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6,211 | # Context-sensitive grammar
## Formal definition {#formal_definition}
### Formal grammar {#formal_grammar}
Let us notate a formal grammar as $G = (N, \Sigma, P, S)$, with $N$ a set of nonterminal symbols, $\Sigma$ a set of terminal symbols, $P$ a set of production rules, and $S \in N$ the start symbol.
A string $u ... | 499 | Context-sensitive grammar | 1 |
6,211 | # Context-sensitive grammar
## Examples
### *a^n^b^n^c^n^*
The following context-sensitive grammar, with start symbol *S*, generates the canonical non-context-free language { *a^n^b^n^c^n^* \| *n* ≥ 1 } :
----------- ----- --------- ------- ----- ----- -----
1\. *S* → *a* *B* *C*
... | 640 | Context-sensitive grammar | 2 |
6,211 | # Context-sensitive grammar
## Properties and uses {#properties_and_uses}
### Equivalence to linear bounded automaton {#equivalence_to_linear_bounded_automaton}
A formal language can be described by a context-sensitive grammar if and only if it is accepted by some linear bounded automaton (LBA). In some textbooks th... | 571 | Context-sensitive grammar | 3 |
6,233 | # Connected space
In topology and related branches of mathematics, a **connected space** is a topological space that cannot be represented as the union of two or more disjoint non-empty open subsets. Connectedness is one of the principal topological properties that distinguish topological spaces.
A subset of a topolo... | 747 | Connected space | 0 |
6,233 | # Connected space
## Examples
- The closed interval $[0, 2)$ in the standard subspace topology is connected; although it can, for example, be written as the union of $[0, 1)$ and $[1, 2),$ the second set is not open in the chosen topology of $[0, 2).$
- The union of $[0, 1)$ and $(1, 2]$ is disconnected; both of ... | 551 | Connected space | 1 |
6,233 | # Connected space
## Path connectedness {#path_connectedness}
A `{{visible anchor|path-connected space}}`{=mediawiki} is a stronger notion of connectedness, requiring the structure of a path. A path from a point $x$ to a point $y$ in a topological space $X$ is a continuous function $f$ from the unit interval $[0,1]$ ... | 733 | Connected space | 2 |
6,233 | # Connected space
## Set operations {#set_operations}
The intersection of connected sets is not necessarily connected.
The union of connected sets is not necessarily connected, as can be seen by considering $X=(0,1) \cup (1,2)$.
Each ellipse is a connected set, but the union is not connected, since it can be partit... | 323 | Connected space | 3 |
6,233 | # Connected space
## Theorems
- **Main theorem of connectedness** : Let $X$ and $Y$ be topological spaces and let $f:X\rightarrow Y$ be a continuous function. If $X$ is (path-)connected then the image $f(X)$ is (path-)connected. This result can be considered a generalization of the intermediate value theorem.
- E... | 569 | Connected space | 4 |
6,247 | # Condensation polymer
In polymer chemistry, **condensation polymers** are any kind of polymers whose process of polymerization involves a condensation reaction (i.e. a small molecule, such as water or methanol, is produced as a byproduct). Natural proteins as well as some common plastics such as nylon and PETE are fo... | 314 | Condensation polymer | 0 |
6,249 | # Timeline of computing
**Timeline of computing** presents events in the history of computing organized by year and grouped into six topic areas: predictions and concepts, first use and inventions, hardware systems and processors, operating systems, programming languages, and new application areas | 42 | Timeline of computing | 0 |
6,256 | # List of cartoonists
This is a **list of cartoonists**, visual artists who specialize in drawing cartoons. This list includes only notable cartoonists and is not meant to be exhaustive. Note that the word \'cartoon\' only took on its modern sense after its use in Punch magazine in the 1840s - artists working earlier ... | 1,694 | List of cartoonists | 0 |
6,256 | # List of cartoonists
## Cartoonists of comic strips {#cartoonists_of_comic_strips}
- Scott Adams, *Dilbert*
- Alex Akerbladh
- Bill Amend, *FoxTrot*
- George Baker, *Sad Sack*
- Tom Batiuk, *Funky Winkerbean*
- Murray Ball, *Footrot Flats*
- Darrin Bell, *Candorville*, *Rudy Park*
- Stephen Bentley, ... | 800 | List of cartoonists | 1 |
6,256 | # List of cartoonists
## Cartoonists of single-panel cartoons {#cartoonists_of_single_panel_cartoons}
- Charles Addams
- Gene Ahern
- Glen Baxter
- Belsky
- Jim Benton
- Rupert Besley
- Charles Boyce, *Compu-Toon*
- Barry Bradfield
- Sheree Bradford-Lea
- Bo Brown
- Ivan Brunetti
- John Callah... | 508 | List of cartoonists | 2 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
A **chemical reaction** is a process that leads to the chemical transformation of one set of chemical substances to another. When chemical reactions occur, the atoms are rearranged and the reaction is accompanied by an energy change as new products are generated. Classically, chemical reactions enc... | 414 | Chemical reaction | 0 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## History
Chemical reactions such as combustion in fire, fermentation and the reduction of ores to metals were known since antiquity. Initial theories of transformation of materials were developed by Greek philosophers, such as the Four-Element Theory of Empedocles stating that any substance is c... | 729 | Chemical reaction | 1 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Elementary reactions {#elementary_reactions}
The elementary reaction is the smallest division into which a chemical reaction can be decomposed, it has no intermediate products. Most experimentally observed reactions are built up from many elementary reactions that occur in parallel or sequentia... | 348 | Chemical reaction | 2 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Chemical equilibrium {#chemical_equilibrium}
Most chemical reactions are reversible; that is, they can and do run in both directions. The forward and reverse reactions are competing with each other and differ in reaction rates. These rates depend on the concentration and therefore change with t... | 555 | Chemical reaction | 3 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Kinetics
The speed at which reactions take place is studied by reaction kinetics. The rate depends on various parameters, such as:
- Reactant concentrations, which usually make the reaction happen at a faster rate if raised through increased collisions per unit of time. Some reactions, howev... | 468 | Chemical reaction | 4 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Reaction types {#reaction_types}
### Four basic types {#four_basic_types}
#### Synthesis
In a synthesis reaction, two or more simple substances combine to form a more complex substance. These reactions are in the general form: A + B-\>AB
Two or more reactants yielding one product is another ... | 624 | Chemical reaction | 5 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Reaction types {#reaction_types}
### Oxidation and reduction {#oxidation_and_reduction}
Redox reactions can be understood in terms of the transfer of electrons from one involved species (reducing agent) to another (oxidizing agent). In this process, the former species is *oxidized* and the latt... | 945 | Chemical reaction | 6 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Reaction types {#reaction_types}
### Solid-state reactions {#solid_state_reactions}
Reactions can take place between two solids. However, because of the relatively small diffusion rates in solids, the corresponding chemical reactions are very slow in comparison to liquid and gas phase reactions... | 259 | Chemical reaction | 7 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Catalysis
In catalysis, the reaction does not proceed directly, but through a reaction with a third substance known as catalyst. Although the catalyst takes part in the reaction, forming weak bonds with reactants or intermediates, it is returned to its original state by the end of the reaction ... | 286 | Chemical reaction | 8 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Reactions in organic chemistry {#reactions_in_organic_chemistry}
In organic chemistry, in addition to oxidation, reduction or acid-base reactions, a number of other reactions can take place which involves covalent bonds between carbon atoms or carbon and heteroatoms (such as oxygen, nitrogen, h... | 675 | Chemical reaction | 9 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Reactions in organic chemistry {#reactions_in_organic_chemistry}
### Addition and elimination {#addition_and_elimination}
The addition and its counterpart, the elimination, are reactions that change the number of substituents on the carbon atom, and form or cleave multiple bonds. Double and tri... | 624 | Chemical reaction | 10 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Reactions in organic chemistry {#reactions_in_organic_chemistry}
### Other organic reaction mechanisms {#other_organic_reaction_mechanisms}
`{{multiple image | direction = vertical
| align = right
| width = 220
| image1= Diels Alder Mechanismus.svg
|caption1=Mechanism of a Diels-Alder reaction
... | 485 | Chemical reaction | 11 |
6,271 | # Chemical reaction
## Applications
Chemical reactions are central to chemical engineering, where they are used for the synthesis of new compounds from natural raw materials such as petroleum, mineral ores, and oxygen in air. It is essential to make the reaction as efficient as possible, maximizing the yield and mini... | 254 | Chemical reaction | 12 |
6,276 | # Casiquiare canal
The **Casiquiare river** or **canal** (`{{IPA|es|kasiˈkjaɾe}}`{=mediawiki}) is a natural distributary of the upper Orinoco flowing southward into the Rio Negro, in Venezuela, South America. As such, it forms a unique natural canal between the Orinoco and Amazon river systems. It is the world\'s larg... | 376 | Casiquiare canal | 0 |
6,276 | # Casiquiare canal
## Geography
The origin of the Casiquiare, at the River Orinoco, is 9 mi below the mission of La Esmeralda at 3 8 18.5 N 65 52 42.5 W region:VE-X_type:landmark display=inline, and about 123 m above sea level. Its mouth at the Rio Negro, an affluent of the Amazon River, is near the town of San Carlo... | 739 | Casiquiare canal | 1 |
6,280 | # Cuboctahedron
A **cuboctahedron** is a polyhedron with 8 triangular faces and 6 square faces. A cuboctahedron has 12 identical vertices, with 2 triangles and 2 squares meeting at each, and 24 identical edges, each separating a triangle from a square. As such, it is a quasiregular polyhedron, i.e., an Archimedean sol... | 280 | Cuboctahedron | 0 |
6,280 | # Cuboctahedron
## Properties
### Measurement and other metric properties {#measurement_and_other_metric_properties}
The surface area of a cuboctahedron $A$ can be determined by summing all the area of its polygonal faces. The volume of a cuboctahedron $V$ can be determined by slicing it off into two regular triangu... | 354 | Cuboctahedron | 1 |
6,280 | # Cuboctahedron
## Properties
### Radial equilateral symmetry {#radial_equilateral_symmetry}
In a cuboctahedron, the long radius (center to vertex) is the same as the edge length; thus its long diameter (vertex to opposite vertex) is 2 edge lengths. Its center is like the apical vertex of a canonical pyramid: one edg... | 511 | Cuboctahedron | 2 |
6,280 | # Cuboctahedron
## Graph
The skeleton of a cuboctahedron may be represented as the graph, one of the Archimedean graph. It has 12 vertices and 24 edges. It is quartic graph, which is four vertices connecting each vertex.
The graph of a cuboctahedron may be constructed as the line graph of the cubical graph, making i... | 329 | Cuboctahedron | 3 |
6,290 | # Christian Goldbach
**Christian Goldbach** (`{{IPAc-en|ˈ|ɡ|oʊ|l|d|b|ɑː|k}}`{=mediawiki} `{{respell|GOHLD|bahk}}`{=mediawiki}, `{{IPA|de|ˈkʁɪsti̯a(ː)n ˈɡɔltbax|lang}}`{=mediawiki}; 18 March 1690 -- 20 November 1764) was a Prussian mathematician connected with some important research mainly in number theory; he also st... | 700 | Christian Goldbach | 0 |
6,290 | # Christian Goldbach
## Contributions
Goldbach is most noted for his correspondence with Leibniz, Euler, and Bernoulli, especially in his 1742 letter to Euler stating his Goldbach\'s conjecture. He also studied and proved some theorems on perfect powers, such as the Goldbach--Euler theorem, and made several notable c... | 313 | Christian Goldbach | 1 |
6,292 | # Convex set
In geometry, a set of points is **convex** if it contains every line segment between two points in the set. For example, a solid cube is a convex set, but anything that is hollow or has an indent, for example, a crescent shape, is not convex.
The boundary of a convex set in the plane is always a convex c... | 506 | Convex set | 0 |
6,292 | # Convex set
## Properties
Given `{{mvar|r}}`{=mediawiki} points `{{math|''u''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''u<sub>r</sub>''}}`{=mediawiki} in a convex set `{{mvar|S}}`{=mediawiki}, and `{{mvar|r}}`{=mediawiki} nonnegative numbers `{{math|''λ''<sub>1</sub>, ..., ''λ<sub>r</sub>''}}`{=mediawiki} such that `{{math|''λ''<sub>1</s... | 893 | Convex set | 1 |
6,292 | # Convex set
## Convex hulls and Minkowski sums {#convex_hulls_and_minkowski_sums}
### Convex hulls {#convex_hulls}
Every subset `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki} of the vector space is contained within a smallest convex set (called the *convex hull* of `{{mvar|A}}`{=mediawiki}), namely the intersection of all convex sets co... | 522 | Convex set | 2 |
6,292 | # Convex set
## Generalizations and extensions for convexity {#generalizations_and_extensions_for_convexity}
The notion of convexity in the Euclidean space may be generalized by modifying the definition in some or other aspects. The common name \"generalized convexity\" is used, because the resulting objects retain c... | 494 | Convex set | 3 |
6,299 | # Chupacabra
The **chupacabra** or ***chupacabras*** (`{{IPA|es|tʃupaˈkaβɾas}}`{=mediawiki}, literally \'goat-sucker\', from *chupa*, \'sucks\', and *cabras*, \'goats\') is a legendary creature, or cryptid, in the folklore of parts of the Americas. The name comes from the animal\'s purported vampirism `{{Ndash}}`{=med... | 482 | Chupacabra | 0 |
6,299 | # Chupacabra
## Reputed origin {#reputed_origin}
A five-year investigation by Benjamin Radford, documented in his 2011 book *Tracking the Chupacabra*, concluded that the description given by the original eyewitness in Puerto Rico, Madelyne Tolentino, was based on the creature Sil in the 1995 science-fiction horror fi... | 611 | Chupacabra | 1 |
6,299 | # Chupacabra
## Plausibility of existence {#plausibility_of_existence}
The chupacabra panic first started in late 1995, Puerto Rico: farmers were mass reporting the mysterious killings of various livestock. In these reports, the farmers recalled two puncture wounds on the animal carcasses. Chupacabra killings were so... | 535 | Chupacabra | 2 |
6,299 | # Chupacabra
## Related legends {#related_legends}
The \"Ozark Howler\", a large bear-like animal, is the subject of a similar legend.
The Peuchens of Chile also share similarities in their supposed habits, but instead of being dog-like they are described as winged snakes. This legend may have originated from the va... | 647 | Chupacabra | 3 |
6,314 | # Fire (classical element)
**Fire** is one of the four classical elements along with earth, water and air in ancient Greek philosophy and science. Fire is considered to be both hot and dry and, according to Plato, is associated with the tetrahedron.
## Greek and Roman tradition {#greek_and_roman_tradition}
Fire is o... | 874 | Fire (classical element) | 0 |
6,314 | # Fire (classical element)
## Ceremonial magic {#ceremonial_magic}
Fire and the other Greek classical elements were incorporated into the Golden Dawn system. Philosophus (4=7) is the elemental grade attributed to fire; this grade is also attributed to the Qabalistic Sephirah Netzach and the planet Venus. The elementa... | 363 | Fire (classical element) | 1 |
6,315 | # Air (classical element)
**Air** or **Wind** is one of the four classical elements along with water, earth and fire in ancient Greek philosophy and in Western alchemy.
## Greek and Roman tradition {#greek_and_roman_tradition}
According to Plato, it is associated with the octahedron; air is considered to be both hot... | 798 | Air (classical element) | 0 |
6,315 | # Air (classical element)
## Parallels in non-Western traditions {#parallels_in_non_western_traditions}
Air is not one of the traditional five Chinese classical elements. Nevertheless, the ancient Chinese concept of *Qi* or *chi* is believed to be close to that of air. *Qi* is believed to be part of every living thin... | 305 | Air (classical element) | 1 |
6,317 | # Earth (classical element)
**Earth** is one of the classical elements, in some systems being one of the four along with air, fire, and water.
## European tradition {#european_tradition}
thumb\|left\|upright=0.7\|*Earth* (1681) by Benoît Massou, a statue of the *Grande Commande*, with allegorical attributes inspired... | 645 | Earth (classical element) | 0 |
6,317 | # Earth (classical element)
## Other traditions {#other_traditions}
*Earth* is represented in the Aztec religion by a house; to the Hindus, a lotus; to the Scythians, a plough; to the Greeks, a wheel; and in Christian iconography; bulls and birds | 40 | Earth (classical element) | 1 |
6,319 | # Blue Jam
***Blue Jam*** was an ambient, surreal dark comedy and horror radio programme created and directed by Chris Morris. It was broadcast on BBC Radio 1 in the early hours of the morning, for three series from 1997 to 1999.
The programme gained cult status due to its unique mix of surreal monologue, ambient sou... | 356 | Blue Jam | 0 |
6,319 | # Blue Jam
## Format and style {#format_and_style}
Each episode opened (and closed) with a short spoken monologue (delivered by Morris) describing, in surreal, broken language, various bizarre feelings and situations (for example: \"when you sick so sad you cry, and in crying cry a whole leopard from your eye\"), set... | 725 | Blue Jam | 1 |
6,319 | # Blue Jam
## Music
*Blue Jam* features songs, generally of a downtempo nature, interspersed between (and sometimes during) sketches. Artists featured includes Massive Attack, Air, Morcheeba, The Chemical Brothers, Björk, Aphex Twin, Everything But the Girl and Dimitri from Paris, as well as various non-electronic ar... | 336 | Blue Jam | 2 |
6,330 | # Clement Martyn Doke
**Clement Martyn Doke** (16 May 1893 in Bristol, United Kingdom -- 24 February 1980 in East London, South Africa) was a South African linguist working mainly on African languages. Realizing that the grammatical structures of Bantu languages are quite different from those of European languages, he... | 586 | Clement Martyn Doke | 0 |
6,330 | # Clement Martyn Doke
## University of the Witwatersrand {#university_of_the_witwatersrand}
In 1919, Doke married Hilda Lehmann, who accompanied him back to Lambaland. Both contracted malaria during their work, and she was forbidden to return to Lambaland. Clement Doke also realised that his field work could not cont... | 545 | Clement Martyn Doke | 1 |
6,330 | # Clement Martyn Doke
## Selected publications {#selected_publications}
- *Ifintu Fyakwe Lesa* (The Things of God, a Primer of Scripture Knowledge in Lamba), 1917.
- An outline of the phonetics of the language of the ʗhũ̬꞉ Bushman of the North-West Kalahari. *Bantu Studies*. 2: 129--166, 1925. `{{doi|10.1080/0256... | 192 | Clement Martyn Doke | 2 |
6,331 | # Carl Meinhof
**Carl Friedrich Michael Meinhof** (23 July 1857 -- 11 February 1944) was a German linguist and one of the first linguists to study African languages.
## Early years and career {#early_years_and_career}
Meinhof was born in Barzwitz near Rügenwalde in the Province of Pomerania, Kingdom of Prussia. He s... | 530 | Carl Meinhof | 0 |
6,336 | # Chorded keyboard
A **keyset** or **chorded keyboard** (also called a chorded keyset, *chord keyboard* or *chording keyboard*) is a computer input device that allows the user to enter characters or commands formed by pressing several keys together, like playing a \"chord\" on a piano. The large number of combinations... | 454 | Chorded keyboard | 0 |
6,336 | # Chorded keyboard
## History
The earliest known chord keyboard was part of the \"five-needle\" telegraph operator station, designed by Wheatstone and Cooke in 1836, in which any two of the five needles could point left or right to indicate letters on a grid. It was designed to be used by untrained operators (who wou... | 1,098 | Chorded keyboard | 1 |
6,336 | # Chorded keyboard
## Stenography
Stenotype machines, sometimes used by court reporters, use a chording keyboard to represent sounds: on the standard keyboard, the U represents the sound and word, \'you\', and the three-key trigraph KAT represents the sound and word \'cat\'. The stenotype keyboard is explicitly order... | 1,095 | Chorded keyboard | 2 |
6,371 | # Centaurus
**Centaurus** (`{{IPAc-en|s|ɛ|n|ˈ|t|ɔːr|ə|s|,_|-|ˈ|t|ɑːr|-}}`{=mediawiki}) is a bright constellation in the southern sky. One of the largest constellations, Centaurus was included among the 48 constellations listed by the 2nd-century astronomer Ptolemy, and it remains one of the 88 modern constellations. I... | 749 | Centaurus | 0 |
6,371 | # Centaurus
## Notable features {#notable_features}
### Deep-sky objects {#deep_sky_objects}
ω Centauri (NGC 5139), despite being listed as the constellation\'s \"omega\" star, is in fact a naked-eye globular cluster, 17,000 light-years away with a diameter of 150 light-years. It is the largest and brightest globular... | 1,054 | Centaurus | 1 |
6,371 | # Centaurus
## History
While Centaurus now has a high southern latitude, at the dawn of civilization it was an equatorial constellation. Precession has been slowly shifting it southward for millennia, and it is now close to its maximal southern declination. In a little over 7000 years it will be at maximum visibility... | 351 | Centaurus | 2 |
6,371 | # Centaurus
## Equivalents
In Chinese astronomy, the stars of Centaurus are found in three areas: the Azure Dragon of the East (東方青龍, *Dōng Fāng Qīng Lóng*), the Vermillion Bird of the South (南方朱雀, *Nán Fāng Zhū Què*), and the Southern Asterisms (近南極星區, *Jìnnánjíxīngōu*). Not all of the stars of Centaurus can be seen... | 258 | Centaurus | 3 |
6,416 | # Impact crater
An **impact crater** is a depression in the surface of a solid astronomical body formed by the hypervelocity impact of a smaller object. In contrast to volcanic craters, which result from explosion or internal collapse, impact craters typically have raised rims and floors that are lower in elevation th... | 531 | Impact crater | 0 |
6,416 | # Impact crater
## History
Daniel M. Barringer, a mining engineer, was convinced already in 1903 that the crater he owned, Meteor Crater, was of cosmic origin. Most geologists at the time assumed it formed as the result of a volcanic steam eruption.
In the 1920s, the American geologist Walter H. Bucher studied a num... | 414 | Impact crater | 1 |
6,416 | # Impact crater
## Crater formation {#crater_formation}
Impact cratering involves high velocity collisions between solid objects, typically much greater than the speed of sound in those objects. Such hyper-velocity impacts produce physical effects such as melting and vaporization that do not occur in familiar sub-son... | 767 | Impact crater | 2 |
6,416 | # Impact crater
## Crater formation {#crater_formation}
### Excavation
Contact, compression, decompression, and the passage of the shock wave all occur within a few tenths of a second for a large impact. The subsequent excavation of the crater occurs more slowly, and during this stage the flow of material is largely ... | 622 | Impact crater | 3 |
6,416 | # Impact crater
## Crater formation {#crater_formation}
### Modification and collapse {#modification_and_collapse}
In most circumstances, the transient cavity is not stable and collapses under gravity. In small craters, less than about 4 km diameter on Earth, there is some limited collapse of the crater rim coupled w... | 440 | Impact crater | 4 |
6,416 | # Impact crater
## Identifying impact craters {#identifying_impact_craters}
Non-explosive volcanic craters can usually be distinguished from impact craters by their irregular shape and the association of volcanic flows and other volcanic materials. Impact craters produce melted rocks as well, but usually in smaller v... | 364 | Impact crater | 5 |
6,416 | # Impact crater
## Economic importance {#economic_importance}
On Earth, impact craters have resulted in useful minerals. Some of the ores produced from impact related effects on Earth include ores of iron, uranium, gold, copper, and nickel. It is estimated that the value of materials mined from impact structures is f... | 281 | Impact crater | 6 |
6,416 | # Impact crater
## Lists of craters {#lists_of_craters}
### Impact craters on Earth {#impact_craters_on_earth}
On Earth, the recognition of impact craters is a branch of geology, and is related to planetary geology in the study of other worlds. Out of many proposed craters, relatively few are confirmed. The followin... | 523 | Impact crater | 7 |
6,431 | # Charles Farrar Browne
**Charles Farrar Browne** (April 26, 1834 -- March 6, 1867) was an American humor writer, better known under his *nom de plume*, **Artemus Ward**, which as a character, an illiterate rube with \"Yankee common sense\", Browne also played in public performances. He is considered to be America\'s ... | 578 | Charles Farrar Browne | 0 |
6,431 | # Charles Farrar Browne
## Works
### Short stories {#short_stories}
- A Visit to Brigham Young
- Women\'s Rights
- One of Mr Ward\'s Business Letters
- On \"Forts\"
- Fourth of July Oration
- High-Handed Outrage at Utica
- Artemus Ward and the Prince of Wales
- Interview with Lincoln
- Letters to h... | 110 | Charles Farrar Browne | 1 |
6,434 | # Chojnów
Piast Castle \| image3 = Chojnów, wieża kościoła Świętych Apostołów Piotra i Pawła (3).jpg{{!}}Gothic Saints Peter and Paul Church \| image4 = Baszta-tkaczy-chojnow.jpg{{!}}Medieval Weavers Tower \| caption1 = Market Square \| caption2 = Piast Castle \| caption3 = Saints Peter and Paul Church \| caption4 = W... | 453 | Chojnów | 0 |
6,434 | # Chojnów
## History
The town is first mentioned in a Latin mediaeval document issued in Wrocław on February 26, 1253, stating, the Silesian Duke Henry III when the town is mentioned under the name Honowo. Possible the name of nearby Hainau Island. The name is of Polish origin, and in more modern records from the 19t... | 628 | Chojnów | 1 |
6,434 | # Chojnów
## Culture and sport {#culture_and_sport}
Every year in the first days of June, the *Days of Chojnów* (*Dni Chojnowa*) are celebrated. The Whole-Poland bike race *Masters* has been organized yearly in Chojnów for the past few years.
Chojnów has a Municipal sports and recreation center formed in 2008 holdin... | 441 | Chojnów | 2 |
6,449 | # Clock
A **clock** or **chronometer** is a device that measures and displays time. The clock is one of the oldest human inventions, meeting the need to measure intervals of time shorter than the natural units such as the day, the lunar month, and the year. Devices operating on several physical processes have been use... | 530 | Clock | 0 |
6,449 | # Clock
## History of time-measuring devices {#history_of_time_measuring_devices}
### Sundials
The apparent position of the Sun in the sky changes over the course of each day, reflecting the rotation of the Earth. Shadows cast by stationary objects move correspondingly, so their positions can be used to indicate the... | 630 | Clock | 1 |
6,449 | # Clock
## History of time-measuring devices {#history_of_time_measuring_devices}
### Mechanical water clocks {#mechanical_water_clocks}
The first known geared clock was invented by the great mathematician, physicist, and engineer Archimedes during the 3rd century BC. Archimedes created his astronomical clock,`{{fact... | 777 | Clock | 2 |
6,449 | # Clock
## History of time-measuring devices {#history_of_time_measuring_devices}
### Fully mechanical {#fully_mechanical}
The word *horologia* (from the Greek *ὥρα*---\'hour\', and *λέγειν*---\'to tell\') was used to describe early mechanical clocks, but the use of this word (still used in several Romance languages)... | 576 | Clock | 3 |
6,449 | # Clock
## History of time-measuring devices {#history_of_time_measuring_devices}
### Astronomical
An elaborate water clock, the \'Cosmic Engine\', was invented by Su Song, a Chinese polymath, designed and constructed in China in 1092. This great astronomical hydromechanical clock tower was about ten metres high (abo... | 522 | Clock | 4 |
6,449 | # Clock
## History of time-measuring devices {#history_of_time_measuring_devices}
### Spring-driven {#spring_driven}
Matthew Norman carriage clock with winding key.jpg\|Matthew Norman carriage clock with winding key 1908 Gilbert mantel clock decorated with Memento Mori decoupage.JPG\|Decorated William Gilbert mantel ... | 942 | Clock | 5 |
6,449 | # Clock
## History of time-measuring devices {#history_of_time_measuring_devices}
### Mass production {#mass_production}
The British had dominated watch manufacture for much of the 17th and 18th centuries, but maintained a system of production that was geared towards high quality products for the elite. Although ther... | 802 | Clock | 6 |
6,449 | # Clock
## Operation
The invention of the mechanical clock in the 13th century initiated a change in timekeeping methods from continuous processes, such as the motion of the gnomon\'s shadow on a sundial or the flow of liquid in a water clock, to periodic oscillatory processes, such as the swing of a pendulum or the ... | 1,029 | Clock | 7 |
6,449 | # Clock
## Operation
### Counter chain {#counter_chain}
This counts the pulses and adds them up to get traditional time units of seconds, minutes, hours, etc. It usually has a provision for *setting* the clock by manually entering the correct time into the counter.
- In mechanical clocks this is done mechanically ... | 423 | Clock | 8 |
6,449 | # Clock
## Types
Clocks can be classified by the type of time display, as well as by the method of timekeeping.
### Time display methods {#time_display_methods}
#### Analog
Analog clocks usually use a clock face which indicates time using rotating pointers called \"hands\" on a fixed numbered dial or dials. The st... | 1,148 | Clock | 9 |
6,449 | # Clock
## Purposes
Clocks are in homes, offices and many other places; smaller ones (watches) are carried on the wrist or in a pocket; larger ones are in public places, e.g. a railway station or church. A small clock is often shown in a corner of computer displays, mobile phones and many MP3 players.
The primary pu... | 810 | Clock | 10 |
6,456 | # Charles Edward Jones
**Charles Edward** \"**Chuck**\" **Jones** (November 8, 1952 -- September 11, 2001) was a United States Air Force officer, an aeronautical engineer, computer programmer, and an astronaut in the USAF Manned Spaceflight Engineer Program. He was killed during the September 11 attacks, aboard Americ... | 287 | Charles Edward Jones | 0 |
6,458 | # Ceramic
A **ceramic** is any of the various hard, brittle, heat-resistant, and corrosion-resistant materials made by shaping and then firing an inorganic, nonmetallic material, such as clay, at a high temperature. Common examples are earthenware, porcelain, and brick.
The earliest ceramics made by humans were fired... | 701 | Ceramic | 0 |
6,458 | # Ceramic
## History
thumb\|upright=0.55 \|Earliest known ceramics are the Gravettian figurines that date to 29,000--25,000 BC. Human beings appear to have been making their own ceramics for at least 26,000 years, subjecting clay and silica to intense heat to fuse and form ceramic materials. The earliest found so far... | 553 | Ceramic | 1 |
6,458 | # Ceramic
## Properties
The physical properties of any ceramic substance are a direct result of its crystalline structure and chemical composition. Solid-state chemistry reveals the fundamental connection between microstructure and properties, such as localized density variations, grain size distribution, type of por... | 1,294 | Ceramic | 2 |
6,458 | # Ceramic
## Properties
### Electrical properties {#electrical_properties}
#### Semiconductors
Some ceramics are semiconductors. Most of these are transition metal oxides that are II-VI semiconductors, such as zinc oxide. While there are prospects of mass-producing blue light-emitting diodes (LED) from zinc oxide, c... | 722 | Ceramic | 3 |
6,458 | # Ceramic
## Properties
### Optical properties {#optical_properties}
Optically transparent materials focus on the response of a material to incoming light waves of a range of wavelengths. Frequency selective optical filters can be utilized to alter or enhance the brightness and contrast of a digital image. Guided lig... | 782 | Ceramic | 4 |
6,458 | # Ceramic
## Properties
### Classification
Ceramics can also be classified into three distinct material categories:
1. Oxides**:** alumina, beryllia, ceria, zirconia
2. Non-oxides**:** carbide, boride, nitride, silicide
3. Composite materials**:** particulate reinforced, fiber reinforced, combinations of oxides a... | 52 | Ceramic | 5 |
6,458 | # Ceramic
## Applications
1. Knife blades**:** the blade of a ceramic knife will stay sharp for much longer than that of a steel knife, although it is more brittle and susceptible to breakage.
2. Carbon-ceramic brake disks for vehicles: highly resistant to brake fade at high temperatures.
3. Advanced composite cer... | 873 | Ceramic | 6 |
6,469 | # Canon law
**Canon law** (from *κανών*, *kanon*, a \'straight measuring rod, ruler\') is a set of ordinances and regulations made by ecclesiastical authority (church leadership) for the government of a Christian organization or church and its members.
Canon law includes the internal ecclesiastical law, or operationa... | 267 | Canon law | 0 |
6,469 | # Canon law
## Catholic Church {#catholic_church}
In the Catholic Church, canon law is the system of laws and legal principles made and enforced by the church\'s hierarchical authorities to regulate its external organization and government and to order and direct the activities of Catholics toward the mission of the ... | 509 | Canon law | 1 |
6,469 | # Canon law
## Catholic Church {#catholic_church}
### Catholic canon law as legal system {#catholic_canon_law_as_legal_system}
Roman Catholic canon law is a fully developed legal system, with all the necessary elements: courts, lawyers, judges, a fully articulated legal code, principles of legal interpretation, and c... | 803 | Canon law | 2 |
6,469 | # Canon law
## Anglican Communion {#anglican_communion}
In the Church of England, the ecclesiastical courts that formerly decided many matters such as disputes relating to marriage, divorce, wills, and defamation, still have jurisdiction of certain church-related matters (e.g. discipline of clergy, alteration of chur... | 545 | Canon law | 3 |
6,511 | # Computational complexity
In computer science, the **computational complexity** or simply **complexity** of an algorithm is the amount of resources required to run it. Particular focus is given to computation time (generally measured by the number of needed elementary operations) and memory storage requirements. The ... | 680 | Computational complexity | 0 |
6,511 | # Computational complexity
## Models of computation {#models_of_computation}
The evaluation of the complexity relies on the choice of a model of computation, which consists in defining the basic operations that are done in a unit of time. When the model of computation is not explicitly specified, it is generally impl... | 818 | Computational complexity | 1 |
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