, Anton's adoptive son. For a while, Tommy is encased in amber by the White Dino Ranger, and once freed, finds himself unable to de-morph, due to his Dino Gem and his morpher re-molecularizing. He remains in his morphed form for a while. Despite this resolve, he cannot help but feel sympathy for Trent when his students did not, reminding the others of his tenure as the evil Green Power Ranger. After seeing the power of the White Ranger Clone and the Terrorsaurus, Tommy decides that the Rangers need an upgrade. He takes Trent to the location of the Shield of Triumph, as the shield can only be freed from its resting place by the power of Trent's Dino Gem. The Shield is then used by Conner to become the Triassic Ranger, just as a prophecy Tommy had read during its discovery foretold.
Tommy is later freed from his permanently morphed status by a special substance, but is rendered invisible. He decides to run an experiment to return himself to normal, but it shatters the Black Dino Gem and leaves him comatose. In his subconscious, he battles against his previous Power Ranger alter-egos: Zeo Ranger V, the White Power Ranger, and then the Green Power Ranger. After proving that he will not give up the fight for his life, his inner selves each offer him a shattered piece of his Dino Gem, restoring him to full health and allowing him to attain Super Dino Mode when morphed. During his mentoring of the Dino Thunder Rangers, Tommy notes similarities in his past in Conner, placing a lot of trust into him. His mentoring of Conner through a point where the young man doubts himself, allows Conner to overcome these feelings and gain the Battlizer.
When Tommy learns that Trent has been keeping his father's identity as Mesogog secret, Tommy considers removing Trent from the team. Although he comes to terms with Trent's loyalty to his father, he asks the others if Trent should stay, and they agree when Trent saves Conner's life. In the final battles against Zeltrax and Mesogog, having been liberated from sharing a body with Anton Mercer, Tommy informs the Rangers that they must give up their powers in order to save the world. Zeltrax is destroyed with the destruction of the Dinozords, and the Rangers give up their Dino Gems to stop Mesogog for good. In the end, Tommy decides to pursue his life after Mesogog's destruction as a normal high school science teacher.
Later appearances
The character of Tommy Oliver is not present during the Power Rangers S.P.D. episode "History", in which Conner, Kira, and Ethan go to their high school reunion in 2005, wondering if Tommy will arrive, only to be taken into the future by the S.P.D. Power Rangers' foe Broodwing. Tommy does return in the episode "Wormhole" when Emperor Grumm travels back in time to take over the Earth without S.P.D.'s interference, only to encounter the Dino Rangers. According to S.P.D. Red Ranger Jack Landors, Tommy's services as a Power Ranger are well known in the future. In this episode, Jason David Frank didn't reprise his role as Tommy Oliver, and as such only appears morphed. He was instead voiced by Jeffrey Parazzo, who also portrays Trent.
Although he doesn't appear on screen in the Power Rangers Operation Overdrive two-part episode "Once a Ranger", Kira mentions how Tommy would have enjoyed seeing the Operation Overdrive Power Rangers' base of operations, with Adam noting his incredulity that Tommy received a doctorate.
Power Rangers Super Megaforce
Jason David Frank reprised the role of Tommy Oliver in Power Rangers Super Megaforce. Tommy is first seen using Saba, the White Ranger's sword, to rescue a boy from a car wreck caused by the Armada's invasion. Later he is seen leading the team of Legendary Rangers, wielding his original Green Ranger powers, to aid the Megaforce Rangers in defeating the Armada.
Power Rangers Ninja Steel
In the Power Rangers Super Ninja Steel episode Dimensions in Danger — marking the 25th anniversary of Power Rangers — Tommy is captured by Lord Draven and replaced with a robot duplicate who traps several other past Rangers, including Kat and Rocky. He escapes and joins the Ninja Steel Rangers, Wes Collins, Gemma and Koda in rescuing the other Rangers. Tommy defeats his robot duplicate using a Master Morpher — a modified Power Morpher that allows him to access any of his previous Ranger forms — to call on the powers of Dino Thunder Black, Zeo Red and Mighty Morphin White and Green Rangers. As Lord Draven attempts to destroy the multiverse, the freed Legendary Rangers join the Ninja Steel Rangers in defeating Draven's army and Tommy summons the Falconzord to thwart Draven's final strike. The episode implies that Tommy and Kat are now in a relationship and introduces Tommy's son, J.J.
Dimensions in Danger marks the final appearance of Jason David Frank in Power Rangers before his death in 2022.
Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Once & Always
The 2023 Netflix special, Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: Once & Always, marking 30 years of Power Rangers, shows Tommy (as the Green Ranger) fighting alongside the other original Mighty Morphin' Power Rangers against Robo-Rita - the resurrected evil spirit of Rita Repulsa inhabiting a robot body. The battle culminates in Rita retreating after causing the death of Yellow Ranger, Trini.
One year later, Robo-Rita reappears and captures Tommy, Jason, and Kimberly. She plans to drain their energy to power a time machine that will allow her to contact her past self and alter the timeline in her favor. Billy and Zack lead a team consisting of Kat, Rocky and Trini's daughter Minh - who has inherited her mother's powers - to rescue the captured Rangers and defeat Rita once and for all. This special confirms that Kat is J.J.'s mother and that she and Tommy are in a relationship.
Behind the scenes, Jason David Frank was invited to appear in the special but declined, citing his retirement from the franchise in August 2022. Archive audio of Frank is used in scenes where the Green Ranger appears. Frank passed away in November 2022, after the conclusion of principal photography but before the special was released on Netflix. The special is dedicated to his and Thuy Trang's memories.
Other versions
Comics
The character also appears in the Power Rangers comics from Boom Studios.
A villainous alternate version of Tommy from another universe known as Lord Drakkon is also featured, with his costume combining elements of Tommy's green and white Ranger suits. Drakkon also controls a unique Zord called the Black Dragon. Because of the chain of events including Lord Drakkon's attacks to the Power Rangers' universe, it creates an alternate reality from the television series' continuity. He also kills Tommy before he can become the White Ranger. In 2018, Jason David Frank has been involved with Boom! Studios' Power Rangers comic book storyline "Shattered Grid", about the character's war against all of the incarnations of the Power Rangers and their enemies throughout their universe's timeline with Frank portraying Lord Drakkon in its promotions. During the storyline, despite Drakkon having killed Tommy as part of his first attack on the prime universe, Tommy nevertheless plays an important role in Lord Drakkon's defeat, with a chain of events having trapped Tommy's spirit in a crystal held in the weapon Drakkon used to kill his counterpart. When Drakkon succeeds in subverting the Morphing Grid and using it to rewrite the universe to make himself the hero, Tommy's spirit forces Drakkon to face his fundamental weakness, Drakkon having attacked the multiverse simply because he couldn't accept that he was the only Tommy Oliver to choose evil. Although Tommy offers his counterpart a truce, Drakkon chooses to die instead. After the multiverse is restored, the timeline returned to how it is supposed to be as depicted in the television franchise. However, Drakkon returns to threaten the prime universe, with the Omega Rangers- Jason, Trini and Zack using new powers- recruiting Drakkon for his expertise out of desperation to deal with the greater threat.
Tommy features in the graphic novel Soul of the Dragon, which depicts him as an old man investigating the recent disappearance of his son, J.J., who has apparently dropped out of SPD. While investigating his son's recent activities with the aid of another SPD cadet, Tommy learns that his Master Morpher was damaged the last time he used it eight years ago; as a result, he can only morph into his past Ranger identities in reverse order (Black Dino to original Green), and once he has used a morph the power coin that creates the morph will be destroyed. With the aid of a reformed Finster, Tommy learns that J.J. was actually undercover investigating the return of Scorpina and the dark wizard Lokar, culminating in Tommy giving his Master Morpher to his son so that J.J. can use the final morph for himself. As Tommy leaves for a vacation with Kat, it is revealed that J.J. has become the official SPD Green Ranger, but the dregs of power in the Master Morpher have also left him with his father's Dragon Shield.
Films
1995 film
In Mighty Morphin Power Rangers: The Movie, Jason David Frank portrayed a similar version of his character from the television series, who endowed new power from warrior Dulcea and becomes the White Ninja Ranger; he harnesses the spirit of the falcon and controlling the White Falcon Ninjazord to defeat Ivan Ooze with his team. Unlike the television series, Tommy's White Ranger costume is more of an armor than a formfitting spandex.
Power/Rangers (2015 short film)
In Power/Rangers Tommy Oliver (played by Russ Bain), in this much darker reimagining, in this timeline the Machine Empire defeats the Power Rangers and destroys the Megazord in battle, Earth's governments negotiate a truce with the Machine Empire and the Power Rangers are disbanded. Tommy is a wanted fugitive, whilst trying to find out who is murdering his former teammates. He fights Rocky DeSantos, who defected to the Machine Empire. After DeSantos is killed by Kimberly Hart, Tommy knows it isn't Kimberly because she was killed during the final battle, revealing her to be Rita in disguise and also the one who has been killing his teammates. She asks Tommy to rejoin her so they can rule the world together; Tommy refuses and attacks her.
Power Rangers (2017 film)
While Tommy Oliver did not appear in the 2017 reboot film, Jason David Frank does have a cameo role, and Tommy Oliver is referenced in a post-credits scene, setting up his role as the Green Ranger in future sequels. Frank's cameo consists of a brief appearance of him as a random citizen of Angel Grove, accompanied by Amy Jo Johnson, where he is part of a crowd gathering after the Rangers have defeated Goldar in the Megazord, and is apparently the first person to bring out his cellphone to take a picture of the Megazord. The mid-credits sequence features a teacher in charge of the weekend detention class calling for Tommy Oliver, and the camera focusing on an empty chair with a green jacket with a dragon, draped over it. The cast of the film as well as Frank himself, have expressed interest in a female version in the sequel.
Power Rangers: Legacy Wars - Street Fighter Showdown (2018 shortfilm)
In this short film, Tommy Oliver is again played by Jason David Frank. He and former Megaforce ranger Gia Moran assist Ryu and Chun-Li in stopping the criminal M. Bison and freeing a captured Ninjor. During this film, it is revealed that Ninjor, who created the original power coins, gave Tommy an upgrade to his suit. He now has a silver and gold helmet, as well as new weapons and a darker colored suit.
Reception
Tommy has been often voted as the most popular character of the entire franchise. The character was only intended to appear for one season but became so popular that Tommy became a breakout character and a season regular. In-universe, Tommy has gained a reputation as Earth's greatest Power Ranger.
References
Further reading
External links
Official Power Rangers Website
American superheroes
Crossover characters in television
Fictional high school students
Fictional kenjutsuka
Fictional knife-fighters
Fictional male martial artists
Fictional monster hunters
Fictional motorcyclists
Fictional Native American people
Fictional Ninjutsu practitioners
Fictional schoolteachers
Fictional swordfighters in television
Male superheroes
Martial artist characters in television
Power Rangers characters
Teenage characters in television
Television characters introduced in 1993
Fictional scientists in television |
```objective-c
/* Interface to GNU libc specific functions for version information.
This file is part of the GNU C Library.
The GNU C Library is free software; you can redistribute it and/or
modify it under the terms of the GNU Lesser General Public
The GNU C Library is distributed in the hope that it will be useful,
but WITHOUT ANY WARRANTY; without even the implied warranty of
MERCHANTABILITY or FITNESS FOR A PARTICULAR PURPOSE. See the GNU
You should have received a copy of the GNU Lesser General Public
<path_to_url */
#ifndef _GNU_LIBC_VERSION_H
#define _GNU_LIBC_VERSION_H 1
#include <features.h>
__BEGIN_DECLS
/* Return string describing release status of currently running GNU libc. */
extern const char *gnu_get_libc_release (void) __THROW;
/* Return string describing version of currently running GNU libc. */
extern const char *gnu_get_libc_version (void) __THROW;
__END_DECLS
#endif /* gnu/libc-version.h */
``` |
Chepiga ( or Чепега) is a surname. It means "ploughstaff" in Ukrainian. Notable people with the surname include:
Anatoliy Chepiga (born 1979), Russian GRU colonel
Sergey Chepiga (born 1982), Russian hurdler
Valentina Chepiga (born 1962), Ukrainian bodybuilder
See also
Chepiha
Surnames of Ukrainian origin |
```groff
.\" $OpenBSD: pair.4,v 1.4 2015/10/30 10:48:55 reyk Exp $
.\"
.\"
.\" Permission to use, copy, modify, and distribute this software for any
.\" purpose with or without fee is hereby granted, provided that the above
.\" copyright notice and this permission notice appear in all copies.
.\"
.\" THE SOFTWARE IS PROVIDED "AS IS" AND THE AUTHOR DISCLAIMS ALL WARRANTIES
.\" WITH REGARD TO THIS SOFTWARE INCLUDING ALL IMPLIED WARRANTIES OF
.\" MERCHANTABILITY AND FITNESS. IN NO EVENT SHALL THE AUTHOR BE LIABLE FOR
.\" ANY SPECIAL, DIRECT, INDIRECT, OR CONSEQUENTIAL DAMAGES OR ANY DAMAGES
.\" WHATSOEVER RESULTING FROM LOSS OF USE, DATA OR PROFITS, WHETHER IN AN
.\" ACTION OF CONTRACT, NEGLIGENCE OR OTHER TORTIOUS ACTION, ARISING OUT OF
.\" OR IN CONNECTION WITH THE USE OR PERFORMANCE OF THIS SOFTWARE.
.\"
.Dd $Mdocdate: October 30 2015 $
.Dt PAIR 4
.Os
.Sh NAME
.Nm pair
.Nd virtual Ethernet interface pair
.Sh SYNOPSIS
.Cd "pseudo-device pair"
.Sh DESCRIPTION
The
.Nm
interface simulates a normal Ethernet interface by encapsulating
standard network frames with an Ethernet header, specifically for use
in a pair of interfaces that are interconnected with each other.
.Pp
To use it, the administrator needs to create two
.Nm
interfaces and connect them;
the interfaces are
.Sq patched ,
as would be done with physical network ports.
All packets that are sent on the first interface are received on the
second interface.
.Sh EXAMPLES
Set up a pair of interfaces where each of them is a member of a different
.Xr rdomain 4 :
.Bd -literal -offset indent
# ifconfig pair1 rdomain 1 10.1.1.1/24 up
# ifconfig pair2 rdomain 2 10.1.1.2/24 up
# ifconfig pair1 patch pair2
# route -T 1 exec ping 10.1.1.2
.Ed
.Pp
When adding multiple
.Nm
to multiple
.Xr bridge 4
interfaces, it is possible to create a loop;
the system load will go up while it is busy sending packets from one
bridge to another and back.
By design, the driver does not prevent such loops by itself, but it is
possible to use the Spanning Tree Protocol (STP) to detect and remove
loops in the virtual network topology:
.Bd -literal -offset indent
# ifconfig pair0 up
# ifconfig pair1 rdomain 1 patch pair0 up
# ifconfig pair2 up
# ifconfig pair3 rdomain 1 patch pair2 up
# ifconfig bridge0 add pair0 add pair2 stp pair0 stp pair2 up
# ifconfig bridge1 add pair1 add pair3 stp pair1 stp pair3 up
.Ed
.Sh SEE ALSO
.Xr bridge 4 ,
.Xr inet 4 ,
.Xr inet6 4 ,
.Xr rdomain 4 ,
.Xr vether 4 ,
.Xr hostname.if 5 ,
.Xr ifconfig 8 ,
.Xr netstart 8
.Sh HISTORY
The
.Nm
interface first appeared in
.Ox 5.9 .
.Sh AUTHORS
The
.Nm
driver is based on
.Xr vether 4
by
.An Theo de Raadt Aq Mt deraadt@openbsd.org .
It has been extended and turned into
.Nm
by
.An Reyk Floeter Aq Mt reyk@openbsd.org .
.Sh CAVEATS
Unlike
.Xr vether 4 ,
the
.Nm
interface cannot be used as a stand-alone member in a
.Xr bridge 4 :
the link state remains down until it is connected to the second interface.
Any associated routes will be marked down until it is patched.
Use
.Xr vether 4
as a bridge endpoint for routing purposes instead.
.Sh BUGS
Like
.Xr tun 4 ,
the Ethernet address chosen will be partially random, and may
occasionally collide with another address.
``` |
Aslan is the fictional lion in C. S. Lewis's Chronicles of Narnia.
Aslan or Arsalan (both spellings of a Turkic word meaning "fearless", "warrior", "lion" ) may also refer to:
People
Given name
Arsalan
Arsalan Anwar (born 1986), Pakistani cricketer
Arsalan Iftikhar (born 1977), American human rights lawyer
Arsalan Kamkar (born 1960), Iranian musician of Kurdish origin
Arsalan Kazemi (born 1990), Iranian basketball player
Arsi Nami Arsalan Nami (born 1984), Iranian singer-songwriter
Aslan
Aslan Abashidze (born 1938), former leader of Adjara
Aslan Atem (born 1991), Turkish wrestler
Aslan-Beg Abashidze (1877–1924), Muslim Georgian nobleman and general
Aslan Khan Daghestani (fl. early 18th-century), Safavid official
Aslan bey Gardashov (1866–1920), Azerbaijani statesman
Aslan bey Safikurdski (1880–1937), Azerbaijani statesman
Aslan-Bey Shervashidze, Prince of the Principality of Abkhazia from 180810
Aslan Dashayev (born 1989), Russian footballer
Aslan Datdeyev (born 1973), Russian footballer
Aslan Doguzov (born 1991), Russian footballer
Aslan Dudiyev (born 1990), Russian footballer
Aslan Dyshekov (born 1987), Russian footballer
Aslan Dzeytov (born 1990), Russian footballer
Aslan Dzharimov (born 1939), former president of the Republic of Adygea, Russia
Aslan Goplachev (born 1970), Russian footballer and coach
Aslan Karatsev (born 1993), Russian tennis player
Aslan Khan Daghestani (born in the 17th century), early-18th-century Safavid dynasty official in Persia
Aslan Kerimov (born 1973), footballer, most capped member of the Azerbaijan National Football Team
Aslan Khuriyev (born 1984), Russian footballer
Aslan Mashukov (born 1984), Russian footballer
Aslan Maskhadov (1951–2005), Chechen leader
Aslan Musin (born 1954), former Speaker of the Parliament of Kazakhstan
Aslan Tkhakushinov (born 1947), President of the Republic of Adygea, Russia
Aslan Tlebzu (born 1981), Russian folk musician of Adyghe origin
Aslan Usoyan (1937–2013), Russian outlaw of Kurdish origin
Aslan Zaseev (born 1982), Russian footballer
Surname
Aslan
Ahmet Aslan (born 1968), Turkish musician
Ali Aslan (born 1933), Syrian general and politician
Ana Aslan (1897–1988), Romanian biologist, physician, and inventor
Berkin Kamil Aslan (born 1992), Turkish footballer
Beyzanur Aslan (born 2001), Azerbaijani women's footballer
Ercüment Aslan (born 1976), Turkish boxer
Emil Aslan (born 1978), Czech political scientist
Faramarz Aslani (born 1954), Iranian singer-songwriter
Farhad Aslani (born 1966), Iranian actor
George Aslan, Turkish politician
Grégoire Aslan (1908–1982), Armenian actor
Hamdi Aslan (born 1967), Turkish footballer and coach
Hatice Aslan (born 1962), Turkish actress
Hidir Aslan (1958–1984), executed Turkish rebel
Juan Contino Aslán (born 1969), Cuban politician
Kemal Aslan (born 1981), Turkish footballer
Kevork Aslan, Armenian historian
Madalyn Aslan (born 1963), American astrologer
Metin Aslan (born 1978), Austrian footballer of Turkish origin
Murat Aslan (born 1986), Turkish volleyball player
Nora Aslan (born 1937), Argentine artist
Raoul Aslan (1886–1958), Austrian actor of Greek-Armenian ancestry
Reza Aslan (born 1972), Iranian-American author
Yasin Aslan (born 1953), Turkish author
Yiğit Aslan (born 2004), Turkish swimmer
Nickname
Aslan (artist) (Alain Gourdon; 1930–2014), French painter, sculptor, and pin-up artist
Nihat Bekdik, Turkish footballer
Kevork Chavush (1870–1907), Armenian fedayi leader and Armenian Revolutionary Federation member
Aslan, nickname of Ali Pasha of Ioannina (1741–1822), pasha of western Rumelia
In fiction
Arslaan, a 2008 Indian fantasy television series based on the Persian epic of Amir Arsalan
Arslan, or A Wind From Bukhara, a 1976 science fiction novel by M. J. Engh
Arslan Senki, or The Heroic Legend of Arslan, a fantasy novel and manga series based on Persian history
Aslan, a black warhorse in the manga series Red River
Aslan, the name of a drug in the 2001 novel The Corrections by Jonathan Franzen
Aslan Battour, the deceased father of Serge Battour in the manga series Kaze to Ki no Uta
Aslan Jade Callenreese, alias Ash Lynx, the main character of the manga and anime series Banana Fish
Kingdom of Arslan, a fictional Middle Eastern country and the setting of the manga series Area 88
Games
Aslan (Traveller), an extraterrestrial race from the Traveller roleplaying game
Aslan (fanzine), a British roleplaying fanzine published in the 1980s
Places in West Asia
Aslan, Izeh, a village in Izeh County, Khuzestan Province, Iran
Arslan Tash, archaeological site in Aleppo, Syria
Aslan Duz, the capital of Aslan Duz District, Parsabad County, Ardabil Province, Iran
Aslan Duz District, a district in Parsabad County, Ardabil Province, Iran
Qezel Arsalan, a peak of the Mount Alvand range, Iran
Other uses
Aslan (band), an Irish rock band, formed in 1982
Aslan Pasha Mosque, Ioannina, Greece
Amir Arsalan, protagonist of the Persian epic Amir Arsalan-e Namdar
Hyundai Aslan, a mid-size sedan sold in South Korea
See also
Arslan, a given name and title
Ruslan (disambiguation)
Ruslan (given name) |
Neil Anthony Whitworth (born 12 April 1972) is an English former football defender.
Born in Ince-in-Makerfield, Wigan, to a former rugby league footballer, Whitworth began his career at Wigan Athletic as a trainee. He made his senior debut for Wigan on 10 February 1990 in a Third Division match against Leyton Orient; Wigan lost the match 2–0. Manchester United spotted Whitworth's potential and signed him for a fee of £45,000 in June 1990. His United debut came nine months later, when he played in a 1–1 draw away to Southampton. However, Whitworth did not play again for Manchester United and was shipped out on loan to four clubs before he and Colin McKee were sold to Kilmarnock for a combined fee of £350,000 in September 1994.
Whitworth first went on loan to Preston North End for a month in January 1992, playing six games for the Lancashire club. He then went to Barnsley in February 1992 until the end of the season, making 11 appearances. He played out the 1992–93 season in the Manchester United reserve team, but went on another month-long loan to Rotherham United in October 1993, immediately followed by a month at Blackpool.
Whitworth was issued with the number 32 shirt when the FA Premier League introduced squad numbers for the 1993–94 season, although he never took to the field in that shirt.
In 1997, Whitworth suffered a nasty bout of tuberculosis, and struggled to hold down a first-team place after his recovery. Towards the end of the 1997–98 season, he moved back to his home-town club, Wigan, on loan. Whitworth was released from his Kilmarnock contract at the end of May 1998, and immediately signed by Hull City. He stayed at Boothferry Park for two seasons, but only made 28 appearances in that time, before moving on to Exeter City. He stayed at Exeter for three years, making a total of 62 appearances. He was signed by Southport in August 2003, and formed a vital part of their defensive unit, despite attracting criticism from some quarters for his lack of aerial prowess. He was sent on a month's loan to Radcliffe Borough, before returning to Southport. However, at the end of the 2003–04 season, Whitworth decided to call time on his professional career. He made a brief comeback in 2006, playing a few games for Fleetwood Town but it was short-lived, and he has not played a professional game of football since.
References
External links
1972 births
Living people
People from Ince-in-Makerfield
Sportspeople from the Metropolitan Borough of Wigan
English men's footballers
Men's association football central defenders
English Football League players
Wigan Athletic F.C. players
Manchester United F.C. players
Preston North End F.C. players
Barnsley F.C. players
Rotherham United F.C. players
Blackpool F.C. players
Kilmarnock F.C. players
Hull City A.F.C. players
Exeter City F.C. players
Southport F.C. players
Fleetwood Town F.C. players
Scottish Football League players
Footballers from Greater Manchester |
Professor Leonardo "The Wizard" Xavier was born on January 3, 1976, in Rio de Janeiro, Brazil. At the age of 5, Leo ventured into his first martial art, taking judo in school. At the age of 13 Leo began to take Tae Kwon Do classes. Finally, at the age of 15 a friend introduced him to Brazilian jiu-jitsu.
Leo immediately became good friends with his coaches, Royler Gracie and Saulo Ribeiro. Under their watchful eye, Leo began to successfully compete in local and regional tournaments in Brazil and, while he was still a blue belt, Leo began to help with classes. Leo trained during this time at the legendary birthplace of Gracie Jiu-Jitsu, Gracie Humaitá Academy in Rio. In 1999, Leo realized his dream of being promoted to black belt from the hands of his coaches Royler Gracie and Saulo Ribeiro. He is one of an elite group who have had the privilege and honor of teaching Jiu-Jitsu at the Gracie Humaitá Academy.
In May, 2008, Professor Xavier was promoted by Royler Gracie to the rank of third degree black belt in Gracie Jiu-Jitsu.
He is currently (2014) a 4th degree promoted by Rickson Gracie and recognized by Jiu-Jitsu Global Federation (JJGF).
Lineage
Mitsuyo Maeda (前田光世) → Carlos Gracie Sr. → Hélio Gracie → Royler and Rickson Gracie → Leonardo Xavier
Accomplishments in the Art of Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu
Multiple Medals at the World Jiu-Jitsu Championship (including 2 bronze at black belt)
2006 Pan-American Games Champion (Masters Black Belt Featherweight)
Two Time Brazilian National Champion
Multiple Time Rio de Janeiro State Champion
Instructor of many International and Pan American BJJ Champions
Instructor of the 2005 International Grappling Festival Overall Team Champion
Instructor of the 2006 Elite Grapplers Championship Overall Team Champion
Instructor of the 2006 GC Championship Overall Team Champion
Instructor of the 2009 Two-time North American Grappling Association (NAGA) Overall team champion
Texas Police and Fire Games Grappling Champion Instructor
Defense Tactics Instructor of The Sugar Land Police Department
International Brazilian jiu-jitsu Federation Certified Referee
World Class Referee
Leo is also considered a World Class Referee of Brazilian jiu-jitsu and Submission Wrestling.
Relocation to the United States
In 2000, Professor Xavier traveled to the United States to give several seminars. He liked the United States, and started to travel often to the US teaching the art that he loves. In 2003, Leo realized that he loved teaching his style of Jiu-Jitsu to the American people and moved to United States. Leo now intends to remain in the United States to continue his work and efforts to develop Jiu-Jitsu in the United States. Leo is currently developing and expanding Gracie Jiu-Jitsu in Sugar Land, Texas (Houston Area), where he lives and operates the LX Jiu-Jitsu School.
He is recognized in the martial arts world, and Jiu-Jitsu community, as one of the most charismatic professors; as well he is noted as a world-class authority of the art. With more than 20 years of experience, Leo is highly sought after for teaching seminars and courses around the World.
Few people can match his ability to combine a deep knowledge of the art with a passion and enthusiasm for teaching the legion of loyal students that he gained all over the world.
References
International Federation of Brazilian jiu-jitsu. World Championship, Results. ibjjf.com.
External links
Official Website
Rickson Gracie Official Website
Brazilian practitioners of Brazilian jiu-jitsu
Living people
1976 births |
Jegaatha (born 3 January 1956) is a famous Tamil author of over 500 short stories, 30 small novels, 10 novels, 100 poems and more than 300 books on various titles. He has also contributed more than 44 Tamil periodicides, ceylon periodicals, Internet periodicals and radio broadcasts.
Creative works
Short story collections
Small novel collections
Novels
Poetry
Tamil periodical contributions
Translation novels
Fictions on various titles
Drama
Music
Cinema
History
Theology
Literature
Epic
Law
Computer
Sports
G.K
Siddha
Other media contributions
Many short stories were contributed to Madurai, Tuticorin radio stations and were praised by Radio fans.
Awards and contributions
"Ilakkiya Sindhanai" award to his "Koottanjoru" Sirukadaihal.
"Therunai" short story was praised by Ananda vikadan itself.
"Vizhuthugal" short story was praised by "Idayam pesugiradhu" weekly for "Natchathira sirukadhai".
"Ooothapoo" short story was praised by "Saavi" weekly for its "Vaanavil sirukadhai potti".
"Iravu nerathu magudihal" was praised by "Thai" weekly for its sirukathai potti.
"Samuthira Kumararhal" novel was selected as one of the best novel of 1980's by TKC.This novel was accepted by Madurai Kamaraj University for M.A. subject.
"Viduthalai vengai" novel was accepted by Annamalai University for M.Phil.
"Viradha paruvam" - A short story collection was accepted by Pachaiyappa college,Chennai for M.Phil.
"Velviyil Mulaitha vidhaihal" -A short story collection was accepted by Annamalai University for M.phil.
"Jegaadhavin Sirukadhaihal" collection was accepted by Sri saradha women college(Salem),Fathima College for M.phil.
References
Sources
The details have been gathered from the following publications.
India Today
Ananda Vikadan
Kumudham
Dhinamani
Nakkeran
Saravanna store
Kunguma chimzh
Thayin manikkodi
Mugavai murasu
Thodarum
Saandror Murasu
Niraimathi
Ambala, Internet
Nivedhini(Ceylon)
1956 births
Living people
Tamil writers |
Paulo Jorge Soares Gomes (born 16 June 1980), known as Paulo Jorge, is a Portuguese retired professional footballer who played as a central defender, currently assistant manager of S.C. Braga B.
He played until the age of 29 with Braga, appearing in 166 official matches over seven Primeira Liga seasons. He finished his 16-year senior career in Cyprus.
Club career
Born in Braga, Paulo Jorge played for hometown club S.C. Braga for the vast majority of his career, which he began as a professional in the 2002–03 season. From his early Primeira Liga debut, he was awarded team captaincy.
Although a defensive player, Paulo Jorge scored five league goals in 2006–07 to help the team finish fourth, as well as two in the UEFA Cup against A.C. ChievoVerona and Tottenham Hotspur. In 2008–09, he was absent for the vast majority of the matches due to several surgeries to repair a foot ailment; his return only took place on 1 May 2009 against Rio Ave FC (0–0), and it was the sole appearance he made during the campaign.
On 10 June 2009, the board of APOEL FC announced the signing of Paulo Jorge on a two-year deal. In his first year, he won the Cypriot Super Cup and took part in three group stage games in their first participation in the UEFA Champions League.
On 12 May 2011, after helping APOEL win the national championship, the 31-year-old Paulo Jorge renewed his contract for another year. The following campaign, he featured in nine Champions League matches in the side's surprising run to the quarter-finals.
On 13 May 2012, Paulo Jorge signed a two-year contract with another team in the country, Anorthosis Famagusta FC. He retired at the age of 35, after one season with Doxa Katokopias FC.
Paulo Jorge returned to APOEL on 22 March 2018, as assistant manager under compatriot Bruno Baltazar.
Club statistics
Honours
APOEL
Cypriot First Division: 2010–11
Cypriot Super Cup: 2009, 2011
References
External links
1980 births
Living people
Footballers from Braga
Portuguese men's footballers
Men's association football defenders
Primeira Liga players
Segunda Divisão players
S.C. Braga B players
S.C. Braga players
Cypriot First Division players
APOEL FC players
Anorthosis Famagusta FC players
Doxa Katokopias FC players
Portugal men's youth international footballers
Portuguese expatriate men's footballers
Expatriate men's footballers in Cyprus
Portuguese expatriate sportspeople in Cyprus
Portuguese football managers |
Alois Josef hrabě Krakovský z Kolovrat or Krakowský z Kolowrat () (21 January 1759 – 28 March 1833) was the Roman Catholic archbishop of Prague from 1831 to 1833.
Biography
Krakowsky was born in Prague in 1759. He was a nobleman, member of the Kolowrat-Krakowsky family. He was ordained a priest on his twenty-second birthday, 21 January 1781. In 1800, he was appointed the auxiliary bishop of Olomouc in Moravia, as well as titular bishop of Sarepta. It was fifteen years before he was appointed bishop of Hradec Králové. He remained in this capacity until 28 February 1831 when he was appointed archbishop of Prague. Exactly two years and a month later, he died at the age of 74.
References
External links
Archbishop Alois Jozef Krakowski von Kolowrat profile at Catholic-Hierarchy
Biographical entry for Kolowrat-Krakowsky in the Allgemeine Deutsche Biographie by Ludwig Schlesinger
1759 births
1833 deaths
18th-century Bohemian Roman Catholic priests
19th-century Czech people
Roman Catholic archbishops in the Austrian Empire
Habsburg Bohemian nobility
Roman Catholic archbishops of Prague |
The French War Memorial in Puducherry, India () is a
war memorial dedicated to residents of French India who died for the country during the First World War. It is on Goubert Avenue in Puducherry, located opposite to the Gandhi statue.
Background
France had decided in 1915 to reinforce her army with recruits from her Asian possessions; a recruitment campaign was launched in December 1915.
"India is indebted to France in different ways, it is now the duty of every Indian to stand with France during this period of adversity (...) France will never forget those who have come to her during these difficult times. They will be treated like her own children. Thank you for joining the French army." – from a communique during this period by Alfred Martineau, the governor of French India.
Pondicherry would offer 800 recruits, send 500 combatants overseas and would see 75 deaths from this group.
History
The monument was erected in 1937 and inaugurated on 3 April 1938 by governor Crocicchia.
A subsidy of 5,000 rupees was entered into the colonial budget and was granted "to the committee designated by the decree of 14 January 1936, for the erection of a monument to the memory of the inhabitants of French India who died for France during the 1914–1918 war." It was designed by the sculptor Gaston Petit and an architect named Delafon.
A bronze plaque lists the names of soldiers who died during the First World War. Further plaques were added, listing the names of soldiers who died during World War II, the French War in Indochina and the Algerian War. The monument remains the property of France.
The memorial is decorated and illuminated yearly on Bastille Day (14 July) in honour of the soldiers from the colony who took part in World War I. French government officials visit the memorial on occasion and lay flowers at the foot of the monument. A "Defense and Citizenship Day" is held every November, offering students from the Lycée français de Pondichéry and other local schools the chance to attend presentations on the rights and duties of French citizen followed by presentations on national defense. They then attend a ceremony at the memorial on 11 November to honour the end of the First World War.
Notes and references
World War I memorials in India
Buildings and structures in Pondicherry (city) |
New London Ledge Lighthouse is a lighthouse on the Thames River in Connecticut at the mouth of New London Harbor. It was built in 1909 in the Second Empire style and was automated in 1987. In 1990, it was added to the National Register of Historic Places. The lighthouse is owned and maintained by the New London Maritime Society as part of the National Historic Lighthouse Preservation Act program.
History
New London Ledge Lighthouse was built in 1909 on the southwest ledge at the mouth of New London Harbor. It was originally called the Southwest Ledge light, but this caused confusion with Southwest Ledge Light in New Haven, Connecticut, so it was renamed New London Ledge Light in 1910. The United States Coast Guard took over in 1939 upon its merger with the Lighthouse Service, and the light was automated in 1987. The original fourth order Fresnel lens was removed and was later put on display in the New London Customhouse museum. The light was added to the National Register of Historic Places in 1990.
Ghost legend
Ledge Light has been featured on paranormal reality shows such as Scariest Places on Earth and Ghost Hunters. Investigators from The Atlantic Paranormal Society concluded on Ghost Hunters that there was not enough evidence to determine any paranormal activity taking place at the lighthouse, despite a few unexplained phenomena such as cold spots.
Head keepers
W.B. Petty (1909 – 1910)
George E. Hansen (1910 – at least 1917)
Howard B. Beebe (1926 – 1938)
Leonard Fuller (at least 1940)
Michael Scanlan (1943 – 1949)
William Clark (1954 – 1959)
See also
List of lighthouses in Connecticut
List of lighthouses in the United States
National Register of Historic Places listings in New London County, Connecticut
References
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Long Island Sound
Lighthouses on the National Register of Historic Places in Connecticut
Lighthouses in New London County, Connecticut
Reportedly haunted locations in Connecticut
Lighthouses completed in 1909
Buildings and structures in Groton, Connecticut
Historic American Engineering Record in Connecticut
National Register of Historic Places in New London County, Connecticut |
Greffulhe may refer to:
People
Countess Élisabeth Greffulhe, born Élisabeth de Riquet de Caraman-Chimay (1860-1952), French aristocrat.
Henri Greffulhe (1815-1879), French politician.
Count Henry Greffulhe (1848-1932), French aristocrat and politician.
Count Jean-Henry-Louis Greffulhe (1774-1820), Dutch-born French banker and politician.
Louis-Charles Greffulhe (1814-1888), French aristocrat and politician.
Other
Greffuhle Stradivarius, a violin.
Prix Greffulhe, a horse race in France.
Rue Greffulhe, a street in Paris, France. |
Cruise Yourself is the third studio album by American post-hardcore band Girls Against Boys, released in October 1994 by record label Touch and Go.
Reception
Cruise Yourself has received a mixed-to-favorable response from critics.
Accolades
Track listing
Personnel
Adapted from the Cruise Yourself liner notes.
Girls Against Boys
Alexis Fleisig – drums
Eli Janney – organ, vibraphone, bass guitar, engineering
Scott McCloud – lead vocals, guitar
Johnny Temple – bass guitar, sampler
Production and additional personnel
Ted Niceley – production
Mike Rippe – additional engineering
Release history
References
External links
1994 albums
Girls Against Boys albums
Touch and Go Records albums
Albums produced by Ted Niceley |
```c++
#include <ATen/Config.h>
#if AT_PARALLEL_NATIVE
#include <ATen/Parallel.h>
#include <ATen/ParallelFuture.h>
#include <ATen/PTThreadPool.h>
#ifndef C10_MOBILE
#include <c10/core/thread_pool.h>
#include <c10/util/irange.h>
#else
#include <caffe2/utils/threadpool/pthreadpool-cpp.h>
#endif // C10_MOBILE
#include <atomic>
#include <utility>
#ifdef _OPENMP
#include <omp.h>
#endif
#if AT_MKL_ENABLED()
#include <mkl.h>
#endif
namespace at {
namespace {
// used with _set_in_parallel_region to mark master thread
// as in parallel region while executing parallel primitives
thread_local bool in_parallel_region_ = false;
// thread number (task_id) set by parallel primitive
thread_local int thread_num_ = 0;
void _set_in_parallel_region(bool in_region) {
in_parallel_region_ = in_region;
}
} // namespace (anonymous)
namespace internal {
void set_thread_num(int thread_num) {
thread_num_ = thread_num;
}
}
namespace {
void _unset_thread_num() {
thread_num_ = 0;
}
#ifndef C10_MOBILE
const int NOT_SET = -1;
const int CONSUMED = -2;
// Number of threads set by the user
// NOT_SET -> positive value -> CONSUMED
// or
// NOT_SET -> CONSUMED
// Meaning:
// - NOT_SET - pool not initialized, user value is not set
// - positive value - pool not initialized, user value set
// - CONSUMED - pool is initialized
std::atomic<int> num_intraop_threads{NOT_SET};
int _num_pool_threads(int nthreads) {
if (nthreads == NOT_SET) {
nthreads = intraop_default_num_threads();
} else {
TORCH_INTERNAL_ASSERT(nthreads > 0);
}
// minus one because of the master thread
return nthreads - 1;
}
TaskThreadPoolBase& _get_intraop_pool() {
static std::shared_ptr<TaskThreadPoolBase> pool =
ThreadPoolRegistry()->Create(
"C10",
/* device_id */ 0,
/* pool_size */ _num_pool_threads(num_intraop_threads.exchange(CONSUMED)),
/* create_new */ true); // create a separate thread pool for intra-op
return *pool;
}
#endif // C10_MOBILE
// Run lambda function `fn` over `task_id` in [0, `range`) with threadpool.
// `fn` will be called with params: (thread_pool_task_id, task_id).
void _run_with_pool(const std::function<void(int, size_t)>& fn, size_t range) {
#ifndef C10_MOBILE
for (const auto i : c10::irange(1, range)) {
_get_intraop_pool().run([fn, i]() { fn((int)i, i); });
}
// Run the first task on the current thread directly.
fn(0, 0);
#else
caffe2::PThreadPool* const pool = caffe2::pthreadpool();
TORCH_INTERNAL_ASSERT(pool, "Invalid thread pool!");
pool->run(
// PThreadPool::run() is blocking. A std::function [const] reference to
// this lambda cannot go out of scope before PThreadPool::run() returns.
[&fn](const size_t task_id) {
fn(0 /* unused */, task_id);
}, range);
#endif // C10_MOBILE
}
// RAII guard helps to support in_parallel_region() and get_thread_num() API.
struct ParallelRegionGuard {
ParallelRegionGuard(int task_id) {
internal::set_thread_num(task_id);
_set_in_parallel_region(true);
}
~ParallelRegionGuard() {
_set_in_parallel_region(false);
_unset_thread_num();
}
};
} // namespace
namespace internal {
inline std::tuple<size_t, size_t> calc_num_tasks_and_chunk_size(
int64_t begin, int64_t end, int64_t grain_size) {
if ((end - begin) < grain_size) {
return std::make_tuple(1, std::max((int64_t)0, end - begin));
}
// Choose number of tasks based on grain size and number of threads.
size_t chunk_size = divup((end - begin), get_num_threads());
// Make sure each task is at least grain_size size.
chunk_size = std::max((size_t)grain_size, chunk_size);
size_t num_tasks = divup((end - begin), chunk_size);
return std::make_tuple(num_tasks, chunk_size);
}
void invoke_parallel(
const int64_t begin,
const int64_t end,
const int64_t grain_size,
const std::function<void(int64_t, int64_t)>& f) {
at::internal::lazy_init_num_threads();
size_t num_tasks = 0, chunk_size = 0;
std::tie(num_tasks, chunk_size) =
internal::calc_num_tasks_and_chunk_size(begin, end, grain_size);
struct {
std::atomic_flag err_flag = ATOMIC_FLAG_INIT;
std::exception_ptr eptr;
std::mutex mutex;
std::atomic_size_t remaining{0};
std::condition_variable cv;
} state;
auto task = [f, &state, begin, end, chunk_size]
(int /* unused */, size_t task_id) {
int64_t local_start = begin + task_id * chunk_size;
if (local_start < end) {
int64_t local_end = std::min(end, (int64_t)(chunk_size + local_start));
try {
ParallelRegionGuard guard(task_id);
f(local_start, local_end);
} catch (...) {
if (!state.err_flag.test_and_set()) {
state.eptr = std::current_exception();
}
}
}
{
std::unique_lock<std::mutex> lk(state.mutex);
if (--state.remaining == 0) {
state.cv.notify_one();
}
}
};
state.remaining = num_tasks;
_run_with_pool(std::move(task), num_tasks);
// Wait for all tasks to finish.
{
std::unique_lock<std::mutex> lk(state.mutex);
if (state.remaining != 0) {
state.cv.wait(lk);
}
}
if (state.eptr) {
std::rethrow_exception(state.eptr);
}
}
} // namespace internal
void init_num_threads() {
#ifdef _OPENMP
omp_set_num_threads(1);
#endif
#if AT_MKL_ENABLED()
mkl_set_num_threads(1);
#endif
#ifdef C10_MOBILE
caffe2::pthreadpool();
#endif
}
void set_num_threads(int nthreads) {
#ifndef C10_MOBILE
TORCH_CHECK(nthreads > 0, "Expected positive number of threads");
int no_value = NOT_SET;
if (!num_intraop_threads.compare_exchange_strong(no_value, nthreads)) {
// num_intraop_threads either stores a positive integer or CONSUMED,
// check that requested size is the same as the current one
int stored_nthreads = num_intraop_threads.load();
if (stored_nthreads <= 0) {
// plus one because of master thread
// NOLINTNEXTLINE(cppcoreguidelines-narrowing-conversions,bugprone-narrowing-conversions)
stored_nthreads = _get_intraop_pool().size() + 1;
}
if (stored_nthreads != nthreads) {
TORCH_WARN(
"Cannot set number of intraop threads "
"after parallel work has started or after set_num_threads call "
"when using native parallel backend");
}
}
#else
caffe2::PThreadPool* const pool = caffe2::pthreadpool();
TORCH_INTERNAL_ASSERT(pool, "Invalid thread pool!");
pool->set_thread_count(nthreads);
#endif // C10_MOBILE
}
int get_num_threads() {
at::internal::lazy_init_num_threads();
#ifndef C10_MOBILE
// not initializing pool unnecessarily,
// because pool cannot be resized after initialization
int nthreads = num_intraop_threads.load();
if (nthreads > 0) {
return nthreads;
} else if (nthreads == NOT_SET) {
return intraop_default_num_threads();
} else {
TORCH_INTERNAL_ASSERT(nthreads == CONSUMED);
// NOLINTNEXTLINE(cppcoreguidelines-narrowing-conversions,bugprone-narrowing-conversions)
return _get_intraop_pool().size() + 1;
}
#else
caffe2::PThreadPool* const pool = caffe2::pthreadpool();
TORCH_INTERNAL_ASSERT(pool, "Invalid thread pool!")
return in_parallel_region() ? 1 /* current thread */ : pool->get_thread_count();
#endif // C10_MOBILE
}
int get_thread_num() {
return thread_num_;
}
bool in_parallel_region() {
#ifndef C10_MOBILE
return in_parallel_region_ || (
num_intraop_threads.load() == CONSUMED &&
// Needed as intraop_launch() doesn't set in_parallel_region().
_get_intraop_pool().inThreadPool()
);
#else
return in_parallel_region_;
#endif // C10_MOBILE
}
void intraop_launch(std::function<void()> func) {
#ifndef C10_MOBILE
if (!in_parallel_region() && get_num_threads() > 1) {
_get_intraop_pool().run(std::move(func));
} else {
// execute inline if we're in parallel region
func();
}
#else
// TODO: caffe2::PThreadPool only provides a data-parallel API.
// Task parallelism is not currently supported.
func();
#endif // C10_MOBILE
}
c10::intrusive_ptr<c10::ivalue::Future> intraop_launch_future(
std::function<void()> func) {
#ifndef C10_MOBILE
auto future = c10::make_intrusive<c10::ivalue::Future>(c10::NoneType::get());
if (!in_parallel_region() && get_num_threads() > 1) {
_get_intraop_pool().run(
[func, future]() {
func();
future->markCompleted();
}
);
} else {
func();
future->markCompleted();
}
return future;
#else
// TODO: caffe2::PThreadPool only provides a data-parallel API.
// Task parallelism is not currently supported.
auto future = c10::make_intrusive<c10::ivalue::Future>(c10::dynT<NoneType>());
func();
future->markCompleted();
return future;
#endif // C10_MOBILE
}
} // namespace at
#endif
``` |
Schachter v. Canada [1992] 2 S.C.R. 679 is the leading Supreme Court of Canada decision on the remedy provisions in sections 24(1) of the Charter and 52(1) of the Constitution Act, 1982. The Court provides a list of remedies available under each section.
Under section 52(1), the impugned law may be subject to any number of remedies: the law may be struck down completely, it may be suspended until remedied by the legislature, it may be read down to avoid the violation, an omission may be read into the law, or the impugned provision may be severed.
Under section 24(1), the victim of the impugned law may apply for either a constitutional exemption, an injunction, or damages.
See also
List of Supreme Court of Canada cases (Lamer Court)
External links
Supreme Court of Canada cases
1992 in Canadian case law
Supreme Court of Canada case articles without infoboxes |
From 1989 through 1991, Poland engaged in a democratic transition which put an end to the Polish People's Republic and led to the foundation of a democratic government, known as the Third Polish Republic (Polish: III Rzeczpospolita Polska), following the First and Second Polish Republic. After ten years of democratic consolidation, Poland joined NATO in 1999 and the European Union on 1 May 2004.
Background
Tension grew between the people of Poland and its communist government, as with the rest of the Eastern bloc as the influence of the Soviet Union faded. With the advent of perestroika in the Soviet Union under Mikhail Gorbachev, the opportunity arose to change the system of government, after the harsh period of martial law (1981-83) imposed by general Wojciech Jaruzelski.
Round Table Agreement and democratic transition
The government's inability to forestall Poland's economic decline led to waves of strikes across the country in April, May and August 1988. In an attempt to take control of the situation, the contemporary government gave de facto recognition to the Solidarity union, and Interior Minister Czesław Kiszczak began talks with Solidarity's leader Lech Wałęsa on August 31. These talks broke down in October, but a new series of negotiations, the "round table" talks, began in February 1989. These talks produced an agreement in April for partly open parliamentary elections. The June election produced a Sejm (lower house), in which one-third of the seats went to the communist party and one-third went to the two parties which had hitherto been their coalition partners. The remaining one-third of the seats in the Sejm and all those in the Senate were freely contested; the majority of these were by candidates supported by Solidarity. The failure of the communist party at the polls produced a political crisis. The round-table agreement called for a communist president, and on July 19, the National Assembly, with the support of a number of Solidarity deputies, elected General Wojciech Jaruzelski to that office. However, two attempts by the communists to form governments failed.
On August 19, President Jaruzelski asked journalist/Solidarity activist Tadeusz Mazowiecki to form a government; on September 12, the Sejm voted approval of Prime Minister Mazowiecki and his cabinet. For the first time in more than 40 years, Poland had a government led by non-communists.
In December 1989, the Sejm approved the government's reform program to transform the Polish economy rapidly from centrally planned to free-market, amended the constitution to eliminate references to the "leading role" of the Communist Party, and renamed the country the "Republic of Poland". The communist Polish United Workers' Party dissolved itself in January 1990, creating in its place a new party, Social Democracy of the Republic of Poland. Most of the property of the former Communist Party was turned over to the state.
The May 1990 local elections were entirely free. Candidates supported by Solidarity's Citizens' Committees won most of the elections they contested, although voter turnout was only a little over 40%. The cabinet was reshuffled in July 1990; the national defence and interior affairs ministers (hold-overs from the previous communist government) were among those replaced.
In October 1990, the constitution was amended to curtail the term of President Jaruzelski. In December, Lech Wałęsa became the first popularly elected President of Poland.
Wałęsa Presidency (1990–1995)
In the early 1990s, Poland made progress towards achieving a democratic government and a market economy. In November 1990, Lech Wałęsa was elected president for a 5-year term. Jan Krzysztof Bielecki, at Wałęsa's request, formed a government and served as its Prime Minister until October 1991, introducing world prices and greatly expanding the scope of private enterprise.
Poland's first free parliamentary elections were held in 1991. More than 100 parties participated, representing the full spectrum of political views. No single party received more than 13% of the total vote. The government of Prime Minister Jan Olszewski was the first fully free and democratic Polish government since 1926. This cabinet was supported by the Kaczyński brothers. Olszewski was replaced by Hanna Suchocka as the first woman Prime Minister of Poland in 1992 after Janusz Korwin-Mikke wanted all members of the Sejm who had cooperated with the communist secret police to be revealed. After a rough start, 1993 saw the second group of elections, and the first parliament to serve a full term. The Democratic Left Alliance (SLD) received the largest share of votes. Also in 1993 the Soviet Northern Group of Forces finally left Poland.
After the election, the SLD and Polish People's Party (PSL) formed a governing coalition. Waldemar Pawlak, leader of the junior partner PSL, became Prime Minister. Relations between President Wałęsa and the Prime Minister remained poor throughout the Pawlak government, with the President charging Pawlak with furthering personal and party interests while neglecting matters of state importance. Following a number of scandals implicating Pawlak and increasing political tension over control of the armed forces, Wałęsa demanded Pawlak's resignation in January 1995. A crisis resulted and the coalition removed Pawlak from office and replaced him with the SLD's Józef Oleksy as the new Prime Minister.
Kwaśniewski Presidency (1995–2005)
In November 1995, Poland held its second post-war free presidential elections. SLD leader Aleksander Kwaśniewski defeated Wałęsa by a narrow margin—51.7% to 48.3%. Soon after Wałęsa's defeat, Interior Minister Andrzej Milczanowski accused then-Prime Minister Oleksy of a longtime collaboration with Soviet and later Russian intelligence. In the ensuing political crisis, Oleksy resigned. For his successor, The SLD-PSL coalition turned to deputy Sejm speaker Włodzimierz Cimoszewicz — who was linked to, but not a member of, the SLD. Polish prosecutors subsequently decided that there was insufficient evidence to charge Oleksy, and a parliamentary commission decided in November 1996 that the Polish intelligence services may have violated rules of procedure in gathering evidence in the Oleksy case.
Poland's new Constitution of 1997 redefined the concept of the Polish nation in civic rather than ethnic terms. Article 35 guaranteed the rights of national and ethnic minorities, while other provisions prohibited discrimination and political organizations that spread racial hatred.
In 1997 parliamentary elections two parties with roots in the Solidarity movement — Solidarity Electoral Action (AWS) and the Freedom Union (UW) — won 261 of the 460 seats in the Sejm and formed a coalition government. Jerzy Buzek of the AWS became Prime Minister. The AWS and the Democratic Left Alliance (SLD) held the majority of the seats in the Sejm. Marian Krzaklewski was the leader of the AWS, and Leszek Miller led the SLD. In April 1997, the first post-communist Constitution of Poland was finalized, and in July put into effect. In June 2000, UW withdrew from the governing coalition, leaving AWS at the helm of a minority government.
In the presidential election of 2000, Aleksander Kwaśniewski, the incumbent former leader of the post-communist SLD, was re-elected in the first round of voting, with 53.9% of the popular vote. Second place, with only 17.3%, went to Andrzej Olechowski. It is thought that the opposition campaign was hindered by their inability to put forward a charismatic (or even a single major) candidate, as well as falling support for the centre-right AWS government. This was related to internal friction in the ruling parliamentary coalition.
The 1997 Constitution and the reformed administrative division of 1999 required a revision of the electoral system, which was passed in April 2001. The most important changes included:
the final liquidation of the party list (previously, some of the members of parliament were elected from a party list, based on nationwide voter support, rather than from local constituencies),
modification of the method of allocating seats to the Sainte-Laguë method, which gave less premium to large parties. The latter change was reverted to the d'Hondt method in 2002.
In the September 2001 parliamentary elections, the SLD triumphed on the back of voter disillusionment with the AWS government and internal bickering within that bloc. So much so that this former ruling party did not enter parliament due to falling below the 8% threshold for coalitions. (Symptomatically, they had failed to form a formal political party, which has only a 5% threshold, and formally remained a "coalition" of parties).
The SLD went on to form a coalition with the agrarian PSL and leftist Labour Union (UP), with Leszek Miller as Prime Minister. This government had the support of 256 of the 460 seats in the Sejm.
A leading issue in the subsequent years was negotiations with the European Union regarding accession and internal preparation for this. Poland joined the EU in May 2004. Both President Kwaśniewski and the government were vocal in their support for this cause. The only party decidedly opposed to EU entry was the populist right-wing League of Polish Families (LPR).
Despite broad popular support for joining the EU, which was considered an overriding issue, the government rapidly lost popularity due to incompetence on various issues (e.g. building of motorways, and a botched reform of the health system and numerous corruption scandals). The most famous of these were the Rywin affair (an alleged attempt to interfere with the legislative process, so named after the main suspect Lew Rywin) -- this case was investigated by a special parliamentary committee, whose proceedings were televised and widely followed), and the Starachowice affair (government ministers informed friends with links to an organized crime about an impending raid).
In March some prominent SLD politicians and MPs (including the then Speaker of the Sejm: Marek Borowski) formed a split, creating the new Social Democracy of Poland party. The cabinet led by Leszek Miller resigned on May 2, 2004, just after Poland joined the European Union.
A new cabinet was formed, with Marek Belka as prime minister. After two initial unsuccessful attempts, it eventually won parliamentary support (24 June) and governed until the parliamentary elections in late 2005. Several of the new ministers were seen as non-partisan experts, and the government was considered a marked improvement upon the previous cabinet. This did not carry over into any rise in voter support for the SLD, however, even despite an economic upturn through 2005. Part of the reason is that this government was considered to be largely apart from the party backbone, and only held in an office by the fear of early elections by the majority of the MPs.
A fear not unfounded, as the SLD saw its support drop by three-fourths to only 11% in the subsequent elections.
Lech Kaczyński Presidency (2005–2010)
PiS-led coalition government (2005–2007)
In the autumn of 2005 Poles voted in both parliamentary and presidential elections. September's parliamentary poll was expected to produce a coalition of two centre-right parties, PiS (Law and Justice) and PO (Civic Platform). During the increasingly bitter campaign, however, PiS launched a strong attack on the liberal economic policies of their allies and overtook PO in opinion polls. PiS eventually gained 27% of votes cast and became the largest party in the Sejm ahead of PO on 24%. The out-going ruling party, the social democratic SLD, achieved just 11%. This continues the trend that in every free parliamentary election the Polish electorate has voted against the current government, turning to the left in 1993 and 2001, and to the right in 1997 and 2005.
Presidential elections in October followed a similar script. The early favourite, Donald Tusk, leader of the PO, saw his opinion poll lead slip away and was beaten 54% to 46% in the second round by the PiS candidate Lech Kaczyński (one of the twins, founders of the party).
Both elections were blighted by low turn-outs: only 51% in the second and deciding round of the presidential election and just over 40% in the parliamentary election. The suggested cause of the low turnout is popular disillusionment with politicians.
Coalition talks ensued simultaneously with the presidential elections. However, the severity of the campaign attacks and the willingness of PiS to court the populist vote had soured the relationship between the two largest parties and made the creation of a stable coalition impossible. The ostensible stumbling blocks were the insistence of PiS that it controls all aspects of law enforcement: the Ministries of Justice and Internal Affairs, and the special forces; as well as the forcing through of a PiS candidate for the head of the Sejm with help of several smaller populist parties. The PO decided to go into opposition.
PiS then formed a minority government with the previously little-known Kazimierz Marcinkiewicz as Prime Minister instead of party leader, Jarosław Kaczyński who remained influential in the background. This government relied on the tacit and rather stable support of smaller populist and agrarian parties (Samoobrona, LPR) to govern.
The new government enjoyed quite strong public support (which was expected during the first few months after the election), while the popularity of the populist parties giving it support, significantly waned. A parliamentary crisis appeared to loom in January 2006, with these small populist parties fearing that PiS was about to force new elections (on which they would lose out) by using the pretext of failing to pass the budget within the constitutional timeframe. However, a crisis was abated.
In May 2006 a coalition agreement for the majority government was formed between PiS, Samoobrona and League of Polish Families (LPR). In July 2006, following a rift with his party leader, Jarosław Kaczyński, Marcinkiewicz tendered his resignation as Prime Minister and was replaced by Jarosław Kaczyński. The following 15 months were erratic and not without controversy, as the government pursued lustration policies, established a Central Anticorruption Bureau with far-reaching powers and was embroiled in a case relating to the suicide of an MP who was under investigation for corruption. The new government also modified Polish foreign relations relating to the EU by adopting a more eurosceptical stance, where Polish governments had in the past adopted a very pro-EU position.
The uneasy alliance between the three coalition partners came to a head in July 2007 when Samoobrona leader, Andrzej Lepper, was dismissed from his position as Minister for Agriculture following a secret investigation by the Central Anticorruption Bureau (CBA) which attempted to link him and his department to corruptive practices. Lepper protested his innocence and claimed to have been the victim of a politically motivated 'sting' operation, initiated by PM Kaczynski and PiS. The coalition agreement collapsed over the following month, with both the LPR and Samoobrona levelling accusations against PiS. In September, the Sejm voted to dissolve itself (supported by PiS but opposed by Samoobrona and LPR), paving the way for elections in October.
Donald Tusk government (2007–2014)
In the October parliamentary elections, the Civic Platform (PO), the largest opposition party, gained more than 41% of the popular vote. PiS's vote increased, from 2005, but insufficiently to gain reelection, whilst both Samoobrona and LPR lost all representation, each having gained only a little over 1% of the vote. PO proceeded to form a majority governing coalition with the agrarian Polish People's Party (PSL), with PO leader, Donald Tusk, taking over the prime ministerial office in November 2007.
On August 14, 2008, the United States and Poland agreed to have 10, two-stage Orbital Sciences Corp missile interceptors placed in Poland, as part of a missile shield to defend Europe and the US from a possible missile attack by Iran. In return, the US agreed to move a battery of MIM-104 Patriot missiles to Poland. The missile battery would be staffed - at least temporarily - by US Military personnel. The US also pledged to defend Poland - a NATO member - quicker than NATO would in the event of an attack. After the agreement was announced, Russian officials - who viewed the missile shield as a threat - released a statement indirectly threatening Poland, and said that the missile defence system would greatly harm future US/Russia relations.
Russia later threatened nuclear attack against "new US assets in Europe", referring to Poland. The US has pledged to back Warsaw in the event of Russian aggression towards Poland.
Komorowski Presidency (2010–2015)
On 10 April 2010, numerous high-ranking Polish statesmen died in the Smolensk air crash, including Lech Kaczyński, the President of Poland at the time. At the 2010 Polish presidential election, Donald Tusk decided not to stand. At PO primary elections, Bronisław Komorowski defeated the Foreign Minister Radosław Sikorski, at the second round of voting on 4 July 2010, he defeated PiS's Jarosław Kaczyński. and on 6 August 2010 he was sworn in as president. At the November 2010 local elections, PO won 31 percent of the votes and PiS 23 percent, an increase for the former and a drop for the latter compared to the 2006 elections.
In October 2011, Donald Tusk became the first ever Polish Prime Minister to be re-elected in post-communist Poland. PO won a record of four consecutive elections. PO's dominance was seen as a reflection of right-wing divisions, with PiS splitting in autumn 2010.
Duda Presidency (2015–present)
After two rounds of elections in May 2015, opposition Law and Justice (PiS) candidate Andrzej Duda became President by a 3% margin. In October 2015, the PiS won the simple majority in the Sejm, was able to form the first single-party government since the fall of communism in 1989.
Since the PiS control the presidency and have the majority in both houses, it aims to make judiciary reforms in the Constitutional Court. (See Polish Constitutional Court crisis, 2015)
In the context of rising tensions with the EU, the Polish government is being accused of leading Poland towards democratic backsliding. Media outlets fully controlled by capital from outside the EU are now facing the risk to sell parts of their Polish channels, as is already common in other EU countries (like Germany or France). As there are no legal objections, critics and the primarily concerned US mass media outlet (Discovery, Inc.) raise that this would be an attack on the expression of free speech. The newly appointed US ambassador Mark Brzezinski stated that he is concerned by this and plans to support freedom of speech.
In December 2017, Mateusz Morawiecki was sworn in as the new Prime Minister, succeeding Beata Szydlo, in office since 2015. They both represented the ruling Law and Justice party, led by Jaroslaw Kaczynski.
Poland's governing Law and Justice party (PiS) won the parliamentary election in October 2019.
Duda was re-elected in the 2020 presidential election.
Poland has been one of neigbouring Ukraine’s most ardent supporters after the 2022 Russian invasion of Ukraine. As of November 2022, Poland had received more than 1.5 million Ukrainian refugees since the beginning of the war. In September 2023, however, Poland said that it will stop supplying arms to Ukraine and instead focus on its own defense. Poland's decision to ban importing Ukrainian grain, in order to protect its own farmers, had caused tension between the two countries.
See also
Politics of Poland
Fourth Polish Republic
References
Further reading
External links
Commonwealth.pl, Commonwealth of Diverse Cultures: Poland's Heritage
U.S. State Department State.gov, Background Note: Poland
Russia threatens nuclear attack on Poland over US missile shield deal - Telegraph - Telegraph.co.uk
1989
1989 in Poland
1990s in Poland
2000s in Poland
2010s in Poland
1989
20th century in Poland
21st century in Poland |
{{Chembox
| ImageFile = Fluomine.svg
| ImageSize = 200px
| IUPACName =
| OtherNames = {{bulleted list|Fluomine dust|Cobalt(II), N,''N-ethylenebis-(3-fluorosalicyclideneiminato)-|Cobalt, bis(3-fluorosalicylaldehyde)ethylenediimine-}}
| Section1 =
| Section2 =
| Section3 =
}}Fluomine''' is a chemical compound containing a cobalt chelate. It has the ability to form a complex with molecular oxygen (O2) and then release it upon heating. Because of this ability to reversibly sorb and desorb oxygen, it has been used in high-altitude aircraft oxygen-generating systems.
The toxicity of fluomine has been studied and it is classified by the Emergency Planning and Community Right-to-Know Act as an extremely hazardous substance.
References
Cobalt compounds
Fluoroarenes
Imines |
Return fraud is the act of defrauding a retail store by means of the return process. There are various ways in which this crime is committed. For example, the offender may return stolen merchandise to secure cash, steal receipts or receipt tape to enable a falsified return, or use somebody else's receipt to try to return an item picked up from a store shelf. Return abuse is a form of "friendly fraud" where someone purchases products without intending to keep them. Perhaps the best-known form of this abuse is "wardrobing" or "free renting" – in which the person makes a purchase, use the product(s), and then returns the merchandise.
The retail industry experiences a significant fraud and abuse problem, losing money in the range of $24 billion per year, roughly 7% of all returns and exchanges.
Return fraud and theft have been reported to lead to price increases for shoppers. Some stores create strict return policies such as "no receipt, no return" or impose return time restrictions.
Types
Some examples of return fraud include:
Bricking: Purchasing a working electronic item, deliberately damaging or stripping it of valuable components to render it unusable, then returning the item for profit.
Cross-retailer return: Returning or exchanging an item purchased at another retailer (usually at a lower price) for cash, store credit, or a similar, higher-priced item at another retailer.
Employee fraud: Assistance from employees to return stolen goods for full retail price.
Open-box fraud: Purchasing an item from a store and returning it opened with the intent to re-purchase it at a lower price under the store's open-box policies. A variation of price-switching.
Price arbitrage: Purchasing differently priced, but similar-looking merchandise and returning the cheaper item as the expensive one.
Price switching: Placing higher-priced labels on merchandise with the intention of returning the item(s) at a higher price than purchase.
Receipt fraud: Utilizing reused, stolen, or falsified receipts to return merchandise for profit. Alternatively, returning goods purchased on sale or from a different store at a lower price with the intention of profiting from the difference.
Returning stolen merchandise: Shoplifting with the objective to return the item(s) for full price, plus any sales tax.
Switch fraud: Purchasing a working item, and returning a damaged or defective identical item that was already owned.
Return policies have historically served as the primary way for retailers to combat return fraud and abuse; the challenge is keeping policies from being overly restrictive or inconsistently interpreted, both of which may discourage loyal customers and affect purchases. Automated solutions have also been developed to help combat return fraud and abuse, including software programs that detect such behavior and help retailers determine whether a return is valid.
Wardrobing
Wardrobing, purchasing merchandise for short-term use with the intent to return the item, has been described by industry advocates as a form of return fraud. Wardrobing is a form of return fraud where an item is purchased, used, and then returned to the store for a refund. It is most often done with expensive clothing – hence the name – but the practice is also common with tools, electronics, and even computers. To prevent this practice, some stores make certain items, such as wedding dresses or Christmas decorations, unreturnable. Some observers classify wardrobing as a form of shoplifting.
See also
Claude Allen, assistant to U.S. President George W. Bush who resigned after being arrested for return fraud
References
External links
National Retail Federation
Loss Prevention Research Council
Dr. Mark Rosenbaum and Dr. Ronald Kuntze The relationship between anomie and unethical retail disposition
Retailing-related crime
Fraud |
The inauguration of Martin Van Buren as the eighth president of the United States took place on Saturday, March 4, 1837, at the East Portico of the United States Capitol in Washington, D.C. This was the 13th inauguration and marked the commencement of the only four-year term of both Martin Van Buren as president and Richard Mentor Johnson as vice president. Vice President and President-elect Van Buren rode with his predecessor Andrew Jackson in a small phaeton built from the wood of drawn by four gray horses. This was the first time that the outgoing and incoming president rode together to the Capitol. Van Buren would become the last sitting vice president to be inaugurated as president through an election until George H. W. Bush in 1989.
The event proved less a celebration of the incoming president than a tribute to the outgoing one. Van Buren's inaugural address took wistful note of it:
With a single exception, the new administration retained Jackson's entire cabinet, and Van Buren pledged to "tread generally in the footsteps of President Jackson."
See also
Presidency of Martin Van Buren
1836 United States presidential election
References
External links
More documents from the Library of Congress
Text of Van Buren's Inaugural Address
United States presidential inaugurations
1837 in American politics
1837 in Washington, D.C.
Inauguration
March 1837 events |
Andrew Báthory (; ; 1562 or 1563 – 3 November 1599) was the Cardinal-deacon of Sant'Adriano al Foro from 1584 to 1599, Prince-Bishop of Warmia from 1589 to 1599, and Prince of Transylvania in 1599. His father was a brother of Stephen Báthory, who ruled the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from 1575. He was the childless Stephen Báthory's favorite nephew. He went to Poland at his uncle's invitation in 1578 and studied at the Jesuit college in Pułtusk. He became canon in the Chapter of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Warmia in 1581, and provost of the Monastery of Miechów in 1583.
Pope Gregory XIII appointed Báthory cardinal during his visit to Rome in 1584. A year later, he was installed as coadjutor bishop of Warmia. He was in Rome again when Stephen Báthory died in 1586. Andrew was one of the candidates to succeed him in Poland and Lithuania, but Jan Zamoyski, the Chancellor of Poland, convinced him to support another candidate, Sigismund Vasa, and to demonstrate the Báthorys' claim to the crown only through nominating his minor cousin, Sigismund Báthory, Prince of Transylvania. After Sigismund Vasa was elected king in 1587, Báthory convinced his cousin's advisors to send reinforcements to Poland to fight against Maximilian of Habsburg, who also claimed the throne. Báthory became Prince-Bishop of Warmia after the death of Bishop Marcin Kromer in 1589.
In the early 1590s, Andrew and his brother, Balthasar Báthory, came into conflict with Sigismund Báthory over the presence of Jesuits in the predominantly Protestant Transylvania. Before long, Sigismund's plan to join the Holy League of Pope Clement VIII against the Ottoman Empire gave rise to new tensions, because the brothers sharply opposed the plan. Sigismund executed Balthasar and confiscated Andrew's estates in 1594. After the Ottomans defeated the army of the Holy League in a series of battles, Sigismund decided to abdicate. He transferred Transylvania to the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolph II, in 1598, but he returned a few months later.
Sigismund and Andrew were reconciled, and Sigismund renounced Transylvania in favor of Andrew in March 1599. Andrew was supported by Poland and the Ottoman Empire. Rudolph II persuaded Michael the Brave, Voivode of Wallachia, to invade Transylvania. Michael defeated Andrew's troops at the Battle of Sellenberk with the assistance of Székely commoners, to whom he had promised to restore their freedom. Andrew wanted to flee to Poland, but Székely serfs captured and killed him.
Early life
Andrew was the youngest of the four sons of András Báthory and Margit Majláth. His father was the marshal of the court of Isabella Jagiellon and her son, John Sigismund Zápolya. Isabella and John Sigismund ruled the eastern territories of the medieval Kingdom of Hungary as vassals of the Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent. The date of Andrew's birth is uncertain, because his actual age was kept secret in the early 1580s to promote his career in the Roman Catholic Church. He was most probably born in late 1562 or early 1563, according to historian Ildikó Horn. His father died around that time, implying that Andrew was a posthumous son.
Andrew's mother married János Iffjú before the end 1563. Andrew and his youngest brother, Balthasar, and their sisters, Anne and Catherine, lived for years at their stepfather's estate, Érmihályfalva (now Valea lui Mihai in Romania). Both his mother and her second husband were Lutherans, but Andrew remained Roman Catholic, like his father and uncles, Christopher and Stephen Báthory. Christopher was Andrew's legal guardian, but his actual role in his education is uncertain.
After John Sigismund died in 1571, the Diet of Transylvania elected Stephen Báthory voivode (or ruler) in 1571. Stephen adopted the title of prince of Transylvania after he was elected king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania in 1575. The childless king decided to take charge of his nephew's education and ordered him to come to Poland in late 1578. Andrew studied at the Jesuit college in Pułtusk. His fellow-students were mainly young Protestant noblemen from Transylvania or Royal Hungary, but Polish, Lithuanian, German and Italian noblemen and commoners were also chosen to study together with him. He could speak Latin, Italian, Polish and German by the end of his studies.
Church career
Beginnings
Andrew was the favorite nephew of Stephen Báthory who officially adopted him. Giovanni Andrea Caligari, the papal nuncio (or ambassador) in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth, urged the king to persuade Andrew to start a church career. According to the Transylvanian historian, István Szamosközy, Andrew had already been fascinated by altars, churches and tombs as a child. However, his Protestant mother and relatives wanted to dissuade Andrew. After recovering from an almost lethal pneumonia in spring 1581, Andrew accepted their advice. He was especially worried about clerical celibacy, because it prevented him from fathering legitimate children. He also hoped that his uncle would promote his secular career. His Jesuit tutors finally persuaded him to accept his uncle's decision.
Andrew was made canon in the Chapter of the Roman Catholic Diocese of Warmia on 16 September 1581. The canons and the elderly bishop, Marcin Kromer, had been opposed to Andrew's appointment, but the new papal nuncio, Alberto Bolognetti, the chancellor of Poland, Jan Zamoyski, and Stephen Báthory persuaded one of the canons to abdicate in favor of Andrew. However, the canons, along with the Estates of Royal Prussia, prevented Andrew's promotion to coadjutor bishop saying that he was too young. At the nuncio's initiative, Andrew was elected provost of the Monastery of Miechów in spring 1583.
Cardinal
Stephen Báthory sent Andrew to Rome to start negotiations about an alliance against the Ottoman Empire, and to secure Andrew's creation as cardinal. Andrew and his retinue left Kraków for Italy on 10 September 1583. He visited Charles Borromeo, archbishop of Milan, who was a highly respected prelate and regarded as a living saint for his piety in his diocese. After their meeting, Borromeo wrote a spiritual instruction to him. In Milan, Andrew also met Giovanni Botero who described him as an actual representative of anti-Machiavellianism. A Protestant retainer of Andrew, Ferenc Forgách, converted to Catholicism in the Basilica della Santa Casa in Loreto on 21 November.
Andrew (whom the ambassador of Venice mentioned as the "Polish prince") entered Rome on the feast of Andrew the Apostle (30 November). Five days later, Pope Gregory XIII received him and made him papal protonotary. The pope, who could not persuade Stephen Báthory to join an anti-Ottoman coalition, failed to make Andrew cardinal. Following his uncle's advice, Andrew announced that he was to leave Rome. The pope appointed him cardinal-deacon of Sant'Adriano al Foro on 23 July 1584. On this occasion, Giovanni Pierluigi da Palestrina dedicated a motet to the Báthorys. Three days later Andrew left Rome.
Coadjutor bishop
Andrew returned to Poland on 20 October 1584 and settled in Miechów. He rebuilt the altar in the monastery and introduced new ceremonies (including a 40-hour prayer for the king and the kingdom). He was installed as coadjutor bishop at the see of the Bishopric of Warmia, Lidzbark Warmiński, in early July 1585. He visited the nearby major towns, including Gdańsk and Malbork.
Meanwhile, Stephen Báthory had decided to secure the Bishopric of Kraków for his nephew, but the Holy See did not appoint Andrew coadjutor bishop of the Kraków See, because he was still too young. The king wanted to invade Russia and sent Andrew to Rome to convince Pope Sixtus V to support his plan. Andrew left Poland on 22 March 1586. Samuel Zborowski's brothers (he had been executed on Stephen Báthory's orders), wanted to capture and murder Andrew, but their plan failed because of a flood. Andrew came to Rome on 24 July. He informed the pope about Stephen Báthory's plan, asking financial support from the Holy See against Russia.
Stephen Báthory died on 13 December 1586. Andrew left Rome and hurried back to Poland. He inherited the domains of Gyalu, Nagyenyed and Örményes in Transylvania (now Gilău, Aiud and Armeniș in Romania) from his uncle. Stephen Báthory stipulated that Gyalu should serve the reestablishment of the Roman Catholic bishopric in Transylvania.
Andrew, his brother Balthasar, and their cousin Sigismund Báthory, prince of Transylvania, were among the sixteen candidates to the throne of Poland and Lithuania. Before long, Bartosz Paprocki published a pamphlet against "the kings from Hungary", accusing Stephen Báthory of suppressing the Polish nobles. Jan Zamoyski initially stood by Andrew, who was also supported by the pope and the sultan. Andrew's opponents pillaged the monastery of Miechów. A group of noblemen warned Andrew to leave Poland in February 1587.
After realising that the Báthorys had little chance to seize the throne, Zamoyski decided to support another candidate, Sigismund Vasa. On Zamoyski's advice, the fourteen-year-old Sigismund Báthory was officially presented as the sole candidate from the family (which demonstrated the existence of the Báthorys' claim to the throne), but Andrew cooperated with Zamoyski on behalf of Sigismund Vasa. Sigismund Vasa was elected king of Poland and grand duke of Lithuania on 19 August 1587. However, his opponents proclaimed Maximilian of Habsburg the ruler of the Commonwealth. Maximilian laid siege to Kraków and pillaged Miechów. Andrew persuaded Sigismund Báthory's advisors to send Transylvanian reinforcements to fight the invaders. Andrew was chosen to receive Sigismund Vasa in Kraków. He also attended the new king's coronation on 27 December 1587. The Sejm (or general assembly) granted citizenship to both Andrew and Balthasar Báthory.
István Jósika, István Bodoni, and other fellow-students of Andrew became important advisors of the young Sigismund Báthory in Transylvania. After the Diet of Transylvania expelled the Jesuits in December 1588, Pope Sixtus V excommunicated Sigismund. Andrew went to Transylvania and sent letters to Rome to achieve a reconciliation, emphasizing that the Jesuits' aggressive proselytizing policy had contributed to their unpopularity in the predominantly Protestant principality.
Bishop of Warmia
After Marcin Kromer died in early March 1589, Andrew became the Prince-Bishop of Warmia and a member of the Senate of Poland. He supported the introduction of the teaching of philosophy and theology in the Collegium Hosianum in Braniewo, because he wanted to develop it into a university. At the request of Sigismund III Vasa, Pope Sixtus made Andrew coadjutor bishop of Piotr Myszkowski, the elderly bishop of Kraków. However, the Habsburgs wanted to prevent Andrew from seizing the bishopric which was situated near Royal Hungary. The new papal nuncio, Annibale di Capua (who was their supporter) convinced the king to nominate Jerzy Radziwiłł to the see after Myszkowski died on 5 April 1591. Capua emphasized that Andrew had not been an ordained priest. Most Polish noblemen regarded the Lithuanian Radziwiłł's appointment to a Polish see unlawful, but Pope Gregory XIV confirmed the king's decision.
Sigismund III's confessor and court priest, who were Jesuits, supported Radziwiłł against Andrew. Thereafter, Andrew urged the Holy See to send Franciscan friars to Transylvania instead of the Jesuits (who were supported by Sigismund Báthory). He also suggested that the pope should make a Franciscan friar bishop of Transylvania, with a see in Csíksomlyó (now Șumuleu Ciuc in Romania). He settled Catholic priests in four villages on his estates. The Holy See authorized him to set up deaneries in Transylvania, making him the actual head of the Catholic Church in the principality.
In August 1591, Maximilian of Habsburg, who still claimed Poland and Lithuania, sent his envoy to Andrew seeking Transylvanian support against Sigismund III. Andrew emphasized that being under Ottoman suzerainty, Transylvania could not openly support Maximilian, but he also promised that Sigismund Báthory would not prevent the mustering of Transylvanian soldiers to fight in Poland. In the same month, Sigismund Báthory's plan to enable the Jesuits to return to Transylvania gave rise to a serious family conflict, because both Andrew and Balthasar refused to support the prince at the Diet. According to contemporaneous gossips, Andrew and his two brothers decided to dethrone Sigismund, replacing him with Balthasar. Pope Clement VIII sent a papal nuncio, Attilio Amalteo, to Transylvania to mediate a reconciliation.
The Holy See also tried to reach a compromise on the Kraków bishopric, but Jan Zamoyski, who was in conflict with the king, persuaded Andrew to give up his claim in favor of Radziwiłł. Andrew withheld 20,000 gulden from the royal tax of Warmia, saying that the king owed him 40,000 gulden. He started negotiations with John George, Elector of Brandenburg, who promised him the hand of one of his daughters if he accepted the protection of Brandenburg over Warmia. Zamoyski, who had been with Sigismund III, also persuaded Andrew to make peace with the king in May 1593. Andrew renounced the see of Kraków in exchange for the Abbey of Czerwińsk nad Wisłą.
The pope's new envoy, Alessandro Cumuleo, came to Transylvania to urge Sigismund Báthory to join the Holy League that the pope had set up against the Ottomans. The prince was ready to join the alliance, but Andrew and Balthasar emphasized that Transylvania could not secede from the Ottoman Empire without the participation of Poland in the coalition. Most of Sigismund's advisors supported their proposal, but his confessor, the Jesuit Alfonso Carillo, convinced him to continue the negotiations with the Holy Roman Emperor, Rudolph II. Carillo prevented Andrew from taking part in the negotiations in Prague. Before long, Andrew left Transylvania for Poland.
Sigismund Báthory's maternal uncle, Stephen Bocskai, and other commanders of the Transylvanian army, persuaded the prince to get rid of those who did not support the Holy League. Balthasar Báthory and his allies were captured and murdered in late August 1594. Sigismund also confiscated Andrew's Transylvanian estates. The Diet confirmed the prince's acts, convicting Andrew and his brother, Stephen, of treason.
Andrew sent letters to the Holy See, describing his cousin as an immoral tyrant. He wanted to replace Sigismund with Stephen with the assistance of the pope, England and Poland, but they received no support. Pope Clement VIII invited him to Rome, but he refused. At the pope's request, Sigismund Báthory allowed Andrew's mother and Stephen's wife, along with their children, to move to Poland. Zamoyski, who strongly opposed Sigismund Báthory's anti-Ottoman policy, supported Andrew and Stephen.
Andrew exchanged letters with Aaron the Tyrant, Voivode of Moldavia, who had been captured by Sigismund Báthory because of his attempts to make peace with Poland and the Ottoman Empire. The pope's special envoy, Martio Malacrida, tried to convince Andrew to accept the post of the ambassador of Poland in Rome, but Andrew again refused. He said, his homeland would require his presence, because Sigismund's anti-Ottoman policy could not be continued for long. Letters found on one of Stephen Báthory's retainers suggested that Andrew and his brother sent letters to the leaders of the Székely commoners who had risen up against Sigismund Báthory in February 1596. Sigismund III of Poland summoned Andrew and Stephen before the Senate, but Pope Clement VIII intervened on the brothers' behalf.
After the Ottomans defeated the armies of the Holy League in a series of battles in 1596, Transylvanian noblemen sent letters to Andrew, offering him the principality. After realizing that neither the pope nor the Polish king would support him against Sigismund Báthory, Andrew declared that he was ready to make peace with him. He returned to Warmia where he was ordained subdeacon on 4 January 1597. Andrew and Stephen even announced that they would not intervene in Transylvania. Their envoys also started discussions with Sigismund Báthory about the compensation for their expropriated Transylvanian estates.
Sigismund Báthory opened negotiations over the transfer of Transylvania to the Habsburgs, which worried both Poland and the Ottoman Empire. On 20 February 1598, Andrew offered the Bishopric of Warmia and his other Church offices in Poland to Sigismund, in exchange for Transylvania. However, Sigismund's envoys had already signed an agreement with Rudolph II. Sigismund left Transylvania, and Rudolph's commissioners took charge of the administration of the principality on 10 April. Before long, Sigismund changed his mind and returned to Transylvania with the assistance of Stephen Bocskai. Sigismund sent a Jesuit as his representative to Kraków and offered Transylvania to Andrew in November. Andrew accepted the offer and left Poland in disguise, without revealing the actual purpose of his travel to Transylvania. He met Sigismund in Kolozsvár (now Cluj-Napoca in Romania) in the middle of February 1599. Most contemporaries (including Szamosközy) believed that Andrew came to Transylvania to make peace with his cousin.
Prince of Transylvania
Sigismund Báthory abdicated at the Diet in Medgyes (Mediaș, Romania) on 21 March and proposed Andrew his successor. After Andrew pledged that neither he nor his brother would take vengeance on those who had voted against them in 1594, the Diet elected him prince on 28 March. However, as Alfonso Carillo noted, the most influential noblemen remained opposed to Andrew, even if they did not dare to raise an objection openly.
The new prince's principal supporters were the noblemen who had been forced into exile in 1594, but they were impoverished young men, without influence. Instead of them, Andrew had to choose his officials from among the Roman Catholic lords: he made István Bodoni ispán (or head) of Kolozs County and Gáspár Sibrik the commander of the cavalry. Andrew was even unable to get rid of his opponents. For instance, Gáspár Kornis remained a member of the royal council, although he had played a preeminent role in the execution of Andrew's brother in 1594.
Andrew wanted to secure his suzerainty over the rulers of Moldavia and Wallachia. He initially wanted to replace Michael the Brave, Voivode of Wallachia, with his brother, Stephen, but Michael swore fealty to him on 26 June. Andrew's envoys signed an agreement with Ieremia Movilă, Voivode of Moldavia, about the marriage of the voivode's daughter and Andrew's half-brother, János Iffjú, on 3 July. Andrew also started negotiations with the Ottoman Empire, demanding the confirmation of his hereditary rule and his suzerainty over Wallachia, and refusing the payment of the tribute for six years.
After the marriage of Sigismund Báthory and Maria Christierna of Habsburg (who was a cousin of Rudolph II) was declared invalid in August, Andrew proposed himself to her. However, Rudolph II had not acknowledged Andrew's rule in Transylvania and sent envoys to the leaders of the "Three Nations of Transylvania". He also urged Stephen Bocskai and Michael the Brave to invade Transylvania. Andrew summoned Stephen Bocskai to the Diet, charging him with treason. However, he did not believe the reports of Michael's preparations for an invasion and he was surprised when Michael broke into Transylvania in October. The Székely commoners joined the invaders, because Michael promised to restore their freedom. On 28 October, Michael routed the Transylvanian army in the Battle of Sellenberk after Andrew—who had never participated in a battle—fled from the battlefield in a panic. The Diet of Transylvania recognized Michael as Rudolph II's representative.
Andrew wanted to flee to Poland, but Székely serfs captured him on a mountain near Csíkszentdomokos (now Sândominic in Romania) on 3 November. He was struck to death with a shepherd's axe. His head was cut off and taken to Michael the Brave, who sent it to the pope's envoy, Germanico Malaspina. A Greek artist painted the head before it was sewn back on to the body at Michael's order. Andrew was ceremoniously buried in St. Michael's Cathedral in Gyulafehérvár on 24 November.
Ancestors
References
Sources
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Princes of Transylvania
Bathory
Ecclesiastical senators of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
1560s births
1599 deaths
Andrew
Canons of Warmia
Polish indigenes
16th-century Hungarian cardinals
1590s in Romania
16th-century Roman Catholic bishops in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth
16th-century Hungarian nobility
Axe murder |
G. M. Bhat (born 2 July 1959) is a geologist from Jammu and Kashmir, India. He was the head professor at Department of Geology of Jammu University.
In 2020, he was nominated as a member of the Scientific Board of Geoscience Programme (IGCP) by the United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO).
In addition to his work as a professor, Bhat has also served as the Head of the Geological Department at Jammu University.
Early life
Ghulam M. Bhat was born on 2 July 1959 in Srinagar. He has received his Bachelor of Science degree from Kashmir University in Srinagar, India in 1979. He then went on to earn his Master of Science from Jammu University in 1981 and his Master of Philosophy from the same institution in 1983. In 1987, he completed his Doctor of Philosophy degree from Jammu University.
Career
G.M. Bhat started his career as a lecturer in higher education in Srinagar in 1986–1987. He then joined Jammu University in 1987 and served as a lecturer until 1992. He was promoted to senior lecturer in 1992 and served in this position until 1998. In 1997, he was designated as a reader in sedimentology and biostratigraphy. In 1999, he became a reader in the department of geology and geophysics at the University of Kashmir in Srinagar.
Throughout his career, Bhat has been an active member of various professional organizations. He has served as the chairman of the Siwalik Research Group and as the convener of the Convention of Indian Association Sedimentologists in 1999. He has also been the convener of the International Research Working Group on Mitigation of Natural Hazards in Jammu and Kashmir in 1999. Bhat has served as the head of the Geological Department at Jammu University.
In 2013, he was appointed as rector at Bhaderwah Campus of Jammu University.
Works
He has published numbers of articles and books, some of them are as follow;
"Petrogenesis of the flood basalts from the Early Permian Panjal Traps, Kashmir, India: Geochemical evidence for shallow melting of the mantle" (2014/9/1) by J Gregory Shellnutt, Ghulam M Bhat, Kuo-Lung Wang, Michael E Brookfield, Bor-Ming Jahn, Jaroslav Dostal.
"No link between the Panjal Traps (Kashmir) and the Late Permian mass extinctions" (2011/10) by JG Shellnutt, GM Bhat, ME Brookfield, B‐M Jahn.
"Two-stage marine anoxia and biotic response during the Permian–Triassic transition in Kashmir, northern India: pyrite framboid evidence" (2019/1/1) by Yuangeng Huang, Zhong-Qiang Chen, Thomas J Algeo, Laishi Zhao, Aymon Baud, Ghulam M Bhat, Lei Zhang, Zhen Guo.
"Origin of the silicic volcanic rocks of the Early Permian Panjal Traps, Kashmir, India" (2012/12/12) by J Gregory Shellnutt, Ghulam M Bhat, Kuo-Lung Wang, Michael E Brookfield, Jaroslav Dostal, Bor-Ming Jahn.
"Hot springs and the geothermal energy potential of Jammu & Kashmir State, NW Himalaya, India" (2013/11/1) by J Craig, A Absar, G Bhat, G Cadel, M Hafiz, N Hakhoo, R Kasskari, J Moore, TE Ricchiuto, J Thurow, B Thusu.
"Petroleum systems and hydrocarbon potential of the North-West Himalaya of India and Pakistan" (2018/12/1) by J Craig, N Hakhoo, GM Bhat, M Hafiz, MR Khan, R Misra, SK Pandita, BK Raina, J Thurow, B Thusu, W Ahmed, S Khullar.
"Geology and hydrocarbon potential of Neoproterozoic–Cambrian Basins in Asia: an introduction" (2012) by GM Bhat, J Craig, M Hafiz, N Hakhoo, JW Thurow, B Thusu, A Cozzi.
"Depositional environments and diagenesis of the kuldhar and Keera Dome carbonates (Late Bathonian–Early Callovian) of Western India" (2006/10/1) by AHM Ahmad, GM Bhat, M Haris Azim Khan.
Foundations: DN Wadia and his links with the Geology Department at the University of Jammu, India (2016) by E. R. Craig-Geen, GM Bhat, Jonathan Craig, Bindra Thusu.
Geology and Hydrocarbon Potential of Neoproterozoic-Cambrian Basins in Asia.
Geoenvironment : challenges ahead.
Northwest Himalayan successions along Jammu-Srinagar transect : field guide.
References
Geology educators
University of Kashmir alumni
University of Jammu alumni
1959 births
Living people
Academic staff of the University of Jammu |
Night Alone is a 1938 British comedy film directed by Thomas Bentley and starring Emlyn Williams, Leonora Corbett and Lesley Brook. The film was shot at the Welwyn Studios of Associated British. It was based on a play by Jeffrey Dell.
Cast
Emlyn Williams as Charles Seaton
Leonora Corbett as Vi
Lesley Brook as Barbara Seaton
Cyril Raymond as Tommy
Julie Suedo as Gloria
Margot Landa as Celia
Wally Patch as Policeman
John Turnbull as Superintendent
References
Bibliography
Low, Rachael. Filmmaking in 1930s Britain. George Allen & Unwin, 1985.
Wood, Linda. British Films, 1927-1939. British Film Institute, 1986.
External links
1938 films
1938 comedy films
British comedy films
1930s English-language films
Films directed by Thomas Bentley
British films based on plays
British black-and-white films
1930s British films
Films shot at Welwyn Studios |
Drepanochaitophoridae is an extinct insect family in the aphid superfamily (Aphidoidea), of the order Hemiptera.
References
External links
†
Prehistoric insect families
Extinct Hemiptera |
Racy is an unincorporated community in Ritchie County, West Virginia, United States.
References
Unincorporated communities in West Virginia
Unincorporated communities in Ritchie County, West Virginia |
Dead ice is ice which, though part of a glacier or ice sheet, is no longer moving. When this melts it does so in situ, leaving behind a hummocky terrain known as dead-ice moraine which is produced by the deposition of glacio-fluvial sediments and ablation till. Such features include kettle holes. Landscapes forming Veiki moraines in northern Sweden and Canada have been attributed to the ablation of extensive bodies of till-covered dead ice.
References
Glaciology |
Leisure World Seal Beach is an active-seniors’ retirement community opened in 1962 that introduced many innovations characterizing later senior property developments. When built, it was the nation's first mass-marketed housing project, first gated senior community, first all-electric community, and the first to have a health insurance plan and access to an on-site medical center included in its residents’ monthly payments. At its opening, it was the world's largest housing development for seniors, the United States’ largest cooperative housing development, and the prototype for six other Leisure World communities across the United States built by the Rossmoor Corp, co-founded by developers Ross W. Cortese and his wife, Alona Marlowe Cortese. It is located in Seal Beach, which fronts the Pacific Ocean in Orange County, California. Leisure World houses approximately 9,600 residents in 6,608 one- and two-bedroom apartments and condominiums.
History
While both were taking evening real estate classes at Hollywood High School, Ross W. Cortese, a Depression-era high-school dropout, and a part-time contractor flipping homes in Compton, met former Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer contract actress Alona Marlowe (née Ilona L. Goetten). They married in 1948, and capitalizing on her real estate license, organized a corporation under the name Alona Rey Homes, Inc. After building a small development in Culver City, the couple began undertaking larger projects such as Frematic Homes in Anaheim.
Frematic Homes employed designer Cliff May’s innovative California Ranch residential concept “that let the outside in," integrating extensive prefabrication techniques, post-and-beam construction, slab floors, and floor-to-ceiling windows later incorporated into Leisure World. The Frematic development also showcased the Corteses’ emerging public relations sensibility, with Westinghouse spokesperson, Hollywood actress Betty Furness, appearing in newspaper photographs with Ross Cortese in one of Frematic's “Betty Furness Beautility Kitchens.”
The Corteses’ repeated successes led them, along with general contractor Murray Ward, to found Rossmoor Corp. in 1951. From 1955 through 1961, the company built the “Walled City of Rossmoor,” a comprehensive Orange County development the company envisioned would contain all the services of a town for its projected 10,000 residents. However, Ross Cortese's concept of a “comprehensive” development was thwarted when the hospital he wished to build for Rossmoor's population was repeatedly denied.
Interest in Aging
Nonetheless, the couple's study of medical services drew their attention to the health and housing needs of older adults, whose numbers were growing rapidly in the post-war period. The Corteses’ interest culminated in the couple's $4 million gift founding what became the University of Southern California’s gerontology school, now the world’s largest academic program researching older adults. Alona Cortese later endowed The Alona Cortese Elder Law Center at the Chapman University School of Law, which provides pro bono legal representation for seniors.
This interest influenced many of the Corteses’ future business enterprises. In 1961, upon finishing the Rossmoor housing development bordering Los Alamitos, California, Ross Cortese said the housing needs of seniors “have not been met even half-way thus far. None has answered the attendant economic, medical and sociological needs of the majority of our senior citizens.”
While Arizona’s Youngtown and Sun City senior living developments had already established the concept of dedicated retirement communities, the Corteses contemplated a new model for senior housing: a comprehensive cooperative development in which the residents owned not their residential unit, but a share of stock that permitted them to live in the community and own the rights to all the development’s common amenities. The community’s managers, not individual residents, would be responsible for their homes’ maintenance, painting and plumbing, appliances, and landscaping. It would be “not stuck out in the desert,” but near a city so residents could continue to enjoy a city's cultural opportunities and frequent visits from families and old friends. Emulating the company's “Walled City of Rossmoor” experience, the community would be the United States’ first and largest gate-controlled, walled retirement community. One of the most important amenities was a plan offering free on-site medical care and prescriptions as part of the monthly resident's fees, again a first in a U.S. retirement community.
Financing and Construction
Rossmoor Leisure World (as it was initially named) was to be built on a portion of the Hellman Ranch in what was then an un-incorporated square-mile plot in Orange County. Nearly adjacent to the walled Rossmoor development, the $150 million project ($1.4 billion in 2021 dollars) would be the United States’ largest cooperative housing development and its first all-electric community.
However, the project's scope and its “untried” cooperative ownership scheme generated skepticism among potential lenders. The Metropolitan Life Insurance Co. eventually agreed to finance the project, but stipulated the Federal Housing Administration (FHA) guarantee the loan.
FHA authorities agreed, but established “very strict regulations.” Rossmoor could provide the land and the plans, but “could have no part in building, sales or management.” Instead, the FHA required that separate not-for-profit corporations share the project's ownership. One, the Leisure World Foundation, would supervise the project's construction and marketing.
When residents began to move in, there would be elections from among the residents to serve on the Golden Rain Foundation (GRF) as trustees for all the development's common facilities and to provide community-wide services such as recreation and security. Finally, as each of the parcels comprising the development were populated, the 6,470 planned residential units and the land on which they would be built would be controlled by “mutuals,” a third level of non-profit corporation collectively owned and managed by a board elected by residents of each of the development's parcels.
Promotion
Notwithstanding the awkward governing arrangement, construction of the Seal Beach Leisure World began in mid-1961. Interest rose quickly, propelled by a national marketing campaign that included a 1962 Life magazine advertisement claiming the development was “the most revolutionary new concept in housing since World War II.”
The Life advertisement was part of what is thought to be the first national mass-marketing campaign for a housing project. Hill and Knowlton, then the world's largest public relations firm, obtained widespread newspaper, radio and television coverage that by mid-1963 let the community claim residents from 43 states and 11 countries. The Corteses’ Los Angeles-based advertising firm, Brangham Brewer, spent so much money marketing the development that Leisure World's 1963 ad budget was announced in a free-standing Advertising Age magazine item.
Leisure World's prominence soon allowed the Corteses to assemble a Leisure World Foundation board headed by William G. Simon, the former head of the FBI’s Los Angeles field office and a founding director of The J. Edgar Hoover Foundation; and executive vice president Kenneth E. BeLieu, the former undersecretary of both the U.S. Navy and the U.S. Army. The other seven trustees included Los Angeles Dodgers owner Walter O’Malley; Hollywood producer Mervyn LeRoy; Paramount Pictures vice president Y. Frank Freeman; Sylvester Smith Jr., a past president of the American Bar Association; and former U.S. Rep. Allan O. Hunter.
While the development would include usual retirement amenities - a golf course, swimming pool, clubhouses and shuffleboard courts - the Seal Beach construction incorporated insights the Corteses had gained through their “desire for data about older adults.” Stairs, steps and curbs would be replaced by ramps. Countertops and wide doors simplified wheelchair access. Showers had built-in seats to avoid slipping accidents. An on-site medical center and pharmacy would provide free access to doctors, diagnostic services, physical therapy and medication to all residents. Every mutual would include large greenbelts, and centralized parking structures would preserve the residential units’ parklike setting and encourage walking and physical activity.
Opening
On Oct. 29, 1961, about four months after construction began, the first model units, called “manors,” went on public display. By day's end, 10,000 people had thronged the grounds and approximately 550 of the 844 units offered had been sold. By March 1963, the administration estimated 300,000 people had toured the grounds and the model homes.
The development's sub-800-square-foot units drew surprisingly prosperous buyers. Even though most residents no longer worked, their annual per-capita income in 1963 was $6,000, 80% higher than the national average.
On June 8, 1962, a single year after construction began, the first residents moved in. A year later, 5,200 of the units had been sold. Over 10% of the first 4,500 units were purchased via mail transactions, many without the buyers ever having seen Leisure World. All the original units were sold by late 1964.
Leisure World's "Medicare"
The Corteses’ health plan, launched amid a vigorous national debate over government involvement in social welfare measures, was frequently labeled “utopian.” It was an important perk touted in the extensive advertising and public relations campaigns that drew attention from national magazines, local broadcasters and newspapers throughout the United States and Canada.
The community's initial executive director, Lewis M. Letson, formerly the top administrator at St. Francis Medical Center in Lynwood, California, said Leisure World's health plan was explicit proof the free enterprise could effectively meet older adults’ health care requirements: “It indicates that there are better solutions to the medical needs of the elderly than socialized medicine.”
The Corteses made major investments in the medical plan. Cortese recruited a former medical director for the United States Public Health Service, surgeon Weldon A. Williamson, to be Leisure World's medical director. Leisure World was almost immediately recognized as a test bed for senior health. Within the clinic's first year, two studies, on heart and vascular diseases, were being conducted among the community's population.
Similarly, the concentration of seniors in one well-known community located in politically conservative Orange County made Leisure World a target for the John F. Kennedy administration's push for its projected government-subsidized senior health care plan. In a 1963 visit to Leisure World, Kennedy's under-secretary for Health, Education and Welfare, Ivan A. Nestingen, mocked the American Medical Association, which he said characterized medical professionals urging government elder health care as “quacks and charlatans.” After Kennedy's assassination, President Lyndon B. Johnson dispatched his and Kennedy's press secretary, Pierre Salinger, to make another personal pitch for what would become known as Medicare.
Ironically, the Corteses’ health care plan precipitated their removal from direct involvement in Leisure World Seal Beach's management. Almost immediately after the first Leisure World residents settled in, their recognition of the value of free doctor visits, medical tests and prescriptions overwhelmed the 10 doctors and 26 nurses Leisure World had hired to manage the community's health needs. The Corteses’ projections dramatically underestimated the attraction of free health care. Instead of the predicted 6.2 doctor visits per year, Leisure World residents averaged 12 doctor visits annually.
In 1963, the GRF board coped with the unexpected costs by replacing free medical services with a 20% co-pay for all services and prescriptions. In 1964, when the community's governing board asked for an assessment increase, the medical care fee constituted 70% of the additional $10.50 requested. The resulting resident revolt led to the 1965 GRF vs. Leisure World Foundation lawsuit that effectively severed the Corteses’ continued involvement in Leisure World-Seal Beach's administration.
The rollout of the federal Medicare program, enacted by the Johnson administration in 1965, caused Leisure World to abandon its community-run health plan. On March 7, 1966, the first Leisure World residents signed up for Medicare.
Services
With the exception of the free medical plan, the Corteses’ concept of a comprehensive seniors’ community was largely fulfilled. The community operates a heated swimming pool and spa, a 10,000-square-foot fitness center, and 9-hole, par-3 golf course. All were renovated or rebuilt between 2020 and 2022. Dedicated facilities are also provided for pickleball, bocce ball, ballet and dance classes, table tennis, shuffleboard and billiards.
Its five clubhouses contain studios for art, woodworking, lapidary, ceramics and needle arts. Other spaces are provided for video production, theater events and the activities of over 150 clubs.
In the wake of Orange County's 1994 bankruptcy, GRF bought the building and collection of the Orange County Library branch adjacent to Leisure World and enclosed it and its 40,000-volume collection within the community's security wall. In 2021, the community opened an internet-enabled learning center to host college courses, and a fully equipped cooking classroom for instruction in cuisines and nutrition. Arts events and guest speakers appear in the clubhouse meeting rooms and two specially dedicated performance venues, a 2,500-seat outdoor amphitheater that hosts a summer-long series, and a smaller stage adjoining the library.
The community has an on-site medical center managed by a private company that provides resident doctors, X-rays, laboratory services, a physical therapy clinic, optometry services, acupuncture, specialist care, and an adjacent pharmacy. Leisure World also houses a credit union; weekly newspaper; copy center; three independent, free-standing churches, with scores of other congregations meeting in clubhouse facilities; a recycling collection facility; and car wash. Leisure World is one of Seal Beach's major employers, and its approximately 175 full- and part-time workers provide maintenance, infrastructure inspection, property transfer and financial services. The GRF's security department provides patrol service, gate control and parking enforcement 24 hours a day. A Cortese-built 12.5-acre shopping center immediately outside the security wall now houses financial institutions and advisors, medical and dental offices, hair stylists, an automotive repair and service station, and stores selling golf equipment, jewelry, medical supplies, groceries and general supplies. Scheduled minibus routes crisscrossing the community offer free transportation within Leisure World and connections to Orange County Transportation buses and commuter rail lines.
Community volunteers provide other services. The Golden Age Foundation is a 501(c)3 charity that has donated hundreds of thousands of dollars to fund Leisure World projects, and scores of other community groups provide financial and volunteer help to residents and community projects.
In the News
Should Elders Have Leisure?
Even before Leisure World Seal Beach was completed, the firm's huge marketing campaign assured Leisure World would be the poster child in a national discussion of the social, economic and psychological implications of age-segregated communities. While some journalists lauded the youthful energy Leisure World residents exhibited, one Newsweek writer suggested too much leisure weakened elderly minds. He mocked retirement villages as escapist, places where “reality and utopian fantasy merge in ‘an air of elegant euphoria.’” Simultaneously, “old-age ghettos” was how a syndicated essay portrayed Leisure World and its ilk. An Associated Press article, “Let’s Quit Working and Retire,” even chided the pre-70 retirees of Leisure World and similar developments for slacking in their duty to enrich the American economy.
1995 Flood
A flood control channel that traverses Leisure World Seal Beach overflowed in the wake of a 5-inch rainstorm on January 4, 1995. Approximately 170 Leisure World units were declared uninhabitable, and 200 more suffered some water damage. The amphitheater filled with 10 feet of water, while the basement of the Redeemer Lutheran Church held 12 feet of water. Seal Beach's mayor estimated the flood caused $2 million in damages.
HOA Law
Leisure World Seal Beach's pioneering role in introducing cooperative community governance to California led it to be a party in two important lawsuits that helped establish the state's homeowner association (HOA) regulations.
Golden Rain Foundation v. Leisure World Foundation (1965-1966)
To assure creditors for the Seal Beach development would be paid, the FHA advocated continued professional management of Leisure World. As community fees rose to pay for the Leisure World medical plan, an often-bitter series of public meetings erupted pitting residents against management. According to court documents, “a local city official” suggested to GRF's executive director “that it might be well to conduct an investigation” of Lloyd Gummere, the leader of the residents’ protest group who was also a candidate for the Seal Beach city council. When two private detectives were arrested for wiretapping Gummere's phone, an active revolt began. After a dissident slate of candidates unseated the 1963-64 GRF board, that incumbent board bound the 1964-65 board to a management agreement with a Cortese-affiliated company. Some shareholders suggested the decision ceding control to Cortese's now-multi-community management company weakened the developers’ original promise that “residents will formulate the policies of the community.” Although facing vigorous opposition from the FHA, the new GRF board sued Cortese. In October 1966, the court voided ties with Cortese's management company, allowing the GRF board to make fundamental decisions about managing the community.
Golden Rain Foundation v. Carol Franz (2004-2008)
A group of shareholders petitioned for access to GRF board documents under California regulations governing HOAs. GRF asserted that because GRF owned no residences, it was not an HOA, but a management company under contract to the home-owning mutuals. In a series of cases ending at the California Court of Appeals, GRF's structure, which GRF's expert witness testified was “unique” within the United States, was ruled to be an HOA and subject to all relevant provisions.
Demographics
In 2019, 9,595 people, with an average age of 74, lived in Leisure World Seal Beach. Slightly more than 60 percent were female. Thirty-three percent of the community's population was over 80. Fifty-one residents were aged 100 or more. The population density of the development's 531 acres is 11,560 people per square mile.
Attractions
The Leisure World Globe, located at the development's Seal Beach Boulevard entrance, is one of the nation's largest globes. Cortese wanted his new development to attract attention and remembered the 50-foot Globe-A-Drome in the 1939 Golden Gate International Exposition’s midway. Frustrated in his attempt to buy the original, he commissioned a 32-foot-tall, 14-ton rotating structure that originally was surrounded by fountains. The Leisure World globe is frequently thought to be modeled on the 1964 New York World’s Fair Unisphere, but it was completed months before the Unisphere’s plans were unveiled. The Leisure World globe is the only free-standing sculptural piece listed among “Orange County’s 125 Icons” during the county's 125th anniversary. It was refurbished in 2016.
The Leisure World Amphitheater is a 2,500-seat outdoor performance space that hosts community gatherings and performances, and national entertainers. Its proscenium, stage and pit closely replicate the Hollywood Bowl’s first permanent structure, which opened in July 1922.
The Leisure World Historical Society Museum, a display of artifacts, photographs and documents, displayed in the first-built Leisure World clubhouse. The development’s historical archives are now located at the University of California, Irvine.
A bronze statue of a ballerina, Premiere Danseuse Etoile, by noted Italian sculptor Pino Conte (1915-1997), is mounted at the entrance to Leisure World Seal Beach’s Administration Building. Now referred to within the community as “Twiggy,” it was a 1963 gift to the community from the Corteses.
Located within a 3-mile radius of Leisure World
California State University, Long Beach
Carolyn Campagna Kleefeld Contemporary Art Museum
Earl Burns Miller Japanese Garden
Carpenter Arts Center - The Carpenters’ memorabilia are exhibited in this concert hall
Walter Pyramid – 18-story CSULB arena is one of the United States’ three true pyramids
Joint Forces Training Base – Los Alamitos
JFTB Aquatics Center: U.S. Women's National Water Polo Team training site is open to public
Navy Golf Course: public 27-hole facility was Tiger Woods’ childhood home course
Long Beach Marina: U.S.’s largest municipally-owned marina system, with 3,600 slips
Rancho Los Alamitos – In the 1850s, this was headquarters for the largest U.S. cattle ranch. Early 19th century buildings and Frederick Law Olmstead Jr.-designed gardens are open for tours.
Seal Beach Municipal Pier – at 1,835 feet, California’s second-longest wooden pier
San Gabriel River Trail – 35-mile trail from Azusa to Seal Beach passes alongside the community
Seal Beach National Wildlife Refuge
U.S. Naval Weapons Station Seal Beach
World War II National Submarine Memorial – West
In Popular Culture
In 1964, ABC’s Queen for a Day broadcast an entire show dedicated to women in Leisure World. At the show’s conclusion, host Jack Bailey granted that day’s winner, Leisure World resident Mabel Menke, with her wish for a new tricycle.
In 1986, an episode of NBC’s Highway to Heaven, starring and directed by Michael Landon, was filmed at Leisure World Seal Beach. The episode, titled “Love at Second Sight,” premiered Nov. 6, 1986, in the series’ third season.
Future U.S. presidents Richard Nixon, Ronald Reagan and George H.W. Bush spoke at Leisure World during campaign events. Future presidential candidate, U.S. Sen. Elizabeth Dole, campaigned in Leisure World for her spouse, United States Senate Majority Leader Bob Dole, during his 1996 presidential campaign.
Leisure World Seal Beach's proximity to Los Angeles assured its summer amphitheater concerts often had star lineups. The weekly events have featured singers Debbie Reynolds, Rosemary Clooney, Kathryn Grayson, Pat Boone, Glen Campbell, Anita O’Day, Tony Martin, Buddy Greco, Frankie Avalon, John Davidson and Frankie Laine; and the bands or orchestras of Harry James, Benny Goodman, Gene Krupa, Les Brown, Nelson Riddle and Lawrence Welk. Prominent small groups included The Mills Brothers, The Ink Spots, The Lettermen, The Kingston Trio, The Four Freshmen, The Coasters, The Lennon Sisters, and The Diamonds. Among the actors who appeared at the Amphitheater were Mickey Rooney, Dorothy Lamour, Buddy Ebsen, Nanette Fabray, Martha Raye, Florence Henderson and Sally Kellerman.
Recognition
Ross Cortese named “Builder of the Year” in 1963 by National Association of Home Builders
Ross Cortese inducted into Housing Hall of Fame in 1983 by National Association of Home Builders
Ross and Alona Cortese named among “The Most 100 Influential Builders of the Century” in 1999 by Builder Magazine
Named among "Seven Most Popular Destinations for Seniors,” in 2017 by The Motley Fool
Voted “Best Orange County Leisure Community” by Los Angeles Times Readers’ Poll in 2019, 2020 and 2022
Named among "America's Seven Best and Most Affordable Beach Towns for Retirement in 2020 by National Association of Realtors.
Named among 10 Most Affordable Beach Towns to Buy a Home in 2022 by National Association of Realtors.
Notable People
Cecile Belle Adam, (1881-1977): After completing post-graduate studies at the University of Wisconsin, Adam published the novel, Red of the Dawn, in 1937.
Alice B. Addenbrooke, (1881-1972): Led fundraising and supervised restoration to save two National Register of Historic Places properties: Nevada's Bowers Mansion and Fort Churchill State Historic Park, and wrote a book about each.
Don Albin Alford, (1897-1973): Plowed the fortune he made in the 1921 Signal Hill oil strike into founding and publishing The Independent newspaper, one of the precursors to today’s Long Beach Press-Telegram.
Tom Amberry, (1922-2017): At age 71, made 2,750 consecutive basketball free throws to set a Guinness World Record.
William W. Biddle, (1900-1973): Academic social scientist, he made important early steps in studying the psychological effects of propaganda and later altered the study of community development.
Loureide J. Biddle, (1902-1996): An Earlham College professor, she co-wrote The Community Development Process with her husband, William W. Biddle.
Dee Booher, (1948-2022): Athlete and actor, she skated in professional roller derby before joining the initial cast of Gorgeous Ladies of Wrestling (G.L.O.W.) as “Matilda the Hun.” She guest hosted The Gong Show 14 times and appeared in Married... with Children and Night Court.
Ruby Frazier Coppedge, (1892-1970): As Ruby Frazier Frey, she wrote the best-selling 1946 historical novel, "Red Morning," relating the story of her ancestor, Jane Frazier, and her colonial-era capture by the Delaware Tribe, her escape and several-hundred-mile wilderness trek to return to her family.
Richard C. Currier, (1893-1984): Editing department head at the Hal Roach Studios from 1920 to 1932, he worked on nearly every Laurel and Hardy and Our Gang comedy. During his 39-year career in movies and television, he logged over 400 editing and directing credits.
Earl Stanfield Fullbrook, (1883-1964): University of Nebraska dean of business, he also served as the National Collegiate Athletic Association's secretary/treasurer. The University of Nebraska annually presents the Fullbrook Award for marketing studies.
Anton Grot (1884-1974): A five-time Academy Award nominee for art direction, Grot was credited with creating the classic 1930s Warner Bros.'s signature look. He is a member of the Art Directors Guild Hall of Fame.
Luella J. Hall, (1891-1973): After receiving a doctorate in history from Stanford University and completing a 40-year teaching career, Hall published a 1,114-page tome, The United States and Morocco, 1776-1956, shortly before her death.
Joseph J. Healy, (1926-2019): 1970s CEO of Flying Tiger Line, the world's largest air cargo carrier prior to the airline's purchase by Federal Express Corporation.
Luke I.C. Kim, (1930-2015): Founding president of the Association of Korean-American Psychiatrists, he was considered a major figure in introducing how cultural factors influence the treatment of mental illness among Asians.
Mary F. Lindsley, (1907-1997): A creative writing professor at New York City's Hunter College for 41 years, she published over 15 books of fiction, poetry and plays. Also wrote as Mary L. Jaffee.
Joseph Longfield, (1890-1975): Mayor of Hanford, California, the city's community center is named after him.
Sherman Lowe, (1894-1968): Screenwriter for Hollywood westerns, adventures, musicals and spy films, he contributed to many serials, including The Cisco Kid, Frank Buck's Jungle Menace, The Green Hornet Strikes Again! and Captain Video: Master of the Stratosphere.
Buddy McDonald, (1922-2008): One of the Our Gang child actors in the early 1930s, as a recovered alcoholic he founded several rehabilitation centers that pioneered "best of practice" techniques for treating addictions.
Kate Pedigo, (1911-2016): A folk-art painter who wrote and published books in three different genres after her 80th birthday.
Alvin P. Pierson, (1898-1975): Finance professor at California State-Fullerton for 27 years, he was a Fulbright Program professor in Iraq and served as the university's interim head football coach for two years.
Francis B. Settle, M.D., (1891-1975): A founding member in 1937 of the American Board of Surgery, the group helped established certification procedures to distinguish surgery as a specialty practice apart from general practitioners.
References
1962 establishments in California
Gated communities in California
Neighborhoods in Orange County, California
Populated places established in 1962
Retirement communities in the United States
Seal Beach, California |
Ludovic Mathieu (born 25 September 1976) is a French short track speed skater. He competed at the 1998 Winter Olympics and the 2002 Winter Olympics.
References
External links
1976 births
Living people
French male short track speed skaters
Olympic short track speed skaters for France
Short track speed skaters at the 1998 Winter Olympics
Short track speed skaters at the 2002 Winter Olympics
People from Thionville
Sportspeople from Moselle (department)
21st-century French people |
The men's marathon at the 2013 SEA Games, the athletics was held in Naypyidaw, Myanmar. The track and field events is taking place at the Wunna Theikdi Stadiumon December 16.
Schedule
All times are Myanmar Standard Time (UTC+06:30)
Records
Results
References
Athletics at the 2013 SEA Games |
A portable application (portable app), sometimes also called standalone, is a program designed to read and write its configuration settings into an accessible folder in the computer, usually in the folder where the portable application can be found. This makes it easier to transfer the program with the user's preferences and data between different computers. A program that doesn't have any configuration options can also be a portable application.
Portable applications can be stored on any data storage device, including internal mass storage, a file share, cloud storage or external storage such as USB drives and floppy disks—storing its program files and any configuration information and data on the storage medium alone. If no configuration information is required a portable program can be run from read-only storage such as CD-ROMs and DVD-ROMs. Some applications are available in both installable and portable versions.
Some applications which are not portable by default do support optional portability through other mechanisms, the most common being command-line arguments. Examples might include /portable to simply instruct the program to behave as a portable program, or --cfg=/path/inifile to specify the configuration file location.
Like any application, portable applications must be compatible with the computer system hardware and operating system.
Depending on the operating system, portability is more or less complex to implement; to operating systems such as AmigaOS, all applications are by definition portable.
Portable Windows applications
A portable application does not leave its files or settings on the host computer or modify the existing system and its configuration. The application does not write to the Windows registry nor stores its configuration files (such as an INI file) in the user's profile; instead, it stores its configuration files in the portable directory. Another requirement, since file paths will often differ on changing computers due to variation in drive letter assignments, is the need for applications to store them in a relative format. While some applications have options to support this behavior, many programs are not designed to do this. A common technique for such programs is the use of a launcher program to copy necessary settings and files to the host computer when the application starts and move them back to the application's directory when it closes.
An alternative strategy for achieving application portability within Windows, without requiring application source code changes, is application virtualization: An application is "sequenced" or "packaged" against a runtime layer that transparently intercepts its file system and registry calls, then redirects these to other persistent storage without the application's knowledge. This approach leaves the application itself unchanged, yet portable.
The same approach is used for individual application components: run-time libraries, COM components or ActiveX, not only for the entire application. As a result, when individual components are ported in such manner they are able to be: integrated into original portable applications, repeatedly instantiated (virtually installed) with different configurations/settings on the same operating system (OS) without mutual conflicts. As the ported components do not affect the OS-protected related entities (registry and files), the components will not require administrative privileges for installation and management.
Microsoft saw the need for an application-specific registry for its Windows operating system as far back as 2005. It eventually incorporated some of this technology, using the techniques mentioned above, via its Application Compatibility Database using its Detours code library, into Windows XP. It did not make any of this technology available via its system APIs.
Portability on Unix-like systems
Programs written with a Unix-like base in mind often do not make any assumptions. Whereas many Windows programs assume the user is an administrator—something very prevalent in the days of Windows 95/98/ME (and to some degree in Windows XP/2000, though not in Windows Vista or Windows 7)—such would quickly result in "Permission denied" errors in Unix-like environments since users will be in an unprivileged state much more often. Programs are therefore generally designed to use the HOME environment variable to store settings (e.g. $HOME/.w3m for the w3m browser). The dynamic linker provides an environment variable LD_LIBRARY_PATH that programs can use to load libraries from non-standard directories. Assuming /mnt contains the portable programs and configuration, a command line may look like:
HOME=/mnt/home/user LD_LIBRARY_PATH=/mnt/usr/lib /mnt/usr/bin/w3m www.example.com
A Linux application without need for a user-interaction (e.g. adapting a script or environment variable) on varying directory paths can be achieved with the GCC Linker option $ORIGIN which allows a relative library search path.
Not all programs honor this—some completely ignore $HOME and instead do a user look-up in /etc/passwd to find the home directory, therefore thwarting portability.
There are also cross-distro package formats that do not require admin rights to run, like Autopackage, klik (now called AppImage), or CDE, but which gained only limited acceptance and support in the Linux community in the 2000s. Around 2015 the idea of portable and distro independent packing for the Linux ecosystem got more traction when Linus Torvalds discussed this topic on the DebConf 2014 and endorsed later AppImage for his dive log application Subsurface. For instance, MuseScore and Krita followed in 2016 and started to use AppImage builds for software deployment. RedHat released in 2016 the Flatpak system, which is a successor of Alexander Larsson's glick project which was inspired by klik (now AppImage). Similarly, Canonical released in 2016 Snap packages for Ubuntu and many other Linux distros.
Many Mac applications that can be installed by drag-and-drop are inherently portable as Mac application bundles. Examples include Mozilla Firefox, Skype and Google Chrome which do not require admin access and do not need to be placed into a central, restricted area. Applications placed into /Users/username/Applications (~/Applications) are registered with macOS LaunchServices in the same way as applications placed into the main /Applications folder. For example, right-clicking a file in Finder and then selecting "Open With..." will show applications available from both /Applications and ~/Applications. Developers can create Mac product installers which allow the user to perform a home directory install, labelled "Install for me only" in the Installer user interface. Such an installation is performed as the user.
See also
Load drive
List of portable software
WinPenPack
Portable application creators
LiberKey
PortableApps.com
U3
Application virtualization
Turbo (software)
VMware ThinApp
Live USB
Ceedo
Portable-VirtualBox
Windows To Go
Data portability
Interoperability
References |
The SCR-602 (Set Complete Radio model 602) also known as the AN/TPS-3, was a mobile, lightweight, medium-range, early-warning radar utilized by the United States and its allies during World War II. The radar was originally designed for use during the initial stages of an amphibious assault or military operation where its lightweight relative to other radar systems was a distinct advantage. Once larger radars such as the SCR-270 or AN/TPS-1 came online the SCR-602 could also be used to fill in gaps in radar coverage.
Numerous variations of the SCR-602 were manufactured during the war. It was utilized by the United States, United Kingdom and Australia.
Developing the radar
Development of the SCR-602 began in 1942 at the behest of Colonel Gordon P. Saville of the United States Army Air Corps. With delays to the manufacture and fielding of both the SCR-588 and SCR-527, the Air Corps was quickly seeking another radar for ground-controlled interception. This new radar was an adaptation of the United Kingdom's Chain Home Low radar. The Signal Corps was asked to develop a lightweight assault-type radar that could be both air transportable and hand-carried as well as have a range of over 100 miles on enemy bombardment aircraft. Prior to this request, the Air Force relied on the British lightweight warning (LW) radar, which the Signal Corps studied for ideas. After testing the VT-158 in various existing sets such as the SCR-268, a team led by Captain John Marchetti incorporated the VT-158 in a new system designated as the SCR-602. The original SCR-602, known as SCR-602-T1 for “Type 1”, was almost an exact copy of the British LW radar. With the implementation of the VT-158, Marchetti's team developed the SCR-602-T8 (Type 8), which was based on a modified SCR-268 used in the Canal Zone. In order to prove that the newly developed SCR-602-T8 was air transportable, the Signal Corps flew the first laboratory model in a Douglas B-18 Bolo from Newark Airport to a test site in Orlando, Florida on February 27, 1943. Upon arriving at its destination, the SCR-602-T8 was set up and calibrated for testing. At the end of the tests, the engineers determined that the model had a range in excess of 110 miles and could be mass-produced.
The SCR-602-T8, which was designated as the AN/TPS-3, soon became the most successful variant of the SCR-602 model. Consisting of a 10-ft parabolic reflector antenna with a horizontal polarized dipole radiator at its focus and a console with an A-scope and a PPI-scope, the AN/TPS-3 became widely used by Army and Marine forces for early warning at beachheads, isolated areas, and captured air bases. Furthermore, the AN/TPS-3 could be assembled and put on the air by a crew of four men in thirty minutes, making it easy to deploy. Many Japanese kamikaze aircraft attacks were reportedly foiled by this radar. By 1944, 900 sets of the SCR-602-T8 were manufactured by Zenith Radio Corporation, and the accompanying VT-158's were produced by Eitel-McCullough, Inc., a manufacturer of high-frequency transmitting tubes located near San Francisco. However, the exact number of VT-158's produced throughout the war remains unknown.
Technical description
The radar utilized the BC-800-B IFF receiver/transponder.
Operational history
The SCR-602 was developed in time to be utilized by the U.S. Army during the invasion of North Africa in November 1942.
See also
Signal Corps Radio
List of U.S. Signal Corps Vehicles
Citation
References
Bibliography
Journal
Web
SCR-602 radar description
Technical Manuals
TM 11-1126 - Radio Sets SCR-602-A and SCR-602-T6 - War Department - September 1943
TM 11-1326 - Radio Sets SCR-602-T6 and 602A Technical Operation - War Department - May 1944
TM 11-1426 - Preventive Maintenance Radio Sets SCR-602A and SCR-602-T6 - War Department - June 1944
TM 11-1526 - Service Manual For Radio Sets SCR-602 - War Department - July 1944.
External links
Information on British Chain Home World War II radar
U.S. Radar, Operational Characteristics of Radar, Classified by Tactical Application, FTP 217
National Electronics Museum
Military radars of the United States
World War II radars
World War II American electronics
SCR602
Ground radars
United States Marine Corps equipment
Military equipment introduced from 1940 to 1944 |
Rehlinger is a German surname. Notable people with the surname include:
Anke Rehlinger (born 1976), German politician
Ludwig A. Rehlinger (1927–2023), German jurist
See also
Ehlinger
Remlinger
German-language surnames
German toponymic surnames |
Bar Bar castle () is a historical castle located in Meshgin Shahr County in Ardabil Province, The longevity of this fortress dates back to the 2nd and 3rd centuries AH.
References
Castles in Iran |
Josefina Leiner, born Josefina Noguera Escobar, (19 March 1928 – February 9, 2017) was a Mexican film and television actress best known for her movie roles during the Golden Age of Mexican cinema, including Los hijos de María Morales in 1952, It Happened in Acapulco in 1953, Los que no deben nacer in 1953, Pablo y Carolina in 1957, and Viva Jalisco que es mi tierra in 1961.
In 1962, she joined the cast of the Televisa telenovela, Marcela, opposite Felipe del Castillo and Bárbara Gil. Marcela marked her last professional role before her retirement from acting.
Josefina Leiner died on February 9, 2017, at the age of 88. Her death was announced by the Instituto Mexicano de Cinematografía.
References
External links
Boot Hill: RIP Josefina Leiner
1928 births
2017 deaths
Mexican film actresses
Mexican television actresses
Mexican telenovela actresses
20th-century Mexican actresses |
Brühl () is a town in the Rhineland, Germany. It is located in the district of Rhine-Erft, 20 km south of the Cologne city center and at the edge of the Rhineland Nature Park, a famous nature reserve.
History
Brühl received its town privileges in 1285. From 1567 on, the city of Brühl was the official residence of the Prince Bishops of Cologne. In the 18th century the Prince Bishop Clemens August replaced a former ruined castle and built the Augustusburg and Falkenlust palaces near the city center. Today, both are listed as UNESCO World Heritage Sites because of their outstanding rococo architecture. Until 1990 Augustusburg Palace was used by the federal government to receive foreign heads of states visiting West Germany.
Main sights
The amusement park Phantasialand
The Max Ernst Museum, opened in 2005. It displays sculptures and paintings of the surrealistic artist Max Ernst (who was born in Brühl) and other modern art.
Local history and pottery are shown in two small museums in the city centre
Infrastructure
Brühl station is on the Left Rhine line and the nearby Kierberg station is on the Eifel railway. Brühl also has several stops on line 18 of the Cologne tram line.
Notable people
Else Schmitt (1921–1995), politician (SPD) and a district mayor in Cologne
Erika Reihlen (born 1936), theologian and former president of the German Protestant Church Day
Hans Leyendecker (born 1949), journalist
Heinz-Josef Kehr (1950–2014), footballer
Helmut Müller-Brühl (1933–2012), conductor and initiator of the Brühler Schlosskonzerte at the Augustusburg Palace
Josef Engel (1922–1978), historian
Max Ernst (1891–1976), painter and sculptor
Patric Hemgesberg (born 1973), lyricist
Reiner Calmund (born 1948), football coach and former manager of Bayer 04 Leverkusen
Wolfgang Streeck (born 1946), sociologist
Twin towns – sister cities
Brühl is twinned with:
Chalcis, Greece
Kaş, Turkey
Kunice, Poland
Royal Leamington Spa, England, United Kingdom
Sceaux, France
Weißwasser, Germany
Gallery
References
External links
Max Ernst Museum
Brühler Museumsinsel
Phantasialand theme park
Towns in North Rhine-Westphalia
Rhein-Erft-Kreis |
The South African Wars, including – and commonly referred to as – the Confederation Wars, were a series of wars that occurred in the southern portion of the African continent between 1879 and 1915. Ethnic, political, and social tensions between European colonial powers and indigenous Africans led to increasing hostilities, culminating in a series of wars and revolts, which had lasting repercussions on the entire region. A key factor behind the growth of these tensions was the pursuit of commerce and resources, both by countries and individuals, especially following the discoveries of diamonds in the region in 1867 and gold in 1862.
Conflicts such as the First and Second Boer Wars, the Anglo-Zulu War, the Sekhukhune Wars, the Basotho Gun War, the Xhosa Wars, and other concurrent conflicts are typically considered separate events. However, they have also been viewed as outbreaks in a far larger continuous wave of change and conflict in the region, beginning with the Confederation Wars of the 1870s and 80s, escalating with the rise of Cecil Rhodes and the struggle for control of southern Africa's gold and diamonds and more, and leading up to the Second Anglo-Boer War and the establishment of the Union of South Africa in 1910.
Territory
As European powers – particularly Dutch Boers and the British – began to claim parts of southern Africa, it became apparent that expansion was imperative in order to maintain their political positions. The relationships and boundaries among them became exceedingly more complex, affecting not only themselves but the indigenous African peoples and the land itself.
By 1880, there were four dominant European regions. The Cape Colony and Natal were some degree under British control, and the Transvaal (South African Republic) and Orange Free State were independent republics controlled by the Boers. These colonies and their political leaders were the most important and influential of the time, and all were eventually dissolved into the singular Union of South Africa in May 1910.
Cape Colony
The Cape Colony was founded by the Dutch East India Company in 1652. In 1795, it was taken over by the British, who were officially granted possession of the Cape by the Netherlands in 1815. At this time, the Cape Colony encompassed and was populated by about 26,720 people of European descent, a relative majority of whom were still of Dutch origin. The remainder were descended from German soldiers and sailors in the service of the Dutch East India Company's former administration and a large number of French Huguenot refugees who resettled there after fleeing religious persecution at home. Some of the existing colonists had become semi-nomadic pastoralists known as who frequently ventured beyond the Cape's frontier. This led to an expansion of the colony's borders and clashes with the Xhosa people over pastureland in the vicinity of the Great Fish River. Beginning in 1818, thousands of British immigrants were introduced by the colonial government to bolster the local European workforce and help populate the frontier as an additional defense against the Xhosa.
By 1871, the Cape was by far the largest and most powerful state in the region. Its northern border had been established at the Orange River, and Britain had handed over the administration of Basutoland too. The Cape was also the only state in the region to (at least officially) give people of all races equal rights. It implemented a system of non-racial franchise – unusual in the restrictive world of the 19th century – whereby voters all qualified for the vote equally, regardless of race, on the basis of land ownership. In practice, however, it remained a European-dominated state, although in 1872 it succeeded in gaining a degree of independence from the British Empire when it successfully instituted a system of responsible government. Its government at first pursued a policy of avoiding further annexations so as to concentrate on internal development, but the South African Wars saw it annex several surrounding regions: Griqualand East, 1874; Griqualand West, 1880; and Southern Bechuanaland, 1895.
At the end of the South African Wars, the Cape Colony, Natal, Orange Free State, and the Transvaal were united. The Cape Colony became a member of the Union of South Africa in 1910, and today is divided between three of the modern provinces of South Africa.
Sekhukhune Wars
These wars took place in the home of the native Northern Sotho's. There were three separate campaigns against Sekhukhune, Paramount King of Bapedi i.e., the First Sekhukhune War of 1876 conducted by the Boers, and the two separate campaigns of the Second Sekhukhune War of 1876-1879 conducted by the British. Sekhukhune considered Sekhukhuneland to be independent and not subject to the Transvaal Republic and refused to allow miners from the Pilgrim's Rest goldfields to prospect on his side of the Steelpoort River.
The inability of the Zuid-Afrikaansche Republiek (ZAR; 'Transvaal Republic') under President Francois Burgers to score a decided victory in the Sekhukhune War, presented the opportunity to the British to annex Transvaal in 1877. Soon afterward, Britain declared war against Sekhukhune, Paramount King of Bapedi. After three unsuccessful attempts, he was finally defeated by two British regiments under Sir Garnet Wolseley, assisted by 8 000 Swazis and other auxiliaries. Many of the Bapedi armies were killed, including Sekhukhune's heir, Morwamotshe, and three of his brothers. The Anglo-Pedi War suffered both the British and Boer armies greatly as well as they fell and perished in great numbers too.
By the 1870s, the Transvaal was crumbling under Boer rule. In 1877, at the outset of the South African Wars, the British under Theophilus Shepstone annexed the state, and the Boers were forced to cede their independence in exchange for a small pension. The British defeating local natives to secure more land in 1879 only gave the Boers less competition to worry about and enabled them to focus on retaking the Transvaal. In 1881 the Boers rebelled and the First Anglo-Boer War ensued. In this war, power was regained by the Boers, though any possibility of expansion and alliance was blocked by the British. With the discovery of diamonds around 1885 in Griqualand, West Transvaal struggled with the Cape and the Free State for land, but to no avail.
At the end of the South African Wars, the Transvaal was annexed by the 1910 Union of South Africa.
Orange Free State
By the beginning of the South African Wars, the Orange Free State was independently ruled by the Boers. The Free State's boundaries were defined almost entirely by rivers: the Orange River on the south, the Vaal River on the west and north, and the Caledon River on the east. The northeastern boundary was shared with its British neighbor, Natal. The Caledon boundary was disputed with Moshoeshoe I's Sotho people and fought over in two primary incidents – in 1858 and 1865. Before the Boer colonisation, there were indigenous groups like the Sotho, San, and various Nguni clans in the Free State area.
In the 1870s the Free State Boers began moving into Griqualand West in search of farmland, pushing the Griqua out. However, they did not officially incorporate the land, which came to be disputed by Britain as well as the Griquas themselves. In 1890, there were approximately 77,000 whites and 128,000 Africans (many were servants working on white farms). In 1900, Bloemfontein, the capital, came under British domination.
At the close of the South African Wars, the Free State joined the 1910 Union of South Africa.
Natal
Natal is positioned on the Indian Ocean coast of southern Africa, just northeast of the Cape Colony. Home to the indigenous Nguni and later the Zulu, the region of Natal played a key role in European colonization. First called the Natalia Republic, the territory was set up in 1839, by Boer Voortrekkers on their "Great Trek", fleeing the Cape English. When the British established the colony four years later– as a strategic land gain – the border was extended to the Tugela and Buffalo Rivers.
In the 1870s, Natal was a British Colony, with a degree of autonomy in its local administration, but under the direct control of the appointed British Governor. It had a more restrictive political system than the neighboring Cape Colony and its small (mostly British) white population had an uneasy relationship with the powerful independent Zulu Kingdom on their northern border. The Anglo-Zulu War (1879) led to the later annexation of Zululand to Natal in 1897.
At the close of the South African Wars, the colony became part of the 1910 Union, and is now known as Kwazulu-Natal, a province of South Africa.
Basutoland
The land of indigenous Khoi Khoi and Sotho people, Basutoland was positioned between the Cape Colony, Orange Free State, and Natal. Basutoland was annexed to Britain in 1868 as Moshoeshoe I, King of the Sotho, was threatened by Free State (Boer) encroachers. Three years later it was given to the Cape Colony.
In the 1870s, Basutoland was still relatively peaceful and prosperous, as the weak, indirect authority of the Cape Colony did not threaten the traditional Sotho government and the Cape preferred as little interference in Basutoland as possible. At the end of the 1870s however, an attempt by Britain and the new Sprigg Government of the Cape to enforce a more direct rule and influence the state's internal affairs led to a Sotho rebellion. In the resulting Gun War, the Sotho sharpshooters won a series of victories, and in the final 1884 peace agreement, it was returned to indirect rule, with the British preserving indigenous rule with the intent of exploiting the state's agricultural resources.
At the end of the South African Wars, still under British rule, attempts to incorporate it into the 1910 Union of South Africa failed. As a result of the disagreement, Basutoland became one of three colonies left outside of the Union – together with Bechuanaland and Swaziland. Today, Basutoland is a small independent nation called Lesotho, engulfed by South Africa.
Bechuanaland
Following the Bechuanaland Expedition of 1884–85, Bechuanaland was settled by Britain in 1885, the northern area becoming the Protectorate and the southern area, the Crown Colony of British Bechuanaland. This region was constructed between German Southwest Africa and the Transvaal as a strategic attempt to prevent the combining of those two colonies, thereby allowing them access to the Great North Road. Along with the annexation of the Crown Colony in 1895, Cecil Rhodes pushed hard for the northern Protectorate but was resisted by indigenous Tswana chiefs who successfully convinced the British to halt the annexation attempt.
At the end of the South African Wars, the Bechuanaland Protectorate was one of three states which were not incorporated into the 1910 Union of South Africa. It gained its independence in 1966 as the modern state of Botswana.
The Griqualands
In the 1870s, there were two Griqualands – West and East – both founded by the Griqua people who had moved out of the Cape Colony in the early 19th century due mainly to racial discrimination.
The Griqua, a semi-nomadic nation of mixed Khoi Khoi and Boer origins, moved north to lands just north of the Cape, east of southern Bechuanaland, and west of the Orange Free State, being led by Adam Kok I. This new land was established as Griqualand West by Andries Waterboer. When diamonds were discovered in the area, an influx of Whites overwhelmed the Griqua, leading to annexation by the British in 1871, and forcing 2000 Griqua to trek east from 1871 to 1872. Eventually, they established Griqualand East in 1873, only to be annexed the following year by Britain. Griqualand East was positioned between the Cape Colony and Natal on the eastern coast. At this point, the whites considered the Griqua as part of the bigger Coloureds group.
Other Political Entities
Swaziland, Zululand, Portuguese East Africa, German Southwest Africa, Matabeleland (now Zimbabwe).
History
Military Conflicts
The first series of wars, the "Confederation Wars" in the late 1870s and early 1880s, were due in large part to the Confederation plan of the British Colonial Secretary, the Earl of Carnarvon, and the disastrous attempts to enforce it. This scheme was intended to forge the diverse states of southern Africa into one single British-controlled federation. This was strongly resisted by the Cape Colony, the Boer republics, and the independent African States. The Anglo-Zulu War and First Anglo-Boer War resulted from these attempts at annexation, while the Gun War and Ngcayechibi's War were caused in part by the imposition of new federation-inspired policies on the Cape and its neighbors.
Exacerbating these conflicts was the effects of the discovery of diamonds around Kimberley and gold in the Transvaal. These led to enormous social upheaval and instability. Crucially, they fueled the rise to power of the ambitious imperialist Cecil Rhodes. When he succeeded in gaining power as the Cape Prime Minister, he instigated a rapid expansion of British influence into the hinterland. In particular, he sought to engineer the conquest of the Transvaal, and although his ill-fated Jameson Raid failed and brought down his government, it led to the Second Anglo-Boer War and British conquest at the turn of the century.
Ngcayechibi's War (1877–79)
Several factors contributed to the outbreak of Ngcayechibi's War (also known as the "9th Frontier War" or the "Fengu-Gcaleka War"). One was the onset of the worst drought in the region's recorded history, and as the historian de Kiewiet memorably noted: "In South Africa, the heat of drought easily becomes the fever of war." The devastating droughts across the Transkei threatened the relative peace which had prevailed for the previous decade. They started in 1875 in Gcalekaland and spread to other parts of the Transkei and Basutoland, also to the Cape Colony-controlled Ciskei. In 1877 ethnic tensions began to emerge, particularly between the Mfengu, the Thembu, and the Gcaleka Xhosa. Another factor was centuries of oppression and disaffection, brought to a head by the attempt by the new British Colonial Secretary, the Earl of Carnarvon (in office 1866–1867 and 1874–1878), to force the varied states of southern Africa into a British-ruled confederation. This led the British Governor and High Commissioner for Southern Africa, Henry Bartle Frere (in office 1877–1880) to use the outbreak of fighting to overthrow both the Gcaleka Xhosa state (1877–1878) and the Cape Government (February 1878). The outbreak initially involved tensions and violence between Gcaleka Xhosa and Cape Mfengu police. The conflict rapidly escalated when Bartle Frere declared the Xhosa King deposed, and resulted in the annexation of the last independent Xhosa state, and the overthrow of the Cape's elected government by the British Governor. The Confederation attempt failed, but the wars resulting from that attempt continued for decades.
Anglo-Zulu War (1879)
Foreign settlers first came into conflict with the Zulu in the 1830s as they began expanding into Zulu territory. For the majority of the next 40+ years, there was a tentative peace among the British and the Zulu. The Boer/Zulu relationship continued to be one of great friction from the Battle of Blood River in 1838 to Boer incursions and infiltration of land recognized by the British to belong to the Zulu leading into the 1860s. The British supported the Zulu cause against the Boers and supported the Zulu leader Cetshwayo during his coronation in 1873. Cetshwayo assumed this support would continue when the British took control of the Transvaal in 1877. However, the British proved to care more about placating the Boers than they did concerning themselves with the Zulu priorities. When the Zulu began pressuring them, the British under Sir Theophilus Shepstone, the Natal Secretary for Native Affairs, turned against the Zulu and Shepstone began cabling London that Cetshwayo's regime needed to be removed and Zululand annexed.In July 1878, High Commissioner Henry Bartle Frere, using Shepstone's assurance, began claiming that Natal was threatened by a possible Zulu invasion and pushed for war despite London's desire for patience and doing everything to prevent war. The lack of a continuous line of communication from London to South Africa enabled Frere and Shepstone to push their agenda faster than London could react. Frere felt that the technological advantage of Lord Chelmsford's British Army would bring a quick end to the conflict. Frere provoked war with an ultimatum to Cetshwayo that he knew would be unacceptable. He demanded the immediate disbanding of the Zulu army and abolishment of the Zulu military system in 30 days to remove Cetshwayo's base of power. Chelmsford crossed the Blood River on 11 January 1879 with 4,700 men and set up camp at Isandlwana. They neglected any defensive formations around their camp due to Chelmsford's feelings that a Zulu assault was unlikely. He took the main part of his force from camp on 22 January to sweep the countryside, and while he was out, the Zulu surrounded the remaining forces at Isandlwana and slaughtered the majority of the British troops who had remained. It was one of the worst defeats in the history of the British Army.
The shock of the British defeat led to a desire of the British to crush the Zulu and dismantle their nation. After five months of fighting, the British used their technological advantage as a vast force multiplier and destroyed Cetshwayo's last remaining forces at the Battle of Ulundi. The British brought in General Sir Garnet Wolseley as a new proconsul to wrap up the "native problems" surrounding the Boer Transvaal.
The First Boer War (1880–1881)
The British success in removing much of the "native problem" from the borders of the Boer Transvaal had unintended adverse consequences. The removal of British focus from its Boer issues allowed the Boers to concentrate on the continued British control of the Transvaal. General Wolseley was openly against any notion of Boer independence and issued statements that gatherings in protest of the British rule could lead to prosecution for treason. The Boers continued to push for their independence, to the point that the Boer leader Paul Kruger, who had initially preached caution against rushing to fight, began accepting that war was inevitable.Though there were growing signs of conflict, Wolseley recommended the reduction of British garrisons in the region. Continued British indifference to Boer protests and increasing demands placed on the Boers triggered an all-out rebellion in late 1880. The issue that finally brought the conflict to a head was the seizure of a farm wagon over tax dues. The Boers held that the British seizure was illegal because they had never recognized the annexation of the Transvaal. 5,000 Boers assembled at a farm on 8 December and began deliberating a course of action. On 13 December they proclaimed the Transvaal's independence and intent to establish a republican government, raising the Vierkleur, the old republican flag, and beginning the "war of independence." This war had very little in the way of large-scale conflicts. The first was a Boer defeat of a British column that was unprepared for actual conflict. The Boers demanded that the column halt while the British commander, Colonel Philip Anstruther, insisted on continuing to Pretoria. The Boers proceeded to overrun and force the surrender of the column.
The new High Commissioner, General Sir George Pomeroy Colley, assembled units to avenge the British defeat. Colley was short on-field experience and marched against the Boer forces who were laying siege to British garrisons and demanding their surrender. His brash tactics in assaulting the Boers led to the loss of a quarter of his troops in a series of engagements in later January and early February 1881. Colley was determined to redeem himself and led forces, in the Battle of Majuba Hill, to seize the hill despite the chance of an armistice to end the war. He attacked with a small force that did not know about the initial planning, had no proper reconnaissance, and no heavy weapons support. They seized the hill and set up camp without taking the precaution of setting up defensive positions. When the British announced their position, the Boers were initially cowed, but then began covertly scaling the hill from the north, reaching the Highlander lines and attacking. The Highlanders attempted on separate occasions to warn Colley of the attack, but he ignored the reports. Colley was killed in the final assault, as the British lines fractured from a lack of leadership. This defeat shocked the British in South Africa and in the home islands. While many demanded vengeance, the British quietly conducted a settlement that gave the Boers independence with only nominal lip service paid to the authority of the Crown in an effort to allow the British to withdraw "with minimum embarrassment".
The Gun War (1880–1881)
The Pioneer Column Invasion (1890)
The invasion was predicated on the desire of Cecil Rhodes and Britain to pursue further land north through Bechuanaland into Matabeleland. Despite numerous envoys and letters from Queen Victoria to Lobengula, of the Matabele nation, no progress had been made on the opening the "road".
In December 1889, Cecil Rhodes took matters into his own hands by contracting Frank Johnson and Maurice Haney to recruit 500 mercenaries to overthrow Lobengula. Rhodes wanted to strike the main towns and military posts to cause turmoil in the Matabele (or Ndebele) nation. He also wanted to remove the power of the Amandebele to raid nearby villages and wanted to send their state into general confusion. Rhodes believed this would give the British South Africa Company the opportunity to begin mining the land in safety. This plan would never go into effect after Rhodes' discussion with Fred Selous, who warned him that this would be a monumental disaster for traders and England itself.
Rhodes' decision, based on Selous' advice, was to move around Lobengula and make for a different route to Mashonaland from the south around Mount Hampden. Johnson's new mission was to find 120 'miners' to travel with Selous as their guide. The plan was approved at the local level, but once London received the report, the plan was seen as an agitation designed to involve Britain in a war with Lobengula. This led to further negotiations with Lobengula in an attempt to open the "road." Lobengula complained about having to deal with subordinates and told Jameson to have Rhodes brought before him. In a bit of manoeuvring, Jameson told Lobengula that he was going to inform Rhodes of his decision to keep the "road" closed. Lobengula's reply to this was that he had "not refused you the road, but let Rhodes come." Using this and reports that the Boers were making expeditions into Mashonaland, the High Commissioner could not prevent the force from moving into the territory.
Johnson had his "pioneers" at camp, preparing to cross. Rhodes insisted that he take prominent Cape members with him in case they were cut off, his reason being that the Imperial Forces would be more likely to rescue well to-do members of the Cape than miners. While the pioneer column moved out of camp and was preparing to cross, false assurances were being sent to Lobengula about the number of white men in his country. However, Lobengula did not attack and the column, after the journey, arrived at Mount Hampden on 12 September and named the surrounding area Fort Salisbury.
The First Matabele War (1893–1894)
During the second annual meeting of the South Africa Company, Rhodes stated that the company was on friendly terms with Lobengula, the last king of the Ndebele people, all the while knowing that war was to come. Ultimately, Jameson gave Lobengula's commanders an ultimatum to withdraw from Mashonaland. At the end of his meeting with Lobengula, who refused to move from the border, Jameson sent for Captain Lendy and Boer transport riders to find the Ndebele, and if they refused to leave to move them by force. When confronted, Captain Lendy followed orders and fired upon the Ndebele. After the men returned to Fort Victoria, Jameson sent word to Rhodes and Loch that they must go to war. By October, Jameson had gathered 650 volunteers and 900 Shona auxiliaries. Jameson continued to send word that Lobengula had troops planning to attack. The war was an easy win for Jameson, for as his troops advanced in Matabeleland, they swept over the Ndebele defenders with their machine guns and artillery. Once defeated, Lobengula destroyed his capital and fled to the north. Jameson's advancing troops followed him, reaching Bulawayo on 4 November, but had no luck in finding Lobengula. In a desperate attempt to get away, Lobengula addressed a council of his indunas near the Shangani River and asked that they give all hidden gold to the white men to have peace. Ultimately, the gold was given to men that the messengers came across, and never did reach Jameson or his troops. Matabeleland was ultimately divided among the volunteers and several of Rhodes' officials.
Malaboch War (1894)
In April 1894, Chief Malaboch (Mmaleboho, Mmaleboxo) of the Bahananwa (Xananwa) people refused to leave his traditional mountain kingdom of Blouberg as ordered by the South African Republic (ZAR) Government as he refused to pay tax. The authorities took action through forced removal, which ultimately resulted in the "Malaboch War", with the chief and his subjects defending their territory. As it became evident that the Bahananwa people were losing the war against the soldiers of Commandant-General Piet Joubert, they began surrendering, and subsequently their chief followed suit, on 31 July 1894, after a siege of more than a month. On the day he was taken prisoner, Chief Malaboch twice attempted suicide by jumping into a fire, but both attempts at suicide failed. He was tried by a council of war on 2 August 1894 and was found guilty on all charges. He was never sentenced but kept prisoner of war until his release by the British authorities in 1900 during the Second Anglo-Boer War. The chief returned to his people and ruled until his death in 1939.
The Second Ndebele Matabele War (1896–1897)
When Jameson's forces had been defeated by the Boers, the Ndebele saw an opportunity to revolt. In March 1896, the whites were attacked first at outlying farms, mining camps, and stores. As people fled, and when word reached Bulawayo, the capital, people began to panic and rush for arms. Since the Ndebele had first attacked on the outskirts the element of surprise had passed and allowed time for the whites to gather and manoeuvre. As volunteers arrived, Rhodes came from Fort Salisbury and, after naming himself colonel, rode into combat with the troops. In June, it seemed that the Ndebele forces were falling back from Bulawayo to the Mambo Hills, but the whites were surprised once more, for the Shona had joined in the revolt. By the week's end, more than 100 men, women, and children were killed, which was about 10 percent of the white population. Eventually there was a deadlock in the Matopo Hills, and assaults continued until Rhodes sent a captured royal widow, Nyamabezana, to the rebels, stating that if they waved a white flag, it would be a sign for peace, for the cost of the war was becoming too much for the British South Africa Company. Ultimately, Rhodes rode with several others to meet the rebels. After meeting with them and compromising to meet their demands Rhodes met with other Ndebele leaders, and the details of the agreement were finished in October.
The Second Boer War (1899–1902)
The exact causes of the Second Anglo-Boer War in 1899 have been disputed ever since the events took place. Fault for the war has been placed on both sides, for different reasons. The Boers felt that the British intention was to again annex the Transvaal. Some feel that the British were coerced into war by the mining magnates; others that the British government manipulated the magnates into creating conditions that allowed the war to ignite. It appears that the British did not begin with the intention of annexation. They simply wanted to ensure that British strength and the regional economic and political stability of the British Empire remained unchanged. The British worried about popular support for the war and wanted to push the Boers to make the first move toward actual hostilities. This occurred when the Transvaal issued an ultimatum on 9 October for the British to withdraw all troops from their borders and recall their reinforcements, or they would "regard the action as a formal declaration of war."
Over time, the war has come to be viewed as a "White Man’s War." Recent scholarship has exposed this as untrue. Black people were used on both sides, primarily in non-combat roles, as labourers. The British employed armed black men as scouts or dispatch riders, and were going to employ unarmed black scouts, but decided to continue arming them when the Boers began shooting at the scouts and dispatch riders as spies. The Boers also employed black men during the war, who mostly helped with digging defensive emplacements and roads for the transport of weaponry. They served in this capacity primarily during the initial conventional phase of the war.
The Second Boer War consisted of three phases. It began with a Boer offensive to besiege the garrisons at Ladysmith, Mafeking, and Kimberley, after a quick mobilisation of their commando units from each district, drawing up to 30–40,000 men. The Boers used a quick-hitting mobile style of war, based on their experiences fighting the British in the first Boer War, along with lessons learned from studying the American Civil War. Early British attempts to relieve these besieged garrisons met with mixed results. The British felt that the war would be ended quickly. They were ill-prepared to face the well-equipped Boers, losing a large number of men in their first attempts to push into places such as Magersfontein, Stormberg, and Colenso.
The second phase began with Britain re-elling from defeats and deploying the largest British force ever sent overseas to South Africa. The British commander, Sir Redvers Buller, and his subordinate Major General Charles Warren, began the British offensive with an attack on the hill of Spion Kop. While the British won this battle, they belatedly realised that the hill was over-watched by Boer gun emplacements and suffered heavy casualties. Buller suffered another defeat at Vaal Krantz and was relieved as commander of British forces over questions of his management of the war. His replacement was Field Marshal Lord Frederick Roberts. Roberts won a series of battles by committing overwhelming numbers of British forces against the Boers. He pushed into and captured the Orange Free State in May 1900 and then pushed into the Transvaal to capture Johannesburg on 31 May. Roberts declared the war over after the capture of the Orange Free State and Johannesburg, announcing the formation of the Transvaal Colony and the Orange River Colony, incorporated in 1902. It was at this point that the Boers, initially demoralised by the overwhelming numbers of British troops, began the third phase of the Second Boer War: the guerilla campaign.
After regrouping into smaller units, the Boer commanders started using guerrilla tactics, destroying railways, bridges, and telegraph wires. Their leaders included Louis Botha in the eastern Transvaal; Koos de la Rey and Jan Smuts in western Transvaal; and Christian de Wet in the Orange Free State. The British were not prepared for this type of tactic, having an insufficient number of mounted troops and no intelligence personnel. They moved against the civilian population that supported the Boers, burning their houses and barns. Nonetheless, support for the Boers remained strong. To deal with families wandering across the countryside without shelter, the British decided to set up what they considered to be refugee camps, in September 1900. In December 1900 Herbert Kitchener of Khartoum took over command of the British army, continuing the scorched-earth policy. He believed that women served as a source of intelligence for the Boers, so he put them in concentration camps. Additionally, he set up blockhouses and barbed wire fences to restrict the Boers to a certain area. In January 1901, Kitchener raided the countryside, putting Africans and Boer civilians into concentration camps. When he learned that Louis Botha was interested in peace, he jumped at the opportunity, using Botha's wife and an intermediary. Nothing came of the talks, for Sir Alfred Milner insisted that nothing but full surrender would be acceptable to the British. The Boers wanted independence, and in June 1901, Boer leaders came together and stated that no proposal would be considered unless it included their independence. Conditions in the concentration camps worsened, and the problem was not brought to public attention until an Englishwoman Emily Hobhouse did her own investigation and sailed back to England with the intention of exposing Kitchener for what he was permitting. The war minister, Brodick, dismissed the complaints of Hobhouse and her supporters in parliament, stating that it was Boer guerilla tactics that had led to the methods currently in use. The military situation for the troops of De Wet, Botha, and De la Rey had worsened, for Kitchener's blockhouses and fences were posing a serious problem. Additionally, three-quarters of the Boer's cattle had been killed and taken away and they were struggling just to survive. Though De la Rey (in March 1902) captured General Lord Paul Methuen and 600 troops, he had to let them go because he had no place to keep them. At this time there were many that decided that it would be best to simply accept British rule, some of them serving as guides. These "joiners," as they were called, disagreed with those Boers who continued fighting at great risk, though they knew there would never be a military success.
By this time Kitchener had built an army of 250,000 troops, built 8000 blockhouses, and had of commandos (???). He also changed his tactics towards women and children. Rather than packing them off to concentration camps, he told his troops to leave them where they found them, so that the burden of taking care of them fell on the Boers. This further pushed the Boers towards negotiations.
Negotiations for ending the war began in April 1902. Proposals were sent back and forth and rejected by both sides as being unreasonable. At times it looked as if the negotiations would fail, and the war would continue. The Boers were granted some concessions on the treatment of Cape Afrikaner rebels and the rights of the black Africans. Perhaps the most surprising thing to come out of the negotiations was that the Transvaal and Orange Free State would have to recognize King Edward VII as sovereign over their land. Many of the people of the Orange Free State and Transvaal considered this a betrayal of one of their key tenets for fighting in the first place.
The Bambatha Rebellion (1906–1907)
The Rebellion was in reaction to a Poll Tax of £1 on all Native male members over 18 years of age by the Natal House of Assembly. After the magistrate and a small party were threatened by gunshots from Bambata and his followers, the party made their retreat to a small hotel. Joined by the people at the hotel, the magistrate's party proceeded hastily to the police station at Keates Drift.
As news spread to Greytown, a Natal police force was dispatched to deal with the fugitives but saw no sign of the enemy after reaching the Drift. At sunset, the march was continued until they were ambushed at a spot in the Impanza Valley by Bambata's men. After fighting off the enemy and returning to camps with the dead and wounded, more troops were mobilised for an attack on Bambata's location. However, the morning before, he had escaped to Zululand by crossing the Tugela River. The Kranskop reserves trailed Bambata along the same route until they made a wrong turn. They made camp under the Pukunyoni until 28 May 1906, when scouts were shot at by a Zulu impi marching toward the camp. After returning with the news of the approaching Zulu, the camp prepared itself for attack. The Zulu made an initial rush but were turned away. Using a herd of cattle as cover, the Zulu drove the herd through the North-East corner of the camp, with many Zulu being shot only from the defence line. The rest were then driven back or withdrew. The Zulu continued to fire on the camp from a "very bushy" hillside about away. Several troops were killed and wounded.
The end of the rebellion came when Col. Barker was brought from Johannesburg with 500 soldiers. Along with local troops, they trapped and killed Bambata and the other Zulu chiefs, ending the uprising.
The Maritz Rebellion (1914)
The Maritz Rebellion (also known as the Boer Revolt) broke out in South Africa in 1914 at the start of World War I. Men who supported the reinstitution of the old Boer republics rose up against the government of the Union of South Africa. Many members of the government were former Boers who had fought with the Maritz rebels against the British in the Second Anglo-Boer War twelve years earlier. The rebellion was a failure, and the ringleaders were assessed large fines and, in many cases, imprisoned.
Compared to the fate of leading Irish rebels in the 1916 Easter Rising, the leading Boer rebels got off lightly with terms of imprisonment of six and seven years and heavy fines. Two years later, they were released from prison, as Louis Botha recognised the value of reconciliation. After this, the "bitter enders" concentrated on working within the constitutional system and built up the National Party which would come to dominate the politics of South Africa from the late 1940s until the early 1990s, when the apartheid system they had constructed also fell.
Walvis Bay (1914–1915)
Prior to an attack into South West Africa, the Boers had initially raised their objections to any assault on German forces since the Germans had supported them in the Second Boer War. Martial Law was declared on 14 October 1914, the Boer rebellion was quickly suppressed, and at the outset of World War I, South West Africa (modern Namibia) was under German control after having been passed back and forth during boundary negotiations over the previous years After the Maritz Rebellion was suppressed, the South African army continued their operations into German South-West Africa and conquered it by July 1915 (see the South-West Africa Campaign for details).
Troops took much of the territory, including Walvis Bay in the north, in 1915. In early 1915 the South African troops began moving into German South-West Africa. South African forces quickly moved through the country, but the Germans fought until cornered in the extreme north-west before surrendering on 9 July 1915.
Economics and technology
Technological innovations in southern Africa altered mining, guns, and transportation as well as the course of the war. Mining difficulties helped to create and utilise new technology in the Kimberley mines, where new means of extraction were needed. Originally, numerous small mines created a strange network of larger mining claims. By 1873, Kimberly miners were forced to construct a cable transport system due to several collapses of the roads leading into the mines. The cables in the Kimberly mines were held up by support beams that were placed around the perimeter of the mine. Each level of the mine had two to three platforms. Originally the ropes were made of animal hides or hemp, within a year there was exponential growth of the cable system. The natural materials used for the cables were replaced with wire. After only a year, the mines had grown so elaborate with this system that it inspired awe in people. As mines were dug deeper into the ground, water extraction became a problem. The miners brought in electric pumps to help pump out the water. Cecil Rhodes even started a pumping business during this time. The growth in the mines allowed large business owners to take control of the mines.
One of the major players in the South African economy was Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes helped to create the British South Africa Company as well as De Beers Mining Corporation. Rhodes used his power and influences through these companies to promote the expansion of the British Empire as well as his own business interests. Expansion of the empire was not received well by the non-British parties living in the area. Through economic means, the British attempted to expand their empire into Boer areas which ultimately led to a series of wars in South Africa.
The expansion of British lands led to an interest in gun manufacturing. Gun technology greatly improved during the 1870s. One major creation was the repeating rifle. With these new improvements, companies sent large quantities of older models of guns to Africa to sell for large profits. This influx of guns greatly influenced and helped to escalate the war. Historians estimate that towards the end of the 19th century around 4 million pounds of gunpowder was sold in the German- and British-occupied regions of Africa. Around 1896 the Shona and the Ndbele had around 10,000 guns between the two groups, and by 1879 the Zulu tribes had around 8,000 guns. The Shona were even taught how to manufacture ammunition as well as repair broken or damaged guns. The guns were also used to attract miners because they were sold at and close to mining camps. Sometime in 1890, a blockade would be placed in the importation of guns and ammo in tropical southern Africa. Other forms of technology helped the British Military remain in contact with London.
There were other forms of technology that affected the Cape Colony. The telegraph was important for the movement of communications between Cape Colony and Griqualand West. The 1873 Cape Government Railways plan to connect Kimberley and Cape Town by railway was brought to completion in 1881.
Years later, during the Second Anglo-Boer War, these trains would become part of Boer's guerrilla warfare by blowing up trains, lines, and bridges with soldiers on them. They developed new technology to handle the new military tactics. Eventually Hilton a Boer guerrilla leader abandoned the Pretoria Delagoa Bay Railway Line as impossible due to blockhouses, barbed wire, ditches on either side, armoured trains, and frequent checks. Technological developments brought into Cape Colony as a need for them developed.
Diamond Rush and Gold Rush
The Diamond Rush
A small western area of the Republic of the Orange Free State is home to many of the diamond mines of South Africa. Before the rush to discover diamonds, many of the indigenous people of Africa already used these diamonds as simple tools. John O’Reilly finding diamonds in the 1850s sparked what is known as the diamond rush. By 1869, thousands of people made their way to the Vaal River with the hopes of finding their fortunes. Consequently, mining communities emerged across the region, including Klipdrift, Pniel, Gong Gong, Union Kopje, Colesberg Kopje, Delport's Hope, Blue Jacket, Forlorn Hope, Waldek's Plant, Larkins's Flat, Niekerk's Hope, and many other smaller settlements. The Cape Government formulated plans in 1873, to connect these diamond fields with the three ports of Cape Town, Port Elizabeth and East London. This created the Cape Government Railways.
The later part of the diamond rush took place on a farm known as Dutoitspan. Due to this discovery, the mining towns of Old De Beers developed as well as Kimberley, which was also known as "New Rush." Kimberley proved to be one of the wealthiest mines on earth. These new mines within the Orange Free State and their great wealth attracted the attention of the British Empire; their new-found interest eventually led to a heated debate between the Orange Free State, the Griqua leaders, and the British Government.
In 1871, the discovery of diamond deposits by prospectors in Griqualand led to a struggle for control between Britain, the Orange Free State, the Griqua state and the Transvaal. A Griqua chief claimed the land that the mines were located on belonged to him and asked for the protection of the British Government. This action resulted in the British annexation the region which became known as Griqualand West. This land was originally given to the Orange Free State by the British in 1854. The Orange State was pressurised by the Earl of Carnarvon to become part of the plan to confederate the countries of Southern Africa under British rule, but it refused. Eventually, the Orange Free State was compensated by payment of $525,000 and although it joined in some of the meetings about confederation, it still rejected the plan. In 1880, Griqualand West was handed by the British to the Cape Colony, within which it became a separate province. This allowed for Cecil Rhodes' entrance into Cape Colony politics to further his agenda as one of the mining magnates when he stood for election to parliament in Barkly West.
The Gold Rush
In 1886, George Harrison discovered gold in Witwatersrand, in the Transvaal, which led to a stampede of gold diggers from Australia, California, London, Ireland and Germany. The influx of gold diggers created a stream of wealth pouring into the previously poverty-stricken region. However, severe health problems caused by dust from the dry diggings and unsanitary conditions also appeared in dig sites, along with other types of diseases, death and crime. The industry, characterised as monopolistic and political, would be at the center of controversies, such as the conflicts of the Jameson Raid of 1895 and Anglo-Boer war in 1899, for the region.
Social effects
With the discovery of diamonds in Griqualand West, gold in Witwatersrand and also coal in the Transvaal, the capacity of production changed the political and economic structure of South Africa. "The development of industrial capitalism in the region was markedly accelerated, whilst the long era of dispossession of independent African chiefdoms was finally completed, paving the way for the mobilisation of large numbers of African labourers to provide cheap labour for this industrial revolution".
Government and politics
The main concerns of British policy in southern Africa were economical administration. The British decided to take control of the Cape Colony (1806), as a temporary measure against the French, to protect the trade route between Europe and Asia.
It was only decades later, in 1871, that the British took control of the separate state of Griqualand West. As time progressed, British policies in the Griqualand West Colony, such as Proclamation 14 and the Black Flag Revolt caused tension between the British Cape Colony leaders and the Southern Africa groups such as the Boers. Similar effects resulted later from the Franchise Dispute in the Transvaal.
Proclamation 14
Griqualand West, after the diamond rush, had been dominated by the overwhelming influx of settlers, and saw severe discriminatory laws arise already under the independent "Diggers Republic" of Stafford Parker (1870–71) and direct British rule (1871–1880). Proclamation 14 August 1872 was a decree by British Imperial officials to pacify the Kimberly diggers and control black labour. It stated that "servant" could be black or white but that all blacks must carry a pass with them all times to cross the Kimberly pass point. These could be day passes to find employment or work passes (labor contracts). The labour contract would be signed by the "master" and had to show the black worker's name, wage and length of employment. These contracts had to be carried on their persons at all times or they could face imprisonment, fines or a flogging. Colonial officials did excuse some blacks from this requirement if they deemed them "civilized".
Black Flag Revolt
"The Black Flag Revolt" in 1875 was between the white diggers and the British colonial government of Griqualand West. The British official administering the Griqualand West Colony was Sir Richard Southey, who wished to curb the independence of the diggers. The revolt was led by Alfred Aylward. Other major players in the revolt were William Ling, Henry Tucker and Conrad von Schlickmann. The diggers were upset about high taxes, increased rent and colored unrest. Aylward was pushing for a Republican form of government and preached of revolution. He formed the Defense League and Protection Association which pledged action against taxation. Aylward inspired the diggers to take up arms in March and formed the Diggers' Protection Association that was paramilitary. A black flag was the signal for Aylward's supporters to revolt. William Cowie, a hotel owner, was arrested without bail for selling guns to Aylward without a permit. Aylward mounted the "black flag", the signal to revolt, in response to Cowies' arrest. The rebels blocked the prison upon the arrival of Cowie led by Police escort. Cowie was eventually acquitted. Southey asked for British troops to be sent to help control the situation. Volunteers from the Cape also assembled to assist. The rebels held control of the streets for ten weeks. They surrendered upon the arrival of the British Red Coats on 30 June 1875. The rebel leaders were arrested and put on trial but were found not guilty by a jury of their peers. London was not happy with the way that Southey had handled the situation and the costs of sending troops, and he was removed from his position. The significance of the "Black Flag Revolt" was a victory for white interests, the end to independent diggers and signaled the rise of diamond magnates.
Proclamation 14 and The Black Flag Revolt greatly increased hostility between Southern Africa's native inhabitants and the British leaders.
Swaziland
Swaziland had preserved its existence even while around its other native tribes had fallen one by one. Swaziland was promised independence by both the Transvaal as well as Britain with respective treaties. All this changed following the discovery of gold in the De Kaap Valley in 1884.
The Swazias had historically assisted the Europeans and played a role in both Boer and British conflicts against their enemies the Pedi and the Zulu. Boer farmers gained grazing concessions, followed by mining rights. To deal with the growing demand for concessions from white settlers, the Swazi Chief Mbanzeni employed Offy Shepstone of Natal to run the concession administration. Upon his arrival Shepstone formed the white governing committee to oversee taxes and law enforcement on the white settlers. Shepstone soon proved to be corrupt, and concessions were being sold off at an alarming rate. Soon The Transvaal had acquired railway, telegraph and electricity concessions. In an attempt to slow down the concessions Mbanzeni gave the White Governing Committee authority over all whites in Swaziland. This proved disastrous and the rapid selling off of Swaziland continued.
On 3 May 1889 Krueger informed the British he would forego all claims to the North if he could obtain political rights to Swaziland. The White Governing Committee agreed to the deal and Mbanzenis country was sold out from under him. Following the death of Mbanzeni the Transvaal and Britain divided up the remaining territory until sole control fell to the Transvaal in 1894.
The Franchise Dispute
With the influx of foreign workers into the Transvaal following the discovery of gold in Witwatersrand, the dispute over foreigners rights became a major problem for the Kruger government. Originally after residing in the Transvaal for one year foreigners were given the right to vote. In 1882 to counteract the increasing foreign population, the requirement was raised to five years as well as a twenty-five pound fee. Following the establishment of the Second Volksraad in 1891 the requirements were again raised, this time to fourteen years and requiring voters to be over the age of forty. However, to vote in the newly established Second Volksraad residents needed only to reside in the Republic for two years and pay a five-pound fee. This Second Volksraad however would be over-ruled by the First. This essentially created a dual class society.
During the tense times following the Jameson Raid the franchise dispute was at the center of talks looking to avoid war. During talks in Bloemfontein between Kruger and Sir Alfred Milner in 1899, Milner suggested giving full franchise to every foreigner who had resided in the Transvaal for five years as well as seven new seats in the Volksraad. With the foreign population being significantly larger than that of the Boers, Kruger believed this would essentially mean the end of The Transvaal Republic as an Afrikaner state.
Kruger countered with a "sliding scale" offer. Uitlanders who had settled before 1890 could obtain franchise after two years, settlers of two or more years could apply after five years and all others after seven years. This proposal would also include five more seats in the Volksraad. Milners ultimate desire however was immediate franchise for a significant proportion of Uitlanders so to better British interests in the Transvaal. A wire to Milner to accept the terms arrived too late and the proceedings were cancelled without a resolution.
In a final attempt to avoid war Kruger proposed enfranchisement to any foreigner who had lived in the Transvaal for five years as well as ten new seats in the Volksraad, in return Britain would have to drop any claim at all to the Transvaal as well as no longer take interest in the republic's internal affairs. The British government sent a letter to Kruger accepting the franchise concessions but refusing the other aspects of the deal. Failure to resolve these issues was one of the main causes of the Second Boer War.
Belligerent forces
Many ethnic groups participated in the South African Wars from 1879 to 1915. These groups included colonial settlers such as the British and the Boers as well as indigenous tribes and clans.
Boers
According to the strict corporate hierarchy of the Dutch East India Company, all Europeans in its overseas colonies were considered either Company employees, or "vrijlieden", also known as "vrijburgers" (free citizens). Vrijburgers were often former Company employees who applied for permission to retire in a given territory after completing their service contracts. They had to be Dutch citizens by birth, married, "of good character", and committed to spending at least twenty years in South Africa. Reflecting the multi-national character of the Company workforce, some Germans were open to consideration as well, and in the late 1680s they were joined by over a hundred French Huguenot refugees who had fled to the Netherlands following the Edict of Fontainebleau and had been subsequently resettled by the Dutch at the Cape.
The Company granted the vrijburgers farms of thirteen and a half morgen each, which were tax exempt for twelve years, and loaned each household the necessary implements and seeds. However, the new farmers were also subject to heavy restrictions: they were ordered to focus on cultivating grain, and each year their harvest was to be sold exclusively to Dutch officials at fixed prices. They were forbidden from growing tobacco, producing vegetables for any purpose other than personal consumption, or purchasing cattle from the native tribes at rates which differed from those set by the company. With time, these restrictions and other attempts by the colonial authorities to control the settlers resulted in successive generations of vrijburgers and their descendants becoming increasingly localised in their loyalties and national identity and hostile towards the colonial government.
Vrijburgers who settled directly on the frontiers of the Dutch Cape Colony, known as Boers, became fiercely independent; they pushed beyond the colony's borders and had soon penetrated almost a thousand kilometres inland. A few adopted nomadic lifestyles permanently and were known as trekboers. The Boer expansion was driven by the constant search for fresh pasture and a desire to rid themselves of petty Dutch administrators. In 1769 the Boers encountered a southwards migration of the Xhosa people, sparking a violent competition between both groups for land in the vicinity of the Great Fish River.
The Boers pursued an even less amiable relationship with the British colonial government than they did with the Dutch. Between 1828 and 1834 the British set up a new court system in the colony, replacing Dutch with English as the official language, despite the fact that the majority of the settlers only spoke Dutch. In 1815, a controversial decision by the Cape authorities to arrest a Boer for assaulting his native servant produced a minor revolt known as the Slachter's Nek Rebellion. This, coupled with other grievances such as the abolition of slavery in 1834 and the imposition of new taxation and legislative controls, led thousands of Boers to undertake the Great Trek and found their own Boer republics inland. Despite the distance covered by the itinerant Boers, known as voortrekkers, British attempts to re-assert control over them continued during the Great Trek . This resulted in the first British annexation of a Boer state, the Natalia Republic, in 1843, and subsequently of two others, the South African Republic (also known as the Transvaal) and the Orange Free State. Boer attempts to defend the sovereignty of their short-lived republics resulted in the First and Second Anglo-Boer Wars.
During World War I, embittered former Boer partisans launched an unsuccessful attempt to reestablish the Boer republics in the newly independent Union of South Africa, which had been granted dominion status within the British Commonwealth. This incident was widely denoted as the Maritz Rebellion.
Zulu
The Zulu originated from the Nguni clans which moved down the east African coast during the Bantu migrations. The Zulu tribe traditionally resided in the Natal province on the eastern side of South Africa. The Zulu were involved in two major wars. They fought against the British colonials in the Anglo-Zulu War in 1879. The Zulu were eventually overpowered by superior British technology. The Anglo-Zulu war resulted in the absorption of traditional Zululand into the British Cape Colony. The second conflict also involved Zulu and British colonials. Bambatha, a leader of the Zondi clan led a rebellion against British authority in the Natal province. The rebellion was suppressed by British colonial forces.
Colonial British
The British took control of the Cape Colony in 1795. It was first used as a naval port on the way to the more established British colonies of India and Australia. In 1820 the British government relocated a large number of settlers to the new South African colony. The colony now had two distinct groups of European settlers, the British colonials and the Dutch Boers. The British settlers usually resided in the towns and held urban jobs such as in trade and manufacturing. The British colonials experienced conflicts with a militaristic and organised tribe in the Natal Province, the Zulu. There were two major conflicts with these indigenous people, the Anglo-Zulu War and the Bambatha Rebellion. British colonials also had two conflicts concerning the independence of Boer republics. In the First Boer War, the Boers became independent from British colonial control. Later, in the Second Boer War the Boers declared war on the Cape Colony over the placement of British troops. The British colonial forces eventually captured all Boer major cities, and the formerly free South African Republic came under the control of the British. There were several conflicts started by British colonial settlers that the British government and army had to finish. Cecil Rhodes was involved in many of these conflicts including the Jameson Raid and Pioneer Column Invasion. Two conflicts occurred with the Ndebele people or Matabele as the British colonials called them. These were two rebellions against British colonial authority that were quickly suppressed by notable individuals such as Leander Starr Jameson and Colonel Baden-Powell. The British colonials faced another rebellious threat in 1914 when General Maritz and a number of South African forces declared independence from the British. Maritz allied himself with the Germans at the nearby German South-west Africa colony. Walvis Bay was an area first captured by the Germans at the outbreak of World War I. Walvis Bay was later recaptured by British colonials.
Ndebele
In the 1820s a branch of the Zulu led by Mzilikazi split from the main tribe to form the Ndebele people. Their people moved west from Zululand and settled near present-day Pretoria. They would eventually move slightly north to present day Zimbabwe causing territorial pressure with the Shona people. Conflict with the British colonials erupted in 1893 when their leader deployed warriors to attack and plunder the Shona people living near Fort Victoria. Unintentional confrontation broke out between Ndebele warriors and British soldiers at the fort. Although outnumbered, the British eventually suppressed the Ndebele. A second Ndebele war broke out in 1896 when they rebelled against the authority of the British South Africa Company. This war like the previous one eventually evaporated with the death of the leader insurrection. Even today this war is celebrated as the First War of Independence in Zimbabwe.
Xhosa
The Xhosa people were a group of Bantu-speaking chiefdoms driven out of the Zuurveld grasslands by the British colonists in 1811. In 1819, the Xhosa attacked the frontier village of Graham's Town with 10,000 warriors but were defeated and lost even more land. In 1834, the Xhosa again invaded the colony but were again driven back and lost more land to the British.
These wars between the Xhosa and Dutch and British colonists took place along the east coast of Cape Colony between the Great Fish and Great Kei rivers. In 1811, the British began a policy of clearing the land of Xhosa people to make way for more British colonists. Nearly an entire year of fighting (1818–19) ensued.
Following the battle, around 4000 British colonists migrated to the area along the great Fish River. The further the colonists pushed east, the more resistance they met. Spoils of the war of 1834 to 1835 were 60,000 cattle which the colonists took over. From 1846 to 1853 was a longer struggle. In the war of 1877 to 1879, the colonists took over 15,000 cattle and around 20,000 sheep. In the aftermath, all Xhosa territory was lost to the colonists of the Cape Colony.
Key figures
Throughout the period of the South African Wars, people on both sides of the conflict achieved notability. Some of these people were in favor of the British colonizing South Africa and making it a British territory, while others fought against the British in an attempt to slow down and stop these efforts.
Mgolombane Sandile was the dynamic and charismatic chief of the Rharhabe House of the Xhosa Kingdom, who led his army in a string of wars until he was killed by Fengu sharpshooters in 1878. Although he acted independently, he usually recognised the authority of King Sarhili(Kreli) of the Gcaleka, whose country lay to the east and who was nominally the Paramount-Chief of all the Xhosa people. Sandile's soldiers used modern firearms (in addition to their traditional weapons for close combat) and they were skilled in guerilla warfare. However, his tragic death was a turning point. It brought to a close the last of the Xhosa Wars (1779–1879); and saw the beginning of the greater South African Wars (1879–1915) which now encompassed the whole subcontinent.
The Earl of Carnarvon was the colonial secretary in London from 1874 to 1878. He was greatly concerned with Imperial defence of the Cape and felt that it was a crucial point in the empire's trade and future security. For this reason, he wished to bring all the various states of southern Africa into one single British-controlled Confederation. He had recently confederated Canada, initiating a unified, British-controlled government that meshed two cultures and create a bi-lingual society, and he wished to replicate that success in southern Africa. The South Africa Act 1877 was derived from the British North America Act concerning draft confederation. Carnarvon felt that if it worked for Canada, it could also apply to southern Africa. Many southern African states fiercely resisted this interference in the region. His attempt to enforce this system of confederation onto southern Africa was a primary cause of the first set of the South African Wars.
Sir Henry Bartle Frere was the new British Governor whom Carnarvon sent out to southern Africa in 1877, to enforce his confederation plan, bring the various states of southern Africa into the united British federation, and preempt what he believed would be a "general and simultaneous rising of Kaffirdom against white civilization". For this purpose, Frere initiated the Anglo-Zulu War, the 9th Frontier War, the Gun War, and overthrew the elected government of the Cape Colony to replace it with the pro-federation Sprigg puppet government. He critically underestimated the Zulu State as "a bunch of savages armed with sticks" and likewise miscalculated in taking on war with the Boers and the Basotho – against all of whom the British suffered serious setbacks and defeats, before sheer force of arms extricated them. Back in London, the new British Government was horrified by Frere's actions. "What was the crime of the Zulu?!" became the call-to-arms of liberal leader William Gladstone. In 1880, Bartle Frere was recalled to London to face charges of misconduct, but the conflicts which he initiated were effectively the commencement of the South African Wars.
John Gordon Sprigg was the local puppet Prime Minister of the Cape (1878–81), whom Bartle Frere installed to lead the Cape Colony into Confederation, after he had deposed the previous elected government. At first, Sprigg had opposed confederation (like most local Cape leaders), but he prudently converted, and Frere offered him the Cape government if he promised to assist the confederation plan. His government consequently pursued expansionist military policies and attempted to segregate and disarm the Cape's Black soldiers and allies. His discriminatory policies shocked much of the Cape's liberal political elite and alienated the Cape's traditional allies – such as the Sotho and Fengu nations. A string of defeats followed – from the superior strategies of the Sotho army, among others. Facing military defeat and bankruptcy, Sprigg became more and more unpopular. Once his imperial protector Bartle Frere was recalled to London, the Sprigg government was overthrown by opposition movements in the Cape Parliament.
The Zulu King Cetshwayo kaMpande was a key figure in confronting British imperialism in Southern Africa. His name means 'The Slandered One'. Cetshwayo was the last independent Zulu King. Bartle Frere felt he needed to conquer the Zulu Kingdom, for the confederation plan to succeed. He attacked the Zulus using the excuse of Cetshwayo's ordering a raid in Natal to seize two Zulu women who were wives of Cetshwayo's favourite chief, Sihayo kaXongo. On 11 December 1878, Frere's representative Sir Theophilus Shepstone informed the Zulu leader that he could either turn in the two men who led this raid into Natal and disarm his army, or face war. The disarmament conditions were deliberately impossible to fulfill, Cetshwayo refused them, and the British attacked the Zulu on 22 January 1879. The British attacked with only 1700 troops while the Zulu brought 24,000. The battle was almost a complete massacre of the British with only sixty Europeans surviving. Cetshwayo and his army were eventually defeated at oNdini on 4 July 1879. He escaped but was recaptured a month later and held as a prisoner of war. In 1882 Cetshwayo was allowed to travel to England and meet with Queen Victoria. While in England he was treated as a public hero by the liberal opposition for his resistance to Britain. Cetshwayo was returned in secret to Zululand on 10 January 1883. On 8 February 1884 Cetshwayo died (likely from poison). His son Dinizulu was proclaimed king on 20 May 1884.
Saul Solomon was a personal friend of the Zulu King, and a powerful anti-war MP in the Cape Parliament, where he was a leader of the "Cape Liberal" movement. Originally, he had been an ally and supporter of the Cape's locally elected Prime Minister John Molteno, who had opposed British control. Then after Frere arrived and the government changed, Solomon initially trusted Sprigg when he came to power. But once he realised the nature of Sprigg and Bartle Frere's policies, he became their greatest political enemy in the Cape. When he led the liberal campaign against the Sprigg government, he was targeted in several high-profile political trials, which attempted (unsuccessfully) to silence him. He was instrumental in bringing about Sprigg's downfall in 1881, but Solomon was elderly and retired from politics soon afterwards.
The mining magnate and British imperialist Cecil Rhodes brought about the second wave of the South African Wars, through his desire to control the continent and its diamond and gold resources. Rhodes first gained power through his control of the mining industries. He was the founder of the Diamond Company De Beers, which today markets 40% of the world's rough diamonds and at one time marketed 90%. He used his power in the diamond fields to get elected to parliament and finally, in 1890, he succeeded in becoming Prime Minister of the Cape Colony. He then implemented laws that would benefit mine and industry owners. He introduced the Glen Grey Act to push black people from their lands and make way for industrial development. Rhodes desired control over the Boer Republic of the Transvaal, where the gold mines were located. He launched the Matabele wars, to encircle the Boer republics. Then in 1895 he engineered the infamous Jameson Raid into the Transvaal. The raid failed, and ended in humiliation, but this skirmish eventually led to the Second Anglo-Boer War. Through his conquests inland, Rhodes was also the founder of Rhodesia which later became Zambia and Zimbabwe.
Dr. Leander Jameson was a supporter and admirer of Cecil Rhodes. Rhodes appointed him director of the De Beers Company. Rhodes also used Jameson to launch the notorious "Jameson raid" into the Transvaal. The raid was to overthrow the Boer government of Paul Kruger in 1895 and allow Rhodes to take control. The raid failed, and Jameson was convicted of violating the foreign enlistment act and sentenced to 15 months in prison. After Rhodes's fall, Jameson continued Rhodes's legacy. He became leader of the pro-imperialist "Progressive Party", and in 1904 became Prime Minister of the Cape.
Paul Kruger fought against the British colonization efforts. He was born Stephanus Johannes Paul Kruger on 10 October 1825. Later in life he earned the nickname "Old Lion of the Transvaal" which came from the way he looked. Kruger was against the annexation of the Transvaal region in 1877 and was named the Commandant-general of the Transvaal army before the age of 30. In 1880, Kruger joined with Piet Joubert and M. Pretorius to fight for independence. The Boers won the war in 1883 and Kruger became state president. He remained president for many years. When the Anglo-Boer war broke out, Kruger again led the Boers. In 1900 the British forces advanced on Kruger and his men. Kruger escaped and settled in the Netherlands for the duration of the war. He never returned to the Transvaal. Kruger died on 14 July 1904 in Switzerland. His body was shipped back to the Transvaal and buried in Pretoria, in Heroes Ace.
Lord Alfred Milner was High Commissioner for Southern Africa (1897–1905), a self-declared "race patriot", and the initiator of the Second Anglo-Boer War. His aggressive style of imperialism was apparent to locals even on his first arrival. On first meeting him, Jan Smuts accurately predicted that Milner would be "a second Bartle Frere" and "... more dangerous than Rhodes".
Milner was instrumental in pressurising the Boers into war, through his championing of the cause of the British Uitlanders in the Transvaal. He massively underestimated the cost and duration of the war though, and the British suffered a series of humiliating defeats at the hands of the far smaller Boer forces. Towards the end of the war, he attempted to push through humiliating treaties which would forcibly Anglicise the Boers.
General Herbert Kitchener was the famed British military leader, sent out by Milner to complete the defeat of the Boers in 1899. Unable to defeat the Boer commandos and their guerilla warfare tactics, Kitchener resorted to systematic burning of Boer civilian settlements and homesteads, as "Scorched Earth" tactics to initiate a famine. He also made large-scale use of concentration camps for the Boer civilian population. Roughly 26,370 Boer women and children (81% were children) died in these concentration camps, and roughly 20,000 Black African prisoners died in similar camps. However, in 1902 they eventually succeeded in pressurizing the Boer commandos to surrender and sign the Treaty of Vereeniging.
The famous writer Rudyard Kipling was strongly in favor of the British colonisation of Africa. He was also a personal friend of Cecil Rhodes. When the Boer War broke out, Kipling joined in campaign efforts to raise money for the troops and reported for army publications. While involved in this campaign, Kipling would be forced to view the tragedies of war. He witnessed people dying from typhoid and dysentery and also witnessed the bad barrack conditions. He wrote poetry in support of the British cause in the Boer War. In early 1900 Kipling helped start a newspaper called The Friend for British troops in Bloemfontein. Kipling eventually left South Africa and returned to England, where he was already highly regarded as the poet of the empire.
Women's voices in the War
Women had a highly restricted role in 19th century society, but in spite of this, several women nonetheless succeeded in becoming prominent voices on the South African Wars.
Olive Schreiner was a sympathizer with the Boers. She was a writer and a strong opponent of British Imperial policy. She addressed the human side of the war, by sympathizing with the Boer women who were forced to send their men off to war despite their lack of military training. Boer men younger than 16 and older than 60 faced a well-trained and supplied British military (England -with Canada and Australia). Schreiner also admired the Orange Free State's prolonged resistance to the British occupation.
Elizabeth Maria Molteno was a writer, a suffragette, and an early civil rights activist, who was also a prominent anti-war campaigner. She was a founding member of the South Africa Conciliation Committee (1899) and organized mass protests against British policies. She identified strongly with the continent of Africa and its peoples, and she urged all races in South Africa to do likewise. She later worked with Gandhi, Sol Plaatje and John Dube in their different struggles for civil and political rights.
Emily Hobhouse was without doubt the most influential voice of women, during the Anglo-Boer war. She was a founding member and Secretary of the South Africa Conciliation Committee (1899) and one of the first female investigative journalists in a war zone. She travelled to the South African war zone on behalf of the South African Women and Children Distress Fund. In her report, she exposed the mistreatment of the women and children in the Boer refugee camps. As a result, she was arrested and deported. She was probably the most powerful agitator against conditions of the Boer concentration camps.
Millicent Garrett Fawcett was an investigative journalist who was pro-war. Fawcett justified the maltreatment of Boer women and children in the concentration camps, by stating that they participated in war by supplying their men with vital British military information, making them part of the war effort and consequently deserving of the same war treatment as combatants. She also blamed the Boer mothers for their children's deaths in the concentration camps. She often emphasized "race" and described the unhygienic conditions as if they were natural for the Boer women but failed to mention that they were obviously not supplied with soap in the concentration camps. She compared Boers to 17th century English ignorant peasants.
In fiction
The Boer War has been the focus of a considerable body of fiction numbering over two hundred novels and at least fifty short stories in English, Afrikaans, French, German Dutch, Swedish and even Urdu if we count the translation of Rider Haggard's Jess in 1923.
For the social and literary historian, it provides over a hundred-year record of the relationship between literature and history.
The vast majority of novels and short stories about the Anglo-Boer conflict were published around the time of the war and reflect the values and attitudes to British imperialism. Some of the titles published then give a fairly accurate impression of the patriotic fervour which found its way into print: B. Ronan, The Passing of the Boer (1899); E. Ames, The Tremendous Twins, or How the Boers were Beaten (1900); C.D. Haskim, For the Queen in South Africa (1900); F. Russell, The Boer's Blunder (1900); H. Nisbet, For Right and England (1900) and The Empire Makers (1900). Among the more notable literary figures of the day who were closely associated with the events of the Anglo‑Boer conflict were Rudyard Kipling (1865–1936); Winston Churchill (1874–1965); H. Rider Haggard (1856–1925); Sir Arthur Conan Doyle (1859–1930); Sir Percy Fitzpatrick (1862–1931); Edgar Wallace (1875–1932); and John Buchan (1875–1940).
Some of the most interesting names associated with satirising the Anglo‑Boer conflict include H.H. Munro (Saki) (Alice in Pall Mall, 1900); G.K. Chesterton (The Napoleon of Nottinghill, 1904), Hilaire Belloc (Mr. Clutterbuck's Election, 1908) and Kipling: "Fables for the Staff", published in The Friend in 1900 in which he lampooned the incompetence of the British general staff. Douglas Blackburn's A Burgher Quixote (1903) is one of the most undervalued works in South African literature.
The end of the Great War saw an interesting ideological shift from imperialism to an ideological commitment to the Union of South Africa. The conflict after the World War 1 is depicted essentially as a civil war in which the members of the same family who have fought on opposite sides must now, for their common good, make peace. This is an attitude already anticipated in Francis Bancroft's (Mrs. Francis Carey Slater's) early novels The Veldt Dwellers (1912) and Thane Brandon (1913). It is also the major theme in Daphne Muir's A Virtuous Woman (1929), Norman McKoewn's The Ridge of White Waters (1934), F.A.M. Webster's African Cavalcade (1936), as well as Kathleen Sinclair's saga which includes Walking the Whirlwind (1940), The Sun Rises Slowly (1942) and The Covenant (1944).
From the 1930s there is a diminishing concern with depicting the causes and consequences of the Boer War as dogmatic assertions to be attacked or defended. Coincidentally, there has been a tendency to depict the struggle from the Boer point of view, as in W C Scully's The Harrow (1921), Daphne Muir's A Virtuous Woman (1929) and Manfred Nathan's Sarie Marais (1938).
Seen within the wider context of South African literature the racial theme that had to a large extent lain dormant in Boer War fiction during the imperial phase now begins to assert itself. Only one novelist who wrote about the war during the imperial phase, George Cossins in A Boer of To‑day (1900), admits to a black‑white problem.
Since 1948 the call for unity between Afrikaner and English has remained, but the race issue has become more and more focal. Race relations are a major preoccupation in Henry Gibb's four book saga: The Splendour and the Dust (1955), The Winds of Time (1956), Thunder at Dawn (1957) and The Tumult and the Shouting (1957), and Daphne Rooke's Mittee (1951).
Most writers since 1948, with some notable exceptions, have treated the war largely as the backdrop for historical romance: Stuart Cloete, Rags of Glory (1963); Sam Manion, The Great Hunger (1964); Wilbur Smith, The Sound of Thunder (1966); Dorothy Eden, Siege in the Sun (1967); Josephine Edgar, Time of Dreaming (1968); Daphne Pearson, The Marigold Field (1970); Jenny Seed, The Red Dust Soldiers (1972); Desiree Meyler, The Gods Are Just (1973); and Ronald Pearsall, Tides of War (1978). At the same time there is a greater interest in addressing such vexed questions as the concentration camps, the effects of martial law, the 'Handsuppers' and the results of the scorched earth policy.
The South African conflict was in many respects a civil war. Not only were there many Boers from the Cape, and later the two republics, who joined the National Scouts and fought for the British, but there were many Cape Boers who joined the commandos. This aspect of the war produced some of its finest responses in fiction, for example Herman Charles Bosman's short stories "The Traitor's Wife" and "The Affair at Ysterspruit", and Louis C. Leipoldt's novel Stormwrack (1980). The question of divided loyalties is a large issue in Boer War fiction.
Nor did the conflict end with the war. As late as 1980 a successful Australian film Breaker Morant was based on Kenneth Ross's play and Kit Denton's novel The Breaker (1973).
The Boer War has continued to be a popular subject for escapist fiction. Whereas the writers at the height of the Empire were overwhelmingly British, with the decline of imperialism the field is now dominated by South African writers.
Credit to the writer of this article.
See also
Boer Wars
Anglo-Zulu War
Military history of South Africa
References
Further reading
19th-century conflicts
20th-century conflicts
Military history of South Africa
Wars involving the states and peoples of Africa
Wars involving the United Kingdom
Military history of the Cape Colony
19th-century military history of the United Kingdom
20th-century military history of the United Kingdom
Wars involving the Orange Free State
Wars involving the South African Republic
African resistance to colonialism |
Janusz Adam Kołodziej (born 18 May 1959 in Jasło) is a Polish politician. He was elected to the Sejm on 25 September 2005, getting 3786 votes in 22 Krosno district as a candidate from the League of Polish Families list.
See also
Members of Polish Sejm 2005-2007
External links
Janusz Kołodziej - parliamentary page - includes declarations of interest, voting record, and transcripts of speeches.
1959 births
Living people
People from Jasło County
Members of the Polish Sejm 2005–2007
League of Polish Families politicians |
Jachnun or Jahnun (, , ) is a Yemenite Jewish pastry, originating from the Adeni Jews, and traditionally served on Shabbat morning. Yemenite Jewish immigrants have popularized the dish in Israel.
Preparation
Jahnun is prepared from dough which is rolled out thinly and brushed with (traditionally) Samneh, which is clarified butter spiced with 'Hilbe' (fenugreek) and aged in a smoked vessel, traditionally using smoke from the wood of a specific tree, the tree (presumably Dodonaea viscosa, sheth in Arabic), though regular clarified butter or shortening can be used. A little honey is sometimes added in addition, whereupon the dough is rolled up into rolls before cooking.
It is traditionally cooked overnight on a 'Shabbat hotplate' at a very low temperature, starting the cooking process on the Friday (usually in the morning), to be taken out and eaten on Shabbat (Saturday) morning, as it is forbidden by Jewish custom to start cooking or turn electrical implements on/off during the Shabbat. The Jahnun pieces are baked/steamed in a lidded pot (trapping moisture and preventing drying and burning).
This cooking process turns the dough a dark amber color, endowing it with a deep, sweet, caramelized taste. It is traditionally served with tomato salsa, a fresh grated tomato dip, hard boiled eggs, and zhug (a type of red or green herbal hot condiment). The dough used for Jachnun is the same as that used for malawach.
History
The idea of slow-cooking food in a way that conforms with Shabbat restrictions is ancient, originating with Cholent, or Hamin, a slow-cooked stew that originated in ancient Israel. Jachnun and its pan-fried cousin malawach probably originated as variations of Sephardic Jewish puff pastry, brought to Yemen by Jews expelled from Spain, according to Gil Marks.
See also
Cholent
Israeli cuisine
Jewish cuisine
References
Further reading
Hamitbah Hatemani (Yemenite Jewish Cooking), Sue Larkey, Modan (Hebrew)
External links
Jachnun recipe
Jews and Judaism in Aden
Israeli pastries
Yemeni cuisine
Israeli cuisine
Shabbat food
Jewish cuisine
Jewish baked goods
Middle Eastern cuisine
Mizrahi Jewish cuisine |
Cacongo (ex-Lândana, Concelho de Cacongo, Malemba, or Molembo) is a municipality in Cabinda Province, an exclave of Angola. Its principal town is Cacongo. Landana lies on the coast of the Atlantic Ocean, adjacent to Landana Bay. The municipality covers and had a population of 39,076 at the 2014 Census; the latest official estimate (as at mid 2019) is 44,974.
History
At the time of the arrival of the Portuguese in the 15th Century it was populated by the Kongo people and was the major portion of the Kingdom of Kakongo.
Geology
The coast of Lândana is known by the Paleocene fossils, including Cabindachelys landanensis, Congosaurus, and Cimomia landanensis.
See also
List of lighthouses in Angola
References
Populated places in Cabinda Province
Lighthouses in Angola |
Fletcher, Burrows and Company was a coal mining company that owned collieries and cotton mills in Atherton, Greater Manchester, England. Gibfield, Howe Bridge and Chanters collieries exploited the coal mines (seams) of the middle coal measures in the Manchester Coalfield. The Fletchers built company housing at Hindsford and a model village at Howe Bridge which included pithead baths and a social club for its workers. The company became part of Manchester Collieries in 1929. The collieries were nationalised in 1947 becoming part of the National Coal Board.
History
Fletcher Burrows
In 1776 Robert Vernon Atherton of Atherton Hall leased the Atherton coal rights to Thomas Guest from Bedford and John Fletcher of Tonge with Haulgh, Bolton forbidding them to mine under the hall. The Fletchers had mining interests in Bolton and Clifton in the Irwell Valley from Elizabethan times. Matthew Fletcher's family owned most of Clifton in 1750 including the Ladyshore and Wet Earth collieries. During the early 19th century the Fletchers worked several pits around Howe Bridge. In 1832 John Fletcher's son Ralph, who lived at the Haulgh in Bolton, died leaving his pits at Great Lever to his son, John who had built up the Lovers' Lane pit, and divided the business in Atherton into shares for his sons, John, Ralph, James and his nephew John Langshaw. The company was then known as "John Fletcher and Others". The company developed the Howe Bridge Collieries and sank three shafts in the 1840s when James Fletcher was the manager. The family acquired land and property in Atherton and between 1867 and 1878 Ralph Fletcher controlled the business. Abraham Burrows became a partner in 1872 and the company became Fletcher Burrows and Company. John Burrows was the company's agent from 1878 to 1900 when Leonard Fletcher took over. In 1916 Clement Fletcher took over and remained with the company for 45 years.
The Fletcher Burrows Company was considered to be a good employer as well as having a reputation for good management, in the 1870s it built homes at Hindsford and the model village at Howe Bridge for its workers. The houses were designed by a Dutch architect. and some properties at Howe Bridge are now part of a conservation area. A public bathhouse, shops and a social club were part of the village. The workers, some of them pit brow women who worked on the pit brow screens sorting coal, were provided with hampers or turkeys at Christmas by the company. The Fletchers also contributed to the cost of St Michael and all Angels Church at Howe Bridge in 1877.
In 1867 company employee Edward Ormerod developed and patented the "Ormerod" safety link or detaching hook, a device that has saved thousands of lives in mines.
The company was a supporter in setting up the first Mines Rescue Station in Lancashire at Howe Bridge in 1908.
In 1921 Heath Robinson visited the company's pits and was commissioned to produce its 1922 calendar.
The collieries
Among the old small pits working around Howe Bridge in the early 19th century were the, Old Endless Chain pit at Lovers Lane, the Old Engine Pit, the New Engine Pit (a gin pit), Marsh Pit, Little Pit, Sough Pit and Crabtree Pit. Colliers who worked for the Fletchers were entitled to free ale at the end of their shifts at the Wheatsheaf. In 1774 coal was sold for 2d. a basket but the price had risen to 5d. by 1805.
The largest of the early pits owned by the Fletchers which eventually became the Howe Bridge Collieries were Lovers' Lane Colliery which lasted until 1898 and the Eckersley Fold pits. The Crombouke Day-Eye, a drift mine or adit dates from the 1840s when a drift was driven into the Crombouke and the Brassey mines at a gradient of 1 in 5. The Crombouke and Eckersley Fold pits closed in 1907. The company sank the deep mines of Howe Bridge Colliery in 1845. Three shafts were sunk to the Seven Feet mine, the Victoria pit where coal was wound at 447 feet, the Puffer for pumping water at 435 feet and the Volunteer, the upcast ventilation shaft. Howe Bridge Colliery was taken over by Manchester Collieries and closed in 1959.
Gibfield Colliery's origins are in a shaft sunk to the Trencherbone mine in 1829 next to the Bolton and Leigh Railway line which opened in 1830. The colliery was served by sidings near Bag Lane Station. In 1872 the colliery was expanded when a new shaft was sunk to access the Arley mine at 1233 feet. A third shaft was sunk after 1904 accessing nine workable coal seams between the Arley Mine and the Victoria or Hell Hole mine while the original Gibfield shaft was used for ventilation. The first pit-head baths in the country were built at Gibfield in 1913. Gibfield closed in 1963 and the site was cleared.
Chanters Colliery in Hindsford was sunk in 1854 in an area where coal had been mined for centuries from small pits. One of these pits, the Gold Pit which closed before 1800 was reputed to have had an engine. The colliery was modernised and developed in 1891 when two shafts were sunk first to the Trencherbone Mine at 1121 feet and deepened to the Arley Mine at 1832 feet in 1896. These shafts accessed 12 coal seams. Coal screens and a washery were built, and steel headgear and a new winding engine installed by 1904. The colliery was continually developed and modernised and lasted until 1966.
Merger
In 1927 Robert Burrows proposed a merger of several local colliery companies including the Atherton Collieries operating west of Manchester. As a result, Manchester Collieries was formed in 1929. In turn when the coal industry was nationalised in 1947 Manchester Collieries became part of the National Coal Board's Western Division, No1 (Manchester) Area. A reorganisation in 1952 moved the Atherton Collieries into No2 (Wigan) Area.
Colliery railways and locomotives
After 1830 Lovers Lane colliery was connected to the Bolton and Leigh Railway at Fletchers sidings north of Atherleigh. The Fletchers built a tramroad to a landsale yard at Stock Platt Bridge in Leigh where their coal was sold. This tramroad constructed to standard gauge was converted to narrow gauge hauled by horses before 1850. The Fletchers decided to extend this short branch to the Bridgewater Canal in 1857. A basin at Bedford was built and the railway constructed from Stock Platt through Bedford via a tunnel, 889 feet long, built by the cut-and-cover method. A new line from Howe Bridge to the east of the turnpike was built to the tunnel by May 1861 and the old tramway was removed. The Fletchers bought two locomotives for use on this line, Lilford and Ellesmere, from Hawthorn's in Leith. They had reduced chimneys as the tunnel height was restricted. The tunnel operated for 70 years although in the later years its use declined and the track was lifted in 1952. The workshops at Gibfield Colliery built a 0-4-0 saddle tank in either 1888 or 1893 which probably worked to Bedford basin. It had no cab and a reduced chimney and was named Electric.
Chanters was connected to the Manchester and Wigan Railway line built by the London and North Western Railway (LNWR), in 1864 between Tyldesley and Howe Bridge Station by a short branch provided by the LNWR. Fletcher Burrows bought another Hawthorn's locomotive Atherton and in 1878, a six coupled saddle tank locomotive, Collier, from Manning Wardle in Leeds. Vulcan, a 0-6-0 saddle tank, was bought from the Vulcan Foundry in 1892 A replacement for Lilford with the same name was bought from the Hunslet Engine Company in 1897 and in 1909 the company bought its largest locomotive, another 0-6-0 saddle tank, Atlas from Pecketts in Bristol.
Two saddle tank locomotives, Carbon a 0-4-0 in 1920, and in 1923 Chowbent a 0-6-0 were bought from Andrew Barclay Sons & Co. in Kilmarnock. In 1927 0-6-0 saddle tank Colonel was bought from Hunslets.
See also
List of mining disasters in Lancashire
References
Notes
Citations
Bibliography
External links
The Pits, Lancashire Online Parish Clerks
Conservation Area
Mining in Lancashire
Underground mines in England
Industrial railways in England
Defunct mining companies of the United Kingdom |
Amapola is Spanish for "poppy", meaning the genus Papaver
Amapola may also refer to:
"Amapola" (song), a 1920 song written by Joseph Lacalle
Amapola (film), a 2014 Argentine-American romantic comedy fantasy film
Amapola Flyg, a regional airline based in Stockholm, Sweden
Maria Amapola Cabase (born 1948), Filipino singer and actress, stage name Amapola
La Amapola (born 1976), ring name of Guadalupe Ramona Olvera, Mexican professional wrestler
Spanish words and phrases |
Sharon van Essen (born 3 March 1981) is a former Dutch cyclist from Utrecht, the Netherlands. She turned professional in 2000 with the Farm Frites-Hartol team.
Palmarès
2001
1st Sparkassen Giro Bochum
2005
2nd Dutch National Road Race Championships
2006 (Vrienden van het Platteland)
31st World University Cycling Championship, road race
2nd Dutch National Road Race Championships
References
1981 births
Living people
Dutch female cyclists
Sportspeople from Utrecht (city)
Cyclists from Utrecht (province) |
Humberto Jorge Rosa (April 8, 1932 – September 8, 2017) was an Italian Argentine professional football player and coach. He also held Italian citizenship.
External links
1932 births
2017 deaths
Argentine men's footballers
Serie A players
Rosario Central footballers
UC Sampdoria players
Calcio Padova players
Juventus FC players
SSC Napoli players
Argentine football managers
Calcio Padova managers
Udinese Calcio managers
Aurora Pro Patria 1919 managers
Venezia FC managers
Men's association football midfielders
Footballers from Buenos Aires |
Məmmədrzaküçə (also, Mamedrzakyudzha and Mamedi-Rzakyudzha) is a village and municipality in the Masally Rayon of Azerbaijan. It has a population of 534.
References
Populated places in Masally District |
Ian David Sinclair, (December 27, 1913 – April 7, 2006) was a Canadian lawyer, businessman, and senator.
He was born in Winnipeg, Manitoba, and received a Bachelor of Arts degree in economics in 1937 from the University of Manitoba and a Bachelor of Law degree from the Manitoba Law School in 1941.
Sinclair was called to Bar of Manitoba in 1941. From 1942 to 1943, he was a lecturer in torts at the University of Manitoba.
In 1942, he started at Canadian Pacific Ltd. in the law department as an assistant solicitor and eventually rose to become president and CEO in 1969. He was also Clchairman and CEO from 1972 to 1981. While president, Sinclair assisted Father David Bauer and the Canada men's national ice hockey team by arranging free and discounted transportation for the team.
In 1983, he was summoned to the Senate of Canada and represented the senatorial division of Halton, Ontario. A Liberal, he retired on September 27, 1988.
In 1979, he was made an Officer of the Order of Canada "for his contribution to the commercial development of Canada." He was also inducted into the Canadian Business Hall of Fame.
He and his wife, Ruth, had four children.
In the late 1970s, he was the subject of the television documentary "Best Job in Canada" in which he disclosed that his weekly salary was $10,700. One of his more colourful quotes in the program was "I don't have heart attacks, I give them."
References
External links
1913 births
2006 deaths
Businesspeople from Winnipeg
Canadian Pacific Railway executives
Canadian senators from Ontario
Liberal Party of Canada senators
Officers of the Order of Canada
Politicians from Winnipeg |
Wally Kincaid (c. 1926 – November 16, 2015) was a college baseball coach. He coached the baseball team at Cerritos College from 1958 through 1980. He was inducted in the National College Baseball Hall of Fame in 2010.
Biography
Kincaid attended Downey High School and Whittier College. He was named head coach of the baseball program at Cerritos, a community college that competes in the South Coast Conference of the California Community College Athletic Association, upon its inception in 1958. Kincaid led the Cerritos baseball team to a 678–163 win–loss record, 15 conference championships, and six state titles. He retired as the winningest coach in junior college history. He trained successful coaches, including George Horton, Dave Serrano, Don Sneddon, Dave Snow, Mike Weathers, Ken Gaylord, and Bob Apodaca.
Cerritos renamed their baseball field after Kincaid upon his retirement in 1980. Baseball America, a baseball magazine, named Kincaid the National Community College Baseball Coach of the Century. A tournament, called the Wally Kincaid 4 July Wood Bat Series, began in 2008. He was inducted in the National College Baseball Hall of Fame in 2010. He died on November 16, 2015 at the age of 89.
References
1920s births
2015 deaths
Cerritos Falcons baseball coaches
National College Baseball Hall of Fame inductees
High school baseball coaches in the United States
Long Beach State Dirtbags baseball coaches
Whittier College alumni |
Jacques Faubert (born 30 May 1952) is a Canadian composer, conductor, and music educator, known for founding the Mont-Royal Symphony Orchestra.
Early life and education
Faubert earned premiers prix in harmony, counterpoint, and fugue from the Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Montréal (CMQM) where he studied with Jean-Louis Martinet, Gaston Arel, and Pierre Mollet from 1970 to 1976. He then went to France to study at the Paris Conservatory with Marcel Bitsch and Jacques Castérède from 1976 to 1979, earning premier prizes in fugue and music analysis.
Career
Faubert served as a professor of music at the Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Trois-Rivières.
In 1985 his choral work "Messe de la Saint-Jean-Baptiste", commissioned by the Archdiocese of Montreal, was premiered by a 150 voice choir at St-Jean-Baptiste Church. That year joined the music faculty of the CMQM, where he taught harmony until 2005. He also composed two psalms for the vocal group Arioso.
IN 1986 Faubert conducted the newly formed choir of the Orchestre Métropolitain.
In 1987 Faubert founded the Mont-Royal Symphony Orchestra and its choir. He directed both until 1997, after which he shared some of these responsibilities with Michel Brousseau.
References
External links
Jacques Faubert at Worldcat Identities.
1952 births
Canadian composers
Canadian male composers
Male conductors (music)
Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Montréal alumni
Academic staff of the Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Montréal
Academic staff of the Conservatoire de musique du Québec à Trois-Rivières
Conservatoire de Paris alumni
Canadian music educators
Living people
People from Salaberry-de-Valleyfield
21st-century Canadian conductors (music)
21st-century Canadian male musicians |
The VT520 is an ANSI standard computer terminal introduced by Digital Equipment Corporation (DEC) in 1993 and 1994. The VT520 is a multi-session monochrome text-only terminal with a built-in 14" monitor. The VT510 was a single-session version, while the VT525 added color support and used a separate external monitor.
The VT500s replaced all existing models of DEC's VT line, which at that time consisted of just the VT420 text and VT340 graphics terminals. It was introduced in an era when the market was being flooded by low-cost IBM PC clones which could perform the same functions using a terminal emulator while also running other software. DEC introduced the VT500s only a short time before selling off their entire terminal division in August 1995. This brought the VT series to a close, after a total of about six million terminals had been sold.
The VT520 was available from Boundless Technologies until the company went defunct in 2003.
Description
By the mid-1990s the price of low-end PCs was rapidly falling to under $1000. When equipped with a terminal emulator, these machines could perform all the functions of a DEC terminal, as well as running software locally. The terminal market began to crash, but remained important to DEC's core minicomputer business. DEC responded by introducing the VT500 series as simplified and lower-cost options to the existing VT420 and VT340. The new 500s were text-only but they added an RS-232C serial port and a Centronics port as well as a PS/2 keyboard connector which made them easier to integrate into a mixed computing environment. They also had two DEC proprietary MMJ serial connectors and a DEC proprietary keyboard port like their predecessors.
The VT510 was introduced in 1993 as an all-in-one unit with a built-in 14" display. The VT520 was similar but supported up to 4 sessions using a system known as TD/SMP. The later VT525 color terminal dispensed with the integrated monitor as well, packaging the system into a pizza box case with an SVGA port for connection to an external user-supplied monitor.
Like all models of the VT series, the VT500's primary purpose is to act as an ANSI standard terminal. The VT510 supported only a single session, while the 520 and 525 supported up to four sessions, up from two in earlier VTs. The user can flip between the sessions using control sequences on the keyboard (typically ), or display multiple sessions at the same time by splitting the screen horizontally or vertically. All models have multiple character sets in ROM, supporting DEC, international and PC characters. They can also replace any of these by downloading custom characters using sixels, and perform single-character swaps using the National Replacement Character Set, swapping with for use with UK keyboards for instance.
The speed of the serial ports was increased to 115.2 kbps, up from 38.4 kbps on the VT300s. Any one of the serial ports could support two sessions using TD/SMP. Like earlier models of the VT line, the 500s could be put into modes emulating the VT100 and VT52, but added a wide variety of other emulations for Wyse, ADDS TeleVideo and other terminals. The 500s also directly supported ANSI commands for color, like the Wyse, in addition to the custom escape sequences used for color support on previous VT models.
Another new feature was the inclusion of a set of desk accessories running on the terminal's CPU. These included a calculator, alarm clock, calendar, and a character set viewer.
Terminal emulator specifications may refer to VT500 instead of VT510, VT520 and VT525 in the statements about their compatibility.
Notes
References
External links
Boundless Technologies support page
DEC computer terminals
Character-oriented terminal
Computer-related introductions in 1994 |
The ENMAX Centre (formerly Canada Games Sportsplex) is a 5,479-seat multi-purpose arena, in Lethbridge, Alberta, Canada.
It features a full-size ice rink, and a walking track. An outdoor sports field, with capacity for 2,000 people, is no longer adjacent to the center, it was made into a parking lot. In 1997, the Servus Sports Centre (formerly the Lethbridge Soccer Centre) was built directly south.
It was built to host the 1975 Canada Games and is home to the Lethbridge Hurricanes, of the WHL.
The facility has hosted concerts, three-ring circuses, multicultural events, national curling championships, basketball events, banquets and skating events. Comedian Jerry Seinfeld performed to a sold-out crowd in 2011. Elton John performed at the ENMAX centre in April 2012.
Building enhancements
Renovations to upgrade the facility began in May 2009 and were completed in spring 2012. Among the improvements are an expansion of , the addition of 18 luxury suites, improved concessions and washrooms, a new press box, and a restaurant/lounge overlooking the ice. The total budget for the building enhancement was $33.722 million and was to be shared by the City of Lethbridge, a Municipal Sustainability Initiative Grant, and a Major Community Facilities Grant.
A $1,216,500 video scoreboard was installed and was funded by the City of Lethbridge, the Lethbridge Hurricanes, and savings to the original project budget.
References
External links
ENMAX Centre
Sports venues in Lethbridge
Indoor ice hockey venues in Canada
Western Hockey League arenas
Music venues in Alberta
1974 establishments in Alberta
Sports venues completed in 1974
Basketball venues in Canada |
```c
/*
*
*/
#include <zephyr/drivers/counter.h>
#include <zephyr/spinlock.h>
#include <zephyr/irq.h>
#include <zephyr/arch/cpu.h>
#include <string.h>
#define DT_DRV_COMPAT andestech_atcpit100
/* register definitions */
#define REG_IDR 0x00 /* ID and Revision Reg. */
#define REG_CFG 0x10 /* Configuration Reg. */
#define REG_INTE 0x14 /* Interrupt Enable Reg. */
#define REG_ISTA 0x18 /* Interrupt Status Reg. */
#define REG_CHEN 0x1C /* Channel Enable Reg. */
#define REG_CTRL0 0x20 /* Channel 0 Control Reg. */
#define REG_RELD0 0x24 /* Channel 0 Reload Reg. */
#define REG_CNTR0 0x28 /* Channel 0 Counter Reg. */
#define REG_CTRL1 0x30 /* Channel 1 Control Reg. */
#define REG_RELD1 0x34 /* Channel 1 Reload Reg. */
#define REG_CNTR1 0x38 /* Channel 1 Counter Reg. */
#define REG_CTRL2 0x40 /* Channel 2 Control Reg. */
#define REG_RELD2 0x44 /* Channel 2 Reload Reg. */
#define REG_CNTR2 0x48 /* Channel 2 Counter Reg. */
#define REG_CTRL3 0x50 /* Channel 3 Control Reg. */
#define REG_RELD3 0x54 /* Channel 3 Reload Reg. */
#define REG_CNTR3 0x58 /* Channel 3 Counter Reg. */
#define PIT_BASE (((const struct atcpit100_config *)(dev)->config)->base)
#define PIT_INTE(dev) (PIT_BASE + REG_INTE)
#define PIT_ISTA(dev) (PIT_BASE + REG_ISTA)
#define PIT_CHEN(dev) (PIT_BASE + REG_CHEN)
#define PIT_CH_CTRL(dev, ch) (PIT_BASE + REG_CTRL0 + (ch << 4))
#define PIT_CH_RELD(dev, ch) (PIT_BASE + REG_RELD0 + (ch << 4))
#define PIT_CH_CNTR(dev, ch) (PIT_BASE + REG_CNTR0 + (ch << 4))
#define CTRL_CH_SRC_PCLK BIT(3)
#define CTRL_CH_MODE_32BIT BIT(0)
#define CHANNEL_NUM (4)
#define CH_NUM_PER_COUNTER (CHANNEL_NUM - 1)
#define TIMER0_CHANNEL(ch) BIT(((ch) * CHANNEL_NUM))
typedef void (*atcpit100_cfg_func_t)(void);
struct atcpit100_config {
struct counter_config_info info;
uint32_t base;
uint32_t divider;
uint32_t irq_num;
atcpit100_cfg_func_t cfg_func;
};
struct counter_atcpit100_ch_data {
counter_alarm_callback_t alarm_callback;
void *alarm_user_data;
};
struct atcpit100_data {
counter_top_callback_t top_callback;
void *top_user_data;
uint32_t guard_period;
struct k_spinlock lock;
struct counter_atcpit100_ch_data ch_data[CH_NUM_PER_COUNTER];
};
static inline uint32_t get_current_tick(const struct device *dev, uint32_t ch)
{
const struct atcpit100_config *config = dev->config;
uint32_t top, now_cnt;
/* Preload cycles is reload register + 1 */
top = sys_read32(PIT_CH_RELD(dev, ch)) + 1;
now_cnt = top - sys_read32(PIT_CH_CNTR(dev, ch));
return (now_cnt / config->divider);
}
static void atcpit100_irq_handler(void *arg)
{
struct device *dev = (struct device *)arg;
struct atcpit100_data *data = dev->data;
counter_alarm_callback_t cb;
uint32_t int_status, int_enable, ch_enable, cur_ticks;
uint8_t i;
ch_enable = sys_read32(PIT_CHEN(dev));
int_enable = sys_read32(PIT_INTE(dev));
int_status = sys_read32(PIT_ISTA(dev));
if (int_status & TIMER0_CHANNEL(3)) {
if (data->top_callback) {
data->top_callback(dev, data->top_user_data);
}
}
for (i = 0; i < CH_NUM_PER_COUNTER; i++) {
if (int_status & TIMER0_CHANNEL(i)) {
int_enable &= ~TIMER0_CHANNEL(i);
ch_enable &= ~TIMER0_CHANNEL(i);
}
}
/* Disable channel and interrupt */
sys_write32(int_enable, PIT_INTE(dev));
sys_write32(ch_enable, PIT_CHEN(dev));
/* Clear interrupt status */
sys_write32(int_status, PIT_ISTA(dev));
for (i = 0; i < CH_NUM_PER_COUNTER; i++) {
if (int_status & TIMER0_CHANNEL(i)) {
cur_ticks = get_current_tick(dev, 3);
cb = data->ch_data[i].alarm_callback;
data->ch_data[i].alarm_callback = NULL;
if (cb != NULL) {
cb(dev, i, cur_ticks, data->ch_data[i].alarm_user_data);
}
}
}
}
static int counter_atcpit100_init(const struct device *dev)
{
const struct atcpit100_config *config = dev->config;
uint32_t reg;
/* Disable all channels */
sys_write32(0, PIT_CHEN(dev));
/* Channel 0 ~ 3, 32 bits timer, PCLK source */
reg = CTRL_CH_MODE_32BIT | CTRL_CH_SRC_PCLK;
sys_write32(reg, PIT_CH_CTRL(dev, 0));
sys_write32(reg, PIT_CH_CTRL(dev, 1));
sys_write32(reg, PIT_CH_CTRL(dev, 2));
sys_write32(reg, PIT_CH_CTRL(dev, 3));
/* Disable all interrupt and clear all pending interrupt */
sys_write32(0, PIT_INTE(dev));
sys_write32(UINT32_MAX, PIT_ISTA(dev));
/* Select channel 3 as default counter and set max top value */
reg = config->info.max_top_value * config->divider;
/* Set cycle - 1 to reload register */
sys_write32((reg - 1), PIT_CH_RELD(dev, 3));
config->cfg_func();
irq_enable(config->irq_num);
return 0;
}
static int atcpit100_start(const struct device *dev)
{
struct atcpit100_data *data = dev->data;
k_spinlock_key_t key;
uint32_t reg;
key = k_spin_lock(&data->lock);
/* Enable channel */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_CHEN(dev));
reg |= TIMER0_CHANNEL(3);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_CHEN(dev));
k_spin_unlock(&data->lock, key);
return 0;
}
static int atcpit100_stop(const struct device *dev)
{
struct atcpit100_data *data = dev->data;
k_spinlock_key_t key;
uint32_t reg;
key = k_spin_lock(&data->lock);
/* Disable channel interrupt */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_INTE(dev));
reg &= ~TIMER0_CHANNEL(3);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_INTE(dev));
/* Disable channel */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_CHEN(dev));
reg &= ~TIMER0_CHANNEL(3);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_CHEN(dev));
/* Clear interrupt status */
sys_write32(TIMER0_CHANNEL(3), PIT_ISTA(dev));
k_spin_unlock(&data->lock, key);
return 0;
}
static int atcpit100_get_value(const struct device *dev, uint32_t *ticks)
{
struct atcpit100_data *data = dev->data;
k_spinlock_key_t key;
key = k_spin_lock(&data->lock);
*ticks = get_current_tick(dev, 3);
k_spin_unlock(&data->lock, key);
return 0;
}
static int atcpit100_set_alarm(const struct device *dev, uint8_t chan_id,
const struct counter_alarm_cfg *alarm_cfg)
{
const struct atcpit100_config *config = dev->config;
struct atcpit100_data *data = dev->data;
uint32_t top, now_cnt, remain_cnt, alarm_cnt, flags, reg;
k_spinlock_key_t key;
int err = 0;
if (chan_id >= CH_NUM_PER_COUNTER) {
return -ENOTSUP;
}
if (!alarm_cfg->callback) {
return -EINVAL;
}
if (data->ch_data[chan_id].alarm_callback) {
return -EBUSY;
}
key = k_spin_lock(&data->lock);
/* Preload cycles is reload register + 1 */
top = sys_read32(PIT_CH_RELD(dev, 3)) + 1;
remain_cnt = sys_read32(PIT_CH_CNTR(dev, 3));
alarm_cnt = alarm_cfg->ticks * config->divider;
if (alarm_cnt > top) {
err = -EINVAL;
goto out;
}
flags = alarm_cfg->flags;
data->ch_data[chan_id].alarm_callback = alarm_cfg->callback;
data->ch_data[chan_id].alarm_user_data = alarm_cfg->user_data;
if (flags & COUNTER_ALARM_CFG_ABSOLUTE) {
uint32_t irq_on_late, max_rel_val;
now_cnt = top - remain_cnt;
max_rel_val = top - (data->guard_period * config->divider);
irq_on_late = flags & COUNTER_ALARM_CFG_EXPIRE_WHEN_LATE;
if (now_cnt < alarm_cnt) {
/* Absolute alarm is in this round counting */
reg = alarm_cnt - now_cnt;
irq_on_late = 0;
} else {
/* Absolute alarm is in the next round counting */
reg = alarm_cnt + remain_cnt;
}
if (reg > max_rel_val) {
/* Absolute alarm is in the guard period */
err = -ETIME;
if (!irq_on_late) {
data->ch_data[chan_id].alarm_callback = NULL;
goto out;
}
}
if (irq_on_late) {
/* Trigger interrupt immediately */
reg = 1;
}
} else {
/* Round up decreasing counter to tick boundary */
now_cnt = remain_cnt + config->divider - 1;
now_cnt = (now_cnt / config->divider) * config->divider;
/* Adjusting relative alarm counter to tick boundary */
reg = alarm_cnt - (now_cnt - remain_cnt);
}
/* Set cycle - 1 to reload register */
sys_write32((reg - 1), PIT_CH_RELD(dev, chan_id));
/* Enable channel interrupt */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_INTE(dev));
reg |= TIMER0_CHANNEL(chan_id);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_INTE(dev));
/* Enable channel */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_CHEN(dev));
reg |= TIMER0_CHANNEL(chan_id);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_CHEN(dev));
out:
k_spin_unlock(&data->lock, key);
return err;
}
static int atcpit100_cancel_alarm(const struct device *dev, uint8_t chan_id)
{
struct atcpit100_data *data = dev->data;
k_spinlock_key_t key;
uint32_t reg;
if (chan_id >= CH_NUM_PER_COUNTER) {
return -ENOTSUP;
}
key = k_spin_lock(&data->lock);
/* Disable channel interrupt */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_INTE(dev));
reg &= ~TIMER0_CHANNEL(chan_id);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_INTE(dev));
/* Disable channel */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_CHEN(dev));
reg &= ~TIMER0_CHANNEL(chan_id);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_CHEN(dev));
/* Clear interrupt status */
sys_write32(TIMER0_CHANNEL(chan_id), PIT_ISTA(dev));
data->ch_data[chan_id].alarm_callback = NULL;
k_spin_unlock(&data->lock, key);
return 0;
}
static int atcpit100_set_top_value(const struct device *dev,
const struct counter_top_cfg *cfg)
{
const struct atcpit100_config *config = dev->config;
struct atcpit100_data *data = dev->data;
uint32_t ticks, reg, reset_counter = 1;
k_spinlock_key_t key;
int err = 0;
uint8_t i;
for (i = 0; i < counter_get_num_of_channels(dev); i++) {
if (data->ch_data[i].alarm_callback) {
return -EBUSY;
}
}
if (cfg->ticks > config->info.max_top_value) {
return -ENOTSUP;
}
key = k_spin_lock(&data->lock);
if (cfg->callback) {
/* Disable channel interrupt */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_INTE(dev));
reg &= ~TIMER0_CHANNEL(3);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_INTE(dev));
data->top_callback = cfg->callback;
data->top_user_data = cfg->user_data;
/* Enable channel interrupt */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_INTE(dev));
reg |= TIMER0_CHANNEL(3);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_INTE(dev));
}
if (cfg->flags & COUNTER_TOP_CFG_DONT_RESET) {
/* Don't reset counter */
reset_counter = 0;
ticks = get_current_tick(dev, 3);
if (ticks >= cfg->ticks) {
err = -ETIME;
if (cfg->flags & COUNTER_TOP_CFG_RESET_WHEN_LATE) {
/* Reset counter if current is late */
reset_counter = 1;
}
}
}
/* Set cycle - 1 to reload register */
reg = cfg->ticks * config->divider;
sys_write32((reg - 1), PIT_CH_RELD(dev, 3));
if (reset_counter) {
/* Disable channel */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_CHEN(dev));
reg &= ~TIMER0_CHANNEL(3);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_CHEN(dev));
/* Clear interrupt status */
sys_write32(TIMER0_CHANNEL(3), PIT_ISTA(dev));
/* Enable channel interrupt */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_INTE(dev));
reg |= TIMER0_CHANNEL(3);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_INTE(dev));
/* Enable channel */
reg = sys_read32(PIT_CHEN(dev));
reg |= TIMER0_CHANNEL(3);
sys_write32(reg, PIT_CHEN(dev));
}
k_spin_unlock(&data->lock, key);
return err;
}
static uint32_t atcpit100_get_pending_int(const struct device *dev)
{
uint32_t reg = sys_read32(PIT_ISTA(dev));
reg &= (TIMER0_CHANNEL(0) | TIMER0_CHANNEL(1) |
TIMER0_CHANNEL(2) | TIMER0_CHANNEL(3));
return !(!reg);
}
static uint32_t atcpit100_get_top_value(const struct device *dev)
{
const struct atcpit100_config *config = dev->config;
uint32_t top = sys_read32(PIT_CH_RELD(dev, 3)) + 1;
return (top / config->divider);
}
static uint32_t atcpit100_get_guard_period(const struct device *dev,
uint32_t flags)
{
struct atcpit100_data *data = dev->data;
return data->guard_period;
}
static int atcpit100_set_guard_period(const struct device *dev,
uint32_t ticks, uint32_t flags)
{
const struct atcpit100_config *config = dev->config;
struct atcpit100_data *data = dev->data;
uint32_t top = sys_read32(PIT_CH_RELD(dev, 3)) + 1;
if ((ticks * config->divider) > top) {
return -EINVAL;
}
data->guard_period = ticks;
return 0;
}
static const struct counter_driver_api atcpit100_driver_api = {
.start = atcpit100_start,
.stop = atcpit100_stop,
.get_value = atcpit100_get_value,
.set_alarm = atcpit100_set_alarm,
.cancel_alarm = atcpit100_cancel_alarm,
.set_top_value = atcpit100_set_top_value,
.get_pending_int = atcpit100_get_pending_int,
.get_top_value = atcpit100_get_top_value,
.get_guard_period = atcpit100_get_guard_period,
.set_guard_period = atcpit100_set_guard_period,
};
#define COUNTER_ATCPIT100_INIT(n) \
static void counter_atcpit100_cfg_##n(void); \
static struct atcpit100_data atcpit100_data_##n; \
\
static const struct atcpit100_config atcpit100_config_##n = { \
.info = { \
.max_top_value = \
(UINT32_MAX/DT_INST_PROP(n, prescaler)),\
.freq = (DT_INST_PROP(n, clock_frequency) / \
DT_INST_PROP(n, prescaler)), \
.flags = COUNTER_CONFIG_INFO_COUNT_UP, \
.channels = CH_NUM_PER_COUNTER, \
}, \
.base = DT_INST_REG_ADDR(n), \
.divider = DT_INST_PROP(n, prescaler), \
.irq_num = DT_INST_IRQN(n), \
.cfg_func = counter_atcpit100_cfg_##n, \
}; \
\
DEVICE_DT_INST_DEFINE(n, \
counter_atcpit100_init, \
NULL, \
&atcpit100_data_##n, \
&atcpit100_config_##n, \
PRE_KERNEL_1, \
CONFIG_KERNEL_INIT_PRIORITY_DEFAULT, \
&atcpit100_driver_api); \
\
static void counter_atcpit100_cfg_##n(void) \
{ \
IRQ_CONNECT(DT_INST_IRQN(n), \
DT_INST_IRQ(n, priority), \
atcpit100_irq_handler, \
DEVICE_DT_INST_GET(n), \
0); \
}
DT_INST_FOREACH_STATUS_OKAY(COUNTER_ATCPIT100_INIT)
``` |
The Manpower Citizens' Association was a trade union and political party in British Guiana.
History
The MPCA was first registered in 1937, and was initially led by Ayube Mohamed Edun. The union represented sugar workers, many of whom were Indo-Guyanese. After the Leonora sugar workers' strike in 1939, membership began to increase significantly, passing the 20,000 mark in 1943, making it the largest union in the country. In March 1939 the Sugar Producers' Association (SPA), the organisation for sugar estate owners, officially recognised the union. In 1945 Cheddi Jagan became its treasurer, but he left a year later after several clashes with the moderate leadership over policy, including the union's pro-employer attitude.
The union contested the 1947 elections, nominating seven candidates for the 14 elected seats in the Legislative Council, campaigning for the nationalisation of industry and the introduction of land settlement schemes. However, it won only one seat.
In April 1948 the Guiana Industrial Workers Union (GIWU) was formed, with the intention of replacing the MPCA as the major union for field and factory workers; sugar workers had become disillusioned with the MPCA, which offered little resistance to the SPA. During a strike in the same month, the MPCA urged strikers to return to work, claiming their demands would be discussed with the SPA. However, strikers ignored the call, despite the SPA saying they would only deal with the MPCA as the only recognised union. By the end of 1948, the GIWU had the support of the majority of sugar workers.
In the 1953 elections the union supported the National Democratic Party. In 1955 Rupert Tello became the union's president, replacing Lionel Luckhoo. From 1960, the union's leaders supported the new United Force party led by Peter d'Aguiar.
During the early 1960s the unrecognised Guiana Agricultural Workers Union demanded that a poll take place amongst sugar workers to decide whether they or the MPCA should represent their interests. The MPCA and the SPA opposed a poll. Following a strike in 1964, Prime Minister Jagan asked Governor Ralph Grey to undertake a poll. Although Grey refused, he later formed a commission of enquiry to determine which union should be the workers' representative. The MPCA immediately filed an injunction at the Supreme Court to block the enquiry. The enquiry was later abandoned with Jagan lost power.
References
Indian diaspora in Guyana
Trade unions in Guyana
1937 establishments in British Guiana
Trade unions established in 1937
Defunct political parties in Guyana |
Bayırlı (literally "place with hill(s)") is a Turkish place name and may refer to the following places in Turkey:
Bayırlı, Hasankeyf, a village in Hasankeyf district, Batman Province
Bayırlı, Lice
Bayırlı, Samsat, a village in Samsat district, Adıyaman Province
Bayırlı, Sındırgı, a village
Bayırlı, Suluova, a village in Suluova district, Amasya Province
See also
Bayır (disambiguation), literally "hill"
Bayırköy (disambiguation), literally "hill village" |
La Presa (Spanish for "The Dam") is a census-designated place (CDP) in the East County region of San Diego County, California, United States. The population was 34,169 at the 2010 census, up from 32,721 at the 2000 census.
La Presa belonged to the neighboring Spring Valley CDP from its inception in 1970 through 1990. It is still considered part of Spring Valley in informal usage and addresses in the CDP continue to use the name Spring Valley. It was named after the Sweetwater Dam.
La Presa is served by a 91977 ZIP code, which is considered Spring Valley according to the USPS.
Geography
La Presa is located at (32.712057, -117.003862). According to the United States Census Bureau, the CDP has a total area of . of it is land and of it (8.67%) is water.
Demographics
2010
At the 2010 census La Presa had a population of 34,169. The population density was . The racial makeup of La Presa was 9,045 (24.0%) White, 4,428 (13.0%) African American, 282 (0.8%) Native American, 3,958 (10.5%) Asian, 410 (1.2%) Pacific Islander, 8,238 (24.1%) from other races, and 2,535 (7.4%) from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 19,279 persons (51.1%).
The census reported that 33,924 people (99.3% of the population) lived in households, 154 (0.5%) lived in non-institutionalized group quarters, and 91 (0.3%) were institutionalized.
There were 10,178 households, 4,708 (46.3%) had children under the age of 18 living in them, 5,270 (51.8%) were opposite-sex married couples living together, 1,885 (18.5%) had a female householder with no husband present, 784 (7.7%) had a male householder with no wife present. There were 640 (6.3%) unmarried opposite-sex partnerships, and 85 (0.8%) same-sex married couples or partnerships. 1,625 households (16.0%) were one person and 705 (6.9%) had someone living alone who was 65 or older. The average household size was 3.33. There were 7,939 families (78.0% of households); the average family size was 3.69.
The age distribution was 9,584 people (28.0%) under the age of 18, 3,692 people (10.8%) aged 18 to 24, 9,287 people (27.2%) aged 25 to 44, 8,015 people (23.5%) aged 45 to 64, and 3,591 people (10.5%) who were 65 or older. The median age was 32.7 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.9 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 92.1 males.
There were 10,711 housing units at an average density of 1,780.0 per square mile, of the occupied units 6,338 (62.3%) were owner-occupied and 3,840 (37.7%) were rented. The homeowner vacancy rate was 2.2%; the rental vacancy rate was 5.7%. 20,565 people (60.2% of the population) lived in owner-occupied housing units and 13,359 people (39.1%) lived in rental housing units.
2000
At the 2000 census there were 32,721 people, 10,008 households, and 7,986 families in the CDP. The population density was . There were 10,236 housing units at an average density of . The racial makeup of the CDP was 25.6% White, 14.5% African American, 0.9% Native American, 9.8% Asian, 1.1% Pacific Islander, 16.4% from other races, and 7.1% from two or more races. Hispanic or Latino of any race were 51.1%.
Of the 10,008 households 43.5% had children under the age of 18 living with them, 57.6% were married couples living together, 16.5% had a female householder with no husband present, and 20.2% were non-families. 14.6% of households were one person and 5.8% were one person aged 65 or older. The average household size was 3.25 and the average family size was 3.55.
The age distribution was 31.3% under the age of 18, 9.3% from 18 to 24, 30.5% from 25 to 44, 19.6% from 45 to 64, and 9.3% 65 or older. The median age was 32 years. For every 100 females, there were 95.2 males. For every 100 females age 18 and over, there were 91.3 males.
The median household income was $45,939 and the median family income was $47,486. Males had a median income of $34,412 versus $26,210 for females. The per capita income for the CDP was $15,998. About 9.4% of families and 10.7% of the population were below the poverty line, including 15.5% of those under age 18 and 6.4% of those age 65 or over.
Government
In the California State Legislature, La Presa is in , and in .
In the United States House of Representatives, La Presa is in .
References
External links
Information on La Presa from city-data.com
Census-designated places in San Diego County, California
East County (San Diego County)
Census-designated places in California |
Węgorzewo (until 1946 ; , ) is a tourist town on the Angrapa River in northeastern Poland, within the historical region of Masuria. It is the seat of Węgorzewo County in the Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship and is located not far from the border with Russia's Kaliningrad Oblast. Lake Mamry is close to the town.
Etymology
The town's names in different languages are derived from local names for European eels, which used to live in the area in great numbers. The German name Angerburg () is derived from the Old Prussian word for eel, Anger, which the German Teutonic Knights appropriated after conquering the Old Prussians. The Polish name Węgorzewo (and the older Węgobork) is derived from Węgorz, while the local Lithuanian names Ungura and Unguris comes from Ungurys. A Lithuanian variation is Angerburgas.
History
Beginnings
The town was first mentioned in a 1335 chronicle as Angirburg, or "eel castle", a settlement of the Teutonic Knights with a block house, a palisade, and a watchtower. A 1341 document reported that the Teutonic Order had bestowed land on the river Angerapp (Angrapa) upon twelve Old Prussians for their loyal service. The Grand Duke of Lithuania, Kęstutis, destroyed the castle in 1365, although it was rebuilt in 1398. The completion of the stone castle Angerburg allowed the Teutonic Knights to increase development of the surrounding countryside.
Polish suzerainty
In 1454, the region was incorporated by King Casimir IV Jagiellon to the Kingdom of Poland upon the request of the anti-Teutonic Prussian Confederation. After the subsequent Thirteen Years' War, since 1466, it formed part of Poland as a fief. The land around the castle began to be settled by the end of the 15th century. As it was primarily farmland, the Lake Mamry was blocked up to allow the construction of a watermill. Ca. 1510 a locality known as Neudorf ("new village") or Gerothwol had developed near the Angerburg. After the foundation of the Duchy of Prussia as a fief of the Kingdom of Poland in 1525, Angerburg/Węgobork became the seat of a district head. It was granted town rights in 1571. The Polish inhabitants called the city by its Polish name Węgobork. A large part of the town was destroyed by a fire in 1608, including a wooden church and the 20-year-old town hall.
Being situated in Masuria, in the transition area with the ethnographic region of Lithuania Minor, Węgobork/Angerburg had a Polish majority with sizable minorities of Germans and Lithuanians (Lietuvninks). The town suffered from the Swedish-Polish Wars, attacks by the Tatars, and plague epidemics, the last outbreak of which occurred in 1710 and claimed 1,111 victims. To help repopulate the town, 48 people from Salzburg, Austria were resettled here in 1732. The Lithuanian minority diminished after the 16th and 17th centuries, while Poles still formed the majority of the district's population in the early 19th century (52% in 1825).
Kingdom of Prussia
Angerburg became part of the Kingdom of Prussia in 1701 and was named a garrison town of the Prussian Army in 1718. A harbor was built on the Angerapp, allowing an aqueduct to be built in 1740, as well as an expansion of the garrison to include ten barracks. A water supply system was built in 1740 by Jan Władysław Suchodolec. Angerburg had approximately 1,800 inhabitants at this time. Its inhabitants suffered from warfare, however, as Angerburg was occupied by Russian troops during the Seven Years' War. During the Napoleonic Wars, typhus was brought by Russian troops and the town was plundered by French and Polish troops.
King Stanisław Leszczyński of Poland stopped in the castle in March and May 1736.
Angerburg was included in the Prussian province of East Prussia in 1773 and became the district seat of Landkreis Angerburg in 1818. The town became part of the German Empire upon the Prussian-led unification of Germany in 1871. A teaching seminary and a deaf-mute school were opened in 1820, and the town's population increased to over 3,500. In year 1825, the county of Angerburg/Węgobork (including the town) had 24,351 inhabitants, including (by mother tongue): 12,535 (~52%) Polish, 11,756 (~42%) German and 60 Lithuanian. Between 1848 and 1858, Polish pastor and opponent of Germanisation of Masuria Jan Fryderyk Anders was a pastor of the Węgobork Lutheran Parish. Polish secret resistance was active and smuggled weapons through the town to the Russian Partition of Poland during the January Uprising. In November 1864, local resistance leader Albert Mahler was arrested by the Prussians.
The canalization of the Angerapp and the expansion of the harbor in 1856 allowed business to expand, and the garrison left the town in 1858. The district court and the office of the public prosecutor moved from Angerburg to Lyck (Ełk) after the Kreistag, or district parliament, hindered the connection of the town to developing road network and railways. Four annual fairs and two weekly markets were held in the town in the late 19th century. Angerburg was first connected to the railroad network in 1898, allowing it to develop into a trade center. The town became especially known for its Behindertenanstalt Bethesda, an institute for those with mental retardation.
World Wars
Angerburg became a garrison town again after the outbreak of World War I (1914–18), when it had a population of 5,800 inhabitants. The German-Russian military cemetery Jägerhöhe was located nearby. The war did not impact the town greatly, and Angerburg grew through new housing developments afterwards. Angerburg also began to develop through tourism after the opening of the Angerapp to regular navigation. At the beginning of the Third Reich, the town had a population of 7,700 which profited from a local cavalry regiment. Through incorporation of neighboring communities, Angerburg expanded to include 10,922 inhabitants in 1939.
Like the rest of East Prussia, Angerburg was initially only indirectly affected by World War II (1939–45), such as casualties of war and supply shortages. This situation changed as the eastern front grew near during the winter of 1944-45. Unlike the neighboring town of Gołdap to the east, Angerburg was not involved in fighting, but was given up by the Wehrmacht as the Soviet Red Army advanced. After the Red Army reached Elbing (Elbląg) and cut off East Prussia from the rest of Germany, the citizens of Angerburg were forced to evacuate the province by traveling across the Vistula Lagoon or to Pillau. The Red Army reached Angerburg on January 25, 1945 and destroyed much of the town; only a few buildings remained of the old town center.
Modern Poland
Under the terms of the post-war Potsdam Conference, the town became again part of Poland and was renamed Węgorzewo.
Węgorzewo initially suffered economically after the fall of the Iron Curtain and the Revolutions of 1989, but has become a popular tourist site in the Masurian Lake District. The town is famous for the music festivals which take place in summertime, including a rock festival, a sailors' song festival, and a poetic song festival.
Notable residents
Albrycht Zaborowski (1638–1711), Polish emigrant, one of the pioneers of European colonization within the area of present-day New Jersey
Georg Andreas Helwing (1666–1748), botanist
Siegfried Heinrich Aronhold (1819–1884), mathematician
Rodolphe Radau (1835–1911), astronomer
Kurt Haehling (1893–1983), Wehrmacht general
Martin Sommerfeld (1894–1939), Jewish emigre to the U.S. and university lecturer
Herbert Jankuhn (1905–1990), archaeologist
Klaus Ewerth (1907–1943), Kriegsmarine officer
Andreas Hillgruber (1925–1989), historian
Bożena Ksiąźek (born 1963), Polish sprint canoer
Mariusz Duda (born 1975), Polish musician
Patryk Kun (born 1995), Polish footballer
International relations
Węgorzewo is a member of Cittaslow.
Twin towns — Sister cities
Węgorzewo is twinned with:
References
External links
Municipal website
Węgorzewo rock music festival
Cities and towns in Warmian-Masurian Voivodeship
Populated lakeshore places in Poland
Populated places established in the 1330s
Węgorzewo County
Masuria (region)
Cittaslow |
VG-1 may refer to:
VG-1 (cell line)
VG-1 (steel)
VG-1, one of the variants of the Volkssturmgewehr |
Amanda Lightfoot (born 30 January 1987) is a British biathlete who competes in the IBU Cup.
Lightfoot was born in Coventry. She took up the sport after first learning to ski at the age of nineteen. She is a Sergeant clerk in the Adjutant General's Corps. She was selected as part of the Team GB squad for the 2014 Winter Olympics in Sochi. Her trainer is Walter Pichler. Lightfoot achieved a new personal best at the 2017 Biathlon World Championships in Hochfilzen when she finished 32nd in the individual race.
References
External links
1987 births
Living people
Sportspeople from Coventry
English female biathletes
Biathletes at the 2014 Winter Olympics
Biathletes at the 2018 Winter Olympics
Olympic biathletes for Great Britain
Adjutant General's Corps soldiers |
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