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Damage to the nervous system can be limited to individual structures or can be distributed across broad areas of the brain and spinal cord. Localized, limited injury to the nervous system is most often the result of circulatory problems. The loss of blood flow to part of the brain is known as a **stroke**, or a **cereb... | {
"Header 1": "*Stroke*",
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Nerves that carry sensory signals (nerve impulses) toward the central nervous from the periphery.
#### **Aphasia**
Loss of language function.
#### **Arachnoid mater**
Middle layer of the meninges named for the spider-web–like trabeculae that extend between it and the pia mater.
#### **Astrocyte**
Glial cell... | {
"Header 1": "**Nervous System Vocabulary**",
"Header 3": "**Afferent nerves**",
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Region of the adult brain that includes the midbrain, pons, and medulla oblongata and develops from the mesencephalon, metencephalon, and myelencephalon of the embryonic brain.
#### **Broca's area**
Region of the frontal lobe associated with the motor commands necessary for speech production.
#### **Brodmann's ar... | {
"Header 1": "**Nervous System Vocabulary**",
"Header 3": "**Brain stem**",
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Localized collection of neuron cell bodies in the peripheral nervous system.
#### **Ganglionectomy**
#### Excision of a ganglion.
#### **Glial cell**
One of the various types of neural tissue cells responsible for maintenance of the tissue, and largely responsible for supporting neurons.
#### **Glioblastoma**... | {
"Header 1": "**Ganglion**",
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Protrusion of the meninges.
#### **Meningomyelocele**
Protrusion of the meninges and spinal cord.
#### **Microglia**
Smaller than most of the other glial cells; they ingest and digest cells or pathogens that cause disease.
#### **Midbrain**
A portion of the brainstem, positioned above the pons, also called ... | {
"Header 1": "**Ganglion**",
"Header 3": "**Meningocele**",
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**Figure 8.1 image description:** This diagram shows a silhouette of a human highlighting the nervous system. The central nervous system is composed of the brain and spinal cord. The brain is a large mass of ridged and striated tissue within the head. The spinal cord extends down from the brain and travels through the ... | {
"Header 1": "**Image Descriptions**",
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The cardiovascular system is made of three components: the heart, vessels, and blood. The heart is a fist-sized vital organ that has *one* job: to pump blood. If one assumes an average **heart rate** of 75 beats per minute, a human heart would beat approximately 108,000 times in one day, more than 39 million times in o... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to the Cardiovascular System**",
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The heart and the **roots of the great vessels** are surrounded by a membrane known as the **pericardium** or **pericardial sac**. The pericardium consists of two distinct sub layers:
- The sturdy outer fibrous pericardium is made of tough, dense connective tissue that protects the heart and holds it in position.
- S... | {
"Header 1": "Membranes and Layers of the Heart Walls",
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The heart consists of four chambers:
- The upper chambers are the right and left **atria** (singular: atrium).
- The lower chambers are the right and left **ventricles.**
The **interventricular septum** is a muscular wall that separates the right and left ventricles. The interatrial septum separates the right and l... | {
"Header 1": "Internal Structures of the Heart",
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The heart pumps blood to two distinct but linked circulatory systems called the pulmonary and systemic circuits. The **pulmonary circuit** transports blood to and from the lungs, where it picks up oxygen and drops off carbon dioxide. The **systemic circuit** transports freshly oxygenated blood to virtually all of the t... | {
"Header 1": "1. Circulation Through the Heart: The Heart as a Pump",
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Blood exiting from the right ventricle flows into the pulmonary trunk, which bifurcates into the two pulmonary arteries. These vessels branch to supply blood to the pulmonary capillaries, where gas exchange occurs within the lung alveoli. Blood returns via the pulmonary veins to the left atrium.
![](_page_188_Picture... | {
"Header 1": "*Pulmonary Circuit*",
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Myocardial cells require their own blood supply to carry out their function of contracting and relaxing the heart in order to pump blood. Their own blood supply provides nutrients and oxygen and carries away carbon dioxide and waste. These functions are provided by the coronary arteries and coronary veins.
| Concept ... | {
"Header 1": "2. The Heart as an Organ: The Coronary Blood Supply",
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In order for all parts of the heart to work together to beat regularly and effectively, the heart has its own electrical system, which initiates and conducts each heartbeat through the entire myocardium. Specialized groups of heart cells perform this function all on their own, without requiring messages from the centra... | {
"Header 1": "3. The Heart's Electrical Conduction System",
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The heart of a well-trained athlete can be considerably larger than the average person's heart. This is because exercise results in an increase in muscle cells called **hypertrophy**. Hearts of athletes can pump blood more effectively at lower rates than those of non-athletes. However, when an enlarged heart is not the... | {
"Header 1": "Cardiomyopathy",
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An aneurysm is a defect in the wall of an artery in which the wall becomes thin and weak and starts to balloon out as blood pulses against the vessel wall. This can happen to any artery and even to the myocardial walls. Aneurysms sometimes occur in the portion of the aorta that is in the thorax (see Figure 9.8). If the... | {
"Header 1": "Aneurysms",
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Fetal circulation is different from **postnatal** circulation. There are two extra openings in the fetal heart, the **foramen ovale** and the **ductus arteriosus**, which allow blood circulation that bypasses the immature fetal lungs. The fetal blood is reoxygenated by the mother's lungs and transported between mother ... | {
"Header 1": "Heart Defects",
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**Coronary artery disease** occurs when the buildup of **plaque** in the coronary arteries obstructs the flow of blood and decreases **compliance** of the vessels. This condition is called **atherosclerosis**. As the disease progresses and coronary blood vessels become more and more narrow, cells of the myocardium beco... | {
"Header 1": "Coronary Artery Disease (CAD)",
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**Myocardial infarction (MI)** is the medical term for a heart attack.
A MI normally results from a lack of blood flow to a region of the heart, resulting in death of the cardiac muscle cells. A MI often occurs when a coronary artery is blocked by the buildup of atherosclerotic plaque. It can also occur when a piece ... | {
"Header 1": "Myocardial Infarction",
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The heart's natural pacemaker, the sinoatrial (SA) node initiates an electrical impulse 60 to 90 times per minute in a resting adult. This impulse travels through the heart's conduction system in order to ensure a smooth, coordinated pumping action. This electrical activity can be detected and recorded through the skin... | {
"Header 1": "Arrhythmia",
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**Bradycardia** is the condition in which resting adult heart rate drops below 60 beats per minute (bpm). A client exhibiting signs and symptoms such as weakness, fatigue, dizziness, **syncope**, chest discomfort, palpitations, or respiratory distress may indicate that the heart is not providing sufficient oxygenated b... | {
"Header 1": "Abnormal Heart Rates",
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A **heart block** refers to an interruption in the normal conduction pathway. Heart blocks are generally named after the part of the conduction system that is causing the problem. For example, bundle branch blocks occur within either the left or right atrioventricular bundle branches.
**AV** blocks are often describe... | {
"Header 1": "Heart Block",
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**Figure 9.1 image description:** This diagram shows the location of the heart in the thorax (sagittal and anterior views). The sagittal view labels read (from top, clockwise): first rib, aortic arch, thoracic arch, esophagus, inferior vena cava, diaphragm, thymus, trachea. The anterior view labels read (from top, cloc... | {
"Header 1": "**Image Descriptions**",
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Blood pumped by the heart flows through a series of vessels known as arteries, arterioles, capillaries, venules, and veins before returning to the heart.
- **Arteries** transport blood away from the heart and branch into smaller vessels, forming arterioles.
- **Arterioles** distribute blood to capillary beds, the sit... | {
"Header 1": "**Anatomy of the Blood Vessels**",
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Many arteries and veins share the same names, parallel one another throughout the body, and are very similar on the right and left sides of the body. For example, you will find a pair of **femoral** arteries and a pair of femoral veins, with one vessel on each side of the body. In contrast, some vessels closer to the m... | {
"Header 1": "**The Major Arteries and Veins in the Human Body**",
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Arteries and veins transport blood in two distinct circuits: the **systemic circuit** and the **pulmonary circuit**. Systemic arteries provide blood rich in oxygen to the body's tissues. The blood returned to the heart through systemic veins has less oxygen, since much of the oxygen carried by the arteries has been del... | {
"Header 1": "**Physiology of the Blood Vessels**",
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**Blood pressure** is the force exerted by blood upon the walls of the blood vessels or the chambers of the heart. Blood pressure may be measured in capillaries and veins, as well as the vessels of the pulmonary circulation; however, the general term "blood pressure" refers to the pressure of blood flowing in the arter... | {
"Header 1": "Blood Pressure",
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Each time the heart ejects blood forcefully into the circulation, the arteries must expand and then **recoil** to accommodate the surge of blood moving through them. This expansion and recoiling of the arterial wall is called the **pulse** and allows us to measure **heart rate**. Pulse can be palpated manually by placi... | {
"Header 1": "Pulse",
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**Blood** is a connective tissue made up of cellular elements and an extracellular matrix. The cellular elements are referred to as the **formed elements** and include **red blood cells (RBCs)**, **white blood cells (WBCs)**, and **platelets**. The extracellular matrix, called **plasma**, makes blood unique among conne... | {
"Header 1": "**The Composition (Anatomy) of Blood and the Functions of the Components**",
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The lifespan of the formed elements is very brief. Although one type of leukocyte (memory cells) can survive for years, most **erythrocytes**, **leukocytes**, and **platelets** normally live only a few hours to a few weeks. Thus, the body must form new blood cells and platelets quickly and continuously, a process known... | {
"Header 1": "*Hemopoiesis/Hematopoiesis*",
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The most abundant formed elements in blood, erythrocytes are basically sacs packed with an oxygen-carrying compound called hemoglobin. Production of erythrocytes in the red bone marrow occurs at the staggering rate of more than 2 million cells per second. For this production to occur, raw materials including iron, copp... | {
"Header 1": "*Erythrocytes*",
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Leukocytes protect the body against invading microorganisms and body cells with mutated DNA, and they clean up debris; thus, they are a major component of the body's defenses against disease. Figure 10.10 shows the different types of leukocytes.
*Figure 10.10 Leukocytes. (Micrographs p... | {
"Header 1": "*Leukocytes*",
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Lymphocytes are a type of leukocyte. The three major groups of lymphocytes include natural killer cells, B cells, and T cells.
- **Natural killer (NK) cells** are capable of recognizing cells that do not express "self" proteins on their plasma membrane or that contain foreign or abnormal markers. These "nonself" cell... | {
"Header 1": "*Lymphocytes*",
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After entering the circulation, approximately one-third of the newly-formed platelets migrate to the spleen for storage for later release in response to any rupture in a blood vessel. They then become activated to perform their primary function, which is to limit blood loss. Platelets remain only about 10 days, then ar... | {
"Header 1": "*Platelets*",
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If you were exercising on a warm day, your rising core body temperature would trigger several homeostatic mechanisms, including increased transport of blood from your core to your body periphery, which is typically cooler. As blood passes through the vessels of the skin, heat would be dissipated to the environment, and... | {
"Header 1": "Homeostasis",
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In order to understand blood types, it is important to understand several terms that relate to the body's **immune** functions (discussed in detail in the next chapter).
- **Antigens** are substances that the body does not recognize as belonging to itself ("self") and that therefore trigger a **defensive response** f... | {
"Header 1": "**Blood Types**",
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ABO blood types are **genetically** determined. Each type is determined by the presence or absence of certain **antigens** on the individual's red blood cell membrane, as well as the presence or absence of certain **antibodies**. Normally the body must be exposed to a **foreign antigen** before an antibody can be produ... | {
"Header 1": "ABO Blood Group",
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Antibodies to the Rh antigen are produced only in Rh<sup>−</sup> individuals after exposure to the antigen. This process, called sensitization, occurs following a transfusion with Rh-incompatible blood or, more commonly, with the birth of an Rh<sup>+</sup> baby to an Rh<sup>−</sup> mother.
- In a **first pregnancy** ... | {
"Header 1": "*Hemolytic Disease of the Newborn (HDN)*",
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Figure 10.15 is an example of a commercially produced "bedside" card which enables quick typing of both a recipient's and donor's blood before transfusion. The card contains three reaction sites or wells. One is coated with an anti-A antibody, one with an anti-B antibody, and one with an anti-D antibody (tests for the ... | {
"Header 1": "Blood Transfusions",
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**Arteriosclerosis** is normally defined as the more generalized loss of **compliance**, or "hardening of the arteries." **Atherosclerosis** is a more specific term for the build-up of **plaque** in the walls of the vessel and is a specific type of arteriosclerosis.
When arteriosclerosis causes vessel compliance to b... | {
"Header 1": "Arteriosclerosis",
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Despite the presence of valves and the contributions of other anatomical and physiological adaptations that assist in moving blood through veins, over the course of a day, some blood will inevitably pool, especially in the lower limbs, due to the pull of gravity. Any blood that accumulates in a vein will increase the p... | {
"Header 1": "Edema and Varicose Veins",
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The loss of too much blood may lead to **circulatory shock**, a life-threatening condition in which the circulatory system is unable to maintain blood flow to adequately supply sufficient oxygen and other nutrients to the tissues to maintain cellular metabolism. It should not be confused with emotional or psychological... | {
"Header 1": "*Circulatory Shock*",
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- **Sickle cell anemia**
- A genetic disorder involving the production of an abnormal type of hemoglobin that delivers less oxygen to tissues and causes erythrocytes to assume a sickle (or crescent) shape (Figure 10.18).
- **Iron deficiency anemia**
- The most common type of anemia and results when the amount of availa... | {
"Header 1": "**Anemias Caused by Faulty or Decreased RBC Production:**",
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Sometimes, a healthcare provider will order a **bone marrow biopsy**, a diagnostic test of a sample of red bone marrow, or a **bone marrow transplant**, a treatment in which a donor's healthy bone marrow—and its stem cells—replaces the faulty bone marrow of a patient. These tests and procedures are often used to assist... | {
"Header 1": "Bone Marrow Biopsy/Bone Marrow Transplant",
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**Figure 10.1 image description:** The left panel shows the structure of a skeletal muscle vein pump when the muscle is relaxed, and the right panel shows the structure of a skeletal muscle vein pump when the muscle is contracted.[Return to Figure 10.1].
**Figure 10.2 image description:** The top left panel of this f... | {
"Header 1": "**Image Descriptions**",
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The **lymphatic system** is a series of vessels, ducts, and trunks that remove interstitial fluid from the tissues and return it to the blood. The lymphatic vessels are also used to transport dietary lipids and cells of the **immune system**. Cells of the immune system, lymphocytes, all come from the hematopoietic syst... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to the Lymphatic and Immune Systems**",
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An important function of the lymphatic system is to return the fluid (lymph) to the blood. **Lymph** may be thought of as recycled blood plasma. Blood pressure causes leakage of fluid from the blood capillaries, resulting in the accumulation of fluid in the **interstitial space**. In humans, 20 liters of plasma is rele... | {
"Header 1": "Lymphatic Capillaries",
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The lymphatic capillaries empty into larger lymphatic vessels, which are similar to veins in terms of their three-tunic structure and the presence of valves. These one-way valves are located fairly close to one another, and each one causes a bulge in the lymphatic vessel, giving the vessels a beaded appearance (see Fig... | {
"Header 1": "Larger Lymphatic Vessels, Trunks, and Ducts",
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The **primary lymphoid organs** are the bone marrow and thymus gland. The lymphoid organs are where lymphocytes mature, proliferate, and are selected, which enables them to attack pathogens without harming the cells of the body.
- Bone Marrow
- Recall that all blood cells, including lymphocytes, are formed in the red... | {
"Header 1": "Primary Lymphoid Organs",
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Lymphocytes develop and mature in the **primary lymphoid organs**, but they mount immune responses from the **secondary lymphoid organs,** which include the lymph nodes, spleen, and lymphoid nodules. A **naïve lymphocyte** is one that has left the primary organ, where it learned to function immunologically, and entered... | {
"Header 1": "Secondary Lymphoid Organs",
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Lymph nodes function to remove debris and pathogens from the lymph and are thus sometimes referred to as the "filters of the lymph" (see Figure 11.6). Any bacteria that infect the interstitial fluid are taken up by the lymphatic capillaries and transported to a regional lymph node. Dendritic cells and macrophages withi... | {
"Header 1": "Lymph Nodes",
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The **spleen** is a vascular organ that is somewhat fragile due to the absence of a capsule. It is about 12 cm long and is attached to the lateral border of the stomach. The spleen is sometimes called the "filter of the blood" because of its extensive vascularization and the presence of macrophages and dendritic cells ... | {
"Header 1": "Spleen",
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The other lymphoid tissues, the **lymphoid nodules**, consist of a dense cluster of lymphocytes without a surrounding fibrous capsule. These nodules are located in the respiratory and digestive tracts, areas routinely exposed to environmental pathogens.
**Tonsils** are lymphoid nodules located along the inner surface... | {
"Header 1": "Lymphoid Nodules",
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The immune system is a collection of barriers, cells, and soluble proteins that interact and communicate with each other in extraordinarily complex ways. The modern model of immune function is organized into a three-phase immune response (based on the timing of their effects). Ideally, this response will rid the body o... | {
"Header 1": "**The Organization of the Immune System**",
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Innate immune responses are critical to the early control of infections. Whereas barrier defenses are the body's first line of physical defense against pathogens, innate immune responses are the first line of physiological defense. Innate responses occur rapidly, but with less specificity and effectiveness than the ada... | {
"Header 1": "Phase 2: Innate Immune Response",
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A phagocyte is a cell that is able to surround and engulf a particle or cell, a process called **phagocytosis**. The phagocytes of the immune system engulf other particles or cells, either to clean an area of debris, old cells, or to kill pathogenic organisms such as bacteria. Macrophages, neutrophils, and dendritic ce... | {
"Header 1": "Phagocytes: Macrophages and Neutrophils",
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The hallmark of the innate immune response is **inflammation**. Stub a toe, cut a finger, or do any activity that causes tissue damage and inflammation will result with its four characteristics: **heat, redness, pain,** and **swelling** ("loss of function" is sometimes mentioned as a fifth characteristic). It is import... | {
"Header 1": "*Inflammatory Response*",
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As stated above, lymphocytes are the primary cells of adaptive immune responses. These cells were introduced in the previous chapter and are summarized in the following table:
| | Table 11.1 Cells of the Adaptive Immune Response. From Betts et al., 2013. Licensed under CC BY 4.0. |
|--|------------------------------... | {
"Header 1": "*Lymphocytes: B Cells, T Cells, Plasma Cells*",
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Immunity to pathogens, and the ability to control pathogen growth so that damage to the tissues of the body is limited, can be acquired by:
- 1. The active development of an immune response in the infected individual; **or**
- 2. The passive transfer of immune components from an immune individual to a non-immune one.... | {
"Header 1": "Active Versus Passive Immunity",
"token_count": 415,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The immune system and pathogens are in a slow, evolutionary race to see who stays on top. Early childhood is a time when the body develops much of its immunological memory that protects it from diseases in adulthood. Pathogens have shown the ability, however, to evade the body's immune responses, as described below.
... | {
"Header 1": "Evasion of the Immune System by Pathogens",
"token_count": 357,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
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With the use of **tissue typing** and anti-rejection drugs, transplantation of organs and the control of the anti-transplant immune response have made huge strides in the past 50 years. Immunosuppressive drugs such as cyclosporine A have made transplants more successful, but tissue matching is still key. Family members... | {
"Header 1": "Tissue Transplantation",
"token_count": 241,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
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It is clear that with some cancers, like Kaposi's sarcoma (see Figure 11.14), for example, that a healthy immune system does a good job at controlling them. This disease, which is caused by the human herpes virus, is almost never observed in individuals with strong immune systems. Other examples of cancers caused by vi... | {
"Header 1": "Immune Responses Against Cancer",
"token_count": 478,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
In order to protect the entire body from infection, the immune system is required to interact with other organ systems, sometimes in complex ways. For example, hormones such as cortisol (naturally produced by the adrenal cortex) and prednisone (synthetic) are well known for their abilities to suppress T cell immune mec... | {
"Header 1": "Immune Responses and Stress",
"token_count": 503,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Lymphedema is a condition in which lymphatic fluid builds up in the body's soft tissues. Lymphedema often occurs in the arms and legs, although other body parts may be affected. There are two types of lymphedema: primary and secondary. Primary lymphedema may be congenital and is caused by abnormalities in the lymph sys... | {
"Header 1": "Lymphedema",
"token_count": 231,
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} |
While many inherited immunodeficiencies exist, the most serious is **severe combined immunodeficiency disease (SCID)**. This complex disease is caused by many different genetic defects which result in impaired B cell and T cell arms of the adaptive immune response. Children with this disease usually die of opportunisti... | {
"Header 1": "*Inherited Immunodeficiencies/SCID*",
"token_count": 286,
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} |
Although many viruses cause suppression of the immune system, only **HIV** wipes it out completely. HIV is transmitted through semen, vaginal fluids, and blood, and can be caught by risky sexual behaviors and the sharing of needles by intravenous drug users. There are sometimes, but not always, flu-like symptoms in the... | {
"Header 1": "*Acquired Immunodeficiency/HIV and AIDS*",
"token_count": 233,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Over-reactive immune responses include the **hypersensitivities**: allergies and inflammatory responses to nonpathogenic environmental substances. The table below compares different hypersensitivities.
| TYPE OF<br>HYPERSENSITIVITY | DETAILS AND EXPLANATION ... | {
"Header 1": "*Hypersensitivities*",
"token_count": 1010,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Vessels that lead into a lymph node.
#### **Allergens**
Antigens that evoke type 1 hypersensitivity (allergy) responses.
#### **Allergist**
Specialist who specializes in treating individuals with a hypersensitivity to allergens.
#### **Allergy**
Inflammatory response due to a hypersensitivity to a substance... | {
"Header 1": "**Afferent lymphatic vessels**",
"token_count": 371,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Lymphoid nodule associated with the respiratory tract.
#### **CD4 T Cells**
CD4 is the receptor that HIV uses to get inside T cells and reproduce. CD4+ helper T cells play an important role in T cell immune responses and antibody responses.
#### **Chemokine**
Soluble, long-range, cell-to-cell communication mole... | {
"Header 1": "**Bronchus-associated lymphoid tissue (BALT)**",
"token_count": 903,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Large lymphatics that collect lymph from smaller lymphatic vessels and empties into the blood via lymphatic ducts.
#### **Lymphocytes**
The second most common type of leukocyte and are essential for the immune response.
#### **Lymphoid nodules**
Unencapsulated patches of lymphoid tissue found throughout the bod... | {
"Header 1": "**Lymphatic trunks**",
"token_count": 783,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Secondary lymphoid organ that filters pathogens from the blood (white pulp) and removes degenerating or damaged blood cells (red pulp).
#### **Superficial lymphatics**
Lymphatic vessels of the subcutaneous tissues of the skin.
#### **Systemic lupus erythematosus (SLE)**
A chronic, inflammatory, connective tissu... | {
"Header 1": "**Lymphatic trunks**",
"Header 3": "**Spleen**",
"token_count": 376,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
**Figure 11.1 image description:** The left panel shows a female human body, and the entire lymphatic system is shown Labels read (clockwise from top): thymus, lymph nodes, thymus, spleen, lymph vessel, bone marrow, right lymphatic duct, entering vein, tonsil, adenoid. The right panel shows magnified images of the thym... | {
"Header 1": "**Image Descriptions**",
"token_count": 1832,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The major entrance and exit for the respiratory system is through the **nose**. When discussing the nose, it is helpful to divide it into two major sections:
- **external nose**
- **internal nose**
The **nares** open into the nasal cavity, which is separated into left and right sections by the nasal septum (Figure ... | {
"Header 1": "The Nose and its Adjacent Structures",
"token_count": 748,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The **pharynx** is divided into three major regions: the **nasopharynx**, the **oropharynx**, and the **laryngopharynx** (see Figure 12.4).
*Figure 12.4 Divisions of the Pharynx. The pharynx is divided into three regions: the nasopharynx, the oropharynx, and the laryngopharynx. From Bet... | {
"Header 1": "Pharynx",
"token_count": 572,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The structure of the **larynx** is formed by several pieces of cartilage. Three large cartilage pieces form the major structure of the larynx.
- Thyroid cartilage (anterior):
- The thyroid cartilage is the largest piece of cartilage that makes up the larynx. The thyroid cartilage consists of the **laryngeal** promine... | {
"Header 1": "Larynx",
"token_count": 608,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The **trachea** is formed by 16 to 20 stacked, C-shaped pieces of hyaline cartilage that are connected by dense connective tissue. The trachealis muscle and elastic connective tissue together form the **fibroelastic membrane**. The fibroelastic membrane allows the trachea to stretch and expand slightly during inhalatio... | {
"Header 1": "Trachea",
"token_count": 320,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The trachea branches into the right and left primary bronchi at the **carina**. These bronchi are also lined by pseudostratified ciliated columnar epithelium containing mucus-producing goblet cells (Figure 12.7b). The carina is a raised structure that contains specialized nervous tissue that induces violent coughing if... | {
"Header 1": "Bronchial Tree",
"token_count": 304,
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} |
The lungs are pyramid-shaped, paired organs that are connected to the trachea by the right and left bronchi; on the inferior surface, the lungs are bordered by the **diaphragm**. The lungs are enclosed by the pleurae, which are attached to the mediastinum. The right lung is shorter and wider than the left lung, and the... | {
"Header 1": "Gross Anatomy of the Lungs",
"token_count": 322,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The major function of the lungs is to perform gas exchange, which requires blood from the pulmonary circulation.
• This blood supply contains deoxygenated blood and travels to the lungs where **erythrocytes** pick up oxygen to be transported to tissues throughout the body.
- The **pulmonary artery** carries deoxyge... | {
"Header 1": "Blood Supply",
"token_count": 232,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Each lung is enclosed within a cavity that is surrounded by the pleura. The pleura (plural = pleurae) is a serous membrane that surrounds the lung. The right and left pleurae, which enclose the right and left lungs, respectively, are separated by the mediastinum.
The pleurae consist of two layers:
- 1. The **viscer... | {
"Header 1": "Pleura of the Lungs",
"token_count": 370,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The difference in pressures drives pulmonary ventilation because air flows down a pressure gradient, that is, air flows from an area of higher pressure to an area of lower pressure.
- Air flows into the lungs largely due to a difference in pressure; atmospheric pressure is greater than intra-alveolar pressure, and in... | {
"Header 1": "Pulmonary Ventilation",
"token_count": 806,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Breathing usually occurs without thought, although at times you can consciously control it, such as when you swim under water, sing a song, or blow bubbles. The respiratory rate is the total number of breaths that occur each minute. Respiratory rate can be an important indicator of disease, as the rate may increase or ... | {
"Header 1": "Respiratory Rate and Control of Ventilation",
"token_count": 232,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The burning of a tobacco cigarette creates multiple chemical compounds that are released through mainstream smoke, which is inhaled by the smoker, and through sidestream smoke, which is the smoke that is given off by the burning cigarette. **Second-hand smoke**, which is a combination of sidestream smoke and the mainst... | {
"Header 1": "The Effects of Second-Hand Tobacco Smoke",
"token_count": 291,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Asthma is a chronic disease characterized by inflammation, **edema** of the airway, and bronchospasms which can inhibit air from entering the lungs. Bronchospasms can lead to an "asthma attack." An attack may be triggered by environmental factors such as dust, pollen, pet hair, or dander, changes in the weather, mold, ... | {
"Header 1": "Asthma",
"token_count": 248,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Lung cancer is a leading cause of cancer death among men and women. Smoking is the most significant risk factor for lung cancer, with 90% of cases in men and 80% of cases in women attributed to tobacco smoking. Signs and symptoms may include shortness of breath, wheezing, blood in the mucus, hoarseness, and trouble swa... | {
"Header 1": "Lung Cancer",
"token_count": 202,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Spirometry testing is used to find out how well lungs are working by measuring air volume.
- **Respiratory volume** describes the amount of air in a given space within the lungs, or which can be moved by the lung, and is dependent on a variety of factors.
- **Tidal volume** refers to the amount of air that enters the... | {
"Header 1": "Spirometry Testing",
"token_count": 424,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The digestive system is continually at work, yet people seldom appreciate the complex tasks it performs in a choreographed biologic symphony. Consider what happens when you eat an apple. Of course, you enjoy the apple's taste as you chew it, but in the hours that follow, unless something goes amiss and you get a stomac... | {
"Header 1": "**Introduction to the Digestive System**",
"token_count": 350,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The cheeks, tongue, and palate frame the mouth, which is also called the **oral cavity** (or buccal cavity). The structures of the mouth are illustrated in Figure 13.2.
At the entrance to the mouth are the lips, or **labia** (singular = labium). Their outer covering is skin, which transitions to a mucous membrane in ... | {
"Header 1": "The Mouth",
"token_count": 720,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Perhaps you have heard it said that the **tongue** is the strongest muscle in the body. Those who stake this claim cite its strength proportional to its size. Although it is difficult to quantify the relative strength of different muscles, it remains indisputable that the tongue is a workhorse, facilitating **ingestion... | {
"Header 1": "Tongue",
"token_count": 305,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Many small **salivary glands** are housed within the mucous membranes of the mouth and tongue. These minor exocrine glands are constantly secreting **saliva**, either directly into the oral cavity or indirectly through ducts, even while you sleep. In fact, an average of 1 to 1.5 liters of saliva is secreted each day. U... | {
"Header 1": "Salivary Glands",
"token_count": 215,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The pharynx (throat) is involved in both digestion and respiration. It receives food and air from the mouth, and air from the nasal cavities. When food enters the pharynx, involuntary muscle contractions close off the air passageways. A short tube of skeletal muscle lined with a **mucous membrane**, the pharynx runs fr... | {
"Header 1": "Pharynx",
"token_count": 213,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The esophagus is a muscular tube that connects the pharynx to the stomach. It is approximately 25.4 cm (10 in) in length, located posterior to the trachea, and remains in a collapsed form when not engaged in swallowing. As you can see in Figure 13.4, the esophagus runs a mainly straight route through the mediastinum of... | {
"Header 1": "Esophagus",
"token_count": 211,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
There are four main regions in the **stomach**: the cardia, fundus, body, and pylorus (see Figure 13.5). The **cardia** (or cardiac region) is the point where the esophagus connects to the stomach and through which food passes into the stomach. Located inferior to the diaphragm, above and to the left of the cardia, is ... | {
"Header 1": "Stomach",
"token_count": 389,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Chyme released from the stomach enters the **small intestine**, which is the primary digestive organ in the body. Not only is this where most digestion occurs, but it is also where practically all absorption occurs. The longest part of the **alimentary canal**, the small intestine, is about 3.05 meters (10 feet) long i... | {
"Header 1": "Small Intestines",
"token_count": 390,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The first part of the large intestine is the **cecum**, a sac-like structure that is suspended inferior to the ileocecal valve. It is about 6 cm (2.4 in) long, receives the contents of the ileum, and continues the absorption of water and salts. The **appendix** (or vermiform appendix) is a winding tube that attaches to... | {
"Header 1": "*Cecum*",
"token_count": 214,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The cecum blends seamlessly with the **colon**. Upon entering the colon, the food residue first travels up the **ascending colon** on the right side of the abdomen. At the inferior surface of the liver, the colon bends to form the **right colic flexure** (hepatic flexure) and becomes the **transverse colon**. The regio... | {
"Header 1": "*Colon*",
"token_count": 310,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The **liver** is the largest gland in the body, weighing about three pounds in an adult. It is also one of the most important organs. In addition to being an accessory digestive organ, it plays a number of roles in metabolism and regulation. The liver lies inferior to the diaphragm in the right upper quadrant of the ab... | {
"Header 1": "Liver",
"token_count": 599,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The soft, oblong, glandular **pancreas** lies transversely in the retroperitoneum behind the stomach. Its head is nestled into the "c-shaped" curvature of the duodenum with the body extending to the left about 15.2 cm (6 in) and ending as a tapering tail in the hilum of the spleen. It is a curious mix of exocrine (secr... | {
"Header 1": "Pancreas",
"token_count": 446,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The **gallbladder** is 8 to 10 cm (~3 to 4 in) long and is nested in a shallow area on the posterior aspect of the right lobe of the liver. This muscular sac stores, concentrates, and, when stimulated, propels the bile into the duodenum via the common bile duct. It is divided into three regions. The **fundus** is the w... | {
"Header 1": "Gallbladder",
"token_count": 296,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
The processes of digestion include six activities: ingestion, **propulsion**, mechanical or physical digestion, chemical digestion, absorption, and **defecation**.
The first of these processes, **ingestion**, refers to the entry of food into the alimentary canal through the mouth. There, the food is chewed and mixed ... | {
"Header 1": "Digestive Processes",
"token_count": 752,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
Age-related changes in the digestive system begin in the mouth and can affect virtually every aspect of the digestive system. Taste buds become less sensitive, so food isn't as appetizing as it once was. A slice of pizza is a challenge, not a treat, when you have lost teeth, your gums are diseased, and your salivary gl... | {
"Header 1": "Digestive System: From Appetite Suppression to Constipation",
"token_count": 413,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Medical-Terminology-for-Healthcare-Professions.pdf"
} |
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