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The E-selectins on the inner surfa[ce of the endothelial c](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit5/innate/u2fig22b.html)ells can now bind firmly to its corresponding integrin Eselectin ligand-1 (ESL-1) on leukocytes (see Figure ). 11.3G. 4
4) The leukocytes flatten out, squeeze between the constricte... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 3": "[11.3G: Inflammation](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3G%3A_Inflammation)",
"token_count": 1930,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websource... |
- In the case of cancer,it is proposed that when macrophages produce inflammatory cytokines, such as TNF-alpha, these cytokines activate a gene switch in the cancer cell that turns on the synthesis of proteins that promote cell replication and inflammation while blocking apoptosis of the cancer cell.
- In heart disea... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 3": "[11.3G: Inflammation](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3G%3A_Inflammation)",
"token_count": 850,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources... |
#### Learning Objectives
Describe at least four ways the body deprives microorganisms of iron.
We will now take a closer look at nutritional immunity. Iron is needed as a cofactor for certain enzymes in both bacteria and humans. Both bacteria and human cells produce iron chelators that trap free iron from their env... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 3": "[11.3H: Nutritional Immunity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3H%3A_Nutritional_Immunity)",
"token_count": 881,
"source_pdf": "dat... |
Describe the mechanism behind fever induction and indicate its possible benefits. Define hyperpyrexia.
Activated macrophages and other leukocytes release inflammatory cytokines such as TNF-alpha, IL-1, and IL-6 when their patternrecognition receptors (PRRs) bind pathogen associated molecular patterns or PAMPs - molec... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 3": "[11.3I: Fever](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3I%3A_Fever)",
"token_count": 912,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_te... |
- Briefly describe the mechanism behind the acute phase response.
- State the functions of the following acute phase proteins:
- a. C-reactive protein
- b. mannose-binding lectin
We will now take a closer look at the acute phase response. The acute phase response is an innate body defense seen during acute illnesses ... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 3": "[11.3J: The Acute Phase Response](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3J%3A_The_Acute_Phase_Response)",
"token_count": 1018,
"source_p... |
Briefly describe how intraepithelial T-lymphocytes (gamma:delta T-lymphocytes) play a role in innate immunity. Briefly describe how B-1 cells play a role in innate immunity.
We will now take a closer look at Intraepithelial T-lymphocytes (e.g., T4 and T8) and B-1 cells. Most of the T-lymphocytes and Blymphocytes in t... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 3": "[11.3K: Intraepithelial T-lymphocytes and B-1 cells](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_5%3A_Innate_Immunity/11.4%3A_Early_Induced_Innate_Immunity/11.3K%3A_Intraepithelial_T-lymphocytes_and_B-1_cells... |
- Compare adaptive (acquired) immunity with innate immunity.
- Define the following:
- a. antigen
- b. immunogen
- c. epitope
- d. humoral immunity
- e. cell-mediated immunity
As mentioned in Unit 5, the body has two immune systems: innate immunity and adaptive immunity. Unit 5 dealt with innate immunity. In Unit 6 w... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.1: An Overview of Innate and Adaptive Immunity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.1%3A_An_... |
Early induced innate immunity begins 4 96 hours after exposure to an infectious agent and involves the recruitment of defense cells as a result of pathogen-associated molecular patterns or PAMPS binding to pattern-recognition receptors or PRRs.
- 6. Adaptive (acquired) immunity refers to antigen-specific defense mechan... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.1: An Overview of Innate and Adaptive Immunity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.1%3A_An_... |
#### Define antigen and immunogen.
- State what antigens are composed of chemically.
- List 3 characteristics an antigen must have to be immunogenic.
- Define epitope.
- Briefly describe how the body recognizes an antigen as foreign.
- Compare B-cell receptors and T-cell receptors in terms of how they recognize epito... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.2: Antigens and Epitopes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.2%3A_Antigens_and_Epitopes)",
... |
microbial structures, such as bacterial and fungal cell walls, protozoan cell membranes, bacterial and fungal capsules, microbial flagella, bacterial pili, viral capsids, viral envelope-associated glycoproteins, etc.; and
b. microbial toxins
Certain non-infectious materials may also act as antigens if they are reco... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.2: Antigens and Epitopes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.2%3A_Antigens_and_Epitopes)",
... |
#### Learning Objectives - State which body cells display MHC-I surface molecules and which cells normally display MHC-II surface molecules. - Define endogenous antigen and exogenous antigen and state which class of MHC molecule primarily binds each. - State which type of T-lymphocyte recognizes epitopes from protein a... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3A: Major Histocompatibility Complex \\(MHC\\) Molecules](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/1... |
phagosomes, and degrade them with lysosomes. During this process, some of the proteins escape from the phagosome into the surrounding cytosol. Here they can be degraded into peptides by proteasomes, bound to MHC-I molecules, and placed on the surface of the dendritic cell. Now the peptide/MHC-I complexes can be recogni... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3A: Major Histocompatibility Complex \\(MHC\\) Molecules](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/1... |
5 12.3A. 6
Figure : Binding of Peptide Epitopes from Endogenous Antigens to MHC-I Molecules by a Virus-Infected Cell. Endogenous antigens are those being produced within the cytosol of the cells of the body. Examples include: a. viral proteins produced du... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3A: Major Histocompatibility Complex \\(MHC\\) Molecules](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/1... |
8
Figure : A T4-Lymphocyte Recognizing Epitope/MHC-II on an Antigen-Presenting Dendritic Cell.Exogenous antigens are those from outside cells of the body. Examples include bacteria, free viruses, yeasts, protozoa, and toxins. These exogenous antigens enter antigen-presenting dendritic c... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3A: Major Histocompatibility Complex \\(MHC\\) Molecules](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/1... |
Describe the overall function of antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and B-
- lymphocytes in terms of the following:
- a. how they "process" exogenous antigens b. how they "process" endogenous antigens
- c. the types of MHC molecule to which they attach peptides
- d. the role of prot... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3B: Antigen-Presenting Cells \\(APCs\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cell... |
MHC-I molecule with bound peptide on the surface of antigen-presenting dendritic cells ; [see Figure](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit6/intro/apc/dendritic_MHCI.html) can be recognize[d by a complementary](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit6/intro/apc/u3fg2j.html)-shaped TCR/... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3B: Antigen-Presenting Cells \\(APCs\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cell... |
[Flash animation of the activation of a macrophage by a T 1 cell.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit6/intro/apc/th1macro.html) H
[html5 version of animation for iPad showing the activation of a macrophage by a T 1 cell.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit6/intro/apc/th1_macr... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3B: Antigen-Presenting Cells \\(APCs\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cell... |
Describe the overall function of T4-lymphocytes and their activation in terms of the following:
- a. the role of their TCRs and CD4 molecules
- b. what they recognize on antigen-presenting cells (APCs) such as dendritic cells, macrophages, and Blymphocytes.
- c. the role of antigen-presenting dendritic cells in the a... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3C: T4-Lymphocytes \\(T4-Cells\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cells_and_... |
Produce inhibitory cytokines such as Interleukin-10 (IL-10) and TGF-ß that help to limit immune responses and prevent autoimmunity by suppressing T-lymphocyte activity.
- 2. Promoting anamnestic response (immunologic memory) to resist repeat infections by the same microbe.
- 3. Protecting beneficial normal flora in the... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3C: T4-Lymphocytes \\(T4-Cells\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cells_and_... |
Describe the overall function of T8-lymphocytes and their activation in terms of the following:
- a. the role of their TCRs and CD8 molecules
- b. how they are activated by antigen-presenting dendritic cells
- c. the type of effector cells into which activated T8-lymphocytes differentiate
- d. what CTLs recognize on ... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3D: T8-Lymphocytes \\(T8-Cells\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cells_and_... |
5
A transporter protein called TAP located in the membrane of the cell's endoplasmic reticulum then transports these peptide epitopes into the endoplasmic reticulum where they bind to the grooves of various newly made MHC-I molecules. The MHC-I molecules with bound peptides are then transported to the Golgi complex a... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3D: T8-Lymphocytes \\(T8-Cells\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cells_and_... |
As these various endogenous antigens pass through proteasomes, proteases and peptidases chop the protein up into a series of peptides that are transported into the endoplasmic reticulum where they bind to newly made MHC-I molecules.
- 12. The MHC-I molecules with bound peptides are then transported to the Golgi complex... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3D: T8-Lymphocytes \\(T8-Cells\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cells_and_... |
Describe the overall function of iNKT cells and their activation in terms of the following:
- a. the role of their TCRs
- b. how they are activated by antigen-presenting cells
- c. how they promote both innate and adaptive immunity and may also help to regulate the immune responses
Fi... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3E: Invarient Natural Killer T-Lymphocytes \\(iNKT Cells\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunit... |
#### Learning Objectives
Describe the overall function of B-lymphocytes and their activation by T-dependent antigens in terms of the following:
- a. the antigen receptor on their surface
- b. how they "process" exogenous antigens
- c. the type of MHC molecule to which they attach peptides
- d. the role of lysosomes... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3F: B-Lymphocytes \\(B-Cells\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cells_and_Ke... |
This allows the B-lymphocytes to eventually "fine-tune" the shape of the antibody for better fit with the original epitope. After mutation, some antibodies fit better, some worse. To select for B-lymphocytes displaying antibodies with a better fit, the variant B-lymphocytes interact with cells called follicular dendrit... | {
"Header 1": "Step 5: Destruction of the Microbe or Cell",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[12.3F: B-Lymphocytes \\(B-Cells\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cells_and_Ke... |
T-independent (TI) antigens are usually large carbohydrate and lipid molecules with multiple, repeating subunits. Blymphocytes mount an antibody response to T-independent antigens without the requirement of interaction with effector T4-lymphocytes. Bacterial LPS from the Gram-negative cell wall and capsular polysacchar... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"token_count": 1497,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Briefly describe how NK cells bind to and kill infected cells and tumor cells through ADCC. Briefly describe how NK cells recognize and kill infected cells and tumor cells that suppress MHC-I production.
NK cells are another group of cytolytic lymphocytes that are distinct from B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes, and pa... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 3": "[12.3G: Natural Killer Cells \\(NK Cells\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.3%3A_Major_Cells_and_Key_Cell_Surface_Mole... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Compare and give examples of the following:
- a. primary lymphoid organs
- b. secondary lymphoid organs
- 2. Define the following:
- a. plasma
- b. tissue fluid
- c. lymph
- d. lymph vessels
- e. MALT
- 3. Briefly describe the importance of the lymphoid system in adaptive immune response... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 3": "[12.4: The Lymphoid System](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.4%3A_The_Lymphoid_System)",
"token_count": 2046,
"sourc... |
The lymphoid system consists of primary lymphoid organs, secondary lymphoid organs, and lymphatic vessels.
- 3. The bone marrow and the thymus constitute the primary lymphoid organs.
- 4. While both B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes are produced from stem cells in the bone marrow, B-lymphocytes mature in the bone marrow ... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 3": "[12.4: The Lymphoid System](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.4%3A_The_Lymphoid_System)",
"token_count": 478,
"source... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. List the 5 general steps involved in the immune responses in their correct order.
- 2. State where antigens may encounter APCs, B-lymphocytes, and T-lymphocytes if they enter the following:
- a. the blood
- b. tissues
- c. the respiratory tract
- d. the gastrointestinal tract
- e. the ge... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 3": "[12.5: An Overview of the Steps Involved in Adaptive Immune Responses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.5%3A_An_Overview... |
Upon capturing antigens through pinocytosis and phagocytosis and becoming activated by proinflammatory cytokines, [the dendritic cells detach from the epithelium, enter lymph vessels, and are carried to regional lymph nodes \(see Figure](http://faculty.... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 3": "[12.5: An Overview of the Steps Involved in Adaptive Immune Responses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.5%3A_An_Overview... |
12.5.10 12.5.10
[Flash animation of the binding of peptide epitopes to MHC-II molecules by a B-lymphocyte.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit6/intro/gensteps/bcellmhc2.html)
[Flash animation of an effector T4-lymphocyte recognizing epitopes bound to MHC-II molecules on a B-lymphocyte.](http://f... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 3": "[12.5: An Overview of the Steps Involved in Adaptive Immune Responses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.5%3A_An_Overview... |
H H H reg FH*
*4. In the case of cell-mediated immunity, the T8-lymphocytes differentiate into cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) capable of destroying body cells having the original epitope on their surface, such as viral infected cells, bacterial infected cells, and tumor cells by inducing apoptosis.*
*5. Antibodies,... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 3": "[12.5: An Overview of the Steps Involved in Adaptive Immune Responses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.5%3A_An_Overview... |
[Flash animation of a CTL triggering apoptosis by way of perforins and granzymes.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit6/intro/gensteps/ctla_infcell_fl.html)
[html5 version of animation for iPad showing a CTL triggering apoptosis by way of perforins and granzymes.](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/course... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 3": "[12.5: An Overview of the Steps Involved in Adaptive Immune Responses](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/12%3A_Introduction_to_Adaptive_Immunity/12.5%3A_An_Overview... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Describe an antibody molecule.
- 2. Draw the "stick figure" structure of IgG, indicating the Fab portion (variable region) and the Fc portion (constant region).
- 3. State the functions of the Fab and the Fc portions of an antibody.
- 4. State what is meant by the biological activity of ... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.1B: Antibody Structure](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.1%3A_Antibodies_(Immunoglobulins)/13.1... |
State which classes (isotypes) of human antibodies possess the following characteristics:
- a. are monomers
- b. is a pentamer
- c. is a dimer
- d. activates the classical complement pathway by its Fc portion
- e. binds to macrophages and neutrophils by its Fc portion
- f. binds to NK cells by its Fc portion
- g. cro... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.1C: The 5 Classes \\(Isotypes\\) of Human Antibodies](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.1%3A_Ant... |
Define gene translocation and relate it to each B-lymphocyte being able to produce an antibody with a unique
- shaped Fab. Define the following:
- a. combinatorial diversity
- b. junctional diversity
- c. affinity maturation
In this section we will look at generation of antibody diversity through gene translocation... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.1D: Generation of Antibody Diversity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.1%3A_Antibodies_(Immunog... |
#### Learning Objectives
Briefly describe the process of clonal selection and clonal expansion.
As mentioned above, during early differentiation of naive B-lymphocytes in the bone marrow, each B-lymphocyte becomes genetically programmed to make an antibody with a unique antigen-binding site (Fab) through a series o... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.1E: Clonal Selection and Clonal Expansion](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.1%3A_Antibodies_(Im... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. In terms of humoral immunity, statewhat is meant by anamnestic response and discuss its role in immune defense.
- 2. Briefly describe why there is a heightened secondary response during anamestic response.
As a result of B-lymphocytes recognizing T-dependent antigens (proteins) during ... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.1F: Anamnestic \\(Memory\\) Response](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.1%3A_Antibodies_(Immunog... |
#### Learning Objectives - Discuss how antibodies defend the body by way of opsonization. (Include what classes or isotypes of immunoglobulins are involved, the role of the Fab portion of the antibody, the role, if any, of the Fc portion of the antibody, and the role of any complement proteins, if any, involved.) - Bri... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.2A: Opsonization](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.2%3A_Ways_That_Antibodies_Help_to_Defend_the... |
Both of these polysaccharides closely resemble carbohydrates found in human tissue polysaccharides and because they are not recognized as foreign by the lymphocytes that carry out the immune responses, antibodies are not made against these capsules.
- Some bacteria are able to coat themselves with host proteins such as... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.2A: Opsonization](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.2%3A_Ways_That_Antibodies_Help_to_Defend_the... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Discuss how antibodies defend the body by way of MAC cytolysis. (Include what classes or isotypes of immunoglobulins are involved, the role of the Fab portion of the antibody, the role, if any, of the Fc portion of the antibody, and the role of any complement proteins, if any, involved.)... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.2B: Cytolysis by the Membrane Attack Complex \\(MAC\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.2%3A_W... |
#### Learning Objectives
1. **Discuss** how antibodies defend the body by way of **ADCC by Natural Killer cells**. (Include what classes or isotypes of immunoglobulins are involved, the role of the Fab portion of the antibody, the role, if any, of the Fc portion of the antibody, and the role of any complement protein... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.2C: Antibody-dependent Cellular Cytotoxicity \\(ADCC\\) by Natural Killer Cells](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_H... |
#### Learning Objectives
- Discuss how antibodies defend the body by way of neutralizing exotoxins. (Include what classes or isotypes of immunoglobulins are involved, the role of the Fab portion of the antibody, the role, if any, of the Fc portion of the antibody, and the role of any complement proteins, if any, invo... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.2D: Neutralization of Exotoxins](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.2%3A_Ways_That_Antibodies_Hel... |
Discuss how antibodies defend the body by way of neutralizing viruses. (Include what classes or isotypes of immunoglobulins are involved, the role of the Fab portion of the antibody, the role, if any, of the Fc portion of the antibody, and the role of any complement proteins, if any, involved.)
Briefly describe 2 diffe... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "13.2E: Neutralization of Viruses",
"token_count": 733,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Discuss how antibodies defend the body by way of preventing bacterial adherence to host cells. (Include what classes or isotypes of immunoglobulins are involved, the role of the Fab portion of the antibody, the role, if any, of the Fc portion of the antibody, and the role of any compleme... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.2F: Preventing Bacterial Adherence](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.2%3A_Ways_That_Antibodies_... |
#### Learning Objectives
1. Discuss how antibodies defend the body by immobilizing bacteria and protozoans. (Include the role of the Fab portion of the antibody, the role, if any, of the Fc portion of the antibody, and the role of any complement proteins, if any, involved.)
Flagella and cilia are organelles of loco... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.2H: Immobilization of Bacteria and Protozoans](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.2%3A_Ways_That_... |
#### Learning Objectives
1. Describe two different ways antibodies defend the body by promoting an inflammatory response and state the importance of inflammation. (Include the role of the Fab portion of the antibody, the role, if any, of the Fc portion of the antibody, and the role of any complement proteins, if any,... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.2I: Promoting an Inflammatory Response](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.2%3A_Ways_That_Antibod... |
Immunity may be passive or active. During **passive immunity**, antibodies made in another person or animal enter the body and the immunity is short-lived and Active Immunity: In the case of **active immunity**, antigens enter the body and the body responds by making its own antibodies and B-memory cells. In this case,... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.3: Naturally and Artificially Acquired Active and Passive Immunity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immuni... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Give an example of naturally acquired active immunity.
- 2. Give two examples of naturally acquired passive immunity and state why this is important to newborns and infants.
#### Active Naturally Acquired Immunity
Active naturally acquired immunity refers to the natural exposure to a... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.3A: Naturally Acquired Immunity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.3%3A_Naturally_and_Artificial... |
Define and give at least one example of each of the following types of immunity:
- a. artificially acquired active immunity
- b. artificially acquired passive immunity
- List 3 different forms of antigen that may be used for artificially acquired active immunity and state 2 common examples of each.
- State what DTaP ... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[13.3B: Artificially Acquired Immunity](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/13%3A_Humoral_Immunity/13.3%3A_Naturally_and_Artific... |
Passive artificially acquired immunity refers to the injection of antibody-containing serum, or immune globulin (IG), from another person or animal. Since the body is not making its own antibodies and memory cells are not produced, passive artificially acquired immunity is short lived and offers only mediate, short ter... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**SECTION OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "Passive Artificially Acquired Immunity",
"token_count": 907,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Cell-mediated immunity (CMI) is an immune response that does not involve antibodies but rather involves the activation of macrophages and NK-cells, the production of antigen-specific cytotoxic T-lymphocytes, and the release of various cytokines in response to an antigen. Cellular immunity protects the body by:
- Acti... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "14: Cell-Mediated Immunity",
"token_count": 222,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Briefly compare humoral immunity with cell-mediated immunity.
- 2. Define cell-mediated immunity and state what it is most effective against.
- 3. State three different ways by which cell-mediated immunity protects the body.
- 4. Define gene translocation and relate it to each T-lymphocy... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**Topic hierarchy**",
"Header 3": "[14.1: Cell-Mediated Immunity - An Overview](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/14%3A_Cell-Mediated_Immunity/14.1%3A_Cell-Mediat... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. In terms of the role of cytotoxic T-lymphocytes (CTLs) in body defense:
- a. State from what cells cytotoxic T-lymphocytes are derived.
- b. Describe how they can react with and destroy virus-infected cells, cells containing intracellular bacteria, and cancer cells without harming normal... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**Topic hierarchy**",
"Header 3": "[14.2: Activating Antigen-Specific Cytotoxic T- Lymphocytes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/14%3A_Cell-Mediated_Immunity/14.... |
The peptides are transported into the rough endoplasmic reticulum (ER) by a transporter protein called TAP.
- 3. The peptides then bind to the grooves of newly synthesized MHC-I molecules.
- 4. The endoplasmic reticulum transports the MHC-I molecules with bound peptides to the Golgi complex.
- 5. The Golgi complex, in ... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**Topic hierarchy**",
"Header 3": "[14.2: Activating Antigen-Specific Cytotoxic T- Lymphocytes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/14%3A_Cell-Mediated_Immunity/14.... |
Epstein-Barr virus (EBV) and cytomegalovirus (CMV) inhibit proteosomal activity so that viral proteins are not degraded into viral peptides. (top right) Blockage of TAP Transport of Peptides into the Endoplasmic Reticulum. Herpes simplex viruses (HSV) can block the TAP transport of peptides into the endoplasmic reticul... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**Topic hierarchy**",
"Header 3": "[14.2: Activating Antigen-Specific Cytotoxic T- Lymphocytes](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/14%3A_Cell-Mediated_Immunity/14.... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Describe how T 1 effector cells are able to interact with and activate macrophages. H
- 2. Describe how NK cells are able to recognize and destroy infected cells and cancer cells lacking MHC-I molecules.
After interacting with APCs, some naive T4-lymphocytes differentiate into a subset... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**Topic hierarchy**",
"Header 3": "[14.3: Activating Macrophages and NK Cells](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/14%3A_Cell-Mediated_Immunity/14.3%3A_Activating_M... |
14.3.7
Figure : NK Cell Interacting with a Virus-Infected Cell or a Mutant Cell Not Expressing MHC-I Molecules. When cells are either under stress, are turning into tumors, or are infected, various stress-induced molecules are produced and are put on the surface of that cell. In additio... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**Topic hierarchy**",
"Header 3": "[14.3: Activating Macrophages and NK Cells](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/14%3A_Cell-Mediated_Immunity/14.3%3A_Activating_M... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Define cytokine and explain what is meant by "cytokines are pleiotropic, redundant, and multifunctional."
- 2. Name 3 cytokines that regulate innate immune responses by triggering an inflammatory response.
- 3. Name the group of cytokines that regulates innate immunity by preventing tran... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**Topic hierarchy**",
"Header 3": "[14.4: Stimulating Cells to Secrete Cytokines](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/14%3A_Cell-Mediated_Immunity/14.4%3A_Stimulati... |
and septic shock. Examples of chemokines include IL-8, MIP-1a, MIP-1b, MCP-1, MCP-2, MCP-3, GRO-a, GRO-b, GRO-g, RANTES, and eotaxin. Chemokines are produced by many cells including leukocytes, endothelial cells, epithelial cells, and fibroblasts. 14.4.1
 ... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**Topic hierarchy**",
"Header 3": "[14.4: Stimulating Cells to Secrete Cytokines](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/14%3A_Cell-Mediated_Immunity/14.4%3A_Stimulati... |
Signaling pattern recognition receptors located in the cytoplasm of cells such as RIG-1 and MDA-5 also signal synthesis and secretion of type-I interferons.
Type I interferons, produced by virtually any virus-infected cell, provide an early innate immune response against viruses. Interferons induce uninfected cells... | {
"Header 1": "Activation of B-lymphocytes by T-independent antigens",
"Header 2": "**Topic hierarchy**",
"Header 3": "[14.4: Stimulating Cells to Secrete Cytokines](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/14%3A_Cell-Mediated_Immunity/14.4%3A_Stimulati... |
Cytokines that regulate adaptive immunity are produced primarily by T-lymphocytes that have recognized an antigen specific for that cell. These cytokines function in the proliferation and differentiation of B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes after antigen recognition and in the activation of effector cells.
Examples inc... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"token_count": 1800,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Define primary immunodeficiency.
- 2. Compare and contrast conventional and novel primary immunodeficiencies.
- 3. Name four categories of conventional immunodeficiencies and give an example of each.
A primary immunodeficiency is usually an immunodeficiency that one is born with. Until... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 3": "[15.1: Primary Immunodeficiency](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/15%3A_Immunodeficiency/15.1%3A_Primary_Immunodeficiency... |
Severe combined immunodeficiency disease or SCID affects both humoral immunity and cell-mediated immunity . There is a defect in both B-lymphocytes and T-lymphocytes, or just T-lymphocytes in which case the humoral deficiency is due to the lack of T4-helper lymphocytes.
- 1. Cytokine-Signaling Defects
- Autosomal rec... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 3": "Conventional: Combined B- and T-lymphocyte Disorders (Severe Combined Immunodeficiency Disease or SCID)",
"token_count": 1469,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. State what is meant by secondary immunodeficiency and list four possible contributing factors.
- 2. Briefly give at least four mechanisms of HIV-induced immunodeficiency.
In the case of secondary immunodeficiency, one is born with normal immune responses but some secondary factor or oc... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 3": "[15.2: Secondary Immunodeficiency](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/15%3A_Immunodeficiency/15.2%3A_Secondary_Immunodefici... |
Hypersensitivities are a set of undesirable reactions produced by the normal immune system, including allergies and autoimmunity. These reactions may be damaging, uncomfortable, or occasionally fatal. Hypersensitivity reactions require a pre-sensitized (immune) state of the host. Immediate hypersensitivities refer to h... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "16: Hypersensitivities",
"token_count": 801,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Describe the mechanism for Type I (IgE-mediated) hypersensitivity and give 3 examples. State how they are treated symptomatically.
- Describe how desensitization (allergy) shots work to lessen the severity of Type I hypersensitivities.
- Briefly describe how monoclonal antibodies against the Fc portion of IgE may som... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "16.1: Immediate Hypersensitivities: Type I",
"token_count": 2040,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Describe the mechanism for Type II (antibody-dependent cytotoxicity) hypersensitivity and give 2 examples.
Mechanism: Either IgG or IgM is made against normal self antigens as a result of a failure in immune tolerance , or a foreign antigen resembling some molecule on the surface of host cells enters the body and IgG... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[16.2: Immediate Hypersensitivities: Type II](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/16%3... |
#### Describe the mechanism for Type III (immune complex-mediated) hypersensitivity and give 2 examples.
Mechanism: This is caused when soluble antigen-antibody (IgG or IgM) complexes, [which are normally](http://faculty.ccbcmd.edu/courses/bio141/lecguide/unit6/hypersensitivity/type3/u3fg45a.html) removed by macropha... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[16.3: Immediate Hypersensitivities: Type III](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/16%... |
Describe the mechanism for Type V (Stimulatory) hypersensitivity and give an example.
Type V (Stimulatory Hypersensitivity) invovles making Antibodies are made against a particular hormone receptor on a hormoneproducing cell. This leads to the overstimulation of those hormone-producing cells. An example is Graves' di... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[16.4: Immediate Hypersensitivities - Type V](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/16%3... |
#### Learning Objectives
1. Describe the mechanism for Type IV (delayed) hypersensitivity and give two examples.
Delayed hypersensitivity is *cell-mediated* rather than *antibody-mediated*. The underlying Mechanism of delayed hypersensitivity is the same mechanism as cell-mediated immunity. T8-lymphocytes become se... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[16.5: Delayed Hypersensitivities - Type IV](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/16%3A... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Define superantigen.
- 2. Briefly describe the mechanism by which superantigens cause harm to the body.
- 3. Name 2 superantigens and give an example of a bacterium that produces each.
As was learned earlier under Bacterial Pathogenicity, superantigens are type I toxins that can trigge... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[16.6: Superantigens](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/16%3A_Hypersensitivities/16.... |
one of the most common causes of traveler's diarrhea.
#### Exercise: Think-Pair-Share Questions
What is the mechanism by which superantigens ultimately lead to SIRS?
#### Summary
- 1. Conventional antigens are only recognized by specific T4-cells having a TCR with a corresponding... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[16.6: Superantigens](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_6%3A_Adaptive_Immunity/16%3A_Hypersensitivities/16.... |
Briefly describe the process of binary fission in bacteria, stating the functions of Par proteins, the divisome, and FtsZ proteins.
- Define the following:
- a. generation time
- b. geometric progression
Draw a generalized bacterial growth curve, label the phases, and briefly describe what is happening during each ... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "17.1: Bacterial Growth",
"token_count": 1998,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
- Define the following: a. psychrophile b. psychrotroph c. mesophile d. thermophile e. obligate aerobe f. obligate anaerobe g. aerotolerant anaerobe h. facultative anaerobe State the optimum pH range for most bacteria and compare this range with the optimum pH for fungi. Define the following: a. phototroph b. chemotrop... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[17.2: Factors that Influence Bacterial Growth](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_7%3A_Microbial_Genetics_a... |
Other photosynthetic bacteria (the green sulfur bacteria and purple sulfur bacteria) carry out an anoxygenic process, using sulfur, sulfur compounds or hydrogen gas to reduce carbon dioxide and form organic compounds.
2. Photoheterotrophs use light as an energy source but cannot convert carbon dioxide into energy. In... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[17.2: Factors that Influence Bacterial Growth](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_7%3A_Microbial_Genetics_a... |
State what the letters ADP and ATP stand for and how the two molecules differ. Briefly describe how energy that is released from energy-containing compounds is trapped and stored as ATP and how energy stored in ATP is released to do cellular work.
Adenosine triphosphate (ATP) links most cellular exergonic and endergo... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[17.4: Adenosine Triphosphate \\(ATP\\)](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_7%3A_Microbial_Genetics_and_Micr... |
Oxidative phosphorylation is the production of ATP using energy derived from the transfer of electrons in an electron transport system and occurs by chemiosmosis.
To understand oxidative phosphorylation, it is important to first review the hydrogen atom and the process of oxidation and reduction. An atom of hydrogen ... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "**Oxidative Phosphorylation**",
"token_count": 1873,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
[Flash animation from Sigma-Aldrich illustrating ATP synthase generating ATP.](http://www.sigmaaldrich.com/life-science/metabolomics/learning-center/metabolic-pathways/atp-synthase.html)
[Flash animation illustrating ATP production by chemiosmosis during aerobic respiration in a prokaryotic bacterium.](http://facul... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "**Oxidative Phosphorylation**",
"token_count": 1642,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Describe the relationship between photosynthesis and aerobic respiration and relate this to the first law of thermodynamics.
For the vast majority of life on earth, the flow of energy begins with sunlight and involves a cycle involving photoautotrophs and chemoorganoheterotrophs. Photoautotrophs use sunlight as ... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[17.6: The Flow of Energy in Nature](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_7%3A_Microbial_Genetics_and_Microbia... |
| Define catabolism and anabolism and state which is exergonic and which is endergonic.<br>Define precursor metabolites and state their functions in metabolism.<br>Define the following: |
|-----------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------------... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[18.2: Overview of Cellular Respiration](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_7%3A_Microbial_Genetics_and_Micr... |
Define aerobic respiration.
- Give the overall chemical reaction for aerobic respiration.
- Name the four stages of aerobic respiration.
Aerobic respiration is the aerobic catabolism of nutrients to carbon dioxide, water, and energy, and involves an electron transport system in which molecular oxygen is the final e... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[18.3: Aerobic Respiration](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_7%3A_Microbial_Genetics_and_Microbial_Metabol... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Briefly describethe function of glycolysis during aerobic respiration and indicate the reactants and products.
- 2. State whether or not glycolysis requires oxygen.
- 3. Compare where glycolysis occurs in prokaryotic cells and in eukaryotic cells.
- 4. State whether steps 1 and 3 of glyc... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[18.3A: Glycolysis](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_7%3A_Microbial_Genetics_and_Microbial_Metabolism/18%3... |
During these oxidations, two molecules of NAD<sup>+</sup> are reduced to form two NADH + 2H<sup>+</sup>.
#### Step 6
As each of the two molecules of 1,3-biphosphoglycerate are converted to 3-phosphoglycerate, the high-energy phosphate group is added to ADP producing 2 ATP by substrate-level phosphorylation, a shown... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[18.3A: Glycolysis](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_7%3A_Microbial_Genetics_and_Microbial_Metabolism/18%3... |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Briefly describe the function of transition reaction during aerobic respiration and indicate the reactants and products.
- 2. During aerobic respiration, state what happens to the 2 NADH produced during the transition reaction.
- 3. Compare where the transition reaction occurs in prokary... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.3B: Transition Reaction",
"token_count": 1378,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Learning Objectives
- State two other names for the citric acid cycle.
- Briefly describe function of the citric acid cycle during aerobic respiration and indicate the reactants and products.
- Compare where the citric acid cycle occurs in prokaryotic cells and in eukaryotic cells.
- State the total number of AT... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.3C: Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle",
"token_count": 2027,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
The citric acid cycle provides a series of intermediate compounds that donate protons and electrons to the electron transport chain by way of the reduced coenzymes NADH and FADH<sub>2</sub>. The electron transport chain then generates additional ATPs by oxidative phosphorylation. The citric acid cycle also produces 2 A... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.3C: Citric Acid (Krebs) Cycle",
"token_count": 276,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Briefly describe he function of the electron transport chain during aerobic respiration.
- 2. Briefly describe he chemiosmotic theory of generation of ATP as a result of an electron transport chain.
- 3. Compare where the electron transport chain occurs in prokaryotic cells and in eukary... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.3D: Electron Transport Chain and Chemisomosis",
"token_count": 2027,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
The chemiosmotic theory states that the transfer of electrons down an electron transport system through a series of oxidation-reduction reactions releases energy. This energy allows certain carriers in the chain to transport hydrogen ions (H<sup>+</sup> or protons) across a membrane.
- 5. As the hydrogen ions accumulat... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.3D: Electron Transport Chain and Chemisomosis",
"token_count": 280,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
The theoretical maximum yield of ATP for the oxidation of one molecule of glucose during aerobic respiration is 38. In terms of substrate-level phosphorylation, oxidative phosphorylation, and the component pathways involved, briefly explain how this number is obtained.
Determining the exact yield of ATP for aerobic r... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.3E: Theoretical ATP Yield",
"token_count": 730,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Define anaerobic respiration and state the pathways involved.State in what types or organism anaerobic respiration occurs.
Some prokaryotes are able to carry out anaerobic respiration, respiration in which an inorganic molecule other than oxygen $(O_2)$ is the final electron acceptor. For example, some bacteria cal... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.4: Anaerobic Respiration",
"token_count": 578,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Define fermentation.
- 2. State the mechanism for ATP generation during fermentation.
- 3. Briefly describe he function of glycolysis during fermentation and indicate the reactants and products.
- 4. Compare the maximum yield of ATP from one molecule of glucose for aerobic respiration an... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.5: Fermentation",
"token_count": 1601,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Photoautotrophs use sunlight as a source of energy and through the process of photosynthesis, reduce carbon dioxide to form carbohydrates such as glucose. The radiant energy is converted to the chemical bond energy within glucose and other organic molecules. Plants, algae, and cyanobacteria are known as oxygenic photoa... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.7: Photosynthesis",
"token_count": 400,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Define the following:
- a. oxygenic photoautotroph
- b. anoxygenic photoautotroph
- c. photon
- Name the two stages of photosynthesis.
- State how all radiations in the electromagnetic spectrum travel.
- State what constitutes visible light.
- Define photon and describe what happens when photons of visible light... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "[18.7A: Introduction to Photosynthesis](https://bio.libretexts.org/Bookshelves/Microbiology/Microbiology_(Kaiser)/Unit_7%3A_Microbial_Genetics_and_Micro... |
Briefly describe the overall function of the light-dependent reactions in photosynthesis and state where in the chloroplast they occur.
- State the reactants and the products for the light-dependent reactions.
- Describe an antenna complex and state the function of the reaction center.
- Briefly describe the overall ... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.7B: Oxygenic Photosynthesis: Light-Dependent Reactions",
"token_count": 2040,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
Briefly describe the overall function of the light-independent reactions in photosynthesis and state where in the chloroplast they occur.
- State how the light-dependent and light-independent reactions are linked during photosynthesis.
- State the reactants and the products for the light-independent reactions.
- Brie... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.7C: Oxygenic Photosynthesis: Light-Independent Reactions",
"token_count": 760,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
#### Learning Objectives
- 1. Briefly describe the C<sub>4</sub> pathway and how it differs from the C<sub>3</sub> pathway.
- 2. Briefly describe the CAM pathway and how it differs from the C<sub>4</sub> pathway.
The entry and exit of gasses in plants is through small pores called stomata located on the underside o... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "18.7D: C4 and CAM Pathways in Plants",
"token_count": 1367,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
| Learning Objectives |
|------------------------------------------------------------------------------|
| 1. Define or describe the following: |
| a. amino acid ... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "19.1: Polypeptides and Proteins",
"token_count": 2015,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
The secondary structure of the protein is due to hydrogen bonds that form between the oxygen atom of one amino acid and the nitrogen atom of another and gives the protein or polypeptide the two-dimensional form of an alpha-helix or a beta-pleated sheet.
- 8. In globular proteins such a... | {
"Header 1": "Cytokines that Regulate Adaptive Immune Responses (Humoral Immunity and Cell-Mediated Immunity)",
"Header 2": "**CHAPTER OVERVIEW**",
"Header 3": "19.1: Polypeptides and Proteins",
"token_count": 384,
"source_pdf": "datasets/websources/Med_v1/med_textbook/Full.pdf"
} |
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