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outer synaptic layer : layer in the retina at which photoreceptors connect to bipolar cells | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
oval window : membrane at the base of the cochlea where the stapes attaches, marking the beginning of the scala vestibuli | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
palpebral conjunctiva : membrane attached to the inner surface of the eyelids that covers the anterior surface of the cornea | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
papilla : for gustation, a bump-like projection on the surface of the tongue that contains taste buds | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
photoisomerization : chemical change in the retinal molecule that alters the bonding so that it switches from the 11-cis-retinal isomer to the all-trans-retinal isomer | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
photon : individual âpacketâ of light | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
photoreceptor : receptor cell specialized to respond to light stimuli | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
premotor cortex : cortical area anterior to the primary motor cortex that is responsible for planning movements | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
primary sensory cortex : region of the cerebral cortex that initially receives sensory input from an ascending pathway from the thalamus and begins the processing that will result in conscious perception of that modality | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
proprioception : sense of position and movement of the body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
proprioceptor : receptor cell that senses changes in the position and kinesthetic aspects of the body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
pupil : open hole at the center of the iris that light passes through into the eye | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
pyramidal decussation : location at which corticospinal tract fibers cross the midline and segregate into the anterior and lateral divisions of the pathway | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
pyramids : segment of the descending motor pathway that travels in the anterior position of the medulla | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
receptor cell : cell that transduces environmental stimuli into neural signals | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
red nucleus : midbrain nucleus that sends corrective commands to the spinal cord along the rubrospinal tract, based on disparity between an original command and the sensory feedback from movement | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
reticulospinal tract : extrapyramidal connections between the brain stem and spinal cord that modulate movement, contribute to posture, and regulate muscle tone | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
retina : nervous tissue of the eye at which phototransduction takes place | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
retinal : cofactor in an opsin molecule that undergoes a biochemical change when struck by a photon (pronounced with a stress on the last syllable) | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
retinal ganglion cell (RGC) : neuron of the retina that projects along the second cranial nerve | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
rhodopsin : photopigment molecule found in the rod photoreceptors | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
rod photoreceptor : one of the two types of retinal receptor cell that is specialized for low-light vision | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
round window : membrane that marks the end of the scala tympani | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
rubrospinal tract : descending motor control pathway, originating in the red nucleus, that mediates control of the limbs on the basis of cerebellar processing | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
saccule : structure of the inner ear responsible for transducing linear acceleration in the vertical plane | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
scala tympani : portion of the cochlea that extends from the apex to the round window | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
scala vestibuli : portion of the cochlea that extends from the oval window to the apex | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
sclera : white of the eye | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
semicircular canals : structures within the inner ear responsible for transducing rotational movement information | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
sensory homunculus : topographic representation of the body within the somatosensory cortex demonstrating the correspondence between neurons processing stimuli and sensitivity | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
sensory modality : a particular system for interpreting and perceiving environmental stimuli by the nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
solitary nucleus : medullar nucleus that receives taste information from the facial and glossopharyngeal nerves | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
somatosensation : general sense associated with modalities lumped together as touch | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
special sense : any sensory system associated with a specific organ structure, namely smell, taste, sight, hearing, and balance | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
spinal trigeminal nucleus : component of the trigeminal nuclei that is found in the medulla | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
spinothalamic tract : ascending tract of the spinal cord associated with pain and temperature sensations | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
spiral ganglion : location of neuronal cell bodies that transmit auditory information along the eighth cranial nerve | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
stapes : (also, stirrup) ossicle of the middle ear that is attached to the inner ear | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
stereocilia : array of apical membrane extensions in a hair cell that transduce movements when they are bent | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
stretch reflex : response to activation of the muscle spindle stretch receptor that causes contraction of the muscle to maintain a constant length | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
submodality : specific sense within a broader major sense such as sweet as a part of the sense of taste, or color as a part of vision | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
superior colliculus : structure in the midbrain that combines visual, auditory, and somatosensory input to coordinate spatial and topographic representations of the three sensory systems | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
superior oblique : extraocular muscle responsible for medial rotation of the eye | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
superior rectus : extraocular muscle responsible for looking up | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
supplemental motor area : cortical area anterior to the primary motor cortex that is responsible for planning movements | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
suprachiasmatic nucleus : hypothalamic target of the retina that helps to establish the circadian rhythm of the body on the basis of the presence or absence of daylight | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
taste buds : structures within a papilla on the tongue that contain gustatory receptor cells | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
tectorial membrane : component of the organ of Corti that lays over the hair cells, into which the stereocilia are embedded | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
tectospinal tract : extrapyramidal connections between the superior colliculus and spinal cord | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
thermoreceptor : sensory receptor specialized for temperature stimuli | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
topographical : relating to positional information | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
transduction : process of changing an environmental stimulus into the electrochemical signals of the nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
trochlea : cartilaginous structure that acts like a pulley for the superior oblique muscle | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
tympanic membrane : ear drum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
umami : taste submodality for sensitivity to the concentration of amino acids; also called the savory sense | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
utricle : structure of the inner ear responsible for transducing linear acceleration in the horizontal plane | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
vascular tunic : middle layer of the eye primarily composed of connective tissue with a rich blood supply | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
ventral posterior nucleus : nucleus in the thalamus that is the target of gustatory sensations and projects to the cerebral cortex | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
ventral stream : connections between cortical areas from the occipital lobe to the temporal lobe that are responsible for identification of visual stimuli | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
vestibular ganglion : location of neuronal cell bodies that transmit equilibrium information along the eighth cranial nerve | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
vestibular nuclei : targets of the vestibular component of the eighth cranial nerve | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
vestibule : in the ear, the portion of the inner ear responsible for the sense of equilibrium | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) : reflex based on connections between the vestibular system and the cranial nerves of eye movements that ensures images are stabilized on the retina as the head and body move | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
vestibulospinal tract : extrapyramidal connections between the vestibular nuclei in the brain stem and spinal cord that modulate movement and contribute to balance on the basis of the sense of equilibrium | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
visceral sense : sense associated with the internal organs | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
vision : special sense of sight based on transduction of light stimuli | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
visual acuity : property of vision related to the sharpness of focus, which varies in relation to retinal position | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
vitreous humor : viscous fluid that fills the posterior chamber of the eye | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
working memory : function of the prefrontal cortex to maintain a representation of information that is not in the immediate environment | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
zonule fibers : fibrous connections between the ciliary body and the lens | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/14-key-terms |
The primary responsibilities of the autonomic nervous system are to regulate homeostatic mechanisms in the body, which is also part of what the endocrine system does. The key to understanding the autonomic system is to explore the response pathwaysâthe output of the nervous system. The way we respond to the world aro... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
The sympathetic output of the nervous system originates out of the lateral horn of the thoracolumbar spinal cord. An axon from one of these central neurons projects by way of the ventral spinal nerve root and spinal nerve to a sympathetic ganglion, either in the sympathetic chain ganglia or one of the collateral locati... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
The parasympathetic output is based in the brain stem and sacral spinal cord. Neurons from particular nuclei in the brain stem or from the lateral horn of the sacral spinal cord (preganglionic neurons) project to terminal (intramural) ganglia located close to or within the wall of target effectors. These preganglionic ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
Signaling molecules utilized by the autonomic nervous system are released from axons and can be considered as either neurotransmitters (when they directly interact with the effector) or as hormones (when they are released into the bloodstream). The same molecule, such as norepinephrine, could be considered either a neu... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
Autonomic nervous system function is based on the visceral reflex. This reflex is similar to the somatic reflex, but the efferent branch is composed of two neurons. The central neuron projects from the spinal cord or brain stem to synapse on the ganglionic neuron that projects to the effector. The afferent branch of th... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
The role of visceral reflexes is to maintain a balance of function in the organ systems of the body. The two divisions of the autonomic system each play a role in effecting change, usually in competing directions. The sympathetic system increases heart rate, whereas the parasympathetic system decreases heart rate. The ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
In a few systems of the body, the competing input from the two divisions is not the norm. The sympathetic tone of blood vessels is caused by the lack of parasympathetic input to the systemic circulatory system. Only certain regions receive parasympathetic input that relaxes the smooth muscle wall of the blood vessels. ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
The autonomic system integrates sensory information and higher cognitive processes to generate output, which balances homeostatic mechanisms. The central autonomic structure is the hypothalamus, which coordinates sympathetic and parasympathetic efferent pathways to regulate activities of the organ systems of the body. ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
These higher centers have descending control of the autonomic system through brain stem centers, primarily in the medulla, such as the cardiovascular center. This collection of medullary nuclei regulates cardiac function, as well as blood pressure. Sensory input from the heart, aorta, and carotid sinuses project to the... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
The autonomic system is affected by a number of exogenous agents, including some that are therapeutic and some that are illicit. These drugs affect the autonomic system by mimicking or interfering with the endogenous agents or their receptors. A survey of how different drugs affect autonomic function illustrates the ro... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
Nicotine is not a drug that is used therapeutically, except for smoking cessation. When it is introduced into the body via products, it has broad effects on the autonomic system. Nicotine carries a risk for cardiovascular disease because of these broad effects. The drug stimulates both sympathetic and parasympathetic g... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
Other drugs affect one division of the autonomic system or the other. The sympathetic system is affected by drugs that mimic the actions of adrenergic molecules (norepinephrine and epinephrine) and are called sympathomimetic drugs. Drugs such as phenylephrine bind to the adrenergic receptors and stimulate target organs... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-chapter-review |
acetylcholine (ACh) : neurotransmitter that binds at a motor end-plate to trigger depolarization | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
adrenal medulla : interior portion of the adrenal (or suprarenal) gland that releases epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream as hormones | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
adrenergic : synapse where norepinephrine is released, which binds to α- or β-adrenergic receptors | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
afferent branch : component of a reflex arc that represents the input from a sensory neuron, for either a special or general sense | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
agonist : any exogenous substance that binds to a receptor and produces a similar effect to the endogenous ligand | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
alpha (α)-adrenergic receptor : one of the receptors to which epinephrine and norepinephrine bind, which comes in two subtypes: α1and α2 | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
antagonist : any exogenous substance that binds to a receptor and produces an opposing effect to the endogenous ligand | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
anticholinergic drugs : drugs that interrupt or reduce the function of the parasympathetic system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
autonomic tone : tendency of an organ system to be governed by one division of the autonomic nervous system over the other, such as heart rate being lowered by parasympathetic input at rest | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
baroreceptor : mechanoreceptor that senses the stretch of blood vessels to indicate changes in blood pressure | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
beta (β)-adrenergic receptor : one of the receptors to which epinephrine and norepinephrine bind, which comes in three subtypes: β1, β2, and β3 | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
cardiac accelerator nerves : preganglionic sympathetic fibers that cause the heart rate to increase when the cardiovascular center in the medulla initiates a signal | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
cardiovascular center : region in the medulla that controls the cardiovascular system through cardiac accelerator nerves and vasomotor nerves, which are components of the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
celiac ganglion : one of the collateral ganglia of the sympathetic system that projects to the digestive system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
central neuron : specifically referring to the cell body of a neuron in the autonomic system that is located in the central nervous system, specifically the lateral horn of the spinal cord or a brain stem nucleus | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
cholinergic : synapse at which acetylcholine is released and binds to the nicotinic or muscarinic receptor | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
chromaffin cells : neuroendocrine cells of the adrenal medulla that release epinephrine and norepinephrine into the bloodstream as part of sympathetic system activity | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
ciliary ganglion : one of the terminal ganglia of the parasympathetic system, located in the posterior orbit, axons from which project to the iris | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
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