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flocculonodular lobe : lobe of the cerebellum that receives input from the vestibular system to help with balance and posture | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
gait : rhythmic pattern of alternating movements of the lower limbs during locomotion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
gait exam : major section of the neurological exam that assesses the cerebellum and descending pathways in the spinal cord through the coordinated motor functions of walking; a portion of the coordination exam | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
gnosis : in a neurological exam, intuitive experiential knowledge tested by interacting with common objects or symbols | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
graphesthesia : perception of symbols, such as letters or numbers, traced in the palm of the hand | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
hemisection : cut through half of a structure, such as the spinal cord | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
hemorrhagic stroke : disruption of blood flow to the brain caused by bleeding within the cranial vault | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
hyperflexia : overly flexed joints | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
hypotonicity : low muscle tone, a sign of LMN disease | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
hypovolemia : decrease in blood volume | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
inferior cerebellar peduncle (ICP) : input to the cerebellum, largely from the inferior olive, that represents sensory feedback from the periphery | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
inferior olive : large nucleus in the medulla that receives input from sensory systems and projects into the cerebellar cortex | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
internuclear ophthalmoplegia : deficit of conjugate lateral gaze because the lateral rectus muscle of one eye does not contract resulting from damage to the abducens nerve or the MLF | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
intorsion : medial rotation of the eye around its axis | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
intrinsic muscles of the tongue : muscles that originate out of, and insert into, other tissues within the tongue and control the shape of the tongue | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
ischemic stroke : disruption of blood flow to the brain because blood cannot flow through blood vessels as a result of a blockage or narrowing of the vessel | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
jaw-jerk reflex : stretch reflex of the masseter muscle | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
localization of function : principle that circumscribed anatomical locations are responsible for specific functions in an organ system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
medial longitudinal fasciculus (MLF) : fiber pathway that connects structures involved in the control of eye and head position, from the superior colliculus to the vestibular nuclei and cerebellum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
mental status exam : major section of the neurological exam that assesses cognitive functions of the cerebrum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
middle cerebellar peduncle (MCP) : large, white-matter bridge from the pons that constitutes the major input to the cerebellar cortex | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
motor exam : major section of the neurological exam that assesses motor functions of the spinal cord and spinal nerves | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
neurological exam : clinical assessment tool that can be used to quickly evaluate neurological function and determine if specific parts of the nervous system have been affected by damage or disease | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
paramedian pontine reticular formation (PPRF) : region of the brain stem adjacent to the motor nuclei for gaze control that coordinates rapid, conjugate eye movements | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
paresis : partial loss of, or impaired, voluntary muscle control | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
plantar reflex : superficial reflex initiated by gentle stimulation of the sole of the foot | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
praxis : in a neurological exam, the act of doing something using ready knowledge or skills in response to verbal instruction | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
procedural memory : memory of how to perform a specific task | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
pronator drift : sign of contralateral corticospinal lesion when the one arm will drift into a pronated position when held straight out with the palms facing upward | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
receptive aphasia : loss of the ability to understand received language, such as what is spoken to the subject or given in written form | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
red nucleus : nucleus in the midbrain that receives output from the cerebellum and projects onto the spinal cord in the rubrospinal tract | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
retrograde amnesia : loss of memories before a particular event | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
Rinne test : use of a tuning fork to test conductive hearing loss versus sensorineural hearing loss | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
Romberg test : test of equilibrium that requires the patient to maintain a straight, upright posture without visual feedback of position | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
rubrospinal tract : descending tract from the red nucleus of the midbrain that results in modification of ongoing motor programs | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
saccade : small, rapid movement of the eyes used to locate and direct the fovea onto visual stimuli | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
sensorineural hearing : hearing dependent on the transduction and propagation of auditory information through the neural components of the peripheral auditory structures | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
sensory exam : major section of the neurological exam that assesses sensory functions of the spinal cord and spinal nerves | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
short-term memory : capacity to retain information actively in the brain for a brief period of time | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
Snellen chart : standardized arrangement of letters in decreasing size presented to a subject at a distance of 20 feet to test visual acuity | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
spasticity : increased contraction of a muscle in response to resistance, often resulting in hyperflexia | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
spinocerebellar tract : ascending fibers that carry proprioceptive input to the cerebellum used in maintaining balance and coordinated movement | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
spinocerebellum : midline region of the cerebellum known as the vermis that receives proprioceptive input from the spinal cord | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
stereognosis : perception of common objects placed in the hand solely on the basis of manipulation of that object in the hand | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
stroke : (also, cerebrovascular accident (CVA)) loss of neurological function caused by an interruption of blood flow to a region of the central nervous system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
superficial reflex : reflexive contraction initiated by gentle stimulation of the skin | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
superior cerebellar peduncle (SCP) : white-matter tract representing output of the cerebellum to the red nucleus of the midbrain | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
transient ischemic attack (TIA) : temporary disruption of blood flow to the brain in which symptoms occur rapidly but last only a short time | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
vermis : prominent ridge along the midline of the cerebellum that is referred to as the spinocerebellum | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
vestibulo-ocular reflex (VOR) : reflex based on connections between the vestibular system and the cranial nerves of eye movements that ensures that images are stabilized on the retina as the head and body move | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
vestibulocerebellum : flocculonodular lobe of the cerebellum named for the vestibular input from the eighth cranial nerve | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
Weber test : use of a tuning fork to test the laterality of hearing loss by placing it at several locations on the midline of the skull | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
Wernickeâs area : region at the posterior end of the lateral sulcus in which speech comprehension is localized | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/16-key-terms |
The endocrine system consists of cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones critical to homeostasis. The body coordinates its functions through two major types of communication: neural and endocrine. Neural communication includes both electrical and chemical signaling between neurons and target cells. Endocrine c... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
Hormones are derived from amino acids or lipids. Amine hormones originate from the amino acids tryptophan or tyrosine. Larger amino acid hormones include peptides and protein hormones. Steroid hormones are derived from cholesterol. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
Steroid hormones and thyroid hormone are lipid soluble. All other amino acidâderived hormones are water soluble. Hydrophobic hormones are able to diffuse through the membrane and interact with an intracellular receptor. In contrast, hydrophilic hormones must interact with cell membrane receptors. These are typically ... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
Hormones are released upon stimulation that is of either chemical or neural origin. Regulation of hormone release is primarily achieved through negative feedback. Various stimuli may cause the release of hormones, but there are three major types. Humoral stimuli are changes in ion or nutrient levels in the blood. Hormo... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
The hypothalamusâpituitary complex is located in the diencephalon of the brain. The hypothalamus and the pituitary gland are connected by a structure called the infundibulum, which contains vasculature and nerve axons. The pituitary gland is divided into two distinct structures with different embryonic origins. The p... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
The thyroid gland is a butterfly-shaped organ located in the neck anterior to the trachea. Its hormones regulate basal metabolism, oxygen use, nutrient metabolism, the production of ATP, and calcium homeostasis. They also contribute to protein synthesis and the normal growth and development of body tissues, including m... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
Calcium is required for a variety of important physiologic processes, including neuromuscular functioning; thus, blood calcium levels are closely regulated. The parathyroid glands are small structures located on the posterior thyroid gland that produce parathyroid hormone (PTH), which regulates blood calcium levels. Lo... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
The adrenal glands, located superior to each kidney, consist of two regions: the adrenal cortex and adrenal medulla. The adrenal cortexâthe outer layer of the glandâproduces mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, and androgens. The adrenal medulla at the core of the gland produces epinephrine and norepinephrine. | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
The adrenal glands mediate a short-term stress response and a long-term stress response. A perceived threat results in the secretion of epinephrine and norepinephrine from the adrenal medulla, which mediate the fight-or-flight response. The long-term stress response is mediated by the secretion of CRH from the hypothal... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
The pineal gland is an endocrine structure of the diencephalon of the brain, and is located inferior and posterior to the thalamus. It is made up of pinealocytes. These cells produce and secrete the hormone melatonin in response to low light levels. High blood levels of melatonin induce drowsiness. Jet lag, caused by t... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
The reproductive system is regulated by follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and luteinizing hormone (LH) produced by the anterior lobe of the pituitary gland in response to gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) from the hypothalamus. FSH stimulates sperm maturation, which is inhibited by the hormone inhibin. The steroid... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
The pancreas has both exocrine and endocrine functions. The pancreatic islet cell types include alpha cells, which produce glucagon; beta cells, which produce insulin; delta cells, which produce somatostatin; and PP cells, which produce pancreatic polypeptide. Insulin and glucagon are involved in the regulation of gluc... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
Some organs have a secondary endocrine function. For example, the walls of the atria of the heart produce the hormone atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP), the gastrointestinal tract produces the hormones gastrin, secretin, and cholecystokinin, which aid in digestion, and the kidneys produce erythropoietin (EPO), which sti... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
The endocrine system originates from all three germ layers of the embryo, including the endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm. In general, different hormone classes arise from distinct germ layers. Aging affects the endocrine glands, potentially affecting hormone production and secretion, and can cause disease. The producti... | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-chapter-review |
acromegaly : disorder in adults caused when abnormally high levels of GH trigger growth of bones in the face, hands, and feet | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
adenylyl cyclase : membrane-bound enzyme that converts ATP to cyclic AMP, creating cAMP, as a result of G-protein activation | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
adrenal cortex : outer region of the adrenal glands consisting of multiple layers of epithelial cells and capillary networks that produces mineralocorticoids and glucocorticoids | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
adrenal glands : endocrine glands located at the top of each kidney that are important for the regulation of the stress response, blood pressure and blood volume, water homeostasis, and electrolyte levels | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
adrenal medulla : inner layer of the adrenal glands that plays an important role in the stress response by producing epinephrine and norepinephrine | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) : anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the adrenal cortex to secrete corticosteroid hormones (also called corticotropin) | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
alarm reaction : the short-term stress, or the fight-or-flight response, of stage one of the general adaptation syndrome mediated by the hormones epinephrine and norepinephrine | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
aldosterone : hormone produced and secreted by the adrenal cortex that stimulates sodium and fluid retention and increases blood volume and blood pressure | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
alpha cell : pancreatic islet cell type that produces the hormone glucagon | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
angiotensin-converting enzyme : the enzyme that converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
antidiuretic hormone (ADH) : hypothalamic hormone that is stored by the posterior pituitary and that signals the kidneys to reabsorb water | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
atrial natriuretic peptide (ANP) : peptide hormone produced by the walls of the atria in response to high blood pressure, blood volume, or blood sodium that reduces the reabsorption of sodium and water in the kidneys and promotes vasodilation | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
autocrine : chemical signal that elicits a response in the same cell that secreted it | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
beta cell : pancreatic islet cell type that produces the hormone insulin | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
calcitonin : peptide hormone produced and secreted by the parafollicular cells (C cells) of the thyroid gland that functions to decrease blood calcium levels | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
chromaffin : neuroendocrine cells of the adrenal medulla | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
colloid : viscous fluid in the central cavity of thyroid follicles, containing the glycoprotein thyroglobulin | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
cortisol : glucocorticoid important in gluconeogenesis, the catabolism of glycogen, and downregulation of the immune system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) : second messenger that, in response to adenylyl cyclase activation, triggers a phosphorylation cascade | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
delta cell : minor cell type in the pancreas that secretes the hormone somatostatin | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
diabetes mellitus : condition caused by destruction or dysfunction of the beta cells of the pancreas or cellular resistance to insulin that results in abnormally high blood glucose levels | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
diacylglycerol (DAG) : molecule that, like cAMP, activates protein kinases, thereby initiating a phosphorylation cascade | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
downregulation : decrease in the number of hormone receptors, typically in response to chronically excessive levels of a hormone | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
endocrine gland : tissue or organ that secretes hormones into the blood and lymph without ducts such that they may be transported to organs distant from the site of secretion | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
endocrine system : cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones as a primary or secondary function and play an integral role in normal bodily processes | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
epinephrine : primary and most potent catecholamine hormone secreted by the adrenal medulla in response to short-term stress; also called adrenaline | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
erythropoietin (EPO) : protein hormone secreted in response to low oxygen levels that triggers the bone marrow to produce red blood cells | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
estrogens : class of predominantly female sex hormones important for the development and growth of the female reproductive tract, secondary sex characteristics, the female reproductive cycle, and the maintenance of pregnancy | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
exocrine system : cells, tissues, and organs that secrete substances directly to target tissues via glandular ducts | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
first messenger : hormone that binds to a cell membrane hormone receptor and triggers activation of a second messenger system | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) : anterior pituitary hormone that stimulates the production and maturation of sex cells | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
G protein : protein associated with a cell membrane hormone receptor that initiates the next step in a second messenger system upon activation by hormoneâreceptor binding | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
general adaptation syndrome (GAS) : the human bodyâs three-stage response pattern to short- and long-term stress | https://openstax.org/books/anatomy-and-physiology-2e/pages/17-key-terms |
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