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, being referred to as the "entertainment superhighway". However, it also serves as the first public forum for Chinese citizens to freely exchange their ideas.[30] Most users go online to read news, to search for information, and to check their email. They also go to BBS or web forums, find music or videos, or download files.
Messaging
[edit]As of at least 2023, the most used internet services in China are instant messaging and mobile messaging apps.[6]: 8 In 2020, 99% of internet users in China
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pps.[6]: 8 In 2020, 99% of internet users in China used instant messaging, while 99.8% used mobile messaging apps.[6]: 8
As of 2019, 93.5% of Chinese internet users have used WeChat.[6]: 76
Websites
[edit]All websites that operate in China with their own domain name must have an ICP license from the Ministry of Industry and Information Technology. Because the PRC government blocks many foreign websites, many homegrown copycats of foreign websites have appeared.[31]
Search engines
[edit]Baidu is
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have appeared.[31]
Search engines
[edit]Baidu is the leading search engine in China, while most web portals also provide search opportunities like Bing and Sogou.[citation needed]
Efforts to establish state-owned search engines in China have not succeeded.[27]: 43 Search engine ChinaSo.com, jointly managed by Xinhua News Agency and People's Daily, is active as of 2024 but has few users.[27]: 43 State-run search engine Jike Search, the CEO of which was Deng Yaping, failed in 2013.[27]: 43
Online
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ch was Deng Yaping, failed in 2013.[27]: 43
Online communities
[edit]Although the Chinese write fewer emails,[clarification needed] they enjoy other online communication tools. Users form their communities based on different interests. Bulletin boards on portals or elsewhere, chat rooms, instant messaging groups, blogs are very active, while photo-sharing and social networking sites are growing rapidly. Some Wikis such as the Sogou Baike and Baidu Baike are "flourishing".
Microblogs (weibo) have
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u Baike are "flourishing".
Microblogs (weibo) have since 2009 become one of the most widely used internet services in China.[6]: 146
Social media
[edit]China is one of the most restricted countries in the world in terms of internet, but these constraints have directly contributed to the success of local Chinese social media sites.[34]
Online shopping
[edit]Since 2013, China is the world's largest e-commerce market.[11]: 99 Its domestic e-commerce market was an estimated US$899 billion in 2016.[3
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market was an estimated US$899 billion in 2016.[35] China accounted for 42.4% of worldwide retail e-commerce in that year, the most of any country.[36]: 110 In 2019, online retail sales were 21% of China's total retail sales.[27]: 4 As of late 2022, approximately 850 million Chinese individuals shop online and sectors related to e-commerce employ 69 million people in the country.[27]: 1 In 2023, nearly 50% of worldwide online sales took place from China.[27]: 2
Some local governments have creat
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om China.[27]: 2
Some local governments have created e-commerce platforms in an effort to facilitate sales of local products.[27]: 43 With the exception of the business-to-business platform Yiwugo.com (created by the Yiwu city government and a state-owned enterprise), these platforms have not been commercially successful.[27]: 43
Online Mapping Services
[edit]China has endeavored to offer a number of online mapping services and allows the dissemination of geographic information within the countr
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nation of geographic information within the country. Tencent Maps (腾讯地图), Baidu Maps (百度地圖) and Tianditu (天地圖) are typical examples. Online mapping services can be understood as online cartography backed up by a geographic information system (GIS). GIS was originally a tool for cartographers, geographers and other types of specialists to store, manage, present and analyze spatial data. In bringing GIS online, the Web has made these tools available to a much wider audience.[37] Furthermore, with
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e to a much wider audience.[37] Furthermore, with the advent of broadband, utilizing GIS has become much faster and easier. Increasingly, non-specialist members of the public can access, look up and make use of geographic information for their own purposes.[38] Tianditu is China's first online mapping service. Literally World Map, Tianditu was launched in late October 2010. The Chinese government has repeatedly claimed[citation needed] that this service is to offer comprehensive geographical dat
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service is to offer comprehensive geographical data for Chinese users to learn more about the world.
Online payment
[edit]The method of directly paying by online banking is required to be able to make online banking payment after opening online banking and can realize online payment of UnionPay, WeChat Pay, online payment by credit card, and so on.
This payment method is directly paid from the bank card. The third-party payment itself integrates multiple payment methods, and the process is as fo
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multiple payment methods, and the process is as follows:[citation needed]
1. Recharge the money in online banking to a third-party.
2. Pay by third-party deposit when the user pays.
3. The fee is charged for withdrawal. Third-party payment methods are diverse, including mobile payments and fixed-line payments.
In 2013, Alipay overtook PayPal to become the world's largest mobile payment provider.[6]: 150 As of January 2015, Alipay, owned by Alibaba Group has 600 million counts of users and has th
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a Group has 600 million counts of users and has the largest user group among all online-payment providers.[39] It continues to be China's largest online payment service as of at least 2023.[6]: 150 WeChat Pay remains a strong competitor to Alipay, with 37% of the Chinese mobile payment market as of 2016.[6]: 151
By June 2020, there were 805 million users of mobile payment in China.[40]: 202
By June 2024, about 954 million individuals were actively using mobile payment in China.[41]
Online gaming
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y using mobile payment in China.[41]
Online gaming
[edit]As of 2022, China is the second largest market for online games after the United States.[42] In 2023, the country has 668 million internet users playing online games and the industry was worth US$42 billion.[43] 53.8% of gamers are male, 46.2% are female.[44]
In 2007, the Ministry of Culture (MoC) and General Administration of Press and Publication (GAPP) along with several other agencies implemented the Online Game Anti-Addiction System w
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mplemented the Online Game Anti-Addiction System which aimed to stop video game addiction in youth. This system restricted minors from playing more than 3 hours a day and required Identification (ID) checking in order to verify you are of age.[45]
Later in 2019, the Chinese government announced in November that gamers under the age of 18 would be banned from playing video games between the hours of 10 p.m. and 8 a.m. In addition, gamers under 18 would be restricted to 90 minutes of playing durin
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would be restricted to 90 minutes of playing during the weekdays and 3 hours of playing during weekends and holidays as per new guidelines.[46]
As of 2021, the National Press and Publication Administration (NPPA) further restricted rules limiting playtime for under-18s to one hour per day from 8p.m. to 9 p.m. and only on Fridays, Saturdays, and Sundays.[47]
Censorship
[edit]The Golden Shield Project was proposed to the State Council by Premier Zhu Rongji in 1993. It is overseen by the Ministry o
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u Rongji in 1993. It is overseen by the Ministry of Public Security.[11]: 143 As a massive surveillance and content control system, it was launched in November 2000, and became known as the Great Firewall of China. The governmental authorities not only block website content but also monitor the Internet access of individuals; such measures have attracted the nickname The Great Firewall of China.[48]
However, there are some methods of circumventing the censorship by using proxy servers outside th
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g the censorship by using proxy servers outside the firewall.[49] Users may circumvent all of the censorship and monitoring of the Great Firewall if they have a secure VPN or SSH connection method to a computer outside mainland China.[50]
In 2017, the Chinese government declared unauthorized VPN services illegal, requiring VPN providers to obtain state approval.[51] Although China restricts VPNs, they remain widely used by private individuals.[52]: 109 State-owned enterprises or state institutio
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]: 109 State-owned enterprises or state institutions also use VPNs for official work.[52]: 109 The Chinese government has authorized several official VPN providers.[52]: 109 Those who develop or sell their own VPNs potentially face years in prison.[52]: 109
Different methods are used to block certain websites or pages including DNS poisoning, blocking access to IPs, analyzing and filtering URLs, inspecting filter packets and resetting connections.[53]
In 2009, motivated in part by its desire to
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.[53]
In 2009, motivated in part by its desire to prevent color revolutions, China banned Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter.[54] It banned Google the next year.[54] By blocking major international internet platforms such as Google, Facebook, YouTube, and Twitter, the Great Firewall has contributed to the development of domestic alternatives including Baidu, Renren, Youku, and Weibo.[6]: 8
Memes
[edit]The Baidu 10 Mythical Creatures, initially a humorous hoax, became a popular and widespread interne
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rous hoax, became a popular and widespread internet meme in China.[55][56] These ten hoaxes reportedly originated in response to increasing online censorship and have become an icon of Chinese internet users' resistance to it.[57][58]
The State Administration of Press, Publication, Radio, Film and Television issued a directive on 30 March 2009 to highlight 31 categories of content prohibited online, including violence, pornography and content which may "incite ethnic discrimination or undermine
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ch may "incite ethnic discrimination or undermine social stability". Many Chinese internet users believe the instruction follows the official embarrassment over the "Grass Mud Horse" and the "River Crab". Industry observers believe that the move was designed to stop the spread of parodies or other comments on politically sensitive issues in the runup to the anniversary of the 4 June Tiananmen Square protests.[59]
Internet advertising market
[edit]The size of China's online advertising market was
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]The size of China's online advertising market was RMB 3.3 billion in the third quarter 2008, up 19.1% compared with the previous quarter. Tencent, Baidu.com Inc, Sina Corp remain the Top 3 in terms of market share. Keyword advertising market size reached RMB 1.46 billion, accounting for 43.8% of the total Internet advertising market with a quarter-on-quarter growth rate of 19.3%, while that of the online advertising site amounted to RMB 1.70 billion, accounting for 50.7% of the total, up 18.9%
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lion, accounting for 50.7% of the total, up 18.9% compared with the second quarter.[60]
Currently, Baidu has launched the CPA platform, and Sina Corp has launched an advertising scheme for intelligent investment. The moves indicate a market trend of effective advertising with low cost. Online advertisements of automobiles, real estate and finance will keep growing rapidly in the future.[60]
See also
[edit]- China Internet Project
- E-commerce in China
- Golden projects
- Great Cannon
- Human fle
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China
- Golden projects
- Great Cannon
- Human flesh search engine (HFSE)
- List of Internet phenomena in China
- List of Internet slang in China
- Media of China
- Telecommunications in China
- Satellite internet
- China Internet Civilization Conference
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Claude (language model)
Claude is a family of large language models developed by Anthropic.[1] The first model was released in March 2023.
The Claude 3 family, released in March 2024, consists of three models: Haiku, optimized for speed; Sonnet, which balances capability and performance; and Opus, designed for complex reasoning tasks. These models can process both text and images, with Claude 3 Opus demonstrating enhanced capabilities in areas like mathematics, programming, and logical reasoning
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ke mathematics, programming, and logical reasoning compared to previous versions.[2] Claude 4, which includes Opus and Sonnet, was released in May 2025.[3]
Training
[edit]Claude models are generative pre-trained transformers. They have been pre-trained to predict the next word in large amounts of text. Then, they have been fine-tuned, notably using constitutional AI and reinforcement learning from human feedback (RLHF).[4][5]
Constitutional AI
[edit]Constitutional AI is an approach developed by
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dit]Constitutional AI is an approach developed by Anthropic for training AI systems, particularly language models like Claude, to be harmless and helpful without relying on extensive human feedback.[6] The method, detailed in the paper "Constitutional AI: Harmlessness from AI Feedback" involves two phases: supervised learning and reinforcement learning.[7][8]
In the supervised learning phase, the model generates responses to prompts, self-critiques these responses based on a set of guiding princ
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es these responses based on a set of guiding principles (a "constitution"), and revises the responses. Then the model is fine-tuned on these revised responses.[8] For the reinforcement learning from AI feedback (RLAIF) phase, responses are generated, and an AI compares their compliance with this constitution. This dataset of AI feedback is used to train a preference model that evaluates responses based on how much they satisfy the constitution. Claude is then fine-tuned to align with this prefer
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laude is then fine-tuned to align with this preference model. This technique is similar to RLHF, except that the comparisons used to train the preference model are AI-generated.[6]
The constitution for Claude included 75 points, including sections from the UN Universal Declaration of Human Rights.[7][4]
Models
[edit]Claude is named after Claude Shannon, a pioneer in AI research.[17]
Claude
[edit]Claude was the initial version of Anthropic's language model released in March 2023,[18] Claude demon
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age model released in March 2023,[18] Claude demonstrated proficiency in various tasks but had certain limitations in coding, math, and reasoning capabilities.[19] Anthropic partnered with companies like Notion (productivity software) and Quora (to help develop the Poe chatbot).[19]
Claude Instant
[edit]Claude was released as two versions, Claude and Claude Instant, with Claude Instant being a faster, less expensive, and lighter version. Claude Instant has an input context length of 100,000 toke
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nstant has an input context length of 100,000 tokens (which corresponds to around 75,000 words).[20]
Claude 2
[edit]Claude 2 was the next major iteration of Claude, which was released in July 2023 and available to the general public, whereas the Claude 1 was only available to selected users approved by Anthropic.[21]
Claude 2 expanded its context window from 9,000 tokens to 100,000 tokens.[18] Features included the ability to upload PDFs and other documents that enables Claude to read, summarize
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r documents that enables Claude to read, summarize, and assist with tasks.
Claude 2.1
[edit]Claude 2.1 doubled the number of tokens that the chatbot could handle, increasing it to a window of 200,000 tokens, which equals around 500 pages of written material.[12]
Anthropic states that the new model is less likely to produce false statements compared to its predecessors.[22]
Criticism
[edit]Claude 2 received criticism for its stringent ethical alignment that may reduce usability and performance. U
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nment that may reduce usability and performance. Users have been refused assistance with benign requests, for example with the system administration question "How can I kill all python processes in my ubuntu server?" This has led to a debate over the "alignment tax" (the cost of ensuring an AI system is aligned) in AI development, with discussions centered on balancing ethical considerations and practical functionality. Critics argued for user autonomy and effectiveness, while proponents stresse
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tonomy and effectiveness, while proponents stressed the importance of ethical AI.[23][22]
Claude 3
[edit]Claude 3 was released on March 4, 2024, with claims in the press release to have set new industry benchmarks across a wide range of cognitive tasks. The Claude 3 family includes three state-of-the-art models in ascending order of capability: Haiku, Sonnet, and Opus. The default version of Claude 3, Opus, has a context window of 200,000 tokens, but this is being expanded to 1 million for speci
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but this is being expanded to 1 million for specific use cases.[24][2]
Claude 3 drew attention for demonstrating an apparent ability to realize it is being artificially tested during needle in a haystack tests.[25]
Claude 3.5
[edit]On June 20, 2024, Anthropic released Claude 3.5 Sonnet, which demonstrated significantly improved performance on benchmarks compared to the larger Claude 3 Opus, notably in areas such as coding, multistep workflows, chart interpretation, and text extraction from imag
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hart interpretation, and text extraction from images. Released alongside 3.5 Sonnet was the new Artifacts capability in which Claude was able to create code in a dedicated window in the interface and preview the rendered output in real time, such as SVG graphics or websites.[14] Anthropic also announced that Claude 3.5 Opus would be released later that year, and added it to their models page.[26] However, as of February 2025, Claude 3.5 Opus has not been released, and Anthropic has removed menti
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not been released, and Anthropic has removed mention of it from the models page.[27]
An "upgraded Claude 3.5 Sonnet", billed as "Claude 3.5 Sonnet (New)" in the web interface and benchmarks, was introduced on October 22, 2024, along with Claude 3.5 Haiku.[28] A feature, "computer use," was also unveiled in public beta. This capability enables Claude 3.5 Sonnet to interact with a computer's desktop environment, performing tasks such as moving the cursor, clicking buttons, and typing text, effecti
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cursor, clicking buttons, and typing text, effectively mimicking human computer interactions. This development allows the AI to autonomously execute complex, multi-step tasks across various applications.[29][30]
Upon release, Anthropic claimed Claude 3.5 Haiku would remain the same price as its predecessor, Claude 3 Haiku.[29] However, on November 4th, 2024, Anthropic announced that they would be increasing the price of the model "to reflect its increase in intelligence".[31][32]
Claude 3.7
[edi
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increase in intelligence".[31][32]
Claude 3.7
[edit]Claude 3.7 Sonnet was released on February 24, 2025. It is a pioneering hybrid AI reasoning model that allows users to choose between rapid responses and more thoughtful, step-by-step reasoning. This model integrates both capabilities into a single framework, eliminating the need for multiple models. Users can control how long the model "thinks" about a question, balancing speed and accuracy based on their needs.[15]
Anthropic also launched a r
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ed on their needs.[15]
Anthropic also launched a research preview of Claude Code, an agentic command line tool that enables developers to delegate coding tasks directly from their terminal.[33][34]
Claude 4
[edit]On May 22, 2025, Anthropic released two more models: Claude Sonnet 4 and Claude Opus 4.[35][36] Anthropic classified Opus 4 as a "Level 3" model on the company's four-point safety scale, meaning they consider it so powerful that it poses "significantly higher risk."[3]
Features
[edit]In
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"significantly higher risk."[3]
Features
[edit]In June 2024, Anthropic released the Artifacts feature, allowing users to generate and interact with code snippets and documents.[37]
In October 2024, Anthropic released the "computer use" feature, allowing Claude to attempt to navigate computers by interpreting screen content and simulating keyboard and mouse input.[38]
In March 2025, Anthropic added a web search feature to Claude, starting with only paying users located in the United States.[39]
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ly paying users located in the United States.[39]
Criticism
[edit]Claude uses a web crawler, ClaudeBot, to search the web for content. It has been criticized for not respecting a site's robots.txt and placing excessive load on sites.[40]
See also
[edit]References
[edit]- ^ "What is Claude AI?". IBM. September 24, 2024.
- ^ a b Whitney, Lance (March 4, 2024). "Anthropic's Claude 3 chatbot claims to outperform ChatGPT, Gemini". ZDNET. Archived from the original on March 5, 2024. Retrieved March 5,
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#18
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the original on March 5, 2024. Retrieved March 5, 2024.
- ^ a b Fried, Ina (May 23, 2025). "Anthropic's new AI model shows ability to deceive and blackmail". Axios. Retrieved May 25, 2025.
- ^ a b "What to Know About Claude 2, Anthropic's Rival to ChatGPT". TIME. July 18, 2023. Archived from the original on January 11, 2024. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
- ^ Nuñez, Michael (May 9, 2023). "Anthropic releases AI constitution to promote ethical behavior and development". VentureBeat. Retrieved Novem
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#19
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ior and development". VentureBeat. Retrieved November 17, 2024.
- ^ a b Edwards, Benj (May 9, 2023). "AI gains "values" with Anthropic's new Constitutional AI chatbot approach". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on May 10, 2023. Retrieved November 17, 2024.
- ^ a b Bai, Yuntao; Kadavath, Saurav; Kundu, Sandipan; Askell, Amanda; Kernion, Jackson; Jones, Andy; Chen, Anna; Goldie, Anna; Mirhoseini, Azalia (December 15, 2022), Constitutional AI: Harmlessness from AI Feedback, arXiv:2212.08073
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#20
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I: Harmlessness from AI Feedback, arXiv:2212.08073
- ^ a b "Claude's Constitution". Anthropic. May 9, 2023. Archived from the original on March 26, 2024. Retrieved March 26, 2024.
- ^ Roth, Emma (March 14, 2023). "Google-backed Anthropic launches Claude, an AI chatbot that's easier to talk to". The Verge. Retrieved April 12, 2025.
- ^ "Claude 2". Anthropic. July 11, 2023. Archived from the original on January 30, 2025. Retrieved April 12, 2025.
- ^ Wiggers, Kyle (August 9, 2023). "Anthropic laun
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#21
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^ Wiggers, Kyle (August 9, 2023). "Anthropic launches improved version of its entry-level LLM". TechCrunch. Retrieved April 12, 2025.
- ^ a b Davis, Wes (November 21, 2023). "OpenAI rival Anthropic makes its Claude chatbot even more useful". The Verge. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
- ^ "Anthropic releases more powerful Claude 3 AI as tech race continues". Reuters. March 4, 2024.
- ^ a b Pierce, David (June 20, 2024). "Anthropic has a fast new AI mod
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#22
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(June 20, 2024). "Anthropic has a fast new AI model — and a clever new way to interact with chatbots". The Verge. Archived from the original on July 14, 2024. Retrieved June 20, 2024.
- ^ a b Zeff, Maxwell (February 24, 2025). "Anthropic launches a new AI model that 'thinks' as long as you want". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on February 24, 2025. Retrieved February 25, 2025.
- ^ "Introducing Claude 4". www.anthropic.com. Retrieved May 22, 2025.
- ^ Roose, Kevin (July 11, 2023). "Insid
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#23
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22, 2025.
- ^ Roose, Kevin (July 11, 2023). "Inside the White-Hot Center of A.I. Doomerism". The New York Times. Archived from the original on July 12, 2023. Retrieved October 25, 2024.
- ^ a b Drapkin, Aaron (October 27, 2023). "What Is Claude AI and Anthropic? ChatGPT's Rival Explained". Tech.co. Archived from the original on October 28, 2023. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
- ^ a b "Introducing Claude". Anthropic. March 14, 2023. Archived from the original on May 16, 2024. Retrieved January 23, 2
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#24
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original on May 16, 2024. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
- ^ Yao, Deborah (August 11, 2023). "Anthropic's Claude Instant: A Smaller, Faster and Cheaper Language Model". AI Business. Archived from the original on June 3, 2024. Retrieved March 5, 2024.
- ^ Matthews, Dylan (July 17, 2023). "The $1 billion gamble to ensure AI doesn't destroy humanity". Vox. Archived from the original on October 3, 2023. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
- ^ a b "Anthropic Announces Claude 2.1 LLM with Wider Context Window a
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#25
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nounces Claude 2.1 LLM with Wider Context Window and Support for AI Tools". InfoQ. Archived from the original on January 23, 2024. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
- ^ Glifton, Gerald (January 3, 2024). "Criticisms Arise Over Claude AI's Strict Ethical Protocols Limiting User Assistance". Light Square. Archived from the original on January 3, 2025. Retrieved January 23, 2024.
- ^ "Introducing the next generation of Claude". Anthropic. March 4, 2024. Archived from the original on March 4, 2024. Retrie
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#26
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rchived from the original on March 4, 2024. Retrieved March 4, 2024.
- ^ Edwards, Benj (March 5, 2024). "Anthropic's Claude 3 causes stir by seeming to realize when it was being tested". Ars Technica. Archived from the original on March 8, 2024. Retrieved March 9, 2024.
- ^ "Learn about Claude - Models". Anthropic Documentation. Archived from the original on June 25, 2024. Retrieved February 13, 2025.
- ^ "About Claude Models". Anthropic Documentation. Archived from the original on June 25, 2024
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#27
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ation. Archived from the original on June 25, 2024. Retrieved February 13, 2025.
- ^ @AnthropicAI (October 22, 2024). "Introducing an upgraded Claude 3.5 Sonnet, and a new model, Claude 3.5 Haiku. We're also introducing a new capability in beta: computer use. Developers can now direct Claude to use computers the way people do—by looking at a screen, moving a cursor, clicking, and typing text" (Tweet). Retrieved February 13, 2025 – via Twitter.
- ^ a b "Introducing computer use, a new Claude 3.5
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#28
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^ a b "Introducing computer use, a new Claude 3.5 Sonnet, and Claude 3.5 Haiku". Anthropic. October 22, 2024. Archived from the original on October 22, 2024. Retrieved October 25, 2024.
- ^ Shakir, Umar (October 22, 2024). "Anthropic's latest AI update can use a computer on its own". The Verge. Archived from the original on January 5, 2025. Retrieved January 6, 2025.
- ^ Wiggers, Kyle (November 4, 2024). "Anthropic hikes the price of its Haiku model". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on Fe
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#29
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del". TechCrunch. Archived from the original on February 14, 2025. Retrieved February 13, 2025.
- ^ @AnthropicAI (November 4, 2024). "During final testing, Haiku surpassed Claude 3 Opus, our previous flagship model, on many benchmarks—at a fraction of the cost. As a result, we've increased pricing for Claude 3.5 Haiku to reflect its increase in intelligence" (Tweet). Retrieved February 13, 2025 – via Twitter.
- ^ Nuñez, Michael (February 24, 2025). "Anthropic's Claude 3.7 Sonnet takes aim at Ope
|
https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#30
|
). "Anthropic's Claude 3.7 Sonnet takes aim at OpenAI and DeepSeek in AI's next big battle". VentureBeat. Archived from the original on February 24, 2025. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ^ "Claude 3.7 Sonnet and Claude Code". Anthropic. Archived from the original on February 24, 2025. Retrieved February 24, 2025.
- ^ Weatherbed, Jess (May 22, 2025). "Anthropic's Claude 4 AI models are better at coding and reasoning". The Verge. Retrieved May 23, 2025.
- ^ Field, Hayden (May 22, 2025). "Anthropic
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#31
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025.
- ^ Field, Hayden (May 22, 2025). "Anthropic launches Claude 4, its most powerful AI model yet". CNBC. Retrieved May 23, 2025.
- ^ Nuñez, Michael (June 21, 2024). "Why Anthropic's Artifacts may be this year's most important AI feature: Unveiling the interface battle". VentureBeat. Retrieved March 23, 2025.
- ^ Shakir, Umar (October 22, 2024). "Anthropic's latest AI update can use a computer on its own". The Verge. Archived from the original on January 5, 2025. Retrieved March 21, 2025.
Anth
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https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Claude_%28language_model%29#32
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on January 5, 2025. Retrieved March 21, 2025.
Anthropic does caution that computer use is still experimental and can be "cumbersome and error-prone." The company says
- ^ Robison, Kylie (March 20, 2025). "Anthropic's chatbot now has web search". The Verge. Retrieved March 21, 2025.
- ^ Weatherbed, Jess (July 26, 2024). "Anthropic's crawler is ignoring websites' anti-AI scraping policies". The Verge.
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IBM Information Management System
The IBM Information Management System (IMS) is a joint hierarchical database and information management system that supports transaction processing.[1] Development began in 1966 to keep track of the bill of materials for the Saturn V rocket of the Apollo program, and the first version on the IBM System/360 Model 65 was completed in 1967 as ICS/DL/I and officially installed in August 1968.
IBM rebranded it IMS/360 in 1969, and ported it to new platforms as they e
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in 1969, and ported it to new platforms as they emerged. In 1988, the company claimed that there were 7,000 IMS sites active worldwide. and went on to see extensive use and continual improvement to this day. IMS's most successful year in terms of sales was in 2003, 35 years after it was released. It was in use by over 95% of the Fortune 1000.[2]
History
[edit]DATE and DL/1
[edit]IMS ultimately traces its history to a 1963 contract from NASA to help control the continual list of changes being ma
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elp control the continual list of changes being made to the Apollo command and service module at the North American Rockwell (NAR) plants in Downey, California (Los Angeles area). IBM sent Uri Berman to build an application to track the latest change number for any given part on NAR's IBM 7010 mainframe computer.[3]
Working with Rockwell's Pete Nordyke, they developed a system based on the recently introduced hard disk which could be queried by NAR's network of computer terminals spread through
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AR's network of computer terminals spread through the engineering department. The database stored the parts number and their latest revisions, which ensured that any changes being made by the engineers were being applied to the latest version of any related parts, which they could find by looking up the relationships between the parts in the database.[3]
The resulting system, known as DATE for "Disk Applications in a Teleprocessing Environment", was flexible due to Berman's decision to separate
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was flexible due to Berman's decision to separate the portions of the system responsible for the physical storage on disk with the portions that handled user interaction. The user interaction side was realized to be a separate concept and began to be known as DL/1, for "Data Language/One". The system was installed on the 7010 in 1965.[4]
ICS
[edit]By the time DATE was running, the 7010 was obsolete and the entire 7000 series was replaced by the System/360 family. NAR selected the IBM System/360
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ystem/360 family. NAR selected the IBM System/360 Model 65 as their replacement for the 7010. As part of a port to the 360, IBM proposed an extended version of the DATE concept that could further develop the storage side of the system to allow the data format to be defined separately from the DL/1 side that would query it. This would allow the same system to be used for any sort of data by changing what would today be known as the data definition. Rockwell management was skeptical, but the techn
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. Rockwell management was skeptical, but the technical manager, Robert Brown, was a former IBM employee and eventually came to support the concept based on the promise that it would allow it to be more easily ported.[4]
The first formal definition was written in 1966. The team was expanded with twelve people from IBM, ten from NAR, and three from Caterpillar Tractor who also planned to use the system. The new system was known as ICS/DL/I, for "Information Control System and Data Language/Interfa
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formation Control System and Data Language/Interface"[a] The first version was completed in 1967, and officially installed at NAR on 14 August 1968 when the first "READY" message appeared on an NAR IBM 2740 terminal.[5]
IMS
[edit]The next year, IBM put the product on the market after rebranding it IMS/360.[6] It has been developed and expanded continually since then, as IBM System/360 technology evolved into the current z/OS and IBM zEnterprise System technologies. In 1988, as part of its 20th y
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ystem technologies. In 1988, as part of its 20th year of use, IBM announced that IMS was in use at 7,000 locations.[6] In From Airline Reservations to Sonic the Hedgehog, Martin Campbell-Kelly put the number at 30,000 at the end of 1989.[7]
Vern Watts had worked continuously on IMS since the 1960's[8] and was IMS's chief architect for many years. Watts joined IBM in 1956 and worked at IBM's Silicon Valley development labs until his death on April 4, 2009.[9] For his work as the "father of DL/1",
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4, 2009.[9] For his work as the "father of DL/1", Berman received an IBM Outstanding Contribution Award and its associated $100,000.[6]
Database
[edit]IBM Information Management System (IMS) utilizes a hierarchical database model, distinct from IBM's later relational database model as seen in IBM Db2. In IMS, data is organized into segments (known today as records or structs), each comprising multiple fields, structured hierarchically to manage complex relationships effectively.[10] For instanc
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complex relationships effectively.[10] For instance, in a customer database, a root segment at the top of the hierarchy may include fields such as phone number, name, and age. Child segments can be added beneath, such as order segments under each customer segment, representing orders placed by customers, with further child segments for individual items on each order.
Types of IMS Hierarchical Databases
[edit]Full Function Databases
[edit]- Originating from the Data Language Interface (DL/I) data
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ating from the Data Language Interface (DL/I) databases developed for Apollo, full function databases support primary and secondary indexes, accessed via DL/I calls similar to SQL calls in IBM Db2 or Oracle.[citation needed]
- These databases can be accessed through various methods, with Hierarchical Direct (HDAM) and Hierarchical Indexed Direct (HIDAM) being prominent. Other formats include Simple Hierarchical Indexed Sequential (SHISAM), Hierarchical Sequential (HSAM), and Hierarchical Indexed
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chical Sequential (HSAM), and Hierarchical Indexed Sequential (HISAM).[11]
- Data in full-function databases is stored using VSAM, a native z/OS access method, or OSAM, an IMS-specific method optimizing I/O for IMS access patterns, particularly benefiting from sequential access (OSAM Sequential Buffering).[citation needed]
Fast Path Databases
[edit]- Optimized for high transaction rates, Fast Path databases include Data Entry Databases (DEDBs) and Main Storage Databases (MSDBs).[12][citation nee
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d Main Storage Databases (MSDBs).[12][citation needed]
- DEDBs employ direct (randomizer) access similar to HDAM in full-function databases, offering enhanced performance through high-performance access methods and asynchronous write after commit. They leverage a Unit of Work (UOW) concept for simplified online reorganization utilities starting from IMS Version 11.[13]
High Availability Large Databases (HALDBs)
[edit]- Introduced in IMS V7, HALDBs extend the capabilities of full function databas
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s extend the capabilities of full function databases to enhance availability and handle large data volumes effectively.[14]
- IMS V9 introduced online reorganization for HALDBs, supporting continuous availability and accommodating data volumes exceeding 40 terabytes.
Transaction Manager
[edit]IMS is a transaction manager, (IMS TM, also known as IMS DC) which interacts with an end user connected through VTAM or TCP/IP, (including 3270 and Web user interfaces) or another application. It can proces
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interfaces) or another application. It can process a business function (such as a banking account withdrawal), and maintain state throughout the process, making sure that the system records the business function correctly to a data store.
IMS TM uses a messaging and queuing paradigm. An IMS control program receives a transaction entered from a terminal (or Web browser or other application) and then stores the transaction on a message queue (in memory or in a dataset). IMS then invokes its sched
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emory or in a dataset). IMS then invokes its scheduler on the queued transaction to start the business application program in a message processing region. The message processing region retrieves the transaction from the IMS message queue and processes it, reading and updating IMS and/or Db2 databases and ensuring proper recording of the transaction. Then, if required, IMS enqueues a response message back onto the IMS message queue. Once the output message is complete and available, the IMS contr
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t message is complete and available, the IMS control program sends it back to the originating terminal. IMS TM can handle this whole process thousands (or even tens of thousands) of times per second. In 2013, IBM completed a benchmark on IMS Version 13 demonstrating the ability to process 100,000 transactions per second on a single IMS system.[15]
Application
[edit]IMS TM provides a standard environment for transaction execution. Several Chinese banks had purchased IMS by the late 2000s to suppo
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banks had purchased IMS by the late 2000s to support the country's burgeoning financial industry.[16]
IMS complements IBM Db2, IBM's relational database system introduced in 1982. IMS generally performs faster than Db2 for common tasks, but may require more programming effort to design and maintain for non-primary duties.
A relational data warehouse may be used to supplement an IMS database. For example, IMS may provide primary ATM transactions because it performs well for such a specific task.
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ecause it performs well for such a specific task.
See also
[edit]Notes
[edit]- ^ The "Data Language/Interface" terminology comes from IBM's pages on the topic, while Data Language/One comes from Berman's description.
References
[edit]- ^ "IMS (Information Management System) - Mainframes.com". www.mainframes.com. Retrieved 2024-06-07.
- ^ Meltz, Dean (December 2004). Introduction to IMS, An: Your Complete Guide to IBM's Information Management System. IBM Press.
- ^ a b Berman 2016, p. 2.
- ^ a b
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