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The contribution of feedback loops to homeostasis will only be briefly reviewed here. Positive feedback loops are characterized by the release of additional hormone in response to an original hormone release. The release of oxytocin during childbirth is a positive feedback loop. The initial release of oxytocin begins t... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Hormones",
"Header 3": "*Role of Feedback Loops*",
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The anterior pituitary originates from the digestive tract in the embryo and migrates toward the brain during fetal development. There are three regions: the pars distalis is the most anterior, the pars intermedia is adjacent to the posterior pituitary, and the pars tuberalis is a slender "tube" that wraps the infundib... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Anterior Pituitary Gland",
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The endocrine system regulates the growth of the human body, protein synthesis, and cellular replication. A major hormone involved in this process is **growth hormone (GH)**, also called somatotropin—a protein hormone produced and secreted by the anterior pituitary gland. Its primary function is anabolic; it promotes p... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Anterior Pituitary Gland",
"Header 3": "*Growth Hormone*",
"token_count": 577,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The posterior pituitary is actually an extension of the neurons of the nuclei of the hypothalamus. The cell bodies of these regions rest in the hypothalamus, but their axons descend as the hypothalamic–hypophyseal tract within the infundibulum, and end in axon terminals that comprise the posterior pituitary (see Figure... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Anterior Pituitary Gland",
"Header 3": "Posterior Pituitary Gland",
"token_count": 279,
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When fetal development is complete, the peptide-derived hormone **oxytocin** (tocia- = "childbirth") stimulates uterine contractions and dilation of the cervix. Throughout most of pregnancy, oxytocin hormone receptors are not expressed at high levels in the uterus. Toward the end of pregnancy, the synthesis of oxytocin... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Anterior Pituitary Gland",
"Header 3": "*Oxytocin*",
"token_count": 367,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The solute concentration of the blood, or blood osmolarity, may change in response to the consumption of certain foods and fluids, as well as in response to disease, injury, medications, or other factors. Blood osmolarity is constantly monitored by **osmoreceptors**—specialized cells within the hypothalamus that are pa... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Anterior Pituitary Gland",
"Header 3": "*Antidiuretic Hormone (ADH)*",
"token_count": 448,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The endocrine glands secrete a variety of hormones that control the development and regulation of the reproductive system (these glands include the anterior pituitary, the adrenal cortex, and the gonads—the testes in males and the ovaries in females). Much of the development of the reproductive system occurs during pub... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Anterior Pituitary Gland",
"Header 3": "*Follicle-Stimulating Hormone and Luteinizing Hormone*",
"token_count": 308,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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*Media 20.2 What Does Melatonin Do? Melatonin Use Info [Online video]. Copyright 2015 by Travelers Defense.*
What should you avoid doing in the middle of your sleep cycle that would lower melatonin?
The secretion of melatonin may influence the body's circadian rhythms, the dark-light ... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Pineal Gland",
"Header 3": "*Watch this video:*",
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A butterfly-shaped organ, the **thyroid gland** is located anterior to the trachea, just inferior to the larynx (see Figure 20.7). The medial region, called the isthmus, is flanked by wing-shaped left and right lobes. Each of the thyroid lobes are embedded with parathyroid glands, primarily on their posterior surfaces.... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Thyroid Gland",
"token_count": 308,
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The release of T3 and T4 from the thyroid gland is regulated by thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). Low blood levels of T3 and T4 stimulate the release of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) from the hypothalamus, which triggers secretion of TSH from the anterior pituitary. In turn, TSH stimulates the thyroid gland to s... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Thyroid Gland",
"Header 3": "*Regulation of TH Synthesis*",
"token_count": 221,
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The **adrenal glands** are wedges of glandular and neuroendocrine tissue adhering to the top of the kidneys by a fibrous capsule (see Figure 20.8). The adrenal glands have a rich blood supply and experience one of the highest rates of blood flow in the body. They are served by several arteries branching off the aorta, ... | {
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"Header 2": "Adrenal Gland",
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The most superficial region of the adrenal cortex is the zona glomerulosa, which produces a group of hormones collectively referred to as **mineralocorticoids** because of their effect on body minerals, especially sodium and potassium. These hormones are essential for fluid and electrolyte balance.
**Aldosterone** is... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Watch this video:",
"Header 3": "*Hormones of the Zona Glomerulosa*",
"token_count": 441,
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The intermediate region of the adrenal cortex is the zona fasciculata, named as such because the cells form small fascicles (bundles) separated by tiny blood vessels. The cells of the zona fasciculata produce hormones called **glucocorticoids** because of their role in glucose metabolism. The most important of these is... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Watch this video:",
"Header 3": "*Hormones of the Zona Fasciculata*",
"token_count": 361,
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As noted earlier, the adrenal cortex releases glucocorticoids in response to long-term stress such as severe illness. In contrast, the adrenal medulla releases its hormones in response to acute, short-term stress mediated by the sympathetic nervous system (SNS).
The medullary tissue is composed of unique postganglion... | {
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"Header 2": "Watch this video:",
"Header 3": "*Adrenal Medulla*",
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The **pancreas** is a long, slender organ, most of which is located posterior to the bottom half of the stomach (see Figure 20.9). Although it is primarily an exocrine gland, secreting a variety of digestive enzymes, the pancreas has an endocrine function. Its **pancreatic islets**—clusters of cells formerly known as t... | {
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"Header 2": "Watch this video:",
"Header 3": "**Pancreas**",
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The pancreatic islets each contain four varieties of cells:
- The **alpha cell** produces the hormone glucagon and makes up approximately 20 percent of each islet. Glucagon plays an important role in blood glucose regulation; low blood glucose levels stimulate its release.
- The **beta cell** produces the hormone ins... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "Cells and Secretions of the Pancreatic Islets",
"token_count": 248,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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The male testes and female ovaries—which produce the sex cells (sperm and ova) and secrete the gonadal hormones. The roles of the gonadotropins released from the anterior pituitary (FSH and LH) were discussed earlier.
The primary hormone produced by the male testes is **testosterone**, a steroid hormone important in ... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "**Gonadal Glands**",
"token_count": 456,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Endocrinology is a specialization in the field of medicine that focuses on the treatment of endocrine system disorders. Endocrinologists—medical doctors who specialize in this field—are experts in treating diseases associated with hormonal systems, ranging from thyroid disease to diabetes. Endocrine surgeons treat endo... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "**Medical Specialties and Procedures Related to the Endocrine System**",
"token_count": 232,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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Tissue or organ that secretes hormones into the blood and lymph without ducts such that they may be transported to organs distant from the site of secretion.
#### **Endocrine system**
Cells, tissues, and organs that secrete hormones as a primary or secondary function and play an integral role in normal bodily proce... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "**Endocrine System Vocabulary**",
"Header 3": "**Endocrine gland**",
"token_count": 333,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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**Figure 20.1 image description:** This photo shows a young girl reaching for an orange leaf on an oak tree. She is on a walkway near a creek. The opposite shore is a deep slope covered with more trees in autumn colors. [Return to Figure 20.1].
**Figure 20.2 image description:** This diagram shows the endocrine gland... | {
"Header 1": "20. Endocrine System",
"Header 2": "**References**",
"Header 3": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 2040,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Building-a-Medical-Terminology-Foundation.pdf"
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#### Learning Objectives
- 1. State three harmful effects and four beneficial effects associated with the activities of microorganisms.
- 2. Define microbiota and microbiome.
- 3. Briefly describe two different beneficial things the human microbiome does for the normal function of our body.
- 4. State several disease... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[1.1: Introduction to Microbiology](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/1%3A... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Briefly describe why, in terms of differences in cell size, a eukaryotic cell is structurally more complex and compartmentalized than a cell that is prokaryotic.
- 2. When given a description, determine whether a cell is prokaryotic or eukaryotic and explain why.
- 3. Briefly state why v... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "1.2: Cellular Organization - Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells",
"token_count": 1932,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
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- [Electron micrograph of a cytoplasmic membrane](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/proeu/dkcm.html) courtesy of Dennis Kunkel's Microscopy
- [Electron micrograph of mitochondria](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/uni... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "1.2: Cellular Organization - Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells",
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Bacteria are prokaryotic cells; fungi, protozoa, algae, plants, and animals are composed of eukaryotic cells.
- 7. Viruses are not cells so they are neither prokaryotic nor eukaryotic. They can replicate only inside a living cell.
This page titled [1.2: Cellular Organization - Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells](https:... | {
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"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "1.2: Cellular Organization - Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells",
"token_count": 266,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
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#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Define phylogeny.
- 2. Name the 3 Domains of the 3 Domain system of classification and recognize a description of each.
- 3. Name the four kingdoms of the Domain Eukarya and recognize a description of each.
- 4. Define horizontal gene transfer.
The Earth is 4.6 billion years old and mi... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[1.3: Classification - The Three Domain System](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_... |
as well as the cell's membrane lipid structure and its sensitivity to antibiotics. Comparing rRNA structure is especially useful. Because rRNA molecules throughout nature carry out the same function, their structure changes very little over time. Therefore similarities and dissimilarities in rRNA nucleotide sequences a... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[1.3: Classification - The Three Domain System](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_... |
They obtain nutrients by photosynthesis and absorption. Examples include mosses, ferns, conifers, and flowering plants.
- 4. Animalia Kingdom: Animals are multicellular organisms composed of eukaryotic cells. The cells are organized into tissues and lack cell walls. They do not carry out photosynthesis and obtain nutri... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[1.3: Classification - The Three Domain System](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. List the three basic shapes of bacteria.
- 2. List and describe 5 different arrangements of cocci.
- 3. Define and give the abbreviation for the metric unit of length termed micrometer and state the average size of a coccus-shaped bacterium and a rod-shaped bacterium.
- 4. List and descr... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.1: Sizes, Shapes, and Arrangements of Bacteria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Ce... |
**spirochete**: a thin, flexible spiral ([see Figure \)](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/shape/spirob.html) 2.1.13
- scanning electron micrograph of [the spirochete](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/shape/emlepto.html) *Leptospira*; courtesy of CDC
- scanning electron ... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.1: Sizes, Shapes, and Arrangements of Bacteria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Ce... |
- State the chemical composition and major function of the cytoplasmic membrane in bacteria.
- Briefly describe the fluid phospholipid bilayer arrangement of biological membranes.
- State the net flow of water when a cell is placed in an isotonic, hypertonic, or hypotonic environment and relate this to the solute conce... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.2: The Cytoplasmic Membrane](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_The... |
For More Information: Review of Glycolysis from Unit 7
For More Information: Review of Proton Motive Force from Unit 7
For More Information: Review of ATP from Unit 7
Specific transport proteins (carrier proteins) are required in order to transport the majority of molecules a cell... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.2: The Cytoplasmic Membrane](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_The... |
2.2.1 [2.2.13](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/prostruct/ftsring.html)
electron micrograph of a [divisome](http://idisk.mpi-cbg.de/~goehring/MPI-CBG_Website/Research.html): see under Bacterial Cell Division, Jon Beckwith's Lab.
The divisome is responsible for directing the synthesis of new c... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.2: The Cytoplasmic Membrane](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_The... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. State the three parts of a peptidoglycan monomer and state the function of peptidoglycan in bacteria.
- 2. Briefly describe how bacteria synthesize peptidoglycan, indicating the roles of autolysins, bactoprenols, transglycosylases, and transpeptidases.
- 3. Briefly describe how antibioti... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.3: The Peptidoglycan Cell Wall](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_... |
The bactoprenols transport the peptidoglycan monomers across the cytoplasmic](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/prostruct/bactopren_ill_02.html) [membrane and interacts with transglycosidases to insert the monomers into existing peptidoglycan \(see Figure](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.3: The Peptidoglycan Cell Wall](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_... |
[For More Information: Preview of Using Chemical Agents to Control of Bacteria from Lab 19.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/labmanua/lab19/index.html)
[Concept map for peptidoglycan and peptidoglycan synthesis.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/~gkaiser/puzzles/Unit%201/Answers_Peptidoglycan.html)
#### Gram-Po... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.3: The Peptidoglycan Cell Wall](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_... |
State what color Gram-positive bacteria stain after the Gram stain procedure.
- Describe the composition of a Gram-positive cell wall and indicate the possible beneficial functions to the bacterium of peptidoglycan, teichoic acids, and surface proteins.
- Briefly describe how PAMPs of the Gram-positive cell wall can ... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.3A: The Gram-Positive Cell Wall](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A... |
Basically, the inflammatory response is an attempt by the body to restore and maintain homeostasis after injury. Most of the body defense elements are located in the blood, and inflammation is the means by which body defense cells and body defense chemicals leave the blood and enter the tissue around an injured or infe... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.3A: The Gram-Positive Cell Wall](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A... |
| State what color Gram-negative bacteria stain after the Gram stain procedure.<br>Describe the composition of a Gram-negative cell wall and indicate the possible beneficial functions to the<br>bacterium of peptidoglycan, the outer membrane, lipopolysaccharides, porins, and surface proteins.<br>Briefly describe how LPS... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.3B: The Gram-Negative Cell Wall](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A... |
Functions of the Gram-Negative Cell Wall Components
[Flash animation showing a bacterium using adhesins to adhere to a host cell.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/prostruct/adhesin_fl.html)
[html5 version of animation for iPad showing a bacterium using adhesins to adhere to a host cell.](h... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.3B: The Gram-Negative Cell Wall](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A... |
How might this mechanism lead to the symptoms of the infection?
The LPS also activates the alternative complement pathway and the lectin pathway, innate defense pathways that play a variety of roles in body defense.
Innate immunity will be discussed in greater detail in Unit 5.
[For More Information: The Compleme... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.3B: The Gram-Negative Cell Wall](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A... |
#### Fundamental Statements for this Learning Object:
In this section on Prokaryotic Cell Anatomy we are looking at the various anatomical parts that make up a bacterium. As mentioned in the introduction to this section, a typical bacterium usually consists of:
- a cytoplasmic membrane surrounded by a peptidoglycan... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.3C: The Acid-Fast Cell Wall](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_The... |
Acid-fast bacteria are gram-positive, but in addition to peptidoglycan, the outer membrane or envelope of the acid-fast cell wall of contains large amounts of glycolipids, especially mycolic acids that in the genus *Mycobacterium*, make up approximately 60% of the acid-fast cell wall (Figure ). 2.3C. 2
- **Layer 1:**... | {
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"Header 3": "Structure and Composition of the Acid-Fast Cell Wall",
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Through a variety of mechanisms, these antibodies are able to remove or neutralize microorganisms and their toxins after binding to their epitopes.
- 2. Cell-mediated immunity: Cell-mediated immunity involves the production of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, activated macrophages, activated NK cells, and cytokines in response... | {
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#### Define the following:
- a. exoenzymes
- b. endoenzymes.
- c. cytosol
- State the primary function of the bacterial cytoplasm.
- Define the following:
- a. metabolism
- b. catabolic reactions
- c. anabolic reactions.
We will now look at the bacterial cytoplasm. In bacteria, the cytoplasm refers to everything en... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.4A: Cytoplasm](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_The_Prokaryotic_C... |
The term genome refers to the sum of an organism's genetic material. The bacterial genome is composed of a single molecule of chromosomal deoxyribonucleic acid or DNA and is located in a region of the bacterial cytoplasm visible when viewed with an electron microscope called the nucleoid. Unlike the eukaryotic nucleus,... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "A. Structure and Composition of the Bacterial Chromosome",
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Therefore, one parent strand - the one running 3' to 5' and called the leading strand - can be copied directly down its entire length (see Figure ). However, the other parent strand - the one running 5' to 3' and called the lagging strand - must be copied discontinuously in short fragments (Okazaki fragments) of around... | {
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"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "A. Structure and Composition of the Bacterial Chromosome",
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#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Describe plasmids and indicate their possible benefit to bacteria.
- 2. State the function of the following:
- a. transposons
- b. integrons
- c. episome
- d. conjugative plasmid
- 3. State the most common way plasmids are transmitted from one bacterium to another.
- 4. Define horizontal... | {
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"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.4C: Plasmids and Transposons](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_Th... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Describe the structure and chemical composition of bacterial ribosomes and state their function.
- 2. In terms of protein synthesis, briefly describe the process of transcription and translation.
- 3. State, in a general sense, how antibiotics like neomycin, tetracycline, doxycycline, er... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.4D: Ribosomes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_The_Prokaryotic_C... |
- Name 2 common genera of bacteria capable of producing endospores and state which is an obligate anaerobe.
- Briefly discuss the function of a bacterial endospore.
- Describe the structure of a bacterial endospore.
- Define sporulation and germination.
- Name three infections that may be transmitted to humans by endos... | {
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"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.4E: Endospores](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_The_Prokaryotic_... |
Infections transmitted to humans by endospores include:
- Anthrax, caused by [Bacillus anthracis;](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/prostruct/endobant.html) endospores can be inhaled, ingested, or enter wounds where they germinate and the vegetative bacteria subsequently replicate.
- Tetanus, c... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.4E: Endospores](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_The_Prokaryotic_... |
Name three major types of photosynthetic bacteria and briefly describe where its photosynthetic system is
- located. State the function of the following inclusion bodies:
- A. cyanophycin granules
- B. carboxysomes
- C. gas vacuoles
- D. polyhydroxybutyrate and glycogen granules
- E. magnetosomes
- F. volutin granule... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.4F: Inclusion Bodies and Organelles Used for Photosynthesis](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_P... |
State the chemical composition and 2 common functions of a bacterial glycocalyx.
- Briefly describe the following steps in phagocytosis:
- a. unenhanced attachment
- b. enhanced attachment
- c. engulfment
- d. destruction
- Briefly describe how a capsule might initially enable some bacteria to resist being phagocytos... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.5A: Glycocalyx \\(Capsules\\) and Biofilms](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_A... |
Normally when bacteria first enter the body, the innate immune defenses bind PAMPs on the bacterial cell wall to endocytic PRRs on the body's phagocytes and the organism is phagocytosed. Explain why the child's innate phagocytic defense was unable to remove the *S. pneumoniae*. • The pneumococcal conjugate vaccine, P... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.5A: Glycocalyx \\(Capsules\\) and Biofilms](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_A... |
#### Initiation of Adaptive Immunity
Polysaccharides or polypeptides associated with the bacterial glycocalyx or capsule function as antigens and initiate adaptive immunity. An antigen is defined as a molecular shape that reacts with antibody molecules and with antigen receptors on lymphocytes. We recognize those mol... | {
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The body's adaptive immune defenses can eventually overcome bacterial capsules by producing opsonizing antibodies (IgG) against the capsule that are able to stick the capsule to the phagocyte.
- 7. Biofilms are groups of bacteria attached to a surface and enclosed in a common secreted adhesive matrix and are functional... | {
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\(see](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/prostruct/u1fig20.html) Figure and Figure *).* A popular theory as to the mechanism behind spirochete motility presumes that as the endoflagella rotate in the periplasmic space between the outer membrane and the cell wall, this could cause the corkscrew-sha... | {
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The actual portions or fragments of an antigen that react with antibodies and with receptors on B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes are called epitopes. An epitope is typically a group of 5-15 amino acids with a unique shape that makes up a portion of a protein antigen, or 3-4 sugar residues branching off of a polysaccha... | {
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that are longer and very few in number. The conjugation pilus enables conjugation. As will be seen later in this unit, conjugation is the transfer of DNA from one bacterium to another by cell-tocell contact. In gram-negative bacteria it is typically the transfer of DNA from a donor or "male bacterium" with a sex pilus ... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.5C: Fimbriae and Pili](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_The_Proka... |
Berg from the [Roland Institute](http://www.rowland.harvard.edu/labs/bacteria/index.php) at Harvard.
> [Retraction of pili of](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit1/prostruct/images/paeru_f_move_1.avi?mov=paeru_f_move_1) *Pseudomonas* used in twitching motility Courtesy of Dr. Howard C. Berg from th... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[2.5C: Fimbriae and Pili](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_1%3A_Introduction_to_Microbiology_and_Prokaryotic_Cell_Anatomy/2%3A_The_Proka... |
#### Initiation of Adaptive Immunity
Proteins associated with bacterial fimbriae and pili function as antigens and initiate adaptive immunity. An antigen is defined as a molecular shape that reacts with antibody molecules and with antigen receptors on lymphocytes. We recognize those molecular shapes as foreign or dif... | {
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Bacterial genetics is the subfield of genetics devoted to the study of bacteria. Bacterial genetics are subtly different from eukaryotic genetics, however bacteria still serve as a good model for animal genetic studies. One of the major distinctions between bacterial and eukaryotic genetics stems from the bacteria's la... | {
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"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "3: Bacterial Genetics",
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#### Learning Objectives
After completing this section you should be able to perform the following objectives.
- 1. Compare and contrast mutation and horizontal gene transfer as methods of enabling bacteria to respond to selective pressures and adapt to new environments.
- 2. Define horizontal gene transfer and sta... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[3.1: Horizontal Gene Transfer in Bacteria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_Control_of_Bacteri... |
The bacteriophages are released, adsorb to recipient bacteria, and inject the donor bacterium DNA/phage DNA complex into the recipient bacterium where it inserts into the bacterial chromosome (Figure ). 3.1.4
Figure : Specialized Transduction by Temperat... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[3.1: Horizontal Gene Transfer in Bacteria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_Control_of_Bacteri... |
(A plasmid that is able to integrate into the host nucleoid is called an *episome*.) A nuclease then breaks one strand of the donor's DNA at the origin of transfer (*oriT*) location of the inserted F plasmid and the nicked strand of the donor DNA begins to enter the recipient bacterium. The remaining non-nicked DNA str... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[3.1: Horizontal Gene Transfer in Bacteria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_Control_of_Bacteri... |
- Learning Objectives
- 1. Define the following:
- a. pathogenicity
- b. virulence
- 2. Even though a microorganism may be considered pathogenic, it still may not be able to cause disease upon entering the body. Discuss why.
- 3. Define and briefly describe the overall process of quorum sensing in bacteria and how it m... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[3.2: Bacterial Quorum Sensing, Pathogenicity Islands, and Secretion Systems](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_a... |
At a high density of bacteria, large quantities of autoinducers are produced (Figure .2.5) and are able to bind to the signaling receptors on the bacterial surface in sufficient quantity so as to activate the quorum sensing genes that enable the bacteria to behave as a multicellular population (Figure .2.1). 3.2.3 3.2.... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[3.2: Bacterial Quorum Sensing, Pathogenicity Islands, and Secretion Systems](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_a... |
This, in turn, activates various virulence genes of the bacteria. On the other hand, some bacterial autoinducers can enter human host cells and regulate human cellular function. For example, at low concentration some bacterial autoinducers suppress host immune responses thus better enabling those bacteria to better est... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[3.2: Bacterial Quorum Sensing, Pathogenicity Islands, and Secretion Systems](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_a... |
As the entire population of bacteria simultaneously turn on their virulence genes, the body's immune systems are much less likely to have enough time to counter those virulence factors before harm is done. Virulence factors such as exoenzymes and toxins can damage host cells enabling the bacteria in the biofilm to obta... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[3.2: Bacterial Quorum Sensing, Pathogenicity Islands, and Secretion Systems](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_a... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Compare and contrast the genetic control of enzyme activity (enzyme synthesis) in bacteria with the control of enzyme activity through feedback inhibition.
- 2. Compare and contrast an inducible operon with a repressible operon and give an example of each.
- 3. Compare how the presense o... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[3.3: Enzyme Regulation](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_Control_of_Bacteria/3%3A_Bacterial_Ge... |
Transcription of the remainder of the trp operon continues and the enzymes required for tryptophan synthesis are made. Slow initial translation is able to occur with low levels of tryptophan present because there is limited Trp tRNA available to translate the two Trp codons (asterisks) causing the ribosome to stall at ... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[3.3: Enzyme Regulation](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_Control_of_Bacteria/3%3A_Bacterial_Ge... |
Because the nucleotide base sequence for the mRNA coding for the r-proteins has similarities to that of the rRNA to which that r-protein binds during subunit formation, r-proteins not yet incorporated into ribosomal subunits can bind to that mRNA and block translation
#### 4. Controlling the Enzyme's Activity (Feedba... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[3.3: Enzyme Regulation](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_Control_of_Bacteria/3%3A_Bacterial_Ge... |
- 1. In living cells there are hundreds of different enzymes working together in a coordinated manner, and since cells neither synthesize nor break down more material than is required for normal metabolism and growth, precise enzyme regulation is required for turning metabolic reactions on and off.
- 2. There is tremen... | {
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"Header 3": "**Summary**",
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#### selective toxicity
- broad spectrum antibiotic
- narrow spectrum antibiotic
- antibiotic
- chemotherapeutic synthetic drug
- cidal
- static
- sterilization
- disinfection
- disinfectant
- antiseptic
- physical agent
Control of microorganisms is essential in order to prevent the transmission of diseases and inf... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[4.1: An Overview to Control of Microorganisms](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_Control_of_Bac... |
#### Learning Objectives
- Describe six different ways antibiotics or disinfectants may affect bacterial structures or macromolecules and state how each ultimately causes harm to the cell.
- State which of the following groups of antibiotics: 1) inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis; 2) inhibit nucleic acid synthesis; 3) a... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[4.2: Ways in which Chemical Control Agents Affect Bacteria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_C... |
As the autol[ysins continue to](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit2/control/bacresillus.html) break the peptide cross-links and new cross-links fail to form, the bacterium bursts from osmotic lysis (see Figure ). 4.2.8
[Flash animation illustrating how bacitracin inhibit peptidoglycan synthesis.](... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[4.2: Ways in which Chemical Control Agents Affect Bacteria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_C... |
Trimethoprim binds to t[he third enzyme in t](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit2/control/u1fig29f.html)he pathway, an enzyme that is responsible for converting dihydrofolic acid to tetrahydrofolic acid (see Figure ). Without the tetrahydrofolic acid, the bacteria cannot synthesize DNA or RNA. 4.2.1... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[4.2: Ways in which Chemical Control Agents Affect Bacteria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_C... |
[html5 version of animation for iPad illustrating how macrolides bind to the 50S ribosomal subunit and block translation by](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit2/control/macropeptidyl.swf.html) blocking peptidyltransferase.
[html5 version of animation for iPad illustrating how macrolides bind to ... | {
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Alcohols denature membranes and proteins and are often combined with other disinfectants, such as iodine, mercurials, and cationic detergents for increased effectiveness.
#### 4. Acids and alkalies
Acids and alkalies alter membrane permeability and denature proteins and other molecules. Salts of organic acids, such... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[4.2: Ways in which Chemical Control Agents Affect Bacteria](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemical_C... |
Name two bacteria that have low-permeability membrane barriers and are thereby intrinsically resistant to many
antibiotics. Briefly describe 4 different mechanisms as a result of genetic changes in a bacterium that may enable that bacterium to resist an antibiotic.
- Describe R (Resistance) plasmids and state their... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[4.3: Ways in which Bacteria May Resist Chemical Control Agents](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemic... |
[Flash animation showing a bacterium producing an altered enzyme to which the antibiotic no longer binds.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit2/control/altenz_anim.html)
[html5 version of animation for iPad showing a bacterium producing an altered enzyme to which the antibiotic no longer binds.](... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[4.3: Ways in which Bacteria May Resist Chemical Control Agents](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemic... |
(Remember that most mutations are harmful to a cell.)
[For More Information: Mutation from Unit 7.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit7/genetics/mutation/mutation.html)
In addition, horizontal gene transfer as a result of transformation, transduction, and conjugat... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[4.3: Ways in which Bacteria May Resist Chemical Control Agents](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemic... |
The CDC also estimates that "more than two million people in the United States get infections that are resistant to antibiotics and at least 23,000 people die as a result."
Finally, Bacterial endospores, such as those produced by *Bacillus* and *Clostridium*, are also resistant to antibiotics, most disinfectants, and... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[4.3: Ways in which Bacteria May Resist Chemical Control Agents](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_2%3A_Bacterial_Genetics_and_the_Chemic... |
#### Learning Objectives
After completing this section you should be able to perform the following objectives.
- 1. Define the following:
- a. pathogenicity
- b. virulence
- c. virulence factors
- d. infection
- e. disease
- f. etiologic agent
- g. reservoir
- h. zoonosis
- i. vector
- j. portal of entry and portal... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[Overview of Microbial Pathogenesis](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/1%3A_Overview_of_Microbial_Pathogenesi... |
As stated above, an infection is simply when a microorganism has established itself in a host. To cause disease, that microorganism (or toxin) must inflict damage to the host.
#### Summary
- 1. Only a relatively few bacteria cause human disease.
- 2. The complex mutually beneficial symbiotic relationship between hu... | {
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"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "To cause disease, a microorganism must Harm or damage the body",
"token_count": 814,
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List six virulence factors that promote bacterial colonization of the host.
In this section on Bacterial Pathogenesis, we are looking at bacterial virulence factors that can influence its ability to cause infectious disease. Virulence factors are molecules expressed and secreted by that enable them to colonize the ho... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.0: Prelude to Virulence Factors that Promote Bacterial Colonization](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%3... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. State why it might be of an advantage for a bacterium trying to colonize the bladder or the intestines to be motile.
- 2. **Describe** specifically how certain bacteria are able to use motility to contact host cells and state how this can promote colonization.
- 3. Briefly describe why b... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.1: The Ability to Use Motility and Other Means to Contact Host Cells](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%... |
Because of their thinness, their internal flagella (axial filaments), their corkscrew shape, and their motility, certain spirochetes are more readily able enter lymph vessels and blood vessels and spread to other body sites. Many bacteria produce enzymes that degrade the extracellular matrix proteins that surround cell... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.1: The Ability to Use Motility and Other Means to Contact Host Cells](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Briefly describe 3 different mechanisms by which bacteria can adhere to host cells and colonize and state how this can promote colonization.
- 2. State an advantage for bacteria in being able to switch the adhesive tips of their pili.
- 3. Define biofilm and state at least 3 benefits ass... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.2: The Ability to Adhere to Host Cells and Resist Physical Removal](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%3A... |
The tip of the spirochete *[Treponema pallidum](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit3/bacpath/spirot.html)* contains adhesins that are able to bind to fibronectin on epithelial cells.
Scanning electron Micrograph of *T. pallidum* [adhering to a host cell by its tip.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/course... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.2: The Ability to Adhere to Host Cells and Resist Physical Removal](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%3A... |
aeruginosa* to start synthesizing a polysaccharide biofilm composed of alginate. As the biofilm grows, the bacteria lose their flagella to become nonmotile and secrete a variety of enzymes that enable the population to obtain nutrients from the host cells. Eventually the biofilm mushrooms up and develops water channels... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.2: The Ability to Adhere to Host Cells and Resist Physical Removal](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%3A... |
Briefly describe the mechanism by which invasins enable certain bacteria to enter host cells and state how this can promote colonization
Briefly describe how a type 3 secretion system might be used to invade and survive inside host cells.
State how certain pathogenic spirochetes such as *Treponema pallidum* and *Borrel... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "5.3: The Ability to Invade Host Cells",
"token_count": 2035,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
*Legionella pneumophila*, after being ingested by macrophages and placed in a phagosome, uses a type 4 secretion system to inject effector proteins that prevent the lysosomes from fusing with the phagosomes and turning the macrophage into a safe haven for bacterial replication. The same mechanism allows the *Legionella... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "5.3: The Ability to Invade Host Cells",
"token_count": 768,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
State why the ability to compete for iron and other nutrients is important for bacteria to cause disease and describe briefly three ways bacteria may accomplish this as part of their pathogenicity.
Often the ability to be pathogenic is directly related to the bacterium's ability to compete successfully with host tiss... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.4: The Ability to Compete for Nutrients](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Pro... |
#### Learning Objectives - 1. Describe the following as they relate to phagocytosis: - a. unenhanced attachment - b. enhanced attachment - c. ingestion - d. destruction - 2. State 4 different body defense functions of the body's complement pathways. - 3. State what is meant by antibacterial peptides and give an example... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.5A: An Overview to Resisting Innate Immune Defenses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%3A_Virulence_Fact... |
The ability to resist phagocytic engulfment (attachment and ingestion)
- 2. The ability to resist phagocytic destruction and serum lysis
#### Summary
- 1. For phagocytosis to occur, the surface of the microbe must be attached to the cytoplasmic membrane of the phagocyte through unenhanced or enhanced attachment.
- ... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.5A: An Overview to Resisting Innate Immune Defenses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%3A_Virulence_Fact... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Briefly describe at least 3 ways capsules may enable bacteria to resist phagocytic engulfment and state how this can promote colonization.
- 2. State at least 2 mechanisms other than capsules that certain bacteria might use to resist phagocytic engulfment.
- 3. State 3 ways bacteria migh... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.5B: The Ability to Resist Phagocytic Engulfment \\(Attachment and Ingestion\\) and](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_P... |
4
*Blocking Phagosome Formation by Depolymerizing Actin. Molecules of some bacteria, through a type III secretion system, deliver proteins that depolymerize the phagocyte's actin microfilaments used for phagocytic engulfment.*
The pili (fimbriae) of *Streptococcus pyogenes* both block... | {
"Header 1": "Community College of Baltimore County (Cantonsville) Microbiology",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[5.5B: The Ability to Resist Phagocytic Engulfment \\(Attachment and Ingestion\\) and](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_P... |
- 1. Capsules can resist unenhanced attachment by by preventing pathogen-associated molecular patterns or from binding to endocytic pattern-recognition receptors on the surface of the phagocytes.
- 2. The capsules of some bacteria interfere with the body's complement pathway defenses.
- 3. The body's immune defenses ca... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"token_count": 1502,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. State four ways the antibody molecules made during adaptive immunity protect us against bacteria.
- 2. Briefly describe at least three ways a bacterium might evade our adaptive immune defenses and name a bacterium that does each.
#### Overview of Adaptive Immune Defenses
One of the m... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 3": "[5.6: The Ability to Evade Adaptive Immune Defenses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Promote_Colonization/5.6%3A_The_Ability_to_Evade_Adaptive_Immune_Defenses)",
"token_coun... |
There are various ways that the antibodies the body makes during adaptive immunity protect the body against bacteria.
- 2. Some antibodies such as IgG and IgE function as opsonins and stick bacteria to phagocytes (opsonization or enhanced attachment).
- 3. Antibodies, such as IgG, IgA, and IgM, can bind to bacterial ad... | {
"Header 1": "Summary",
"Header 3": "[5.6: The Ability to Evade Adaptive Immune Defenses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_3%3A_Bacterial_Pathogenesis/5%3A_Virulence_Factors_that_Promote_Colonization/5.6%3A_The_Ability_to_Evade_Adaptive_Immune_Defenses)",
"token_coun... |
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