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collateral ganglia : ganglia outside of the sympathetic chain that are targets of sympathetic preganglionic fibers, which are the celiac, inferior mesenteric, and superior mesenteric ganglia | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
craniosacral system : alternate name for the parasympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system that is based on the anatomical location of central neurons in brain-stem nuclei and the lateral horn of the sacral spinal cord; also referred to as craniosacral outflow | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
dorsal longitudinal fasciculus : major output pathway of the hypothalamus that descends through the gray matter of the brain stem and into the spinal cord | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
dorsal nucleus of the vagus nerve : location of parasympathetic neurons that project through the vagus nerve to terminal ganglia in the thoracic and abdominal cavities | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
EdingerâWestphal nucleus : location of parasympathetic neurons that project to the ciliary ganglion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
efferent branch : component of a reflex arc that represents the output, with the target being an effector, such as muscle or glandular tissue | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
endogenous : describes substance made in the human body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
endogenous chemical : substance produced and released within the body to interact with a receptor protein | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
epinephrine : signaling molecule released from the adrenal medulla into the bloodstream as part of the sympathetic response | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
exogenous : describes substance made outside of the human body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
exogenous chemical : substance from a source outside the body, whether it be another organism such as a plant or from the synthetic processes of a laboratory, that binds to a transmembrane receptor protein | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
fight-or-flight response : set of responses induced by sympathetic activity that lead to either fleeing a threat or standing up to it, which in the modern world is often associated with anxious feelings | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
G proteinâcoupled receptor : membrane protein complex that consists of a receptor protein that binds to a signaling moleculeâa G proteinâthat is activated by that binding and in turn activates an effector protein (enzyme) that creates a second-messenger molecule in the cytoplasm of the target cell | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
ganglionic neuron : specifically refers to the cell body of a neuron in the autonomic system that is located in a ganglion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
gray rami communicantes : (singular = ramus communicans) unmyelinated structures that provide a short connection from a sympathetic chain ganglion to the spinal nerve that contains the postganglionic sympathetic fiber | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
greater splanchnic nerve : nerve that contains fibers of the central sympathetic neurons that do not synapse in the chain ganglia but project onto the celiac ganglion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
inferior mesenteric ganglion : one of the collateral ganglia of the sympathetic system that projects to the digestive system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
intramural ganglia : terminal ganglia of the parasympathetic system that are found within the walls of the target effector | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
lesser splanchnic nerve : nerve that contains fibers of the central sympathetic neurons that do not synapse in the chain ganglia but project onto the inferior mesenteric ganglion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
ligand-gated cation channel : ion channel, such as the nicotinic receptor, that is specific to positively charged ions and opens when a molecule such as a neurotransmitter binds to it | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
limbic lobe : structures arranged around the edges of the cerebrum that are involved in memory and emotion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
long reflex : reflex arc that includes the central nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
medial forebrain bundle : fiber pathway that extends anteriorly into the basal forebrain, passes through the hypothalamus, and extends into the brain stem and spinal cord | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
mesenteric plexus : nervous tissue within the wall of the digestive tract that contains neurons that are the targets of autonomic preganglionic fibers and that project to the smooth muscle and glandular tissues in the digestive organ | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
muscarinic receptor : type of acetylcholine receptor protein that is characterized by also binding to muscarine and is a metabotropic receptor | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
mydriasis : dilation of the pupil; typically the result of disease, trauma, or drugs | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
nicotinic receptor : type of acetylcholine receptor protein that is characterized by also binding to nicotine and is an ionotropic receptor | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
norepinephrine : signaling molecule released as a neurotransmitter by most postganglionic sympathetic fibers as part of the sympathetic response, or as a hormone into the bloodstream from the adrenal medulla | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
nucleus ambiguus : brain-stem nucleus that contains neurons that project through the vagus nerve to terminal ganglia in the thoracic cavity; specifically associated with the heart | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
parasympathetic division : division of the autonomic nervous system responsible for restful and digestive functions | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
parasympathomimetic drugs : drugs that enhance or mimic the function of the parasympathetic system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
paravertebral ganglia : autonomic ganglia superior to the sympathetic chain ganglia | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
postganglionic fiber : axon from a ganglionic neuron in the autonomic nervous system that projects to and synapses with the target effector; sometimes referred to as a postganglionic neuron | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
preganglionic fiber : axon from a central neuron in the autonomic nervous system that projects to and synapses with a ganglionic neuron; sometimes referred to as a preganglionic neuron | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
prevertebral ganglia : autonomic ganglia that are anterior to the vertebral column and functionally related to the sympathetic chain ganglia | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
referred pain : the conscious perception of visceral sensation projected to a different region of the body, such as the left shoulder and arm pain as a sign for a heart attack | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
reflex arc : circuit of a reflex that involves a sensory input and motor output, or an afferent branch and an efferent branch, and an integrating center to connect the two branches | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
rest and digest : set of functions associated with the parasympathetic system that lead to restful actions and digestion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
short reflex : reflex arc that does not include any components of the central nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
somatic reflex : reflex involving skeletal muscle as the effector, under the control of the somatic nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
superior cervical ganglion : one of the paravertebral ganglia of the sympathetic system that projects to the head | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
superior mesenteric ganglion : one of the collateral ganglia of the sympathetic system that projects to the digestive system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
sympathetic chain ganglia : series of ganglia adjacent to the vertebral column that receive input from central sympathetic neurons | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
sympathetic division : division of the autonomic nervous system associated with the fight-or-flight response | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
sympatholytic drug : drug that interrupts, or âlyses,â the function of the sympathetic system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
sympathomimetic drug : drug that enhances or mimics the function of the sympathetic system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
target effector : organ, tissue, or gland that will respond to the control of an autonomic or somatic or endocrine signal | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
terminal ganglia : ganglia of the parasympathetic division of the autonomic system, which are located near or within the target effector, the latter also known as intramural ganglia | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
thoracolumbar system : alternate name for the sympathetic division of the autonomic nervous system that is based on the anatomical location of central neurons in the lateral horn of the thoracic and upper lumbar spinal cord | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
varicosity : structure of some autonomic connections that is not a typical synaptic end bulb, but a string of swellings along the length of a fiber that makes a network of connections with the target effector | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
vasomotor nerves : preganglionic sympathetic fibers that cause the constriction of blood vessels in response to signals from the cardiovascular center | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
visceral reflex : reflex involving an internal organ as the effector, under the control of the autonomic nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
white rami communicantes : (singular = ramus communicans) myelinated structures that provide a short connection from a sympathetic chain ganglion to the spinal nerve that contains the preganglionic sympathetic fiber | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/15-key-terms |
The neurological exam is a clinical assessment tool to determine the extent of function from the nervous system. It is divided into five major sections that each deal with a specific region of the CNS. The mental status exam is concerned with the cerebrum and assesses higher functions such as memory, language, and emot... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
Damage to and disease of the nervous system lead to loss of function. The location of the injury will correspond to the functional loss, as suggested by the principle of localization of function. The neurological exam provides the opportunity for a clinician to determine where damage has occurred on the basis of the fu... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The cerebrum, particularly the cerebral cortex, is the location of important cognitive functions that are the focus of the mental status exam. The regionalization of the cortex, initially described on the basis of anatomical evidence of cytoarchitecture, reveals the distribution of functionally distinct areas. Cortical... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The mental status exam addresses these cognitive abilities through a series of subtests designed to elicit particular behaviors ascribed to these functions. The loss of neurological function can illustrate the location of damage to the cerebrum. Memory functions are attributed to the temporal lobe, particularly the med... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
Losses of language and speech functions, known as aphasias, are associated with damage to the important integration areas in the left hemisphere known as Brocaâs or Wernickeâs areas, as well as the connections in the white matter between them. Different types of aphasia are named for the particular structures that ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The prefrontal cortex contains structures important for planning, judgment, reasoning, and working memory. Damage to these areas can result in changes to personality, mood, and behavior. The famous case of Phineas Gage suggests a role for this cortex in personality, as does the outdated practice of prefrontal lobectomy... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The cranial nerves can be separated into four major groups associated with the subtests of the cranial nerve exam. First are the sensory nerves, then the nerves that control eye movement, the nerves of the oral cavity and superior pharynx, and the nerve that controls movements of the neck. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The olfactory, optic, and vestibulocochlear nerves are strictly sensory nerves for smell, sight, and balance and hearing, whereas the trigeminal, facial, and glossopharyngeal nerves carry somatosensation of the face, and tasteâseparated between the anterior two-thirds of the tongue and the posterior one-third. Specia... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The oculomotor, trochlear, and abducens nerves control the extraocular muscles and are connected by the medial longitudinal fasciculus to coordinate gaze. Testing conjugate gaze is as simple as having the patient follow a visual target, like a pen tip, through the visual field ending with an approach toward the face to... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The trigeminal nerve controls the muscles of chewing, which are tested for stretch reflexes. Motor functions of the facial nerve are usually obvious if facial expressions are compromised, but can be tested by having the patient raise their eyebrows, smile, and frown. Movements of the tongue, soft palate, or superior ph... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
Movement of the head and neck using the sternocleidomastoid and trapezius muscles is controlled by the accessory nerve. Flexing of the neck and strength testing of those muscles reviews the function of that nerve. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The sensory and motor exams assess function related to the spinal cord and the nerves connected to it. Sensory functions are associated with the dorsal regions of the spinal cord, whereas motor function is associated with the ventral side. Localizing damage to the spinal cord is related to assessments of the peripheral... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
Sensory tests address the various submodalities of the somatic senses: touch, temperature, vibration, pain, and proprioception. Results of the subtests can point to trauma in the spinal cord gray matter, white matter, or even in connections to the cerebral cortex. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
Motor tests focus on the function of the muscles and the connections of the descending motor pathway. Muscle tone and strength are tested for upper and lower extremities. Input to the muscles comes from the descending cortical input of upper motor neurons and the direct innervation of lower motor neurons. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
Reflexes can either be based on deep stimulation of tendons or superficial stimulation of the skin. The presence of reflexive contractions helps to differentiate motor disorders between the upper and lower motor neurons. The specific signs associated with motor disorders can establish the difference further, based on t... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The cerebellum is an important part of motor function in the nervous system. It apparently plays a role in procedural learning, which would include motor skills such as riding a bike or throwing a football. The basis for these roles is likely to be tied into the role the cerebellum plays as a comparator for voluntary m... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The motor commands from the cerebral hemispheres travel along the corticospinal pathway, which passes through the pons. Collateral branches of these fibers synapse on neurons in the pons, which then project into the cerebellar cortex through the middle cerebellar peduncles. Ascending sensory feedback, entering through ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
The primary role of the cerebellum in relation to the spinal cord is through the spinocerebellum; it controls posture and gait with significant input from the vestibular system. Deficits in cerebellar function result in ataxias, or a specific kind of movement disorder. The root cause of the ataxia may be the sensory in... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-chapter-review |
accommodation : in vision, a change in the ability of the eye to focus on objects at different distances | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
accommodationâconvergence reflex : coordination of somatic control of the medial rectus muscles of either eye with the parasympathetic control of the ciliary bodies to maintain focus while the eyes converge on visual stimuli near to the face | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
anterograde amnesia : inability to form new memories from a particular time forward | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
aphasia : loss of language function | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
ataxia : movement disorder related to damage of the cerebellum characterized by loss of coordination in voluntary movements | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
Babinski sign : dorsiflexion of the foot with extension and splaying of the toes in response to the plantar reflex, normally suppressed by corticospinal input | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
cerebrocerebellum : lateral regions of the cerebellum; named for the significant input from the cerebral cortex | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
check reflex : response to a release in resistance so that the contractions stop, or check, movement | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
clasp-knife response : sign of UMN disease when a patient initially resists passive movement of a muscle but will quickly release to a lower state of resistance | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
conduction aphasia : loss of language function related to connecting the understanding of speech with the production of speech, without either specific function being lost | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
conductive hearing : hearing dependent on the conduction of vibrations of the tympanic membrane through the ossicles of the middle ear | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
conjugate gaze : coordinated movement of the two eyes simultaneously in the same direction | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
convergence : in vision, the movement of the eyes so that they are both pointed at the same point in space, which increases for stimuli that are closer to the subject | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
coordination exam : major section of the neurological exam that assesses complex, coordinated motor functions of the cerebellum and associated motor pathways | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
cortico-ponto-cerebellar pathway : projection from the cerebral cortex to the cerebellum by way of the gray matter of the pons | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
cranial nerve exam : major section of the neurological exam that assesses sensory and motor functions of the cranial nerves and their associated central and peripheral structures | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
cytoarchitecture : study of a tissue based on the structure and organization of its cellular components; related to the broader term, histology | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
deep tendon reflex : another term for stretch reflex, based on the elicitation through deep stimulation of the tendon at the insertion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
diplopia : double vision resulting from a failure in conjugate gaze | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
edema : fluid accumulation in tissue; often associated with circulatory deficits | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
embolus : obstruction in a blood vessel such as a blood clot, fatty mass, air bubble, or other foreign matter that interrupts the flow of blood to an organ or some part of the body | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
episodic memory : memory of specific events in an autobiographical sense | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
expressive aphasia : loss of the ability to produce language; usually associated with damage to Brocaâs area in the frontal lobe | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
extrinsic muscles of the tongue : muscles that are connected to other structures, such as the hyoid bone or the mandible, and control the position of the tongue | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
fasciculation : small muscle twitch as a result of spontaneous activity from an LMN | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
fauces : opening from the oral cavity into the pharynx | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
fibrillation : in motor responses, a spontaneous muscle action potential that occurs in the absence of neuromuscular input, resulting from LMN lesions | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
flaccid paralysis : loss of voluntary muscle control and muscle tone, as the result of LMN disease | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
flaccidity : presentation of a loss of muscle tone, observed as floppy limbs or a lack of resistance to passive movement | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
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