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en ni um ▁CE , ▁the ▁large ▁presence ▁of ▁the ▁S arm ati ans ▁who ▁once ▁domin ated ▁Ukraine , ▁Southern ▁Russia , ▁and ▁sw ath s ▁of ▁the ▁Car path ians , ▁gradually ▁started ▁to ▁dimin ish ▁mainly ▁due ▁to ▁assim ilation ▁and ▁absor ption ▁by ▁the ▁German ic ▁Goth s , ▁especially ▁from ▁the ▁areas ▁near ▁the ▁Roman ▁front ier , ▁but ▁only ▁completely ▁by ▁the ▁Pro to - S lav ic ▁pe op les . ▁The ▁abund ant ▁East ▁Iran ian - der ived ▁to pon ym s ▁in ▁Eastern ▁Europe ▁proper ▁( e . g . ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁largest ▁rivers ; ▁the ▁D ni estr ▁and ▁D nie pr ), ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁loan words ▁adopted ▁pre domin antly ▁through ▁the ▁Eastern ▁S lav ic ▁languages ▁and ▁adopted ▁aspects ▁of ▁Iran ian ▁culture ▁amongst ▁the ▁early ▁S lav s , ▁are ▁all ▁a ▁rem nant ▁of ▁this . ▁A ▁connection ▁between ▁Pro to - S lav onic ▁and ▁Iran ian ▁languages ▁is ▁also ▁further more ▁proven ▁by ▁the ▁earliest ▁layer ▁of ▁loan words ▁in ▁the ▁former . ▁For ▁instance , ▁the ▁Pro to - S lav onic ▁words ▁for ▁god ▁(* b og ъ ), ▁demon ▁(* div ъ ), ▁house ▁(* x ata ), ▁ax e ▁(* top or ъ ) ▁and ▁dog ▁(* sob aka ) ▁are ▁of ▁S cy th ian ▁origin . ▁ ▁A ▁further ▁point ▁on ▁beh alf ▁of ▁the ▁extensive ▁contact ▁between ▁these ▁S cy th o - S arm at ian |
▁Iran ian ▁tribes ▁in ▁Eastern ▁Europe ▁and ▁the ▁( E ar ly ) ▁S lav s ▁is ▁to ▁be ▁shown ▁in ▁matters ▁regarding ▁religion . ▁After ▁S lav ic ▁and ▁Balt ic ▁languages ▁diver ged ▁– - ▁also ▁ev iden ced ▁by ▁et ym ology ▁– - ▁the ▁Early ▁S lav s ▁interact ed ▁with ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁and ▁merged ▁elements ▁of ▁Iran ian ▁spiritual ity ▁into ▁their ▁belief s . ▁For ▁example , ▁both ▁Early ▁Iran ian ▁and ▁S lav ic ▁supre me ▁gods ▁were ▁considered ▁g ivers ▁of ▁wealth , ▁unlike ▁the ▁supre me ▁th under ▁gods ▁in ▁many ▁other ▁European ▁relig ions . ▁Also , ▁both ▁S lav s ▁and ▁Iran ians ▁had ▁dem ons ▁– - ▁given ▁names ▁from ▁similar ▁lingu istic ▁roots , ▁Da ê va ▁( I ran ian ) ▁and ▁Div ŭ ▁( S lav ic ) ▁– - ▁and ▁a ▁concept ▁of ▁dual ism , ▁of ▁good ▁and ▁evil . ▁ ▁The ▁S arm ati ans ▁of ▁the ▁east , ▁based ▁in ▁the ▁Pont ic – C asp ian ▁ste ppe , ▁became ▁the ▁Al ans , ▁who ▁also ▁vent ured ▁far ▁and ▁wide , ▁with ▁a ▁branch ▁ending ▁up ▁in ▁Western ▁Europe ▁and ▁then ▁North ▁Africa , ▁as ▁they ▁accompanied ▁the ▁German ic ▁V and als ▁and ▁Sue bi ▁during ▁their ▁migr ations . ▁The ▁modern ▁Os set ians ▁are ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁direct ▁descend ants ▁of ▁the ▁Al ans , ▁as ▁other ▁rem n ants ▁of ▁the ▁Al ans ▁disappeared |
▁following ▁German ic , ▁H unn ic ▁and ▁ultimately ▁S lav ic ▁migr ations ▁and ▁invas ions . ▁Another ▁group ▁of ▁Al ans ▁al lied ▁with ▁Goth s ▁to ▁defeat ▁the ▁Rom ans ▁and ▁ultimately ▁settled ▁in ▁what ▁is ▁now ▁called ▁Catal onia ▁( G oth - Al ania ). ▁ ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁S aka - S cy th ian ▁tribes ▁in ▁Central ▁Asia ▁would ▁later ▁move ▁further ▁sout heast ▁and ▁in va de ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Pl ate au , ▁large ▁sections ▁of ▁present - day ▁Afghan istan ▁and ▁finally ▁deep ▁into ▁present ▁day ▁Pakistan ▁( see ▁Ind o - S cy th ians ). ▁Another ▁Iran ian ▁tribe ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁S aka - S cy th ians ▁were ▁the ▁Par ni ▁in ▁Central ▁Asia , ▁and ▁who ▁later ▁become ▁ind ist ingu ish able ▁from ▁the ▁Par th ians , ▁speak ers ▁of ▁a ▁north west - I ran ian ▁language . ▁Many ▁Iran ian ▁tribes , ▁including ▁the ▁Kh war az mi ans , ▁Mass ag eta e ▁and ▁S og d ians , ▁were ▁assim il ated ▁and / or ▁disp la ced ▁in ▁Central ▁Asia ▁by ▁the ▁migr ations ▁of ▁Turk ic ▁tribes ▁em an ating ▁out ▁of ▁X in ji ang ▁and ▁Si ber ia . ▁ ▁The ▁modern ▁Sar ik oli ▁in ▁southern ▁X in ji ang ▁and ▁the ▁Os set ians ▁of ▁the ▁C au cas us ▁( main ly ▁South ▁Os set ia ▁and ▁North ▁Os set ia ) ▁are ▁rem n |
ants ▁of ▁the ▁various ▁S cy th ian - der ived ▁tribes ▁from ▁the ▁vast ▁far ▁and ▁wide ▁territory ▁they ▁once ▁dw elled ▁in . ▁The ▁modern ▁Os set ians ▁are ▁the ▁descend ants ▁of ▁the ▁Al ano - S arm ati ans , ▁and ▁their ▁claims ▁are ▁supported ▁by ▁their ▁N ortheast ▁Iran ian ▁language , ▁while ▁cult ur ally ▁the ▁Os set ians ▁res emble ▁their ▁North ▁C au cas ian ▁neighb ors , ▁the ▁Kab ard ians ▁and ▁Circ ass ians . ▁Vari ous ▁ext inct ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁existed ▁in ▁the ▁eastern ▁C au cas us , ▁including ▁the ▁Az aris , ▁while ▁some ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁remain ▁in ▁the ▁region , ▁including ▁the ▁Tal y sh ▁and ▁the ▁T ats ▁( including ▁the ▁J ude o - T ats , ▁who ▁have ▁re located ▁to ▁Israel ), ▁found ▁in ▁A zer ba ij an ▁and ▁as ▁far ▁north ▁as ▁the ▁Russian ▁republic ▁of ▁D ag est an . ▁A ▁rem nant ▁of ▁the ▁S og d ians ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁Y ag hn obi - spe aking ▁population ▁in ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁Z er av sh an ▁valley ▁in ▁T aj ik istan . ▁ ▁Later ▁develop ments ▁ ▁Starting ▁with ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁O mar ▁in ▁ 6 3 4 ▁CE , ▁Muslim ▁Arab s ▁began ▁a ▁con quest ▁of ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Pl ate au . ▁The ▁Arab s ▁conquer ed ▁the ▁S ass an id ▁Empire ▁of ▁the ▁Pers ians |
▁and ▁seized ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire ▁populated ▁by ▁the ▁Kur ds ▁and ▁others . ▁Ult imately , ▁the ▁various ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les , ▁including ▁the ▁Pers ians , ▁Pas ht uns , ▁Kur ds ▁and ▁Bal och is , ▁converted ▁to ▁Islam , ▁while ▁the ▁Al ans ▁converted ▁to ▁Christian ity , ▁thus ▁lay ing ▁the ▁foundation ▁for ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁the ▁modern - day ▁Os set ians ▁are ▁Christian . ▁The ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁would ▁later ▁split ▁along ▁sect arian ▁lines ▁as ▁the ▁Pers ians ▁adopted ▁the ▁Sh i ' a ▁sect . ▁As ▁ancient ▁tribes ▁and ▁ident ities ▁changed , ▁so ▁did ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les , ▁many ▁of ▁whom ▁assim il ated ▁foreign ▁cult ures ▁and ▁pe op les . ▁ ▁Later , ▁during ▁the ▁ 2 nd ▁mill en ni um ▁CE , ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁would ▁play ▁a ▁prominent ▁role ▁during ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁Islam ic ▁expansion ▁and ▁emp ire . ▁Sal adin , ▁a ▁noted ▁advers ary ▁of ▁the ▁Cr us aders , ▁was ▁an ▁eth nic ▁Kur d , ▁while ▁various ▁emp ires ▁centered ▁in ▁Iran ▁( including ▁the ▁Saf av ids ) ▁re - est ab lished ▁a ▁modern ▁dialect ▁of ▁Pers ian ▁as ▁the ▁official ▁language ▁spoken ▁throughout ▁much ▁of ▁what ▁is ▁today ▁Iran ▁and ▁the ▁C au cas us . ▁Iran ian ▁influence ▁spread ▁to ▁the ▁neighbour ing ▁Ott oman ▁Empire , ▁where ▁Pers ian ▁was ▁often ▁spoken ▁at ▁court ▁( |
though ▁a ▁heavy ▁Tur ko - Pers ian ▁basis ▁there ▁was ▁set ▁already ▁by ▁the ▁prede cess ors ▁of ▁the ▁Ott om ans ▁in ▁An atol ia , ▁namely ▁the ▁Sel ju ks ▁and ▁the ▁Sultan ate ▁of ▁Rum ▁amongst ▁others ) ▁as ▁well ▁to ▁the ▁court ▁of ▁the ▁M ug hal ▁Empire . ▁All ▁of ▁the ▁major ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁re assert ed ▁their ▁use ▁of ▁Iran ian ▁languages ▁following ▁the ▁decl ine ▁of ▁Arab ▁rule , ▁but ▁would ▁not ▁begin ▁to ▁form ▁modern ▁national ▁ident ities ▁until ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁and ▁early ▁ 2 0 th ▁centuries ▁( just ▁as ▁many ▁European ▁communities , ▁such ▁as ▁Germany ▁and ▁Italy , ▁began ▁to ▁form ulate ▁national ▁ident ities ▁of ▁their ▁own ). ▁ ▁Dem ograph ics ▁▁ ▁There ▁are ▁an ▁estimated ▁ 1 5 0 ▁to ▁ 2 0 0 ▁million ▁native ▁speak ers ▁of ▁Iran ian ▁languages , ▁the ▁six ▁major ▁groups ▁of ▁Pers ians , ▁L urs , ▁Kur ds , ▁T aj iks , ▁Bal och , ▁and ▁Pas ht uns ▁account ing ▁for ▁about ▁ 9 0 % ▁of ▁this ▁number . ▁Currently , ▁most ▁of ▁these ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁live ▁in ▁Iran , ▁Afghan istan , ▁the ▁C au cas us ▁( main ly ▁Os set ia , ▁other ▁parts ▁of ▁Georgia , ▁D ag est an , ▁and ▁A zer ba ij an ), ▁Ira qi ▁Kur dist an ▁and ▁Kur d ish ▁majority ▁populated ▁areas ▁of ▁Turkey , ▁Iran |
▁and ▁Sy ria , ▁T aj ik istan , ▁Pakistan ▁and ▁U z bek istan . ▁There ▁are ▁also ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁living ▁in ▁Eastern ▁Arab ia ▁such ▁as ▁northern ▁O man ▁and ▁Bah rain . ▁ ▁Due ▁to ▁recent ▁migr ations , ▁there ▁are ▁also ▁large ▁communities ▁of ▁speak ers ▁of ▁Iran ian ▁languages ▁in ▁Europe , ▁the ▁Amer icas , ▁and ▁Israel . ▁ ▁Culture ▁▁ ▁Iran ian ▁culture ▁is ▁today ▁considered ▁to ▁be ▁centered ▁in ▁what ▁is ▁called ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Pl ate au , ▁and ▁has ▁its ▁orig ins ▁trac ing ▁back ▁to ▁the ▁And ron ovo ▁culture ▁of ▁the ▁late ▁Bron ze ▁Age , ▁which ▁is ▁associated ▁with ▁other ▁cult ures ▁of ▁the ▁E uras ian ▁Ste ppe . ▁It ▁was , ▁however , ▁later ▁developed ▁distinguish ably ▁from ▁its ▁earlier ▁gener ations ▁in ▁the ▁Ste ppe , ▁where ▁a ▁large ▁number ▁of ▁Iran ian - spe aking ▁pe op les ▁( i . e ., ▁the ▁S cy th ians ) ▁continued ▁to ▁particip ate , ▁resulting ▁in ▁a ▁different iation ▁that ▁is ▁displayed ▁in ▁Iran ian ▁myth ology ▁as ▁the ▁contrast ▁between ▁Iran ▁and ▁Tur an . ▁ ▁Like ▁other ▁Ind o - Europe ans , ▁the ▁early ▁Iran ians ▁pract iced ▁rit ual ▁sacrifice , ▁had ▁a ▁social ▁hierarchy ▁consisting ▁of ▁war riors , ▁cler ics , ▁and ▁far mers , ▁and ▁rec ount ed ▁their ▁de eds ▁through ▁po etic ▁h ym ns ▁and ▁sag as . ▁Vari ous ▁common ▁tra its |
▁can ▁be ▁disc ern ed ▁among ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les . ▁For ▁instance , ▁the ▁social ▁event ▁of ▁Now ru z ▁is ▁an ▁ancient ▁Iran ian ▁festival ▁that ▁is ▁still ▁celebrated ▁by ▁nearly ▁all ▁of ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les . ▁However , ▁due ▁to ▁their ▁different ▁environmental ▁adapt ations ▁through ▁migration , ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁em brace ▁some ▁degrees ▁of ▁divers ity ▁in ▁dialect , ▁social ▁system , ▁and ▁other ▁aspects ▁of ▁culture . ▁ ▁With ▁numerous ▁art istic , ▁scientific , ▁architect ural , ▁and ▁philosoph ical ▁achiev ements ▁and ▁numerous ▁kingdom s ▁and ▁emp ires ▁that ▁brid ged ▁much ▁of ▁the ▁civil ized ▁world ▁in ▁anti qu ity , ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁were ▁often ▁in ▁close ▁contact ▁with ▁people ▁from ▁various ▁western ▁and ▁eastern ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁world . ▁ ▁Religion ▁▁ ▁The ▁early ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁pract iced ▁the ▁ancient ▁Iran ian ▁religion , ▁which , ▁like ▁that ▁of ▁other ▁Ind o - Europe an ▁pe op les , ▁emb rac ed ▁various ▁male ▁and ▁female ▁de ities . ▁Fire ▁was ▁regarded ▁as ▁an ▁important ▁and ▁highly ▁sacred ▁element , ▁and ▁also ▁a ▁de ity . ▁In ▁ancient ▁Iran , ▁fire ▁was ▁kept ▁with ▁great ▁care ▁in ▁fire ▁tem ples . ▁Vari ous ▁annual ▁festiv als ▁that ▁were ▁mainly ▁related ▁to ▁agricult ure ▁and ▁her ding ▁were ▁celebrated , ▁the ▁most ▁important ▁of ▁which ▁was ▁the ▁New ▁Year ▁( Now ru z ), ▁which ▁is ▁still ▁widely ▁celebrated |
. ▁Z oro ast rian ism , ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Iran ian ▁religion ▁that ▁is ▁still ▁pract iced ▁by ▁some ▁communities , ▁was ▁later ▁developed ▁and ▁spread ▁to ▁nearly ▁all ▁of ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁living ▁in ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Pl ate au . ▁Other ▁relig ions ▁that ▁had ▁their ▁orig ins ▁in ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁world ▁were ▁M ith ra ism , ▁Man ich ae ism , ▁and ▁Maz d ak ism , ▁among ▁others . ▁The ▁various ▁relig ions ▁of ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁are ▁believed ▁by ▁some ▁sch ol ars ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁significant ▁early ▁philosoph ical ▁influ ences ▁on ▁Christian ity ▁and ▁J uda ism . ▁ ▁Cultural ▁assim ilation ▁▁ ▁Iran ian ▁languages ▁were ▁and , ▁to ▁a ▁less er ▁extent , ▁still ▁are ▁spoken ▁in ▁a ▁wide ▁area ▁compr ising ▁regions ▁around ▁the ▁Black ▁Sea , ▁the ▁C au cas us , ▁Central ▁Asia , ▁Russia ▁and ▁the ▁north west ▁of ▁China . ▁This ▁population ▁was ▁lingu ist ically ▁assim il ated ▁by ▁smaller ▁but ▁dominant ▁Turk ic - spe aking ▁groups , ▁while ▁the ▁sed ent ary ▁population ▁eventually ▁adopted ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁language , ▁which ▁began ▁to ▁spread ▁within ▁the ▁region ▁since ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁the ▁S as an ian ▁Empire . ▁The ▁language - shift ▁from ▁Middle ▁Iran ian ▁to ▁Turk ic ▁and ▁New ▁Pers ian ▁was ▁pre domin antly ▁the ▁result ▁of ▁an ▁" el ite ▁domin ance " ▁process . ▁Moreover , ▁various ▁Turk ic - |
spe aking ▁eth nic ▁groups ▁of ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁Pl ate au ▁are ▁often ▁convers ant ▁also ▁in ▁an ▁Iran ian ▁language ▁and ▁em brace ▁Iran ian ▁culture ▁to ▁the ▁extent ▁that ▁the ▁term ▁Tur ko - I ran ian ▁would ▁be ▁applied . ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁were ▁also ▁inter m ixed ▁with ▁the ▁S lav s , ▁and ▁many ▁were ▁subject ed ▁to ▁S lav ic isation . ▁ ▁The ▁following ▁either ▁partially ▁descend ▁from ▁or ▁are ▁sometimes ▁regarded ▁as ▁descend ants ▁of ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les . ▁ ▁Turk ic - spe akers : ▁ ▁A zer ba ij an is : ▁In ▁spite ▁of ▁being ▁native ▁speak ers ▁of ▁a ▁Turk ic ▁language ▁( A zer ba ij ani ▁Turk ic ), ▁they ▁are ▁believed ▁to ▁be ▁primarily ▁desc ended ▁from ▁the ▁earlier ▁Iran ian - spe akers ▁of ▁the ▁region . ▁They ▁are ▁possibly ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁ancient ▁Iran ian ▁tribe ▁of ▁the ▁Med es , ▁aside ▁from ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁the ▁subsequent ▁Pers ian ▁and ▁Turk ic ▁elements ▁within ▁their ▁area ▁of ▁settlement , ▁which , ▁prior ▁to ▁the ▁spread ▁of ▁Turk ic , ▁was ▁Iran ian - spe aking . ▁Thus , ▁due ▁to ▁their ▁historical , ▁gen etic ▁and ▁cultural ▁t ies ▁to ▁the ▁Iran ians , ▁the ▁A zer ba ij an is ▁are ▁often ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les . ▁Gen etic ▁studies ▁observed ▁that ▁they ▁are ▁also ▁gen et ically ▁related ▁to ▁the |
▁Iran ian ▁pe op les . ▁( See ▁also : ▁Old ▁A zer i ▁language ▁and ▁Origin ▁of ▁the ▁A zer ba ij an is ) ▁ ▁Tur km ens : ▁Gen etic ▁studies ▁show ▁that ▁the ▁Tur km ens ▁are ▁character ized ▁by ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁local ▁Iran ian ▁m t D NA ▁line ages , ▁similar ▁to ▁the ▁eastern ▁Iran ian ▁populations , ▁but ▁mod est ▁female ▁Mong ol oid ▁m t D NA ▁components ▁were ▁observed ▁in ▁Turk men ▁populations ▁with ▁the ▁frequencies ▁of ▁about ▁ 2 0 %. ▁This ▁likely ▁indicates ▁an ▁ancest ral ▁combination ▁of ▁Turk ic ▁and ▁Iran ian ▁groups ▁that ▁the ▁modern ▁Tur km ens ▁have ▁inherited , ▁apparently ▁corresponding ▁to ▁the ▁historical ▁record ▁that ▁indicates ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁various ▁Iran ian ▁tribes ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁prior ▁to ▁the ▁migration ▁of ▁Turk ic ▁tribes . ▁ ▁U z be ks : ▁The ▁unique ▁gram mat ical ▁and ▁ph on et ical ▁features ▁of ▁the ▁U z bek ▁language , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁elements ▁within ▁the ▁modern ▁U z bek ▁culture , ▁reflect ▁the ▁older ▁Iran ian ▁roots ▁of ▁the ▁U z bek ▁people . ▁According ▁to ▁recent ▁gen etic ▁gene al ogy ▁testing ▁from ▁a ▁University ▁of ▁Oxford ▁study , ▁the ▁gen etic ▁ad mi xture ▁of ▁the ▁U z be ks ▁clusters ▁somewhere ▁between ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁and ▁the ▁Mong ols . ▁Prior ▁to ▁the ▁Russian ▁con quest ▁of ▁Central ▁Asia , ▁the ▁local ▁ancest ors ▁of ▁the ▁Turk ic - spe |
aking ▁U z be ks ▁and ▁the ▁Iran ian - spe aking ▁T aj iks , ▁both ▁living ▁in ▁Central ▁Asia , ▁were ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁S arts , ▁while ▁U z bek ▁and ▁Turk ▁were ▁the ▁names ▁given ▁to ▁the ▁nom adic ▁and ▁semi - nom adic ▁populations ▁of ▁the ▁area . ▁Still , ▁as ▁of ▁today , ▁modern ▁U z be ks ▁and ▁T aj iks ▁are ▁known ▁to ▁their ▁Turk ic ▁neighb ors , ▁the ▁Kaz ak hs ▁and ▁the ▁K yr gy z , ▁as ▁S arts . ▁Some ▁U z bek ▁sch ol ars ▁also ▁favor ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁origin ▁theory . ▁ ▁U yg h urs : ▁Contempor ary ▁sch ol ars ▁consider ▁modern ▁U yg h urs ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁descend ants ▁of , ▁apart ▁from ▁the ▁ancient ▁U yg h urs , ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁S aka ▁( Sch yt ian ) ▁tribes ▁and ▁other ▁Ind o - Europe an ▁pe op les ▁who ▁inhab ited ▁the ▁Tar im ▁Bas in ▁before ▁the ▁arrival ▁of ▁the ▁Turk ic ▁tribes . ▁ ▁S lav ic - spe akers : ▁ ▁Cro ats ▁and ▁Ser bs : ▁Some ▁sch ol ars ▁suggest ▁that ▁the ▁S lav ic - spe aking ▁Ser bs ▁and ▁Cro ats ▁are ▁desc ended ▁from ▁the ▁ancient ▁S arm ati ans , ▁an ▁ancient ▁Iran ian ▁people ▁who ▁once ▁settled ▁in ▁most ▁of ▁southern ▁European ▁Russia ▁and ▁the ▁eastern ▁B alk ans , ▁and ▁that ▁their ▁eth n onym s ▁are ▁of ▁Iran |
ian ▁origin . ▁It ▁is ▁proposed ▁that ▁the ▁S arm at ian ▁Ser bo i ▁and ▁alleg ed ▁H oro ath os ▁tribes ▁were ▁assim il ated ▁with ▁the ▁numer ically ▁superior ▁S lav s , ▁passing ▁on ▁their ▁name . ▁Iran ian - spe aking ▁pe op les ▁did ▁inhab it ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁B alk ans ▁in ▁late ▁classical ▁times , ▁and ▁would ▁have ▁been ▁encountered ▁by ▁the ▁S lav s . ▁However , ▁direct ▁lingu istic , ▁historical , ▁or ▁arch ae ological ▁proof ▁for ▁such ▁a ▁theory ▁is ▁lack ing . ▁( See ▁also : ▁Origin ▁hypoth eses ▁of ▁the ▁Ser bs ▁and ▁Origin ▁hypoth eses ▁of ▁the ▁Cro ats ) ▁ ▁Sw ah ili - spe akers : ▁ ▁Sh ira z is : ▁The ▁Sh ira zi ▁are ▁a ▁sub - group ▁of ▁the ▁Sw ah ili ▁people ▁living ▁on ▁the ▁Sw ah ili ▁coast ▁of ▁East ▁Africa , ▁especially ▁on ▁the ▁islands ▁of ▁Z anz ib ar , ▁P emb a , ▁and ▁Com or os . ▁Local ▁trad itions ▁about ▁their ▁origin ▁claim ▁they ▁are ▁desc ended ▁from ▁merchant ▁princes ▁from ▁Sh ira z ▁in ▁Iran ▁who ▁settled ▁along ▁the ▁Sw ah ili ▁coast . ▁ ▁Gen et ics ▁▁ ▁Reg ue iro ▁et ▁al ▁( 2 0 0 6 ) ▁and ▁Gru g ni ▁et ▁al ▁( 2 0 1 2 ) ▁have ▁performed ▁large - scale ▁sampling ▁of ▁different ▁eth nic ▁groups ▁within ▁Iran . ▁They ▁found ▁that ▁the ▁most ▁common ▁H ap |
lo groups ▁were : ▁▁ ▁J 1 - M 2 6 7 ; ▁typical ▁of ▁Sem it ic - spe aking ▁people , ▁was ▁rarely ▁over ▁ 1 0 % ▁in ▁Iran ian ▁groups . ▁ ▁J 2 - M 1 7 2 : ▁is ▁the ▁most ▁common ▁H g ▁in ▁Iran ▁( ~ 2 3 % ); ▁almost ▁exclus ively ▁represented ▁by ▁J 2 a - M 4 1 0 ▁sub cla de ▁( 9 3 % ), ▁the ▁other ▁major ▁sub - cla de ▁being ▁J 2 b - M 1 2 . ▁A part ▁from ▁Iran ians , ▁J 2 ▁is ▁common ▁in ▁Arab s , ▁Mediter rane an ▁and ▁B alk an ▁pe op les ▁( C ro ats , ▁Ser bs , ▁Gree ks , ▁Bos nia ks , ▁Alban ians , ▁It ali ans , ▁Mac ed oni ans , ▁Bulg ari ans , ▁Tur ks ), ▁in ▁the ▁C au cas us ▁( Ar men ians , ▁Georg ians , ▁Che ch ens , ▁Ing ush , ▁n ort he astern ▁Turkey , ▁north / n orth western ▁Iran , ▁Kur ds , ▁Pers ians ); ▁whilst ▁its ▁frequency ▁dro ps ▁suddenly ▁beyond ▁Afghan istan , ▁Pakistan ▁and ▁northern ▁India . ▁In ▁Europe , ▁J 2 a ▁is ▁more ▁common ▁in ▁the ▁southern ▁Greece ▁and ▁southern ▁Italy ; ▁whilst ▁J 2 b ▁( J 2 - M 1 2 ) ▁is ▁more ▁common ▁in ▁Th ess aly , ▁Mac ed onia ▁and ▁central ▁– ▁northern ▁Italy |
. ▁Thus ▁J 2 a ▁and ▁its ▁sub groups ▁within ▁it ▁have ▁a ▁wide ▁distribution ▁from ▁Italy ▁to ▁India , ▁whilst ▁J 2 b ▁is ▁mostly ▁conf ined ▁to ▁the ▁B alk ans ▁and ▁Italy , ▁being ▁rare ▁even ▁in ▁Turkey . ▁Wh ilst ▁closely ▁linked ▁with ▁An atol ia ▁and ▁the ▁Lev ant ; ▁and ▁put ative ▁agricult ural ▁exp ans ions , ▁the ▁distribution ▁of ▁the ▁various ▁sub - cl ades ▁of ▁J 2 ▁likely ▁represents ▁a ▁number ▁of ▁migr ational ▁histor ies ▁which ▁require ▁further ▁el uc id ation . ▁ ▁R 1 a - M 1 9 8 : ▁is ▁common ▁in ▁Iran , ▁more ▁so ▁in ▁the ▁east ▁and ▁south ▁rather ▁than ▁the ▁west ▁and ▁north ; ▁suggesting ▁a ▁migration ▁toward ▁the ▁south ▁to ▁India ▁then ▁a ▁secondary ▁west ward ▁spread ▁across ▁Iran . ▁Wh ilst ▁the ▁Gr ong i ▁and ▁Reg ue iro ▁studies ▁did ▁not ▁define ▁exactly ▁which ▁sub - cl ades ▁Iran ian ▁R 1 a ▁ha p lo gr ou ops ▁belong ▁to , ▁private ▁gene al ogy ▁tests ▁suggest ▁that ▁they ▁virt ually ▁all ▁belong ▁to ▁" E uras ian " ▁R 1 a - Z 9 3 . ▁Indeed , ▁population ▁studies ▁of ▁neighbour ing ▁Indian ▁groups ▁found ▁that ▁they ▁all ▁were ▁in ▁R 1 a - Z 9 3 . ▁This ▁implies ▁that ▁R 1 a ▁in ▁Iran ▁did ▁not ▁descend ▁from ▁" Europe an " ▁R 1 a , ▁or ▁vice ▁vers a . ▁R ather , ▁both ▁groups ▁are |
▁coll ater al , ▁sister ▁branches ▁which ▁descend ▁from ▁a ▁parent al ▁group ▁hypoth es ized ▁to ▁have ▁initially ▁lived ▁somewhere ▁between ▁central ▁Asia ▁and ▁Eastern ▁Europe . ▁ ▁R 1 b ▁– ▁M 2 6 9 : ▁is ▁w ides p read ▁from ▁Ireland ▁to ▁Iran , ▁and ▁is ▁common ▁in ▁high land ▁West ▁Asian ▁populations ▁such ▁as ▁Armen ians , ▁Tur ks ▁and ▁Iran ians ▁– ▁with ▁an ▁average ▁frequency ▁of ▁ 8 . 5 %. ▁Iran ian ▁R 1 b ▁belongs ▁to ▁the ▁L - 2 3 ▁sub cla de , ▁which ▁is ▁an ▁older ▁than ▁the ▁derivative ▁sub cla de ▁( R 1 b - M 4 1 2 ) ▁which ▁is ▁most ▁common ▁in ▁western ▁Europe . ▁ ▁H ap lo group ▁G ▁and ▁sub cl ades : ▁most ▁concentr ated ▁in ▁the ▁southern ▁C au cas us , ▁it ▁is ▁present ▁in ▁ 1 0 % ▁of ▁Iran ians . ▁ ▁H ap lo group ▁E ▁and ▁various ▁sub cl ades ▁are ▁markers ▁of ▁various ▁northern ▁and ▁eastern ▁African ▁populations . ▁They ▁are ▁present ▁in ▁less ▁than ▁ 1 0 % ▁of ▁Iran ians ▁( see ▁Af ro - I ran ians ). ▁ ▁Two ▁large ▁– ▁scale ▁papers ▁by ▁Hab er ▁( 2 0 1 2 ) ▁and ▁Di ▁Crist of aro ▁( 2 0 1 3 ) ▁analyz ed ▁populations ▁from ▁Afghan istan , ▁where ▁several ▁Iran ian - spe aking ▁groups ▁are ▁native . ▁They ▁found ▁that ▁different ▁groups ▁( e . g . |
▁Bal uch , ▁Haz ara , ▁Pas ht un ) ▁were ▁quite ▁diverse , ▁yet ▁overall : ▁ ▁R 1 a ▁( sub cla de ▁not ▁further ▁analyz ed ) ▁was ▁the ▁pre domin ant ▁ha p lo group , ▁especially ▁amongst ▁Pas ht uns , ▁Bal och i ▁and ▁T aj iks . ▁ ▁The ▁presence ▁of ▁" east ▁E uras ian " ▁ha p lo group ▁C 3 , ▁especially ▁in ▁Haz ar as ▁( 3 3 – 4 0 % ), ▁in ▁part ▁linked ▁to ▁Mong ol ▁exp ans ions ▁into ▁the ▁region . ▁ ▁The ▁presence ▁of ▁ha p lo group ▁J 2 , ▁like ▁in ▁Iran , ▁of ▁ 5 – 2 0 %. ▁ ▁A ▁relative ▁pau city ▁of ▁" Ind ian " ▁ha pl group ▁H ▁( < ▁ 1 0 %). ▁ ▁In ternal ▁divers ity ▁and ▁distant ▁aff in ities ▁ ▁Over all , ▁Iran ian - spe aking ▁populations ▁are ▁character ized ▁by ▁high ▁internal ▁divers ity . ▁For ▁Afghan istan , ▁" It ▁is ▁possibly ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁strateg ic ▁location ▁of ▁this ▁region ▁and ▁its ▁unique ▁har sh ▁ge ography ▁of ▁mountains , ▁desert s ▁and ▁ste pp es , ▁which ▁could ▁have ▁facil itated ▁the ▁establishment ▁of ▁social ▁organizations ▁within ▁expand ing ▁populations , ▁and ▁helped ▁maintain ing ▁gen etic ▁boundaries ▁among ▁groups ▁that ▁have ▁developed ▁over ▁time ▁into ▁distinct ▁eth nic ities " ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁" high ▁level ▁of ▁end og amy ▁pract iced ▁by ▁these ▁groups |
". ▁The ▁data ▁ultimately ▁suggests ▁that ▁Afghan istan , ▁like ▁other ▁northern - central ▁Asian ▁regions , ▁has ▁contin ually ▁been ▁the ▁recip ient ▁rather ▁than ▁a ▁source ▁of ▁gene ▁flow . ▁Although , ▁populations ▁from ▁Iran ▁proper ▁are ▁also ▁diverse , ▁J 2 a - M 5 3 0 ▁likely ▁spread ▁out ▁of ▁Iran , ▁and ▁constit utes ▁a ▁common ▁gen etic ▁substr atum ▁for ▁all ▁Iran ian ▁populations , ▁which ▁was ▁then ▁modified ▁by ▁further ▁differential ▁gene ▁flows . ▁In ▁Iran , ▁language ▁was ▁a ▁greater ▁determin ant ▁of ▁gen etic ▁similarity ▁between ▁different ▁groups , ▁whereas ▁in ▁Afghan istan ▁and ▁other ▁areas ▁of ▁northern ▁central ▁Asia , ▁this ▁was ▁not ▁the ▁case . ▁ ▁Over all ▁in ▁Iran , ▁native ▁population ▁groups ▁do ▁not ▁form ▁tight ▁clusters ▁either ▁according ▁to ▁language ▁or ▁region . ▁R ather , ▁they ▁occup y ▁intermediate ▁positions ▁among ▁Near ▁Eastern ▁and ▁C au cas us ▁clusters . ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁Iran ian ▁groups ▁lie ▁within ▁the ▁Near ▁Eastern ▁group ▁( o ften ▁with ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Tur ks ▁and ▁Georg ians ), ▁but ▁none ▁fell ▁into ▁the ▁Arab ▁or ▁Asian ▁groups . ▁Some ▁Iran ian ▁groups ▁in ▁Iran , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Gil ak is ▁and ▁Maz and aran is , ▁have ▁pat ernal ▁gen et ics ▁( Y - D NA ) ▁virt ually ▁identical ▁to ▁South ▁C au cas us ▁eth nic ▁groups . ▁ ▁In ▁Afghan istan , ▁Iran ian ▁population ▁groups ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Pas ht uns ▁and ▁T aj iks |
▁occup y ▁intermediate ▁positions ▁amongst ▁north western ▁South ▁Asian ▁eth nic ▁groups , ▁such ▁as ▁along ▁the ▁Bal och , ▁Bra hui , ▁K ash mir is ▁and ▁S ind his , ▁with ▁a ▁small ▁minor ▁pull ▁towards ▁West ▁Asia . ▁ ▁Iran ians ▁are ▁only ▁dist antly ▁related ▁to ▁Europe ans ▁as ▁a ▁whole , ▁pre domin antly ▁with ▁southern ▁Europe ans ▁like ▁Gree ks , ▁Alban ians , ▁Ser bs , ▁Cro ati ans , ▁It ali ans , ▁Bos nia ks , ▁Sp ani ards , ▁Mac ed oni ans , ▁Portuguese , ▁and ▁Bulg ari ans , ▁rather ▁than ▁northern ▁Europe ans ▁like ▁Norweg ians , ▁Dan es , ▁Sw edes , ▁Irish , ▁Scottish , ▁Wel sh , ▁English , ▁Fin ns , ▁Est oni ans , ▁Lat vi ans , ▁and ▁Lith u ani ans . ▁Nevertheless , ▁Iran ian - spe aking ▁Central ▁A si ans ▁do ▁show ▁closer ▁aff inity ▁to ▁Europe ans ▁than ▁do ▁Turk ic - spe aking ▁Central ▁A si ans . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁Gre ater ▁Iran ▁ ▁Pan - I ran ism ▁ ▁Iran ian ▁di as por a ▁ ▁Tur ko - I ran ian ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁ancient ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Iran ian ▁dynast ies ▁and ▁countries ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁ge ographic ▁names ▁of ▁Iran ian ▁origin ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Cit ations ▁ ▁S ources ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Ban u az izi , ▁Ali ▁and ▁We iner , ▁My ron ▁( eds .). ▁The |
▁State , ▁Religion , ▁and ▁Eth nic ▁Polit ics : ▁Afghan istan , ▁Iran , ▁and ▁Pakistan ▁( Cont empor ary ▁Iss ues ▁in ▁the ▁Middle ▁East ), ▁Sy rac use ▁University ▁Press ▁( August , ▁ 1 9 8 8 ). ▁. ▁▁▁▁ ▁Can field , ▁Robert ▁( ed .). ▁Tur ko - Pers ia ▁in ▁Historical ▁Pers pective , ▁Cambridge ▁University ▁Press , ▁Cambridge ▁( 2 0 0 2 ). ▁▁ ▁Cur zon , ▁R . ▁The ▁Iran ian ▁People ▁of ▁the ▁C au cas us . ▁. ▁ ▁Der akh sh ani , ▁Jah ans h ah . ▁Die ▁A rier ▁in ▁den ▁nah öst lichen ▁Quellen ▁des ▁ 3 . ▁und ▁ 2 . ▁Jahr ta us ends ▁v . ▁Chr ., ▁ 2 nd ▁edition ▁( 1 9 9 9 ). ▁. ▁ ▁F ry e , ▁Richard , ▁Gre ater ▁Iran , ▁Maz da ▁Publish ers ▁( 2 0 0 5 ). ▁. ▁ ▁F ry e , ▁Richard . ▁Pers ia , ▁Sch ock en ▁Books , ▁Zur ich ▁( 1 9 6 3 ). ▁AS IN ▁B 0 0 0 6 BY X H Y . ▁▁▁ ▁Kennedy , ▁Hugh . ▁The ▁Pro ph et ▁and ▁the ▁Age ▁of ▁the ▁C ali ph ates , ▁Long man , ▁New ▁York , ▁NY ▁( 2 0 0 4 ). ▁▁ ▁Kh our y , ▁Philip ▁S . ▁& ▁Kost iner , ▁Joseph . ▁Trib es ▁and ▁State ▁Form ation ▁in ▁the ▁Middle ▁East , ▁University ▁of |
▁California ▁Press ▁( 1 9 9 1 ). ▁. ▁ ▁Mall ory , ▁J . P . ▁In ▁Search ▁of ▁the ▁Ind o - Europe ans , ▁Th ames ▁and ▁Hudson , ▁London ▁( 1 9 9 1 ). ▁. ▁▁▁ ▁Mc D ow all , ▁David . ▁A ▁Modern ▁History ▁of ▁the ▁Kur ds , ▁I . B . ▁T aur is , ▁ 3 rd ▁Rev ▁edition ▁( 2 0 0 4 ). ▁. ▁ ▁N ass im , ▁J . ▁Afghan istan : ▁A ▁Nation ▁of ▁Minor ities , ▁Minor ity ▁Rights ▁Group , ▁London ▁( 1 9 9 2 ). ▁. ▁ ▁R ias an ov sky , ▁Nicholas . ▁A ▁History ▁of ▁Russia , ▁Oxford ▁University ▁Press , ▁Oxford ▁( 2 0 0 4 ). ▁. ▁ ▁Sim s - Will iams , ▁Nicholas . ▁Ind o - I ran ian ▁L anguages ▁and ▁People , ▁British ▁Academy ▁( 2 0 0 3 ). ▁. ▁ ▁Iran ▁N ama , ▁( I ran ▁Tra vel og ue ▁in ▁Ur du ) ▁by ▁H ak im ▁Sy ed ▁Z ill ur ▁Rah man , ▁Tib bi ▁Academy , ▁Al ig ar h , ▁India ▁( 1 9 9 8 ). ▁ ▁Ch op ra , ▁R . ▁M ., " Ind o - I ran ian ▁Cultural ▁Rel ations ▁Through ▁The ▁A ges ", ▁Iran ▁Society , ▁Kol k ata , ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Iran ian ▁pe op les ▁Category : Ind |
o - Europe an ▁pe op les ▁Category : Mod ern ▁Ind o - Europe an ▁pe op les ▁Category : E th nic ▁groups ▁in ▁the ▁Middle ▁East <0x0A> </s> ▁Ch ah - e ▁Ali ▁Ak bar ▁Shah ze hi ▁( , ▁also ▁Roman ized ▁as ▁Ch ā h - e ▁ ʿ Al ī ▁ Ā <0xE1> <0xB8> <0xB5> bar ▁Sh ā h ze h ī ; ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁Ch ā h - e ▁N ī ze h ▁G ā b ▁Do ) ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁D ore h ▁R ural ▁District , ▁in ▁the ▁Central ▁District ▁of ▁Sar bis he h ▁County , ▁South ▁K hor as an ▁Province , ▁Iran . ▁At ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁census , ▁its ▁population ▁was ▁ 8 7 , ▁in ▁ 2 2 ▁families . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁Sar bis he h ▁County <0x0A> </s> ▁In ▁the ▁F is ht ank ▁ 9 ▁is ▁an ▁album ▁of ▁songs ▁by ▁alternative ▁rock ▁bands ▁Son ic ▁Youth , ▁the ▁Inst ant ▁Compos ers ▁Pool ▁Orchestra , ▁and ▁the ▁Ex . ▁It ▁was ▁released ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁on ▁the ▁Kon k urrent ▁label . ▁ ▁Re ception ▁ ▁Thom ▁J ure k ▁of ▁All music ▁pra ised ▁the ▁collaboration ▁as ▁" a ▁wonder ", ▁pra ising ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁" every one ▁particip ates ▁in ▁creating ▁something ▁fresh ▁and ▁new , ▁without ▁anybody ▁getting ▁in ▁anybody ▁else ' s ▁way . ▁The ▁spirit |
▁of ▁co operation ▁and ▁the ▁excitement ▁of ▁discovery ▁here ▁are ▁both ▁pres cient . ▁The ▁result ▁is ▁neither ▁rock ▁nor ▁jazz , ▁but ▁a ▁free - form ▁music ▁that ▁disp enses ▁with ▁form ality ▁and ▁e go ▁and ▁goes ▁for ▁the ▁heart ▁of ▁the ▁thing ▁itself ." ▁He ▁con cludes : ▁" For ▁nearly ▁a ▁half - hour , ▁the ▁listener ▁gets ▁to ▁e aves drop ▁on ▁the ▁pur est ▁kind ▁of ▁music - making ▁by ▁those ▁dedicated ▁to ▁nothing ▁else ▁than ▁the ▁purs uit ▁of ▁its ▁creation ." ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁" III " ▁– ▁ 3 : 2 7 ▁" IV " ▁– ▁ 4 : 2 8 ▁" V " ▁– ▁ 2 : 4 5 ▁" VI " ▁– ▁ 3 : 0 3 ▁" V II " ▁– ▁ 4 : 1 4 ▁" V III " ▁– ▁ 2 : 1 6 ▁" IX " ▁– ▁ 3 : 2 4 ▁" X " ▁– ▁ 5 : 4 9 ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Kon k urrent ▁▁ 0 9 ▁Category : The ▁Ex ▁( band ) ▁albums ▁Category : Split ▁EP s ▁Category : 2 0 0 2 ▁compilation ▁albums ▁Category : 2 0 0 2 ▁EP s ▁Category : S onic ▁Youth ▁compilation ▁albums ▁Category : K onk urrent ▁compilation ▁albums <0x0A> </s> ▁Sh u ang q iao ▁() ▁may ▁refer ▁to ▁the ▁following ▁locations ▁in ▁China : ▁ ▁Sh u ang q iao ▁District , ▁Ch eng de , ▁Heb ei ▁Sh u |
ang q iao ▁District , ▁Ch ong q ing ▁Sh u ang q iao ▁Station , ▁station ▁on ▁the ▁Bat ong ▁Line ▁Be ij ing ▁Sub way ▁Sh u ang q iao ▁Sub d istrict , ▁X uan ch eng , ▁in ▁X u anz hou ▁District , ▁X uan ch eng , ▁An hui ▁Sh u ang q iao ▁Sub d istrict , ▁Yang z hou , ▁in ▁Han ji ang ▁District , ▁Yang z hou , ▁Ji ang su ▁Town s ▁Sh u ang q iao , ▁An hui , ▁in ▁Sh ou ▁County ▁Sh u ang q iao , ▁Gu ang xi , ▁in ▁W uming ▁County ▁Sh u ang q iao , ▁Tang sh an , ▁in ▁Ka ip ing ▁District , ▁Tang sh an , ▁Heb ei ▁Sh u ang q iao , ▁Hun an , ▁in ▁Q id ong ▁County ▁Sh u ang q iao , ▁W anza i ▁County , ▁in ▁W anza i ▁County , ▁Ji ang xi ▁Sh u ang q iao , ▁Sh a an xi , ▁in ▁Z iy ang ▁County ▁Sh u ang q iao , ▁Sh and ong , ▁in ▁Y unch eng ▁County ▁Sh u ang q iao , ▁Dan l eng ▁County , ▁S ich uan ▁Sh u ang q iao , ▁N anch ong , ▁in ▁Sh un q ing ▁District , ▁N anch ong , ▁S ich uan ▁Sh u ang q iao , ▁Zh ous han , ▁in ▁D ing hai ▁District , ▁Zh ous |
han , ▁Z he ji ang ▁ ▁Town ships ▁Sh u ang q iao ▁Township , ▁Hen an , ▁in ▁Y ong ch eng ▁Sh u ang q iao ▁Township , ▁Ji ang su , ▁in ▁Han ji ang ▁District , ▁Yang z hou ▁Sh u ang q iao ▁Township , ▁Ji ang xi , ▁in ▁Su ich uan ▁County ▁Sh u ang q iao ▁Township , ▁S ich uan , ▁in ▁D ong x ing ▁District , ▁Ne iji ang ▁Sh u ang q iao ▁Township , ▁Z he ji ang , ▁in ▁Qu ji ang ▁District , ▁Qu z hou <0x0A> </s> ▁Gen ost ar ▁is ▁a ▁bio in format ics ▁provider ▁based ▁in ▁Gren o ble , ▁France . ▁The ▁company ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁following ▁the ▁" Gen ost ar ▁cons ort ium " ▁that ▁was ▁created ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 9 ▁as ▁a ▁public - private ▁cons ort ium ▁by ▁Gen ome ▁Express , ▁Hy br igen ics , ▁IN RI A ▁( Institut ▁National ▁de ▁Re cher che ▁en ▁In format ique ▁et ▁Autom atique ▁/ ▁French ▁National ▁Institute ▁for ▁Research ▁in ▁Computer ▁Science ▁and ▁Control ) ▁and ▁The ▁P aste ur ▁Institute . ▁ ▁Software ▁Met abol ic ▁Path way ▁Bu ilder ▁is ▁a ▁bio in format ics ▁environment ▁dedicated ▁to ▁micro b ial ▁research . ▁This ▁covers ▁sequence ▁assembly , ▁mapping , ▁annotation ▁transfer ▁and ▁identification ▁of ▁protein ▁domains , ▁compar ative ▁genom ics , ▁struct ural ▁searches , ▁met |
abol ic ▁path way ▁analysis , ▁model ing ▁and ▁simulation ▁of ▁bi ological ▁networks . ▁Gen ost ar ' s ▁software ▁is ▁platform ▁independent ▁and ▁can ▁thus ▁be ▁used ▁for ▁both ▁Mac ▁OS ▁X , ▁Windows , ▁and ▁Linux . ▁ ▁Se quence ▁assembly ▁M apping ▁of ▁an ▁ensemble ▁of ▁sequences ▁on ▁a ▁reference ▁sequence ▁between ▁a ▁reference ▁sequence ▁and ▁cont igs , ▁between ▁two ▁sequences ▁or ▁between ▁two ▁sets ▁of ▁sequences ▁finding ▁of ▁exact ▁matches ▁with ▁minimum ▁length ▁using ▁M UM mer ▁detection ▁of ▁specific ▁regions ▁and ▁SN P s ▁creation ▁of ▁an ▁assemble d ▁sequence ▁relative ▁to ▁reference ▁sequences ▁ ▁Gen omic ▁annotation ▁ ▁Gene ▁prediction : ▁ab - init io ▁gene ▁prediction ▁using ▁a ▁H idden ▁Mark ov ▁model ▁based ▁method ▁ ▁Bl ast X ▁ ▁Autom atic ▁annotation ▁transfer ▁using ▁Bl ast P ▁ ▁Prote ic ▁annotation ▁Met abol ic ▁Path way ▁Bu ilder ▁integr ates ▁several ▁methods ▁dedicated ▁to ▁prote ic ▁annotation : ▁ ▁Pf am ▁domain ▁prediction ▁using ▁H MM ER ▁ ▁Several ▁EM BO SS ▁methods ▁( ant igen ic , ▁ 2 D ▁structure ▁prediction ) ▁ ▁Expression ▁Data ▁Solution ▁( ED S ) ▁Gen ost ar ' s ▁Expression ▁Data ▁Solution ▁( ED S ) ▁connect s ▁micro array ▁data ▁to ▁gen es , ▁gene ▁products ▁and ▁bio chem ical ▁re actions , ▁based ▁on ▁keywords ▁and ▁annotations . ▁This ▁software ▁allows ▁to : ▁ ▁Ass ign ▁expression ▁values ▁to ▁the ▁gene ▁names ▁and ▁IDs ▁ ▁Ident ify ▁co - ex pressed ▁gen es |
▁and ▁vis ually ▁analyze ▁the ▁re actions ▁and ▁met abol ic ▁path ways ▁in ▁which ▁they ▁are ▁involved ▁ ▁Ident ify ▁and ▁perform ▁analysis ▁on ▁co - reg ulated ▁gen es ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁genom ic ▁local ization , ▁functional ▁annotation ▁and ▁met abol ism ▁ ▁Color ize ▁CD S s ▁of ▁interest ▁in ▁genom ic ▁maps ▁according ▁to ▁their ▁expression ▁values ▁and ▁highlight ▁the ▁corresponding ▁re actions ▁in ▁interactive ▁met abol ic ▁K EG G ▁maps ▁ ▁Anal y ze ▁the ▁significance ▁of ▁functional ▁data ▁of ▁a ▁collection ▁or ▁sub - collection ▁of ▁CD S s ▁( GO , ▁K EG G ▁and ▁more ): ▁Fish er ▁test ▁ ▁Collect ▁and ▁visual ize ▁all ▁functional ▁data ▁in ▁export able ▁tables ▁and ▁maps ▁ ▁Database ▁Gen ost ar ' s ▁Micro B ▁database ▁is ▁constructed ▁of ▁perfectly ▁integrated ▁and ▁rig or ously ▁cross - checked ▁genom ic , ▁prote ic , ▁bio chem ical ▁and ▁met abol ic ▁data ▁approximately ▁ 1 1 0 0 ▁b acter ial ▁and ▁arch ae al ▁organ isms . ▁ ▁Indust rial ▁Part ners ▁ ▁Chem A x on ▁ ▁Path way ▁Sol utions ▁ ▁K ori Log ▁ ▁Academ ic ▁Part ners ▁▁ ▁IN RI A ▁( Institut ▁National ▁de ▁Re cher che ▁en ▁In format ique ▁et ▁Autom atique ▁/ ▁French ▁National ▁Institute ▁for ▁Research ▁in ▁Computer ▁Science ▁and ▁Control ) ▁ ▁Swiss ▁Institute ▁of ▁Bio in format ics ▁ ▁Notes ▁and ▁references ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Gen ost ar ▁Exp ands ▁De al ▁with |
▁Bi oph arma ▁Mer ial ▁To ▁Help ▁H unt ▁Path ogen ic ▁Vir ul ence ▁Fact ors ▁ ▁Gen ost ar ▁at ▁Bio ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁ ▁Category : So ftware ▁companies ▁of ▁France ▁Category : So ftware ▁companies ▁established ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁Category : Bi ote chn ology ▁companies ▁of ▁France ▁Category : B io in format ics ▁companies ▁Category : P riv ately ▁held ▁companies ▁of ▁France ▁Category : S cience ▁and ▁technology ▁in ▁Gren o ble ▁Category : Bi ote chn ology ▁companies ▁established ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁Category : 2 0 0 4 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁France <0x0A> </s> ▁Kim ▁E . ▁Rud d ▁( born ▁ 1 9 5 7 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Canadian ▁politician ▁and ▁entrepr ene ur ▁elected ▁to ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Commons ▁of ▁Canada ▁to ▁represent ▁the ▁r iding ▁of ▁North umber land ▁- ▁Peter borough ▁South ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁Canadian ▁federal ▁election . ▁She ▁ran ▁for ▁re e lection ▁and ▁was ▁defeated ▁in ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 9 ▁Canadian ▁federal ▁election ▁by ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 , 5 0 0 ▁votes . ▁ ▁Rud d ▁is ▁past ▁president ▁and ▁owner ▁of ▁Will is ▁College ▁in ▁Cob ourg , ▁co - found er ▁of ▁Cook ▁School ▁Day ▁Care , ▁and ▁a ▁past ▁president ▁of ▁the ▁Cob ourg ▁Chamber ▁of ▁Com merce . ▁ ▁Political ▁career ▁ ▁Kim ▁Rud d ▁served ▁as ▁Parliament ary ▁Secretary ▁to ▁the ▁Minister ▁of ▁Natural ▁Resources ▁alongside ▁being ▁MP |
▁for ▁North umber land - Peter borough ▁South ▁from ▁ 2 0 1 5 - 2 0 1 8 ▁when ▁she ▁announced ▁she ▁chose ▁to ▁step ▁down ▁to ▁better ▁represent ▁her ▁r iding . ▁ ▁While ▁ste pping ▁down ▁from ▁Parliament ary ▁Secretary , ▁Rud d ▁declared ▁she ▁would ▁not ▁be ▁r uling ▁out ▁future ▁opportun ities ▁for ▁more ▁responsibility ▁in ▁future ▁government . ▁ ▁On ▁October ▁ 1 , ▁ 2 0 1 9 , ▁Kim ▁Rud d ▁was ▁named ▁the ▁chair ▁of ▁the ▁Parliament ary ▁Health ▁Research ▁C au cus ▁and ▁will ▁serve ▁as ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁standing ▁committee ▁on ▁fin ance . ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁ ▁Rud d ▁has ▁stated ▁that ▁she ▁faced ▁several ▁challeng es ▁during ▁her ▁child hood . ▁She ▁had ▁to ▁take ▁on ▁many ▁household ▁respons ib ilities ▁while ▁she ▁was ▁about ▁ 9 – 1 0 ▁years ▁old ▁due ▁to ▁her ▁mother ▁taking ▁on ▁a ▁demand ing ▁job ▁after ▁an ▁accident ▁caused ▁Rud d ' s ▁alco hol ic ▁father ▁to ▁have ▁to ▁quit ▁his ▁job . ▁Her ▁mother ▁died ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 8 ▁and ▁had ▁run ▁for ▁the ▁New ▁Democratic ▁Party ▁( ND P ) ▁in ▁Ontario ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 7 0 s . ▁Rud d ▁is ▁currently ▁married ▁to ▁husband , ▁Tom ▁Rud d , ▁with ▁whom ▁she ▁has ▁two ▁daughters , ▁Al ison ▁( ado pt ed ) ▁and ▁Stef anie . ▁ ▁Before ▁becoming ▁involved ▁in ▁politics ▁as ▁a ▁career , ▁Rud d ▁was ▁a ▁long - |
time ▁advoc ate ▁of ▁child care ▁and ▁previously ▁worked ▁on ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁day car es ▁in ▁Cob ourg . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁Rud d ▁was ▁among ▁six ▁award ▁recip ients ▁of ▁the ▁R BC ▁Canadian ▁Women ▁Entre pr ene ur ▁Award . ▁Cont ribution s ▁to ▁econom ies ▁locally , ▁nation ally , ▁and ▁glob ally ▁were ▁among ▁the ▁criteria ▁for ▁winning ▁the ▁award . ▁ ▁Elect oral ▁record ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : L iber al ▁Party ▁of ▁Canada ▁MP s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : M embers ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Commons ▁of ▁Canada ▁from ▁Ontario ▁Category : W omen ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Commons ▁of ▁Canada ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁Canadian ▁polit icians ▁Category : 2 1 st - century ▁Canadian ▁women ▁polit icians ▁Category : 1 9 5 7 ▁birth s <0x0A> </s> ▁Cy to chrome ▁P 4 5 0 ▁ 2 A 1 3 ▁is ▁a ▁protein ▁that ▁in ▁humans ▁is ▁encoded ▁by ▁the ▁C Y P 2 A 1 3 ▁gene . ▁ ▁This ▁gene ▁enc odes ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁cy to chrome ▁P 4 5 0 ▁super family ▁of ▁en zym es . ▁The ▁cy to chrome ▁P 4 5 0 ▁prote ins ▁are ▁mon o ox y gen ases ▁which ▁catal y ze ▁many ▁re actions ▁involved ▁in ▁drug ▁met abol ism ▁and ▁synth esis ▁of ▁ch ol ester ol , ▁ster oid s ▁and ▁other ▁lip ids . ▁This ▁protein ▁local |
izes ▁to ▁the ▁end op las mic ▁ret icul um . ▁Although ▁its ▁end ogen ous ▁substr ate ▁has ▁not ▁been ▁determined , ▁it ▁is ▁known ▁to ▁met abol ize ▁ 4 -( m eth yl nit ros am ino )- 1 -( 3 - py rid yl )- 1 - but an one , ▁a ▁major ▁nit ros am ine ▁specific ▁to ▁to b acco . ▁This ▁gene ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁large ▁cluster ▁of ▁cy to chrome ▁P 4 5 0 ▁gen es ▁from ▁the ▁C Y P 2 A , ▁C Y P 2 B ▁and ▁C Y P 2 F ▁sub famil ies ▁on ▁chrom os ome ▁ 1 9 q . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Further ▁reading <0x0A> </s> ▁D ense ish a ▁( 電 <0xE7> <0x9B> <0x9B> 社 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Japanese ▁information ▁technology ▁Kab ush iki ▁ga ish a ▁founded ▁by ▁Tak ashi ▁M iz awa ▁( 三 <0xE6> <0xBE> <0xA4> ▁ 隆 ) ▁in ▁October ▁ 1 9 2 0 . ▁Currently , ▁the ▁corpor ation ▁head qu arter ed ▁in ▁K um am oto ▁emp lo ys ▁ 2 7 1 ▁workers ▁at ▁the ▁seven ▁main ▁offices ▁ ▁the ▁headquarters , ▁IT ▁and ▁E T ▁administration ▁in ▁K um am oto , ▁ ▁the ▁system ▁engineering ▁technology ▁center ▁in ▁K um am oto , ▁ ▁a ▁branch ▁office ▁in ▁Fu ku oka , ▁ ▁the ▁" sol ution ▁center " ▁in ▁Fu ku oka , ▁ ▁the ▁" mobile ▁engineering ▁office " |
▁in ▁Fu ku oka ▁and ▁ ▁a ▁sales ▁office ▁in ▁U ras oe . ▁ ▁The ▁service ▁field ▁compr ises ▁the ▁development ▁and ▁installation ▁of ▁enter prise ▁and ▁hospital ▁network ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁design ▁of ▁electric , ▁IT ▁and ▁personnel ▁communication ▁facilities . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Te chn ology ▁companies ▁of ▁Japan ▁Category : Te chn ology ▁companies ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁Category : 1 9 2 0 ▁establish ments ▁in ▁Japan <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Battle ▁of ▁Ang lon ▁took ▁place ▁in ▁ 5 4 3 ▁AD , ▁during ▁the ▁By z antine ▁invasion ▁of ▁S as an ian - ru led ▁Armen ia ▁(" Pers ar men ia ") ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁phase ▁of ▁the ▁Laz ic ▁War . ▁ ▁After ▁receiving ▁information ▁about ▁a ▁re bell ion ▁in ▁Pers ia ▁and ▁an ▁ep ide mic ▁in ▁the ▁main ▁Pers ian ▁army , ▁the ▁By z antine ▁arm ies ▁in ▁the ▁East ▁under ▁the ▁orders ▁of ▁Emperor ▁Justin ian ▁I ▁initi ated ▁a ▁hast y ▁invasion ▁of ▁Pers ar men ia . ▁The ▁out number ed ▁Pers ian ▁forces ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁successfully ▁performed ▁a ▁met icul ous ▁amb ush ▁at ▁Ang lon , ▁decis ively ▁ending ▁the ▁By z antine ▁campaign . ▁ ▁Background ▁The ▁S as an ian ▁r uler ▁Kh os row ▁I ▁began ▁an ▁invasion ▁of ▁Comm ag ene ▁in ▁ 5 4 2 , ▁but ▁retre ated ▁to ▁Ad urb ad agan ▁and ▁halt ed ▁at ▁Ad h ur ▁G ush |
n asp , ▁int ending ▁to ▁begin ▁a ▁campaign ▁against ▁By z antine ▁Armen ia . ▁The ▁By z ant ines ▁approached ▁Kh os row ▁I ▁to ▁begin ▁negoti ations , ▁but ▁in ▁the ▁middle ▁of ▁this ▁they ▁received ▁information ▁about ▁the ▁ep ide mic ▁of ▁the ▁so - called ▁Pl ague ▁of ▁Justin ian ▁in ▁Kh os row ▁I ' s ▁force ▁and ▁a ▁re bell ion ▁in ▁Pers ia ▁by ▁the ▁prince ▁An osh az ad . ▁See ing ▁this ▁as ▁an ▁opportunity , ▁Emperor ▁Justin ian ▁I ▁commanded ▁all ▁By z antine ▁forces ▁in ▁the ▁east ▁to ▁initi ate ▁an ▁invasion ▁of ▁Pers ar men ia . ▁ ▁By z antine ▁invasion ▁Martin ▁was ▁the ▁newly - app oint ed ▁mag ister ▁milit um ▁per ▁Orient em ▁at ▁the ▁time , ▁but ▁according ▁to ▁primary ▁sources ▁did ▁not ▁have ▁much ▁authority ▁over ▁other ▁gener als . ▁The ▁By z antine ▁invasion ▁force , ▁which ▁number ed ▁ 3 0 , 0 0 0 ▁in ▁total , ▁was ▁initially ▁scattered : ▁ ▁Martin ▁and ▁his ▁forces , ▁station ed ▁in ▁C ith ar iz um ▁with ▁Il de ger ▁and ▁The oct ist us ▁ ▁Peter ▁and ▁Ad ol ius ▁and ▁their ▁forces ▁ ▁Val er ian , ▁the ▁mag ister ▁milit um ▁per ▁Armen iam , ▁station ed ▁near ▁The od osi opol is ; ▁joined ▁by ▁N ars es ▁( a ▁Pers ar men ian ) ▁and ▁his ▁regiment ▁of ▁Her ules ▁( under ▁Ph ile mouth ▁and ▁Ber |
os ) ▁and ▁Armen ians ▁These ▁forces ▁un ited ▁only ▁after ▁crossing ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁border , ▁in ▁the ▁plain ▁of ▁D vin . ▁Just us , ▁Per an ius , ▁Dom n enti ol us , ▁John , ▁son ▁of ▁Nic et as , ▁and ▁John ▁the ▁Gl utton ▁stayed ▁at ▁Ph ison , ▁near ▁Mart y ropol is , ▁performing ▁minor ▁inc urs ions ▁into ▁Pers ia . ▁ ▁S as an ian ▁forces ▁in ▁Pers ar men ia ▁number ed ▁ 4 , 0 0 0 ▁and ▁were ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁N ab edes . ▁They ▁concentr ated ▁themselves ▁at ▁the ▁mountain ous ▁village ▁of ▁Ang lon ▁( pro bably ▁identical ▁to ▁An kes , ▁D s akh god n ▁C anton , ▁A yr ar at ▁Province , ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Armen ia ) ▁which ▁featured ▁a ▁for tr ess ▁and ▁was ▁located ▁near ▁the ▁D vin ▁plain . ▁They ▁prepared ▁a ▁def ensive ▁position ▁for ▁an ▁elaborate ▁amb ush ▁by ▁blocking ▁the ▁ent ran ces ▁to ▁the ▁village , ▁dig ging ▁tren ches , ▁and ▁setting ▁up ▁amb ush es ▁in ▁the ▁houses ▁of ▁the ▁village ▁outside ▁the ▁for tr ess , ▁while ▁mar sh alling ▁the ▁army ▁below . ▁According ▁to ▁Pro cop ius , ▁the ▁By z antine ▁gener als ▁lack ed ▁a ▁proper ▁union ▁among ▁themselves . ▁The ▁By z antine ▁forces ▁proceeded ▁into ▁the ▁rough ▁terrain ▁of ▁Ang lon , ▁and ▁hast ily ▁formed ▁a ▁single - line ▁formation ▁after ▁the ▁command ers ▁were |
▁informed ▁of ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁presence , ▁with ▁Martin ▁forming ▁the ▁center , ▁Peter ▁forming ▁the ▁right , ▁and ▁Val er ian ▁( pro bably ▁joined ▁by ▁N ars es ) ▁forming ▁the ▁left . ▁N ars es ▁and ▁his ▁regular s ▁and ▁Her ules ▁were ▁the ▁first ▁to ▁eng age . ▁Appar ently , ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁army ▁was ▁defeated , ▁and ▁the ▁Pers ian ▁caval ry ▁fe igned ▁retre at ▁toward ▁the ▁for tr ess , ▁and ▁their ▁flight ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁Her ules ▁and ▁others ▁as ▁k ours ores . ▁The ▁Pers ians , ▁including ▁their ▁arch ers , ▁then ▁launched ▁their ▁amb ush ▁from ▁the ▁buildings ▁outside ▁the ▁for tr ess , ▁easily ▁routing ▁the ▁light ly - arm ored ▁Her ules , ▁while ▁their ▁commander ▁N ars es ▁was ▁mort ally ▁hit ▁in ▁the ▁temple ▁in ▁close ▁combat . ▁A ▁general ▁Pers ian ▁counter - att ack ▁then ▁resulted ▁in ▁the ▁routing ▁of ▁the ▁By z ant ines . ▁The ▁Pers ians ▁did ▁not ▁purs ue ▁them ▁beyond ▁the ▁rough ▁terrain ▁out ▁of ▁fear ▁of ▁an ▁amb ush . ▁Ad ol ius ▁was ▁among ▁those ▁killed ▁in ▁the ▁retre at . ▁ ▁Analysis ▁The ▁only ▁source ▁describing ▁the ▁battle ▁is ▁the ▁By z antine ▁historian ▁Pro cop ius , ▁whose ▁account ▁is ▁especially ▁critical ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁army ' s ▁performance ▁in ▁the ▁campaign . ▁However , ▁modern ▁sources ▁have ▁disput ed ▁his ▁assess ments . ▁ ▁The ▁force ▁in ▁the ▁battle ▁is ▁considered |
▁an ▁example ▁of ▁the ▁" ina de qu acy " ▁of ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁rec ru ited ▁soldiers . ▁O thers ▁note ▁the ▁lack ▁of ▁coord ination ▁between ▁the ▁By z antine ▁gener als . ▁According ▁to ▁J . ▁B . ▁B ury , ▁Pro cop ius ▁( who ▁was ▁a ▁companion ▁of ▁General ▁Bel is arius ) ▁has ▁ex agger ated ▁the ▁in comp et ence ▁of ▁the ▁By z antine ▁gener als ▁in ▁the ▁battle ▁and ▁the ▁sever ity ▁of ▁their ▁defeat . ▁Peters en ▁also ▁considered ▁aspects ▁of ▁Pro cop ius ' ▁description ▁of ▁the ▁battle — including ▁alleg ed ▁poor ▁organization ▁and ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁force , ▁and ▁By z antine ▁soldiers ▁march ing ▁in ▁dis array ▁and ▁" m ixed ▁in ▁with ▁the ▁b agg age ▁terrain " — to ▁be ▁a ▁dist orted ▁description ▁of ▁what ▁were ▁actually ▁intent ional ▁strateg ies ▁and ▁tact ics . ▁O thers ▁have ▁emphas ized ▁the ▁met icul ous ▁amb ush ▁by ▁the ▁def enders , ▁describing ▁it ▁as ▁" h ero ic ". ▁ ▁Ang lon ▁is ▁an ▁example ▁of ▁the ▁less ▁common ▁form ▁of ▁def ensive ▁fort ification ▁in ▁which ▁settlement s ▁are ▁outside ▁of ▁the ▁def ensive ▁structures ; ▁this ▁is ▁sometimes ▁seen ▁in ▁the ▁C au cas us , ▁another ▁example ▁is ▁seen ▁in ▁the ▁sie ge ▁of ▁T z acher / S ider oun ▁in ▁ 5 5 7 . ▁ ▁The ▁outcome ▁of ▁the ▁battle ▁gave ▁the ▁Pers ians ▁the ▁momentum ▁in ▁the ▁Laz ic |
▁War . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : L az ic ▁War ▁Category : S as an ian ▁Armen ia ▁Category : 5 4 0 s ▁conflicts ▁Category : 6 th ▁century ▁in ▁Armen ia ▁Category : In vas ions ▁of ▁Armen ia ▁Category : 5 4 3 ▁Ang lon ▁Category : Am b ush es ▁Category : 6 th ▁century ▁in ▁Iran ▁Category : 5 4 0 s ▁in ▁the ▁By z antine ▁Empire <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Gust ▁La it uri ▁Hom est ead , ▁in ▁Valley ▁County , ▁Id aho ▁near ▁Lake ▁F ork , ▁Id aho , ▁was ▁listed ▁on ▁the ▁National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 2 . ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁built ▁by ▁ 1 9 0 6 ▁by ▁Gust ▁La it uri , ▁who ▁died ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 6 . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁a ▁Finn ish ▁Log ▁Str ucture ▁in ▁Long ▁Valley , ▁Id aho . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁about ▁ ▁in ▁plan . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁located ▁about ▁ ▁n ortheast ▁of ▁Lake f ork , ▁Id aho ▁off ▁Pear son ▁Road . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : National ▁Register ▁of ▁Historic ▁Places ▁in ▁Valley ▁County , ▁Id aho ▁Category : Build ings ▁and ▁structures ▁completed ▁in ▁ 1 9 0 5 <0x0A> </s> ▁Hel io che ilus ▁fer vens ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁moth ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁No ctu idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁China , ▁Japan , ▁the ▁Korean ▁Pen ins ula , ▁northern ▁India , ▁Pakistan ▁and ▁the |
▁Russian ▁Far ▁East ▁( Prim ory e , ▁southern ▁K hab ar ov sk ▁and ▁the ▁southern ▁Am ur ▁region ) ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Korean ▁insect s ▁ ▁Category : Hel io che ilus ▁Category : M oth s ▁of ▁Asia <0x0A> </s> ▁Spring water ▁may ▁refer ▁to ▁one ▁of ▁these ▁places : ▁▁ ▁Spring water , ▁New ▁York , ▁United ▁States ▁ ▁Spring water , ▁Ontario , ▁Canada ▁Spring water ▁( Bar rie ▁Air park ) ▁Aer od rome , ▁located ▁near ▁Spring water , ▁Ontario , ▁Canada ▁ ▁Spring water , ▁Oregon , ▁United ▁States ▁Spring water ▁Cor rid or , ▁a ▁b icy cle ▁and ▁ped est rian ▁trail ▁named ▁for ▁Spring water , ▁Oregon , ▁United ▁States ▁ ▁Spring water , ▁Wisconsin , ▁United ▁States ▁Other ▁ ▁Spring water , ▁a ▁pseud onym ▁for ▁the ▁music ian ▁Phil ▁Cord ell <0x0A> </s> ▁AD ▁( B ud ) ▁Craig , ▁Jr . ▁( born ▁August ▁ 3 1 , ▁ 1 9 5 1 ) ▁is ▁an ▁American ▁ne uro an atom ist ▁and ▁neu ros cient ist . ▁ ▁Career ▁Craig ▁attended ▁Michigan ▁State ▁University ▁from ▁which ▁he ▁earned ▁the ▁Bach elor ▁of ▁Science ▁degree ▁in ▁Mathemat ics ▁in ▁June ▁ 1 9 7 3 . ▁He ▁completed ▁his ▁doctor ate ▁degree ▁at ▁Corn ell ▁University , ▁I th aca , ▁NY ▁in ▁ne uro phys i ology , ▁ne uro an atom y , ▁and ▁elect rical ▁engineering ▁and ▁received ▁a ▁Ph . D . ▁in ▁January |
▁ 1 9 7 8 . ▁He ▁worked ▁with ▁Daniel ▁N . ▁T apper , ▁Ph . D . ▁on ▁electro phys i ology ▁of ▁som atos ens ory ▁processing ▁in ▁the ▁sp inal ▁cord . ▁The ▁title ▁of ▁his ▁th esis ▁was ▁" An atomic ▁and ▁Elect ro phys i olog ic ▁Studies ▁on ▁the ▁Later al ▁C erv ical ▁N uc le us ▁in ▁Cat ▁and ▁Dog ". ▁ ▁Research ▁Following ▁gradu ate ▁school , ▁Craig ▁spent ▁two ▁years ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Phys i ology ▁& ▁Bi oph ys ics , ▁Washington ▁University ▁School ▁of ▁Medicine ▁in ▁St . ▁Louis , ▁MO ▁as ▁a ▁post - do ctor al ▁fellow ▁and ▁one ▁year ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁An atom y ▁& ▁Ne uro bi ology ▁as ▁Research ▁Associ ate . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 1 ▁he ▁moved ▁to ▁Germany ▁to ▁become ▁" W issenschaft licher ▁Ass istent " ▁( Res earch ▁Associ ate ) ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Phys i ology ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁K iel ▁and ▁then ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 3 ▁Akadem ischer ▁Rat ▁auf ▁Zeit ▁( Res earch ▁Ass istant ▁Professor ) ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Wür zburg ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Phys i ology . ▁In ▁ 1 9 8 6 ▁Craig ▁joined ▁Bar row ▁Ne uro log ical ▁Institute ▁( B NI ) ▁to ▁direct ▁the ▁At kin son ▁P ain ▁Research ▁Labor atory ▁ ▁Rec ogn ition ▁Craig ▁is ▁a ▁recip ient ▁of ▁the ▁National ▁Mer it ▁Sch olar ship |
▁Award ▁( 1 9 6 8 - 1 9 7 3 ). ▁He ▁was ▁awarded ▁with ▁Doctor ▁of ▁Medicine ▁( MD ), ▁honor is ▁causa , ▁from ▁Link ö ping ▁University ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 1 . ▁He ▁received ▁the ▁Kenneth ▁Cra ik ▁Award ▁in ▁Ex perimental ▁Psych ology ▁from ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Cambridge ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 2 . ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 1 , ▁Craig ▁received ▁the ▁Freder ic ▁W . L . ▁K err ▁Award ▁from ▁the ▁American ▁P ain ▁Society ▁and ▁was ▁elected ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁foreign ▁member ▁of ▁Royal ▁Society ▁of ▁Sciences ▁and ▁Let ters ▁in ▁Goth enburg . ▁ ▁Craig ▁holds ▁appoint ments ▁as ▁Research ▁Professor ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Cell ▁Bi ology ▁and ▁An atom y ▁at ▁the ▁University ▁of ▁Arizona ▁College ▁of ▁Medicine ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁Department ▁of ▁Psych ology ▁at ▁Arizona ▁State ▁University . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : American ▁neu ros cient ists ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : C orn ell ▁University ▁al umn i ▁Category : 1 9 5 1 ▁birth s <0x0A> </s> ▁Can th on ▁ch al c ites ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁( former ly ▁can th on ini ) ▁in ▁the ▁be et le ▁family ▁Sc arab ae idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁North ▁America . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : Del to ch il ini ▁Category : Art icles ▁created ▁by ▁Q bug bot ▁Category : Be et les ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 4 3 <0x0A> </s> |
▁The ▁Pal lava ▁dynast y ▁was ▁an ▁Indian ▁dynast y ▁that ▁existed ▁from ▁ 2 7 5 ▁CE ▁to ▁ 8 9 7 ▁CE , ▁r uling ▁a ▁portion ▁of ▁southern ▁India . ▁They ▁gained ▁prom in ence ▁after ▁the ▁eclipse ▁of ▁the ▁Sat av ah ana ▁dynast y , ▁whom ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁served ▁as ▁fe ud ator ies . ▁ ▁Pal lav as ▁became ▁a ▁major ▁power ▁during ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁( 5 7 1 – 6 3 0 ▁CE ) ▁and ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁( 6 3 0 – 6 6 8 ▁CE ) ▁and ▁domin ated ▁the ▁Tel ug u ▁and ▁northern ▁parts ▁of ▁the ▁T amil ▁region ▁for ▁about ▁ 6 0 0 ▁years ▁until ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁century . ▁Through out ▁their ▁reign ▁they ▁were ▁in ▁constant ▁conflict ▁with ▁both ▁Chal uky as ▁of ▁Bad ami ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁and ▁the ▁T amil ▁kingdom s ▁of ▁Ch ola ▁and ▁P andy as ▁in ▁the ▁south . ▁Pal lava ▁was ▁finally ▁defeated ▁by ▁the ▁Ch ola ▁r uler ▁Ad ity a ▁I ▁in ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁century ▁CE . ▁ ▁Pal lav as ▁are ▁most ▁noted ▁for ▁their ▁patron age ▁of ▁architecture , ▁the ▁fin est ▁example ▁being ▁the ▁Sh ore ▁Temple , ▁a ▁UN ES CO ▁World ▁Heritage ▁Site ▁in ▁Mam al lap ur am . ▁The ▁Pal lav as , ▁who ▁left ▁behind ▁magnific ent ▁sculpt ures ▁and ▁tem ples , |
▁established ▁the ▁found ations ▁of ▁medieval ▁South ▁Indian ▁architecture . ▁They ▁developed ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁script ▁from ▁which ▁Gran tha ▁ultimately ▁desc ended . ▁The ▁Pal lava ▁script ▁gave ▁rise ▁to ▁several ▁other ▁sout heast ▁Asian ▁scripts . ▁Chinese ▁trav eller ▁X u anz ang ▁visited ▁Kan ch ip ur am ▁during ▁Pal lava ▁rule ▁and ▁ext ol led ▁their ▁ben ign ▁rule . ▁ ▁Et ym ology ▁ ▁The ▁word ▁Pal lava ▁means ▁a ▁cre eper ▁or ▁branch ▁in ▁S ansk rit . ▁They ▁were ▁also ▁called ▁T ond ai yar ▁after ▁the ▁word ▁T ond ai , ▁meaning ▁cre eper ▁in ▁T amil . ▁ ▁Orig ins ▁ ▁The ▁orig ins ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁have ▁been ▁deb ated ▁by ▁sch ol ars . ▁. The ▁available ▁historical ▁materials ▁include ▁three ▁co pper - plate ▁gr ants ▁of ▁S iv ask and av ar man ▁in ▁the ▁first ▁quarter ▁of ▁the ▁ 4 th ▁century ▁CE , ▁all ▁issued ▁from ▁Kan ch ip ur am ▁but ▁found ▁in ▁various ▁parts ▁of ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh , ▁and ▁another ▁ins cription ▁of ▁Sim hav ar man ▁half ▁century ▁earlier ▁in ▁the ▁Pal an adu ▁area ▁of ▁the ▁western ▁G unt ur ▁district . ▁All ▁the ▁early ▁documents ▁are ▁in ▁P rak rit , ▁and ▁sch ol ars ▁find ▁similar ities ▁in ▁pale ography ▁and ▁language ▁with ▁the ▁Sat av ah anas ▁and ▁the ▁Ma ury as . ▁Their ▁early ▁co ins ▁are ▁said ▁to ▁be ▁similar ▁to ▁those ▁of ▁Sat |
av ah anas . ▁Two ▁main ▁theories ▁of ▁the ▁orig ins ▁have ▁emer ged ▁from ▁this ▁data : ▁one ▁that ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁former ▁subs idi aries ▁of ▁Sat av ah anas ▁in ▁the ▁And hr ades a ▁( the ▁region ▁north ▁of ▁Pen na ▁River ▁in ▁modern ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh ) ▁and ▁later ▁expanded ▁south ▁up ▁to ▁Kan chi , ▁and ▁the ▁other ▁that ▁they ▁initially ▁rose ▁to ▁power ▁in ▁Kan chi ▁and ▁expanded ▁north ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁Kr ish na ▁river . ▁ ▁The ▁pro ponents ▁of ▁the ▁And h ra ▁origin ▁theory ▁include ▁S . ▁Kr ish nas w ami ▁A iy ang ar ▁and ▁K . ▁A . ▁Nil ak anta ▁S ast ri . ▁They ▁believe ▁that ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁originally ▁fe ud ator ies ▁of ▁the ▁Sat av ah anas ▁in ▁the ▁south - e astern ▁part ▁of ▁their ▁emp ire ▁who ▁became ▁independent ▁when ▁the ▁Sat av ah ana ▁power ▁decl ined . ▁They ▁are ▁seen ▁to ▁be ▁" str angers ▁to ▁the ▁T amil ▁country ", ▁un related ▁to ▁the ▁ancient ▁lines ▁of ▁Ch eras , ▁P andy as ▁and ▁Ch olas . ▁Since ▁Sim hav ar man ' s ▁grant ▁be ars ▁no ▁reg al ▁titles , ▁they ▁believe ▁that ▁he ▁might ▁have ▁been ▁a ▁subs idi ary ▁to ▁the ▁And h ra ▁I k sh v ak us ▁who ▁were ▁in ▁power ▁in ▁And hr ades a ▁at ▁that ▁time . ▁In ▁the ▁following ▁half - century , |
▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁became ▁independent ▁and ▁expanded ▁up ▁to ▁Kan chi . ▁ ▁Another ▁theory ▁is ▁prop ounded ▁by ▁histor ians ▁R . ▁S ath ian ath a ier ▁and ▁D . ▁C . ▁S irc ar , ▁with ▁end ors ements ▁by ▁Hermann ▁K ul ke , ▁Diet mar ▁Roth erm und ▁and ▁Bur ton ▁Stein . ▁S irc ar ▁points ▁out ▁that ▁the ▁family ▁leg ends ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁speak ▁of ▁an ▁ancest or ▁desc ending ▁from ▁Ash w at th ama , ▁the ▁legend ary ▁Bra h min ▁war rior ▁of ▁Mah ab har ata , ▁and ▁his ▁union ▁with ▁a ▁N aga ▁prin cess . ▁According ▁P to le my , ▁the ▁A ru van adu ▁region ▁between ▁the ▁northern ▁and ▁southern ▁Pen ner ▁rivers ▁( P en na ▁and ▁P onna i yar ) ▁was ▁ruled ▁by ▁a ▁king ▁Bas aron aga ▁around ▁ 1 4 0 ▁CE . ▁By ▁marry ing ▁into ▁this ▁N aga ▁family , ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁would ▁have ▁acquired ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁region ▁near ▁kan chi . ▁While ▁S irc ar ▁allows ▁that ▁Pal lav as ▁might ▁have ▁been ▁provincial ▁r ul ers ▁under ▁the ▁later ▁Sat av ah anas ▁with ▁a ▁partial ▁northern ▁line age , ▁S ath ian ath a ier ▁sees ▁them ▁as ▁n atives ▁of ▁T onda im andal am ▁( the ▁core ▁region ▁of ▁A ru van adu ). ▁He ▁arg ues ▁that ▁they ▁could ▁well ▁have ▁adopted ▁north ▁Indian ▁practices ▁under ▁the ▁Ma |
ury an ▁As oka ' s ▁rule . ▁He ▁rel ates ▁the ▁name ▁" P alla va " ▁to ▁Pul ind as , ▁whose ▁her itage ▁is ▁bor ne ▁by ▁names ▁such ▁as ▁" P ul in adu " ▁and ▁" P uli y urk ott am " ▁in ▁the ▁region . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁C . ▁V . ▁Va id ya , ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁Mah ar as ht rian ▁A ry ans ▁who ▁spoke ▁Mah ar as ht ri ▁P rak rit ▁for ▁centuries ▁and ▁hence ▁retained ▁it ▁even ▁in ▁the ▁midst ▁of ▁surrounding ▁D rav id ian ▁languages . ▁They ▁may ▁even ▁be ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁' Mar ath as ' ▁for ▁their ▁name ▁was ▁said ▁to ▁be ▁still ▁preserved ▁in ▁the ▁Mar ath a ▁family ▁name ▁of ▁' P ā lave ' ▁( which ▁is ▁just ▁P rak rit ▁form ▁of ▁Pal lava ). ▁And ▁a ▁further ▁cor ro bor ation ▁is ▁that ▁the ▁got ra ▁of ▁the ▁P ā lave ▁Mar ath a ▁family ▁is ▁B har ad w aja , ▁same ▁as ▁the ▁one ▁which ▁Pal lav as ▁have ▁attributed ▁to ▁themselves ▁in ▁their ▁records . ▁ ▁Over la id ▁on ▁these ▁theories ▁is ▁another ▁hypothesis ▁of ▁S ath ian ath a ier ▁which ▁claims ▁that ▁" P alla va " ▁is ▁a ▁derivative ▁of ▁P ah lava ▁( the ▁S ansk rit ▁term ▁for ▁Par th ians ). ▁According ▁to ▁him , ▁partial ▁support ▁for ▁the ▁theory ▁can ▁be ▁derived ▁from ▁a ▁crown |
▁sh aped ▁like ▁an ▁ele ph ant ' s ▁scal p ▁dep icted ▁on ▁some ▁sculpt ures , ▁which ▁seems ▁to ▁res emble ▁the ▁crown ▁of ▁Dem et ri us ▁I . ▁ ▁R ival ries ▁ ▁With ▁Ch olas ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁captured ▁Kan chi ▁from ▁the ▁Ch olas ▁as ▁recorded ▁in ▁the ▁Vel ur pal ai y am ▁Pl ates , ▁around ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁the ▁fifth ▁king ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁line ▁K umar av ish nu ▁I . ▁There after ▁Kan chi ▁figures ▁in ▁ins cri ptions ▁as ▁the ▁capital ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as . ▁The ▁Ch olas ▁drove ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁away ▁from ▁Kan chi ▁in ▁the ▁mid - 4 th ▁century , ▁in ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁V ish ug op a , ▁the ▁t enth ▁king ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁line . ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁re - capt ured ▁Kan chi ▁in ▁the ▁mid - 6 th ▁century , ▁possibly ▁in ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Sim hav ish nu , ▁the ▁four teenth ▁king ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁line , ▁whom ▁the ▁Kas ak udi ▁pl ates ▁state ▁as ▁" the ▁l ion ▁of ▁the ▁earth ". ▁There after ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁held ▁on ▁to ▁Kan chi ▁until ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁century , ▁until ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁their ▁last ▁king , ▁V ij aya - N ri pat ung av ar man . ▁ ▁With ▁K ad amb as ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁in ▁conflict ▁with ▁major ▁kingdom s ▁at ▁various |
▁periods ▁of ▁time . ▁A ▁contest ▁for ▁political ▁supre m acy ▁existed ▁between ▁the ▁early ▁Pal lav as ▁and ▁the ▁K ad amb as . ▁N umer ous ▁K ad amba ▁ins cri ptions ▁provide ▁details ▁of ▁Pal lava - K ad amba ▁host ilities . ▁ ▁K ad amba ▁dynast y ' s ▁founder ▁May ur ash arma ▁first ▁succeeded ▁in ▁establish ing ▁himself ▁in ▁the ▁for ests ▁of ▁Sri par vat am ▁( poss ibly ▁modern ▁S ris ail am ▁in ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh ) ▁by ▁defe ating ▁the ▁Anth ar ap al as ▁( gu ards ) ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁and ▁sub du ing ▁the ▁Ban as ▁of ▁K olar ▁in ▁ 3 4 5 ▁CE . ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁under ▁Sk and av ar man ▁were ▁unable ▁to ▁contain ▁May ur ash arma ▁and ▁recogn ised ▁him ▁as ▁a ▁so ver eign ▁in ▁the ▁regions ▁from ▁the ▁Am ara ▁Ocean ▁( West ern ▁Ocean ) ▁to ▁Pre h ara ▁( Mal ap rab ha ▁River ). ▁Some ▁histor ians ▁feel ▁that ▁May ur ash arma ▁was ▁initially ▁appointed ▁as ▁a ▁commander ▁( D and an ay aka ) ▁in ▁the ▁army ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as , ▁as ▁the ▁ins cription ▁uses ▁such ▁terms ▁as ▁Sen ani ▁and ▁calls ▁May ur ash arma ▁Sh ad an ana ▁( six - fac ed ▁god ▁of ▁war ). ▁After ▁a ▁period ▁of ▁time , ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁confusion ▁caused ▁by ▁the ▁defeat ▁of ▁Pal lava ▁V |
ish n ug op a ▁by ▁Sam ud rag upt a ▁( Al la hab ad ▁ins cri ptions ), ▁May ur ash arma ▁formed ▁his ▁kingdom ▁with ▁Ban avas i ▁( near ▁Tal ag unda ) ▁as ▁his ▁capital . ▁ ▁With ▁Kal ab hr as ▁During ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁V ish n ug op av ar man ▁II ▁( approx . ▁ 5 0 0 – 5 2 5 ), ▁political ▁conv ulsion ▁eng ulf ed ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁Kal ab h ra ▁invasion ▁of ▁the ▁T amil ▁country . ▁Tow ards ▁the ▁close ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 th ▁century , ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁Sim hav ish nu ▁stuck ▁a ▁blow ▁against ▁the ▁Kal ab hr as . ▁The ▁P andy as ▁followed ▁suit . ▁There after ▁the ▁T amil ▁country ▁was ▁divided ▁between ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁with ▁Kan ch ip ur am ▁as ▁their ▁capital , ▁and ▁P andy as ▁in ▁the ▁south ▁with ▁Mad ur ai ▁as ▁their ▁capital . ▁ ▁Bir ud as ▁The ▁royal ▁custom ▁of ▁using ▁a ▁series ▁of ▁descript ive ▁honor ific ▁titles , ▁Bir ud as , ▁was ▁particularly ▁pre val ent ▁among ▁the ▁Pal lav as . ▁The ▁bir ud as ▁of ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁are ▁in ▁S ansk rit , ▁T amil ▁and ▁Tel ug u . ▁The ▁Tel ug u ▁bir ud as ▁show ▁Mah endra var man ' s ▁invol vement ▁with ▁the ▁And h ra ▁region ▁continued ▁to ▁be |
▁strong ▁at ▁the ▁time ▁he ▁was ▁creating ▁his ▁cave - tem ples ▁in ▁the ▁T amil ▁region . ▁The ▁suffix ▁" M alla " ▁was ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁r ul ers . ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁used ▁the ▁bir uda , ▁Sat rum alla , ▁" a ▁war rior ▁who ▁over th rows ▁his ▁enemies ", ▁and ▁his ▁grand son ▁Par ames var a ▁I ▁was ▁called ▁Ek am alla ▁" the ▁sole ▁war rior ▁or ▁wrest ler ". ▁Pal lava ▁k ings , ▁pres umably ▁ex alt ed ▁ones , ▁were ▁known ▁by ▁the ▁title ▁Mah am alla ▁(" gre at ▁wrest ler "). ▁ ▁L anguages ▁used ▁ ▁All ▁early ▁Pal lava ▁royal ▁ins cri ptions ▁were ▁either ▁in ▁S ansk rit ▁or ▁P rak rit , ▁considered ▁the ▁official ▁languages ▁of ▁the ▁dynast y ▁while ▁the ▁official ▁scripts ▁were ▁Pal lava ▁and ▁later ▁Gran tha . ▁Similarly , ▁ins cri ptions ▁found ▁in ▁And h ra ▁Pr adesh ▁and ▁K arn ata ka ▁State ▁are ▁in ▁S ansk rit ▁and ▁P rak rit . ▁The ▁phenomen on ▁of ▁using ▁P rak rit ▁as ▁official ▁languages ▁in ▁which ▁r ul ers ▁left ▁their ▁ins cri ptions ▁and ▁ep ig raph ies ▁continued ▁till ▁the ▁ 6 th ▁century . ▁It ▁would ▁have ▁been ▁in ▁the ▁interest ▁of ▁the ▁r uling ▁el ite ▁to ▁protect ▁their ▁privileges ▁by ▁perpet u ating ▁their ▁h eg em ony ▁of ▁P rak rit ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁exclude ▁the ▁common ▁people ▁from ▁sharing |
▁power ▁( M ah ade van ▁ 1 9 9 5 a : ▁ 1 7 3 – 1 8 8 ). ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁in ▁their ▁T amil ▁country ▁used ▁T amil ▁and ▁S ansk rit ▁in ▁their ▁ins cri ptions . ▁ ▁T amil ▁came ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁main ▁language ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁in ▁their ▁ins cri ptions , ▁though ▁a ▁few ▁records ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁in ▁S ansk rit . ▁This ▁language ▁was ▁first ▁adopted ▁by ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁himself ▁in ▁a ▁few ▁records ▁of ▁his ; ▁but ▁from ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁I , ▁the ▁practice ▁came ▁into ▁v og ue ▁of ▁ins cri bing ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁record ▁in ▁S ansk rit ▁and ▁the ▁rest ▁in ▁T amil . ▁Al most ▁all ▁the ▁co pper ▁plate ▁records , ▁viz ., ▁Kas ak udi , ▁T and ant ott am , ▁P att att alm ang alm , ▁U day end ir am ▁and ▁Vel ur pal ai y am ▁are ▁composed ▁both ▁in ▁S ansk rit ▁and ▁T amil . ▁ ▁Writing ▁system ▁ ▁Under ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁dynast y , ▁a ▁unique ▁form ▁of ▁Gran tha ▁script , ▁a ▁desc endant ▁of ▁Pal lava ▁script ▁which ▁is ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁Bra hm ic ▁script , ▁was ▁used . ▁Ar ound ▁the ▁ 6 th ▁century , ▁it ▁was ▁export ed ▁east wards ▁and ▁influenced ▁the ▁gen esis ▁of ▁almost ▁all ▁S out heast ▁Asian ▁scripts |
. ▁ ▁Religion ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁follow ers ▁of ▁H indu ism ▁and ▁made ▁g ifts ▁of ▁land ▁to ▁gods ▁and ▁Bra hm ins . ▁In ▁line ▁with ▁the ▁pre val ent ▁custom s , ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁r ul ers ▁performed ▁the ▁As w amed ha ▁and ▁other ▁V edic ▁sacrific es . ▁They ▁were , ▁however , ▁toler ant ▁of ▁other ▁faith s . ▁The ▁Chinese ▁mon k ▁X u anz ang ▁who ▁visited ▁Kan ch ip ur am ▁during ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁reported ▁that ▁there ▁were ▁ 1 0 0 ▁Buddh ist ▁monaster ies , ▁and ▁ 8 0 ▁tem ples ▁in ▁Kan ch ip ur am . ▁ ▁Pal lava ▁architecture ▁The ▁Pal lav as ▁were ▁instrument al ▁in ▁the ▁transition ▁from ▁rock - cut ▁architecture ▁to ▁stone ▁tem ples . ▁The ▁earliest ▁examples ▁of ▁Pal lava ▁constru ctions ▁are ▁rock - cut ▁tem ples ▁d ating ▁from ▁ 6 1 0 – 6 9 0 ▁and ▁struct ural ▁tem ples ▁between ▁ 6 9 0 – 9 0 0 . ▁A ▁number ▁of ▁rock - cut ▁cave ▁tem ples ▁bear ▁the ▁ins cription ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁king , ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁and ▁his ▁success ors . ▁ ▁Among ▁the ▁accomplish ments ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁architecture ▁are ▁the ▁rock - cut ▁tem ples ▁at ▁Mam al lap ur am . ▁There ▁are ▁exc av ated ▁p illa red ▁h alls ▁and ▁mon ol ith ic ▁shr ines |
▁known ▁as ▁R ath as ▁in ▁Mah ab al ip ur am . ▁Early ▁tem ples ▁were ▁mostly ▁dedicated ▁to ▁Sh iva . ▁The ▁K ail as an ath a ▁temple ▁in ▁Kan ch ip ur am ▁and ▁the ▁Sh ore ▁Temple ▁built ▁by ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁II , ▁rock ▁cut ▁temple ▁in ▁Mah end rav adi ▁by ▁Mah endra var man ▁are ▁fine ▁examples ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁style ▁tem ples . ▁The ▁temple ▁of ▁N al anda ▁Ged ige ▁in ▁K andy , ▁Sri ▁L anka ▁is ▁another . ▁The ▁famous ▁T ond es war am ▁temple ▁of ▁Ten av ar ai ▁and ▁the ▁ancient ▁K ones war am ▁temple ▁of ▁Tr in com ale e ▁were ▁patron ised ▁and ▁struct ur ally ▁developed ▁by ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁in ▁the ▁ 7 th ▁century . ▁ ▁Pal lava ▁society ▁The ▁Pal lava ▁period ▁beginning ▁with ▁Sim hav ish nu ▁( 5 7 5 ▁AD 9 0 0 ▁AD ) ▁was ▁a ▁trans itional ▁stage ▁in ▁southern ▁Indian ▁society ▁with ▁monument ▁building , ▁foundation ▁of ▁dev ot ional ▁( b h ak ti ) ▁sect s ▁of ▁Al vars ▁and ▁N ay an ars , ▁the ▁flow ering ▁of ▁rural ▁bra h man ical ▁institutions ▁of ▁S ansk rit ▁learning , ▁and ▁the ▁establishment ▁of ▁ch ak rav art in ▁model ▁of ▁king ship ▁over ▁a ▁territory ▁of ▁diverse ▁people ; ▁which ▁ended ▁the ▁pre - P alla van ▁era ▁of ▁territorial ly ▁segment ed ▁people , ▁each |
▁with ▁their ▁culture , ▁under ▁a ▁trib al ▁ch ie ft ain . ▁While ▁a ▁system ▁of ▁ranked ▁relationship ▁among ▁groups ▁existed ▁in ▁the ▁classical ▁period , ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁period ▁ext ol led ▁ranked ▁relationships ▁based ▁on ▁rit ual ▁pur ity ▁as ▁enjo ined ▁by ▁the ▁sh astr as . ▁Bur ton ▁distingu ishes ▁between ▁the ▁ch ak rav atin ▁model ▁and ▁the ▁k sh atri ya ▁model , ▁and ▁lik ens ▁k sh atri y as ▁to ▁locally ▁based ▁war riors ▁with ▁rit ual ▁status ▁sufficiently ▁high ▁enough ▁to ▁share ▁with ▁Bra hm ins ; ▁and ▁states ▁that ▁in ▁south ▁India ▁the ▁k sh atri ya ▁model ▁did ▁not ▁emer ge . ▁As ▁per ▁Bur ton , ▁south ▁India ▁was ▁aware ▁of ▁the ▁Ind o - A ry an ▁var na ▁organ ised ▁society ▁in ▁which ▁decis ive ▁sec ular ▁authority ▁was ▁v ested ▁in ▁the ▁k sh atri y as ; ▁but ▁apart ▁from ▁the ▁Pal lava , ▁Ch ola ▁and ▁V ij ay an agar ▁line ▁of ▁war riors ▁which ▁claimed ▁ch ak rav art in ▁status , ▁only ▁few ▁local ity ▁war rior ▁families ▁achieved ▁the ▁pr estig ious ▁kin - link ed ▁organisation ▁of ▁northern ▁war rior ▁groups . ▁ ▁Chron ology ▁ ▁S ast ri ▁chron ology ▁ ▁The ▁earliest ▁documentation ▁on ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁is ▁the ▁three ▁co pper - plate ▁gr ants , ▁now ▁referred ▁to ▁as ▁the ▁May id av olu , ▁H ire had ag ali ▁and ▁the ▁British ▁Museum ▁pl |
ates ▁( D urg a ▁Pr as ad , ▁ 1 9 8 8 ) ▁belonging ▁to ▁Sk and av ar man ▁I ▁and ▁written ▁in ▁P rak rit . ▁Sk and av ar man ▁appears ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁the ▁first ▁great ▁r uler ▁of ▁the ▁early ▁Pal lav as , ▁though ▁there ▁are ▁references ▁to ▁other ▁early ▁Pal lav as ▁who ▁were ▁probably ▁prede cess ors ▁of ▁Sk and av ar man . ▁Sk and av ar man ▁extended ▁his ▁domin ions ▁from ▁the ▁Kr ish na ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁to ▁the ▁P enn ar ▁in ▁the ▁south ▁and ▁to ▁the ▁Bell ary ▁district ▁in ▁the ▁West . ▁He ▁performed ▁the ▁As w amed ha ▁and ▁other ▁V edic ▁sacrific es ▁and ▁bore ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁" S up reme ▁King ▁of ▁Kings ▁devoted ▁to ▁d har ma ". ▁ ▁The ▁H ira had ag ali ▁co pper ▁plate ▁( B ell ary ▁District ) ▁record ▁in ▁P rak rit ▁is ▁dated ▁in ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁year ▁of ▁S iv ask anda ▁Var man ▁to ▁ 2 8 3 ▁CE ▁and ▁confir ms ▁the ▁gift ▁made ▁by ▁his ▁father ▁who ▁is ▁described ▁merely ▁as ▁" B appa - de va " ▁( re ver ed ▁father ) ▁or ▁Bo ppa . ▁It ▁will ▁thus ▁be ▁clear ▁that ▁this ▁dynast y ▁of ▁the ▁P rak rit ▁char ters ▁beginning ▁with ▁" B appa - de va " ▁were ▁the ▁historical ▁found ers ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁domin ion ▁in ▁South ▁India . |
▁ ▁The ▁H ira had ag al li ▁Pl ates ▁were ▁found ▁in ▁H ire had ag ali , ▁Bell ary ▁district ▁and ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁earliest ▁co pper ▁pl ates ▁in ▁K arn ata ka ▁and ▁belongs ▁to ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁early ▁Pal lava ▁r uler ▁Sh iv ask anda ▁Var ma . ▁Pal lava ▁King ▁S iv ask and av ar man ▁of ▁Kan chi ▁of ▁the ▁early ▁Pal lav as ▁ruled ▁from ▁ 2 7 5 ▁to ▁ 3 0 0 ▁CE , ▁and ▁issued ▁the ▁char ter ▁in ▁ 2 8 3 ▁CE ▁in ▁the ▁ 8 th ▁year ▁of ▁his ▁reign . ▁ ▁V ij aya ▁Sk and av ar man ▁( S iv ask and av ar man ) ▁was ▁king ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁kingdom ▁at ▁Bell ary ▁region ▁in ▁And h ra , ▁and ▁vic ero y ▁of ▁Sam ud rag upt a ▁at ▁Kan ch ip ur am . ▁The ▁writer ▁of ▁the ▁grant ▁was ▁priv y ▁coun c ill or ▁Bh atti ▁Sh ar man ▁and ▁was ▁supposed ▁to ▁be ▁valid ▁for ▁ 1 0 0 , 0 0 0 ▁years . ▁ ▁As ▁per ▁the ▁H ira had ag al li ▁Pl ates ▁of ▁ 2 8 3 ▁CE , ▁Pal lava ▁King ▁S iv ask and av ar man ▁granted ▁an ▁imm unity ▁viz ▁the ▁garden ▁of ▁Ch illa rek ak od um ka , ▁which ▁was ▁formerly ▁given ▁by ▁Lord ▁B appa ▁to ▁the ▁Bra hm ins , ▁free |
hold ers ▁of ▁Ch illa rek ak od um ka ▁and ▁inhabitants ▁of ▁Ap itt i . ▁Ch illa rek ak od um ka ▁has ▁been ▁identified ▁by ▁some ▁as ▁ancient ▁village ▁Ch ill ar ige ▁in ▁Bell ary , ▁K arn ata ka . ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁reign ▁of ▁Sim hav ar man ▁IV , ▁who ▁asc ended ▁the ▁throne ▁in ▁ 4 3 6 , ▁the ▁territ ories ▁lost ▁to ▁the ▁V ish n uk und ins ▁in ▁the ▁north ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁mouth ▁of ▁the ▁Kr ish na ▁were ▁recovered . ▁The ▁early ▁Pal lava ▁history ▁from ▁this ▁period ▁on wards ▁is ▁furn ished ▁by ▁a ▁dozen ▁or ▁so ▁co pper - plate ▁gr ants ▁in ▁S ansk rit . ▁They ▁are ▁all ▁dated ▁in ▁the ▁reg nal ▁years ▁of ▁the ▁k ings . ▁▁ ▁The ▁following ▁chron ology ▁was ▁composed ▁from ▁these ▁char ters ▁by ▁Nil ak anta ▁S ast ri ▁in ▁his ▁A ▁History ▁of ▁South ▁India : ▁ ▁Early ▁Pal lav as ▁▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁I ▁( 2 7 5 – 3 0 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk and av ar man ▁( unknown ) ▁ ▁Vis n ug op a ▁( 3 5 0 – 3 5 5 ) ▁ ▁K umar av ish nu ▁I ▁( 3 5 0 – 3 7 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk and av ar man ▁II ▁( 3 7 0 – 3 8 5 ) ▁ ▁V ira var man ▁( 3 8 5 – 4 0 0 ) |
▁ ▁Sk and av ar man ▁III ▁( 4 0 0 – 4 3 6 ) ▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁II ▁( 4 3 6 – 4 6 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk and av ar man ▁IV ▁( 4 6 0 – 4 8 0 ) ▁ ▁N and iv ar man ▁I ▁( 4 8 0 – 5 1 0 ) ▁ ▁K umar av ish nu ▁II ▁( 5 1 0 – 5 3 0 ) ▁ ▁Bud d hav ar man ▁( 5 3 0 – 5 4 0 ) ▁ ▁K umar av ish nu ▁III ▁( 5 4 0 – 5 5 0 ) ▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁III ▁( 5 5 0 – 5 6 0 ) ▁ ▁Later ▁Pal lav as ▁ ▁The ▁inc urs ion ▁of ▁the ▁Kal ab hr as ▁and ▁the ▁confusion ▁in ▁the ▁T amil ▁country ▁was ▁broken ▁by ▁the ▁P and ya ▁K ad ung on ▁and ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁Sim hav ish nu . ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁extended ▁the ▁Pal lava ▁Kingdom ▁and ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁greatest ▁so ver eign s . ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁orn ate ▁monuments ▁and ▁tem ples ▁in ▁southern ▁India , ▁car ved ▁out ▁of ▁solid ▁rock , ▁were ▁introduced ▁under ▁his ▁rule . ▁He ▁also ▁wrote ▁the ▁play ▁Matt av il asa ▁Pra has ana . ▁ ▁The ▁Pal lava ▁kingdom ▁began ▁to ▁gain ▁both ▁in ▁territory ▁and ▁influence ▁and ▁were ▁a ▁regional ▁power ▁by ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the |
▁ 6 th ▁century , ▁defe ating ▁k ings ▁of ▁C ey lon ▁and ▁main land ▁T amil ak k am . ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁and ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁I ▁stand ▁out ▁for ▁their ▁achiev ements ▁in ▁both ▁military ▁and ▁architect ural ▁spher es . ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁II ▁built ▁the ▁Sh ore ▁Temple . ▁▁ ▁Sim hav ish nu ▁( 5 7 5 – 6 0 0 ) ▁ ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁( 6 0 0 – 6 3 0 ) ▁ ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁( M am alla ) ▁( 6 3 0 – 6 6 8 ) ▁ ▁Mah endra var man ▁II ▁( 6 6 8 – 6 7 2 ) ▁ ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁I ▁( 6 7 0 – 6 9 5 ) ▁ ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁II ▁( R aja ▁Sim ha ) ▁( 6 9 5 – 7 2 2 ) ▁ ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁II ▁( 7 0 5 – 7 1 0 ) ▁ ▁Later ▁Pal lav as ▁of ▁the ▁K ad ava ▁Line ▁ ▁The ▁k ings ▁that ▁came ▁after ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁II ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁coll ater al ▁line ▁of ▁Pal lav as ▁and ▁were ▁descend ants ▁of ▁Bh im av ar man , ▁the ▁brother ▁of ▁Sim hav ish nu . ▁They ▁called ▁themselves ▁as ▁K ad avas , ▁K ad |
aves a ▁and ▁K ad uv etti . ▁Hir any av ar man , ▁the ▁father ▁of ▁N and iv ar man ▁Pal lav am alla ▁is ▁said ▁to ▁have ▁belonged ▁to ▁the ▁K ad av ak ula ▁in ▁ep ig raph s . ▁N and iv ar man ▁II ▁himself ▁is ▁described ▁as ▁" one ▁who ▁was ▁born ▁to ▁raise ▁the ▁prest ige ▁of ▁the ▁K ad ava ▁family ". ▁N and iv ar man ▁II ▁( Pal lav am alla ) ▁( 7 3 2 – 7 9 6 ) ▁son ▁of ▁Hir any av ar man ▁of ▁K ad av ak ula ▁ ▁D ant iv ar man ▁( 7 9 5 – 8 4 6 ) ▁ ▁N and iv ar man ▁III ▁( 8 4 6 – 8 6 9 ) ▁ ▁A par aj it av ar man ▁( 8 7 9 – 8 9 7 ) ▁ ▁A iy ang ar ▁chron ology ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁available ▁ins cri ptions ▁of ▁the ▁Pal lav as , ▁historian ▁S . ▁Kr ish nas w ami ▁A iy ang ar ▁propos es ▁the ▁Pal lav as ▁could ▁be ▁divided ▁into ▁four ▁separate ▁families ▁or ▁dynast ies ; ▁some ▁of ▁whose ▁connections ▁are ▁known ▁and ▁some ▁unknown . ▁A iy ang ar ▁states ▁ ▁We ▁have ▁a ▁certain ▁number ▁of ▁char ters ▁in ▁P rak rit ▁of ▁which ▁three ▁are ▁important ▁ones . ▁Then ▁follows ▁a ▁dynast y ▁which ▁issued ▁their ▁char ters ▁in ▁S ansk rit ; |
▁following ▁this ▁came ▁the ▁family ▁of ▁the ▁great ▁Pal lav as ▁beginning ▁with ▁Sim ha ▁V ish nu ; ▁this ▁was ▁followed ▁by ▁a ▁dynast y ▁of ▁the ▁us ur per ▁N and i ▁Var man , ▁another ▁great ▁Pal lava . ▁We ▁are ▁over looking ▁for ▁the ▁present ▁the ▁dynast y ▁of ▁the ▁G anga - Pal lav as ▁post ulated ▁by ▁the ▁Ep ig raph ists . ▁The ▁earliest ▁of ▁these ▁Pal lava ▁char ters ▁is ▁the ▁one ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁May id av olu ▁ 1 ▁( G unt ur ▁district ) ▁co pper - plates . ▁ ▁Based ▁on ▁a ▁combination ▁of ▁d yn astic ▁pl ates ▁and ▁gr ants ▁from ▁the ▁period , ▁A iy ang ar ▁proposed ▁their ▁rule ▁thus : ▁ ▁Early ▁Pal lav as ▁ ▁B app ade van ▁( 2 5 0 – 2 7 5 ) mar ried ▁a ▁N aga ▁of ▁M av il anga ▁( K an chi ) ▁– ▁The ▁Great ▁Found er ▁of ▁a ▁Pal lava ▁line age ▁ ▁Sh iv ask and av ar man ▁I ▁( 2 7 5 – 3 0 0 ) ▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁( 3 0 0 – 3 2 0 ) ▁ ▁Bh ud d av ar man ▁( 3 2 0 – 3 3 5 ) ▁ ▁Bh ud dy ank ur an ▁( 3 3 5 – 3 4 0 ) ▁ ▁Middle ▁Pal lav as ▁ ▁Vis n ug op a ▁( 3 4 0 – 3 |
5 5 ) ▁( Y uv am ah ar aja ▁V ish n ug op a ) ▁ ▁K umar av is nu ▁I ▁( 3 5 5 – 3 7 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk anda ▁Var man ▁II ▁( 3 7 0 – 3 8 5 ) ▁ ▁V ira ▁Var man ▁( 3 8 5 – 4 0 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk anda ▁Var man ▁III ▁( 4 0 0 – 4 3 5 ) ▁ ▁Sim ha ▁Var man ▁II ▁( 4 3 5 – 4 6 0 ) ▁ ▁Sk anda ▁Var man ▁IV ▁( 4 6 0 – 4 8 0 ) ▁ ▁N and i ▁Var man ▁I ▁( 4 8 0 – 5 0 0 ) ▁ ▁K umar av is nu ▁II ▁( ▁ 5 0 0 – 5 1 0 ) ▁ ▁Bud d ha ▁Var man ▁( ▁ 5 1 0 – 5 2 0 ) ▁ ▁K umar av is nu ▁III ▁( ▁ 5 2 0 – 5 3 0 ) ▁ ▁Sim ha ▁Var man ▁III ▁( ▁ 5 3 0 – 5 3 7 ) ▁ ▁Later ▁Pal lav as ▁Sim hav ish nu ▁( 5 3 7 – 5 7 0 ) ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁( 5 7 1 – 6 3 0 ) ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁( M am alla ) ▁( 6 3 0 – 6 6 8 ) ▁Mah endra var man ▁II ▁( 6 6 8 – 6 |
7 2 ) ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁I ▁( 6 7 2 – 7 0 0 ) ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁II ▁( R aja ▁Sim ha ) ▁( 7 0 0 – 7 2 7 ) ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁II ▁( 7 0 5 – 7 1 0 ) ▁ ▁Later ▁Pal lav as ▁of ▁the ▁K ad ava ▁Line ▁ ▁N and iv ar man ▁II ▁( Pal lav am alla ) ▁( 7 3 2 – 7 9 6 ) ▁son ▁of ▁Hir any av ar man ▁of ▁K ad av ak ula ▁D ant iv ar man ▁( 7 7 5 – 8 2 5 ) ▁N and iv ar man ▁III ▁( 8 2 5 – 8 6 9 ) ▁N ir up ath ung an ▁( 8 6 9 – 8 8 2 ) ▁A par aj it av ar man ▁( 8 8 2 – 8 9 6 ) ▁ ▁Gene al ogy ▁of ▁M ā mal lap ur am ▁Pra ś ast i ▁ ▁The ▁gene al ogy ▁of ▁Pal lav as ▁mentioned ▁in ▁the ▁M ā mal lap ur am ▁Pra ś ast i ▁is ▁as ▁follows : ▁ ▁V ish nu ▁ ▁Bra h ma ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁B har adv aja ▁ ▁D ron a ▁ ▁Ash vat th aman ▁ ▁Pal lava ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e |
ci pher able ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁I ▁( ▁ 2 7 5 ) ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Sim hav ar man ▁IV ▁( 4 3 6 – ▁ 4 6 0 ) ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Sk and ash ish ya ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Sim hav is nu ▁( ▁ 5 5 0 – 5 8 5 ) ▁ ▁Mah endra var man ▁I ▁( ▁ 5 7 1 – 6 3 0 ) ▁ ▁Mah a - mal la ▁Nar as im hav ar man ▁I ▁( 6 3 0 – 6 6 8 ) ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Par ames var av ar man ▁I ▁( 6 6 9 – 6 9 0 ) ▁ ▁Raj as im ha ▁Nar as im hav aram ▁II ▁( 6 9 0 – 7 2 8 ) ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁Pal lav am alla ▁N and iv ar man ▁II ▁( 7 3 1 – 7 9 6 ) ▁ ▁Un known ▁/ ▁und e ci pher able ▁ ▁N and iv ar man ▁III ▁( 8 4 6 – 8 6 9 ) |
▁ ▁Other ▁relationships ▁Pal lava ▁royal ▁line ages ▁were ▁influ ential ▁in ▁the ▁old ▁kingdom ▁of ▁K ed ah ▁of ▁the ▁Mal ay ▁Pen ins ula ▁under ▁Rud ra var man ▁I , ▁Champ a ▁under ▁Bh ad ra var man ▁I ▁and ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁the ▁Fun an ▁in ▁Camb odia . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁T amil ▁monarch s ▁K ad ava ▁dynast y ▁ ▁Notes ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : T amil ▁monarch s ▁Category : History ▁of ▁Tir uch ira pp al li ▁Category : St ates ▁and ▁territ ories ▁established ▁in ▁the ▁ 3 rd ▁century ▁Category : St ates ▁and ▁territ ories ▁dis est ab lished ▁in ▁the ▁ 9 th ▁century ▁Category : 3 rd - century ▁establish ments ▁in ▁India ▁Category : 9 th - century ▁dis est ab lish ments ▁in ▁India ▁Category : T el ug u ▁monarch s <0x0A> </s> ▁" And ▁Then ▁There ▁Was ▁Sil ence " ▁is ▁a ▁song ▁by ▁the ▁German ▁power ▁metal ▁band ▁Bl ind ▁Guardian . ▁It ▁was ▁released ▁in ▁November ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁as ▁the ▁lead ▁single ▁from ▁their ▁album , ▁A ▁Night ▁at ▁the ▁Opera . ▁ ▁Writ ten ▁by ▁singer ▁Hans i ▁K ür sch ▁and ▁composed ▁by ▁K ür sch ▁and ▁guitar ist ▁André ▁Ol br ich , ▁the ▁song ▁is ▁based ▁on ▁The ▁I li ad ▁by ▁H omer ▁and ▁on ▁the ▁A ene id ▁by ▁Vir g il , ▁and ▁narr ates ▁the ▁final |
▁days ▁of ▁T roy , ▁as ▁for ese en ▁by ▁Cass andra , ▁daughter ▁of ▁the ▁king ▁of ▁the ▁destroyed ▁city ▁who ▁for es aw ▁the ▁event . ▁ ▁The ▁song ▁is ▁so ▁intr icate ▁and ▁long ▁with ▁so ▁many ▁tracks ▁that ▁it ▁alone ▁required ▁as ▁much ▁production ▁time ▁as ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁A ▁Night ▁at ▁the ▁Opera ▁album . ▁At ▁over ▁ 1 4 ▁minutes , ▁it ▁is ▁the ▁longest ▁track ▁recorded ▁by ▁Bl ind ▁Guardian . ▁It ▁was ▁re - record ed ▁into ▁a ▁new ▁version ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 2 ▁as ▁a ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁compilation ▁album ▁Mem ories ▁of ▁a ▁Time ▁to ▁Come . ▁ ▁Track ▁listing ▁ ▁" And ▁Then ▁There ▁Was ▁Sil ence " ▁ ▁– ▁ 1 4 : 0 6 ▁ ▁" Har vest ▁of ▁Sor row " ▁ ▁– ▁ 3 : 4 0 <0x09> ▁ ▁" B orn ▁in ▁a ▁M our ning ▁Hall " ▁( mult imedia ▁track ) ▁– ▁ 5 : 1 7 ▁ ▁Line up ▁ ▁Hans i ▁K ür sch ▁– ▁vocals ▁and ▁backing ▁vocals ▁ ▁André ▁Ol br ich ▁– ▁lead , ▁rh ythm ▁and ▁ac oust ic ▁guitar ▁ ▁Marcus ▁Sie pen ▁– ▁rh ythm ▁guitar ▁ ▁Th omen ▁St auch ▁– ▁drums ▁and ▁per cussion ▁ ▁Ch arts ▁ ▁Person nel ▁ ▁An ry ▁N emo ▁– ▁cover ▁art ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 2 0 0 1 ▁singles ▁Category : Bl ind ▁Guardian ▁songs ▁Category : 2 0 0 1 ▁songs ▁Category |
: V ir gin ▁Records ▁singles ▁Category : S ongs ▁based ▁on ▁po ems ▁Category : S ongs ▁written ▁by ▁Hans i ▁K ür sch ▁Category : S ongs ▁written ▁by ▁André ▁Ol br ich ▁Category : Work s ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁I li ad ▁Category : Work s ▁based ▁on ▁the ▁A ene id <0x0A> </s> ▁Tow ong ▁is ▁a ▁bounded ▁rural ▁local ity ▁of ▁the ▁Sh ire ▁of ▁Tow ong ▁local ▁government ▁area ▁in ▁Victoria , ▁Australia . ▁Tow ong ▁is ▁on ▁the ▁Murray ▁River ▁close ▁to ▁Cor ry ong . ▁At ▁the ▁, ▁Tow ong ▁had ▁a ▁population ▁of ▁ 2 8 1 . ▁ ▁History ▁Tow ong ▁Post ▁Office ▁opened ▁on ▁ 1 0 J anu ary ▁ 1 8 8 2 ▁and ▁closed ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁ ▁Tow ong ▁Tur f ▁Club ▁Tow ong ▁is ▁home ▁to ▁the ▁historic ▁Tow ong ▁Tur f ▁Club , ▁hosting ▁thorough bre d ▁horse ▁racing ▁since ▁ 1 8 7 1 . ▁Currently ▁Country ▁Racing ▁Victoria ▁sched ules ▁two ▁race ▁meet ings ▁per ▁year ▁at ▁the ▁ven ue , ▁the ▁Tow ong ▁Cup ▁meeting ▁( trad itionally ▁held ▁in ▁early ▁March ) ▁and ▁the ▁S qu iz zy ▁Taylor ▁D ash ▁meeting ▁( trad itionally ▁held ▁in ▁late ▁December ). ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁ ▁Tow ong ▁Tur f ▁Club ▁Website ▁ ▁Category : T own s ▁in ▁Victoria ▁( Austral ia ) <0x0A> </s> ▁S j ur ▁Joh ns en ▁( 2 0 ▁June ▁ |
1 8 9 1 ▁– ▁ 2 ▁October ▁ 1 9 7 8 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Norwegian ▁wrest ler . ▁He ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Vik . ▁He ▁competed ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁in ▁Ant werp ▁where ▁he ▁placed ▁fourth ▁in ▁Gre co - R oman ▁middle weight , ▁after ▁losing ▁the ▁bronze ▁match ▁to ▁Mas a ▁Per tt il ä . ▁He ▁was ▁a ▁national ▁champion ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁and ▁ 1 9 2 2 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 8 9 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 7 8 ▁death s ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Vik ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁wrest lers ▁of ▁Norway ▁Category : W rest lers ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : N or weg ian ▁male ▁sport ▁wrest lers <0x0A> </s> ▁Dom ingo ▁C ull en ▁( 1 7 9 1 ▁– ▁ 2 1 ▁June ▁ 1 8 3 9 ) ▁was ▁the ▁governor ▁of ▁province ▁of ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁Argentina ▁during ▁ 1 8 3 8 . ▁ ▁Biography ▁C ull en ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁T ener ife , ▁Can ary ▁Islands , ▁but ▁moved ▁to ▁Argentina ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 8 2 0 s ▁after ▁establish ing ▁commercial ▁activities ▁( link ed ▁with ▁fl uv ial ▁trade ) ▁in ▁the ▁area . ▁He ▁met ▁Santa ▁Fe ' s ▁ca ud illo ▁Est an is la o ▁López ▁when ▁serving ▁as ▁a ▁deput y ▁of ▁the ▁Cab ild |
o ▁of ▁Monte video . ▁After ▁being ▁involved ▁in ▁activ ism ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁independence ▁of ▁Uruguay ▁and ▁the ▁resistance ▁against ▁Brazil ▁( see ▁C is pl at ine ▁War ), ▁he ▁returned ▁to ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁settled ▁in ▁a ▁ran ch , ▁and ▁married ▁Jo aqu ina ▁Rodríguez ▁del ▁F res no , ▁the ▁young ▁wid ow ▁of ▁Pedro ▁Ald ao ▁and ▁sister - in - law ▁of ▁López . ▁In ▁ 1 8 2 8 ▁he ▁became ▁a ▁coun sel or ▁of ▁López , ▁and ▁his ▁Minister ▁of ▁Government ▁in ▁ 1 8 3 3 . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁time ▁of ▁López ' s ▁death ▁on ▁ 1 5 ▁June ▁ 1 8 3 8 , ▁C ull en ▁was ▁in ▁Buenos ▁Aires ▁as ▁representative ▁of ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁trying ▁to ▁find ▁a ▁peace ful ▁solution ▁to ▁the ▁on going ▁French ▁block ade ▁of ▁the ▁port ▁( ca used ▁by ▁a ▁law ▁of ▁ 1 8 2 1 ▁that ▁oblig ated ▁resident ▁foreign ▁citizens ▁of ▁the ▁province ▁of ▁Buenos ▁Aires ▁to ▁serve ▁in ▁cons cription ). ▁C ull en ▁argued ▁that ▁the ▁block ade ▁was ▁the ▁result ▁of ▁a ▁provincial ▁law ▁and ▁therefore ▁the ▁other ▁provinces ▁were ▁not ▁bound ▁to ▁help ▁Buenos ▁Aires . ▁Juan ▁Manuel ▁de ▁Ros as , ▁the ▁powerful ▁governor ▁of ▁Buenos ▁Aires , ▁cont ended ▁that ▁this ▁viol ated ▁the ▁Federal ▁P act . ▁ ▁When ▁C ull en ▁returned ▁to ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁he ▁became ▁governor , ▁but ▁his ▁election ▁was ▁not ▁acknowled ged ▁by ▁Ros |
as ▁and ▁by ▁P asc ual ▁E ch ag ü e , ▁governor ▁of ▁the ▁neighbour ing ▁Entre ▁R íos ▁Province . ▁Without ▁López ' s ▁support , ▁he ▁faced ▁opposition ▁from ▁his ▁personal ▁enemies ▁in ▁the ▁province ▁and ▁from ▁those ▁lo y als ▁to ▁Ros as . ▁In ▁the ▁end , ▁all ▁provinces ▁including ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁ended ▁up ▁supporting ▁Buenos ▁Aires ▁against ▁the ▁French , ▁and ▁C ull en ▁was ▁forced ▁to ▁res ign ▁and ▁go ▁to ▁ex ile . ▁ ▁Acc used ▁of ▁consp iring ▁with ▁the ▁Unit ari ans ▁( en em ies ▁of ▁Ros as ) ▁and ▁the ▁French , ▁he ▁sought ▁as yl um ▁in ▁Santiago ▁del ▁Est ero , ▁but ▁he ▁was ▁bet rayed ▁by ▁his ▁host ▁and ▁delivered ▁to ▁Ros as ' s ▁men , ▁to ▁be ▁tried ▁in ▁Buenos ▁Aires . ▁However , ▁right ▁after ▁crossing ▁the ▁Ar roy o ▁del ▁Med io ▁and ▁entering ▁the ▁territory ▁of ▁Buenos ▁Aires ▁Province , ▁his ▁capt ors ▁announced ▁they ▁had ▁orders ▁to ▁kill ▁him . ▁C ull en ▁was ▁assist ed ▁by ▁a ▁priest ▁in ▁San ▁Nicol ás ▁de ▁los ▁Ar roy os ▁and ▁wrote ▁a ▁letter ▁to ▁his ▁wife ; ▁he ▁was ▁then ▁killed ▁by ▁a ▁firing ▁squad , ▁on ▁ 2 1 ▁June ▁ 1 8 3 9 . ▁He ▁was ▁buried ▁in ▁the ▁spot . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 4 0 ▁the ▁army ▁of ▁General ▁Juan ▁Lav alle ▁passed ▁by ▁the ▁place ▁on ▁its ▁way ▁to ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁and ▁C ull en |
' s ▁body ▁was ▁ex hum ed ▁at ▁the ▁request ▁of ▁Pedro ▁Rodríguez ▁del ▁F res no , ▁an ▁officer ▁of ▁Lav alle ' s ▁and ▁C ull en ' s ▁brother - in - law . ▁He ▁was ▁taken ▁to ▁the ▁Con vent ▁of ▁Saint ▁Domin ic ▁in ▁Santa ▁Fe , ▁where ▁they ▁remain ▁today , ▁next ▁to ▁the ▁bodies ▁of ▁his ▁son ▁Pat ric io ▁and ▁several ▁other ▁important ▁leaders . ▁ ▁Des cent ▁C ull en ' s ▁family ▁was ▁of ▁Irish ▁origin , ▁desc ended ▁from ▁Thomas ▁C ull en ▁Mah er , ▁who ▁em igr ated ▁from ▁Kil ken ny ▁to ▁the ▁Can ary ▁Islands ▁in ▁ 1 7 9 3 . ▁Dom ingo ▁C ull en ▁( full ▁name : ▁Dom ingo ▁Ale j andro ▁Lorenzo ▁C ull en ▁y ▁Fer raz ), ▁born ▁in ▁T ener ife , ▁was ▁C ull en ▁Mah er ' s ▁third ▁grand son , ▁the ▁son ▁of ▁Gu ill ermo ▁F eli pe ▁C ull en ▁and ▁Áng ela ▁Is id ra ▁Fer raz ▁de ▁la ▁Guard ia . ▁ ▁C ull en ▁em igr ated ▁to ▁the ▁Río ▁de ▁la ▁Pl ata ▁region , ▁first ▁sett ling ▁in ▁Monte video , ▁Uruguay , ▁in ▁ 1 8 1 1 , ▁and ▁moving ▁then ▁to ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁in ▁ 1 8 2 3 . ▁This ▁Argent ine ▁branch ▁of ▁the ▁family ▁has ▁given ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁many ▁influ ential ▁characters ▁in ▁the ▁field ▁of ▁politics . ▁ ▁C ull en ▁had |
▁seven ▁children . ▁José ▁María ▁C ull en , ▁his ▁first born , ▁and ▁Pat ric io ▁C ull en , ▁his ▁second ▁son , ▁both ▁served ▁as ▁govern ors ▁of ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁( Tom ás ▁C ull en , ▁his ▁last ▁son , ▁was ▁also ▁ad ▁inter im ▁governor ). ▁His ▁third ▁child , ▁Jo aqu ina , ▁was ▁the ▁wife ▁of ▁N icas io ▁O ro ño , ▁governor ▁and ▁political ▁chief ▁of ▁Ros ario , ▁and ▁the ▁fourth , ▁Jose fa , ▁was ▁married ▁to ▁Juan ▁María ▁G uti ér rez ▁Gran ados , ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution al ▁Assembly ▁that ▁craft ed ▁the ▁Argent ine ▁Constitution ▁of ▁ 1 8 5 3 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 7 9 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 8 3 9 ▁death s ▁Category : G overn ors ▁of ▁Santa ▁Fe ▁Province ▁Category : Exec uted ▁Spanish ▁people ▁Category : Pe ople ▁executed ▁by ▁Argentina ▁by ▁firing ▁squad ▁Category : Ext raj ud icial ▁kill ings ▁Category : Exec uted ▁polit icians ▁Category : 1 9 th - century ▁execution s ▁by ▁Argentina ▁Category : Ar gent ine ▁people ▁of ▁Irish ▁descent ▁Category : Ar gent ine ▁people ▁of ▁Spanish ▁descent ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁T ener ife ▁Category : Exec uted ▁Argent ine ▁people ▁Category : Pe ople ▁of ▁the ▁Spanish ▁American ▁wars ▁of ▁independence ▁Category : Pe ople ▁of ▁the ▁Latin ▁American ▁wars ▁of ▁independence ▁Category : R ío ▁de ▁la ▁Pl ata <0x0A> </s> ▁Rub inal |
d ▁R of ino ▁Pr onk ▁( born ▁ 1 7 ▁July ▁), ▁born ▁and ▁raised ▁in ▁The ▁H ague , ▁is ▁a ▁dan se ur ▁performing ▁with ▁the ▁Mor ph oses / The ▁Whe eld on ▁Company . ▁He ▁trained ▁at ▁the ▁Royal ▁( D utch ) ▁Conserv atory ▁of ▁Dance ▁and ▁joined ▁the ▁Dutch ▁National ▁Bal let ▁at ▁age ▁ 1 6 ▁and ▁was ▁promoted ▁to ▁solo ist . ▁Rub inal d ▁performed ▁works ▁by ▁ch ore ograph ers ▁including ▁Sir ▁Frederick ▁As ht on , ▁George ▁Bal anch ine , ▁William ▁F ors y the , ▁Jac opo ▁God ani , ▁Mar tha ▁Graham ▁and ▁Kr z ysz to f ▁Past or . ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁he ▁joined ▁D w ight ▁Rh oden ▁and ▁Des mond ▁Richard son ' s ▁Complex ions ▁Contempor ary ▁Bal let , ▁performing ▁works ▁by ▁Rh oden ▁and ▁U ly ss es ▁D ove . ▁He ▁is ▁a ▁guest ▁artist ▁with ▁Dutch ▁National ▁Bal let ▁and ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 - 2 0 1 1 ▁with ▁Polish ▁National ▁Bal let . ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Facebook ▁page ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 9 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : D utch ▁male ▁bal let ▁d anc ers ▁Category : M orph oses ▁d anc ers ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁The ▁H ague <0x0A> </s> ▁Mary ▁Dar ling ▁is ▁the ▁CE O ▁and ▁co - owner ▁of ▁West W ind ▁Pictures , ▁which ▁she ▁joined ▁in |
▁ 1 9 9 9 . ▁She ▁helped ▁West W ind ▁evol ve ▁from ▁a ▁minor ▁to ▁a ▁major ▁player ▁in ▁Canada ' s ▁film ▁and ▁television ▁industry . ▁She ▁conce ived ▁of ▁the ▁hit ▁design ▁show , ▁Design er ▁Gu ys , ▁and ▁its ▁subsequent ▁rela unch ▁with ▁new ▁hosts . ▁ ▁As ▁well ▁as ▁providing ▁West W ind ▁Pictures ▁overall ▁management , ▁cre ative ▁and ▁executive ▁producer ▁services ▁on ▁all ▁of ▁its ▁series , ▁Dar ling ▁heads ▁up ▁West W ind ▁Re le asing ▁which ▁develop s ▁and ▁dist ributes ▁most ▁of ▁West W ind ' s ▁diverse ▁properties . ▁In ▁particular , ▁she ▁was ▁the ▁executive ▁producer ▁for ▁the ▁Canadian ▁television ▁comedy ▁Little ▁Mos que ▁on ▁the ▁Pra irie , ▁which ▁she ▁later ▁sho pped ▁to ▁American ▁broad c aster s . ▁ ▁Dar ling ▁was ▁the ▁recip ient ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 0 0 7 ▁Women ▁in ▁Film ▁and ▁Television ▁International ▁award ▁for ▁International ▁Ach iev ement ▁- ▁Ex cell ence ▁in ▁In nov ation ▁( T ele vision ) ▁an ▁award ▁she ▁claims ▁to ▁share ▁with ▁her ▁husband , ▁Clark ▁D onn elly , ▁even ▁though ▁it ▁s its ▁on ▁her ▁des k . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Can ad ian ▁television ▁produ cers ▁Category : W omen ▁television ▁produ cers <0x0A> </s> ▁Aut ot rich ia ▁is ▁a ▁genus ▁of ▁moth s ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁Ge omet r idae ▁described |
▁by ▁Pr out ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 4 . ▁ ▁Species ▁Aut ot rich ia ▁heter og yn o ides ▁( We hr li , ▁ 1 9 2 7 ) ▁Aut ot rich ia ▁l ys im eles ▁( Pr out , ▁ 1 9 2 4 ) ▁Aut ot rich ia ▁p ell uc ida ▁( St aud inger , ▁ 1 8 9 9 ) ▁Aut ot rich ia ▁sol an ik ovi ▁( I vin sk is ▁& ▁S ald ait is , ▁ 2 0 0 1 ) ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : G n oph ini ▁Category : Ge omet r idae ▁gener a <0x0A> </s> ▁Office ▁of ▁the ▁Aud itor ▁General ▁( O AG N ) ▁is ▁a ▁constitution al ▁body ▁and ▁the ▁supre me ▁aud it ▁institution ▁of ▁Nep al . ▁It ▁der ives ▁its ▁mand ate ▁from ▁Article ▁ 2 4 1 ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution ▁of ▁Nep al ▁and ▁Aud it ▁Act , ▁ 2 0 7 5 ▁( 2 0 1 9 ▁A . D .). ▁The ▁Aud itor ▁General ▁is ▁emp ower ed ▁to ▁undert ake ▁aud its ▁of ▁Office ▁of ▁the ▁President ▁and ▁Vice - Pres ident , ▁Supreme ▁Court , ▁Federal ▁Parliament , ▁Provin cial ▁Ass emb lies , ▁Provin cial ▁Govern ments , ▁Constitution al ▁bodies ▁or ▁their ▁offices , ▁courts , ▁the ▁Office ▁of ▁the ▁Att orney ▁General ▁and ▁the ▁Nep al ▁Army , ▁Nep al ▁Police ▁and ▁Ar med ▁Police ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁of ▁all ▁other |
▁government ▁offices ▁and ▁courts ▁with ▁due ▁consideration ▁given ▁to ▁the ▁regular ity , ▁economy , ▁efficiency , ▁effect iveness ▁and ▁the ▁propri ety ▁of ▁government ▁exp end it ures . ▁ ▁Aud itor ▁General ▁According ▁to ▁Article ▁ 2 4 0 ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution ▁of ▁Nep al , ▁the ▁Aud itor ▁General ▁is ▁appointed ▁by ▁the ▁President ▁on ▁the ▁recommendation ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution al ▁Council ▁for ▁a ▁single ▁term ▁of ▁six ▁years . ▁The ▁current ▁Aud itor ▁General , ▁T anka ▁Man i ▁Sh arma , ▁was ▁appointed ▁on ▁May ▁ 2 2 , ▁ 2 0 1 7 . ▁ ▁Organ ization ▁and ▁Str ucture ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁Aud itor ▁General , ▁there ▁are ▁ 6 1 4 ▁staff ▁members ▁in ▁the ▁Office ▁of ▁the ▁Aud itor ▁General . ▁These ▁staff ▁members ▁are ▁ 4 ▁Deput y ▁Aud itor ▁General , ▁ 1 4 ▁Ass istant ▁Aud itor ▁Gener als , ▁Direct ors , ▁Aud it ▁Offic ers , ▁Aud it ▁super int end ents , ▁Aud it ▁Ins pect ors ▁and ▁support ▁staff . ▁The ▁majority ▁of ▁the ▁staff ▁are ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁Aud it ▁Service ▁of ▁the ▁Nep al ▁Civil ▁Service ▁who ▁are ▁chosen ▁through ▁an ▁open ▁compet itive ▁exam ▁of ▁the ▁Public ▁Service ▁Commission . ▁The ▁office ▁is ▁divided ▁into ▁four ▁divisions ▁each ▁head ed ▁by ▁a ▁Deput y ▁Aud itor ▁General . ▁Under ▁the ▁divisions ▁are ▁ 1 4 ▁General ▁Director ates ▁which ▁is ▁further ▁divided ▁into ▁ 2 7 ▁sector ▁wise ▁Director ates . ▁ ▁Div |
isions ▁ ▁Organ ization ▁development ▁and ▁Management ▁Division ▁ ▁Econom ic ▁and ▁Social ▁Services ▁Division ▁ ▁In frastr ucture ▁Development ▁Division ▁ ▁Constitution al ▁ ▁Bod ies , ▁Security ▁and ▁Local ▁Development ▁Division ▁ ▁Ann ual ▁Report ▁The ▁Aud itor ▁General ▁subm its ▁an ▁annual ▁report ▁which ▁includes ▁an ▁opinion ▁regarding ▁the ▁financial ▁statements ▁of ▁the ▁Government ▁of ▁Nep al ▁to ▁the ▁President ▁as ▁per ▁Article ▁ 2 9 4 ▁of ▁the ▁Constitution ▁of ▁Nep al . ▁The ▁President ▁then ▁presents ▁the ▁report ▁for ▁discussion ▁to ▁the ▁Federal ▁Parliament , ▁through ▁the ▁Prime ▁Minister . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : G overn ment ▁of ▁Nep al ▁Nep al ▁Category : S up reme ▁aud it ▁institutions <0x0A> </s> ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁L RT ▁station ▁is ▁an ▁under ground ▁rapid ▁trans it ▁station , ▁named ▁after ▁and ▁serving ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u , ▁K ual a ▁L ump ur , ▁in ▁Malays ia . ▁The ▁station ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Kel ana ▁J aya ▁Line ▁( former ly ▁known ▁as ▁P UT RA ). ▁The ▁station ▁was ▁opened ▁on ▁June ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 9 9 , ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁line ' s ▁second ▁and ▁latest ▁extension , ▁which ▁includes ▁the ▁addition ▁of ▁ 1 2 ▁stations ▁( not ▁including ▁Sri ▁R amp ai ▁station ), ▁and ▁an ▁under ground ▁line ▁that ▁the ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁station ▁is ▁connected ▁to . ▁The ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁station ▁is ▁currently ▁one ▁of ▁only ▁five ▁under ground |
▁stations ▁in ▁the ▁Kel ana ▁J aya ▁Line . ▁ ▁Location ▁Loc ated ▁on ▁the ▁southern ▁edge ▁of ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u , ▁the ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁station ▁is ▁located ▁directly ▁beside ▁the ▁A mp ang – K ual a ▁L ump ur ▁E lev ated ▁Highway ▁and ▁K lang ▁River . ▁The ▁ad jo ining ▁K L CC ▁station , ▁as ▁is ▁the ▁K ual a ▁L ump ur ▁City ▁Centre ▁( K L CC ) ▁itself , ▁is ▁situated ▁across ▁the ▁K lang ▁River , ▁ 7 0 0 ▁metres ▁away . ▁The ▁station ▁is ▁primarily ▁intended ▁to ▁serve ▁the ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁area . ▁ ▁Layout ▁and ▁design ▁ ▁The ▁K amp ung ▁Bar u ▁station , ▁like ▁all ▁other ▁under ground ▁Kel ana ▁J aya ▁Line ▁stations , ▁is ▁of ▁a ▁simpl istic ▁construction ▁consisting ▁of ▁only ▁three ▁levels : ▁the ▁entrance ▁level ▁at ▁street ▁level , ▁and ▁the ▁conc ourse ▁and ▁platform ▁levels ▁under ground . ▁All ▁levels ▁are ▁linked ▁via ▁es cal ators ▁and ▁st air ways , ▁while ▁elev ators ▁are ▁addition ally ▁provided ▁between ▁the ▁conc ourse ▁level ▁and ▁the ▁platform ▁level . ▁The ▁station ▁contains ▁only ▁one ▁island ▁platform ▁for ▁two ▁tracks ▁of ▁opposite ▁directions , ▁with ▁floor - to - ce iling ▁platform ▁screen ▁doors ▁se aling ▁the ▁platform ▁from ▁the ▁tracks . ▁ ▁The ▁station ▁has ▁two ▁access ▁points ▁from ▁street ▁level , ▁of ▁which ▁one ▁is ▁larger ▁than ▁the ▁other ▁and ▁is ▁the ▁primary ▁entrance . |
▁The ▁secondary ▁access ▁point ▁to ▁the ▁conc ourse ▁level , ▁just ▁ 4 0 ▁m ▁east ▁from ▁the ▁main ▁entrance , ▁is ▁closed ▁to ▁the ▁public . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁List ▁of ▁rail ▁trans it ▁stations ▁in ▁K lang ▁Valley ▁ ▁Category : K el ana ▁J aya ▁Line ▁Category : R ail way ▁stations ▁opened ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 9 <0x0A> </s> ▁In ▁cel est ial ▁mechan ics , ▁true ▁anom aly ▁is ▁an ▁angular ▁parameter ▁that ▁defines ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁a ▁body ▁moving ▁along ▁a ▁Ke pler ian ▁orbit . ▁ ▁It ▁is ▁the ▁angle ▁between ▁the ▁direction ▁of ▁per ia ps is ▁and ▁the ▁current ▁position ▁of ▁the ▁body , ▁as ▁seen ▁from ▁the ▁main ▁focus ▁of ▁the ▁el lipse ▁( the ▁point ▁around ▁which ▁the ▁object ▁or bits ). ▁ ▁The ▁true ▁anom aly ▁is ▁usually ▁denoted ▁by ▁the ▁Greek ▁letters ▁ ▁or ▁, ▁or ▁the ▁Latin ▁letter ▁, ▁and ▁is ▁usually ▁restricted ▁to ▁the ▁range ▁ 0 – 3 6 0 ° ▁( 0 – 2 π ). ▁ ▁As ▁shown ▁in ▁the ▁image , ▁the ▁true ▁anom aly ▁ ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁three ▁angular ▁parameters ▁( an om al ies ) ▁that ▁defines ▁a ▁position ▁along ▁an ▁orbit , ▁the ▁other ▁two ▁being ▁the ▁ecc ent ric ▁anom aly ▁and ▁the ▁mean ▁anom aly . ▁ ▁Form ulas ▁ ▁From ▁state ▁vectors ▁For ▁elli ptic ▁or bits , ▁the ▁true ▁anom aly ▁ ▁can ▁be ▁calculated ▁from ▁orb ital ▁state ▁vectors ▁as : ▁ ▁( |
if ▁ ▁then ▁replace ▁ ▁by ▁) ▁ ▁where : ▁▁ ▁v ▁is ▁the ▁orb ital ▁velocity ▁vector ▁of ▁the ▁orbit ing ▁body , ▁ ▁e ▁is ▁the ▁ecc ent ric ity ▁vector , ▁ ▁r ▁is ▁the ▁orb ital ▁position ▁vector ▁( segment ▁F P ▁in ▁the ▁figure ) ▁of ▁the ▁orbit ing ▁body . ▁ ▁Circ ular ▁orbit ▁For ▁circular ▁or bits ▁the ▁true ▁anom aly ▁is ▁undefined , ▁because ▁circular ▁or bits ▁do ▁not ▁have ▁a ▁uniqu ely ▁determined ▁per ia ps is . ▁Instead ▁the ▁argument ▁of ▁latitude ▁u ▁is ▁used : ▁ ▁( if ▁ ▁then ▁replace ▁) ▁ ▁where : ▁ ▁n ▁is ▁a ▁vector ▁pointing ▁towards ▁the ▁asc ending ▁node ▁( i . e . ▁the ▁z - component ▁of ▁n ▁is ▁zero ). ▁ ▁r z ▁is ▁the ▁z - component ▁of ▁the ▁orb ital ▁position ▁vector ▁r ▁ ▁Circ ular ▁orbit ▁with ▁zero ▁incl ination ▁For ▁circular ▁or bits ▁with ▁zero ▁incl ination ▁the ▁argument ▁of ▁latitude ▁is ▁also ▁undefined , ▁because ▁there ▁is ▁no ▁uniqu ely ▁determined ▁line ▁of ▁nodes . ▁One ▁uses ▁the ▁true ▁longitude ▁instead : ▁ ▁( if ▁ ▁then ▁replace ▁ ▁by ▁) ▁ ▁where : ▁ ▁r x ▁is ▁the ▁x - component ▁of ▁the ▁orb ital ▁position ▁vector ▁r ▁ ▁v x ▁is ▁the ▁x - component ▁of ▁the ▁orb ital ▁velocity ▁vector ▁v . ▁ ▁From ▁the ▁ecc ent ric ▁anom aly ▁The ▁relation ▁between ▁the ▁true ▁anom aly ▁ ▁and ▁the ▁ecc ent ric ▁anom |
aly ▁E ▁is : ▁ ▁or ▁using ▁the ▁s ine ▁and ▁tang ent : ▁ ▁or ▁equival ently : ▁ ▁so ▁ ▁An ▁equivalent ▁form ▁avoid s ▁the ▁singular ity ▁as ▁e → 1 , ▁however ▁it ▁does ▁not ▁produce ▁the ▁correct ▁value ▁for ▁: ▁ ▁or , ▁with ▁the ▁same ▁problem ▁as ▁e → 1 , ▁ ▁. ▁ ▁In ▁both ▁of ▁the ▁above , ▁the ▁function ▁ ▁arg ( x , y ) ▁is ▁the ▁polar ▁argument ▁of ▁the ▁vector ▁( x y ), ▁available ▁in ▁many ▁programming ▁languages ▁as ▁the ▁library ▁function ▁named ▁at an 2 ( y , x ) ▁( note ▁the ▁revers ed ▁order ▁of ▁x ▁and ▁y ). ▁ ▁From ▁the ▁mean ▁anom aly ▁The ▁true ▁anom aly ▁can ▁be ▁calculated ▁directly ▁from ▁the ▁mean ▁anom aly ▁via ▁a ▁Fourier ▁expansion : ▁ ▁where ▁the ▁" big - O " ▁notation ▁means ▁that ▁the ▁omitted ▁terms ▁are ▁all ▁of ▁order ▁e 4 . ▁ ▁The ▁expression ▁ ▁is ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁equation ▁of ▁the ▁center . ▁ ▁Rad ius ▁from ▁true ▁anom aly ▁The ▁radius ▁( distance ▁from ▁the ▁focus ▁of ▁att raction ▁and ▁the ▁orbit ing ▁body ) ▁is ▁related ▁to ▁the ▁true ▁anom aly ▁by ▁the ▁formula ▁ ▁where ▁a ▁is ▁the ▁orbit ' s ▁semi - major ▁axis . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁Ke pler ' s ▁laws ▁of ▁planet ary ▁motion ▁ ▁E cc ent ric ▁anom aly ▁ ▁Mean ▁anom aly ▁ ▁El lipse |
▁ ▁Hyper bol a ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁ ▁Murray , ▁C . ▁D . ▁& ▁D erm ott , ▁S . ▁F ., ▁ 1 9 9 9 , ▁Sol ar ▁System ▁Dynam ics , ▁Cambridge ▁University ▁Press , ▁Cambridge . ▁▁ ▁Pl um mer , ▁H . ▁C ., ▁ 1 9 6 0 , ▁An ▁Int ro duct ory ▁Tre at ise ▁on ▁Dynam ical ▁Astronom y , ▁D over ▁Publications , ▁New ▁York . ▁ ▁( Re print ▁of ▁the ▁ 1 9 1 8 ▁Cambridge ▁University ▁Press ▁edition .) ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Federal ▁A viation ▁Administration ▁- ▁Descri bing ▁Or bits ▁ ▁Category : Or bits <0x0A> </s> ▁Eth el ▁Hudson ▁( born ▁ 2 ▁February ▁ 1 9 7 0 ) ▁is ▁an ▁Indones ian ▁long - distance ▁runner . ▁He ▁competed ▁in ▁the ▁men ' s ▁mar athon ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁Summer ▁Olympics . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 0 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : A th let es ▁( track ▁and ▁field ) ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁Summer ▁Olympics ▁Category : Ind ones ian ▁male ▁long - distance ▁run ners ▁Category : Ind ones ian ▁male ▁mar athon ▁run ners ▁Category : O lymp ic ▁athlet es ▁of ▁Indones ia ▁Category : Place ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) ▁Category : Ind ones ian ▁male ▁cross ▁country ▁run ners <0x0A> </s> ▁Saint - C res pin - |
sur - Mo ine ▁is ▁a ▁former ▁commune ▁in ▁the ▁Maine - et - Lo ire ▁department ▁in ▁western ▁France . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 5 ▁December ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁Le ▁Long er on , ▁Mont f au con - Mont ign é , ▁La ▁Rena udi ère , ▁R ous say , ▁Saint - And ré - de - la - Mar che , ▁Saint - C res pin - sur - Mo ine , ▁Saint - G erm ain - sur - Mo ine , ▁Saint - Mac aire - en - M au ges , ▁T illi ères ▁and ▁Tor f ou ▁merged ▁becoming ▁one ▁commune ▁called ▁S è v rem o ine . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Comm unes ▁of ▁the ▁Maine - et - Lo ire ▁department ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁IN SEE ▁commune ▁file ▁ ▁Saint c resp ins ur mo ine <0x0A> </s> ▁C ul bre ath ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁People : ▁Jim ▁C ul bre ath ▁( born ▁ 1 9 5 2 ), ▁former ▁American ▁football ▁running ▁back ▁Jordan ▁C ul bre ath , ▁former ▁running ▁back ▁Josh ▁C ul bre ath ▁( born ▁ 1 9 3 2 ), ▁American ▁ath lete ▁Lyn n ▁C ul bre ath ▁No el ▁( born ▁ 1 9 2 6 ), ▁African - American ▁news ▁rep orter ▁O amo ▁C ul bre ath ▁( born ▁ 1 9 8 7 ), ▁professional ▁Canadian ▁football ▁off ensive ▁lin eman ▁ ▁Places : |
▁C ul bre ath ▁Bay ou , ▁neighborhood ▁within ▁the ▁city ▁limits ▁of ▁T ampa , ▁Florida ▁C ul bre ath ▁Is les , ▁neighborhood ▁within ▁the ▁South ▁T ampa ▁district ▁of ▁T ampa ▁ ▁Sh ips : ▁SS ▁Harry ▁C ul bre ath ▁ ▁SS ▁Harry ▁C ul bre ath ▁( 1 9 4 2 ) <0x0A> </s> ▁D rap et odes ▁mit aria ▁is ▁a ▁moth ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁D rep an idae . ▁It ▁was ▁described ▁by ▁Ach ille ▁Gu en ée ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 7 . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁Hong ▁Kong ▁and ▁from ▁India ▁to ▁Singapore ▁and ▁in ▁Taiwan . ▁ ▁Ad ult s ▁are ▁on ▁wing ▁in ▁June ▁and ▁July . ▁ ▁The ▁lar va e ▁feed ▁on ▁Hed ych ium ▁species . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : M oth s ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 8 5 7 ▁Category : D rep an inae <0x0A> </s> ▁Bur iti ▁Bra vo ▁is ▁a ▁municipality ▁in ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁Mar anh ão ▁in ▁the ▁N ortheast ▁region ▁of ▁Brazil . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁municipal ities ▁in ▁Mar anh ão ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : M unicip al ities ▁in ▁Mar anh ão <0x0A> </s> ▁John ▁of ▁Alexand ria ▁() ▁was ▁a ▁By z antine ▁medical ▁writer ▁who ▁lived ▁in ▁Alexand ria , ▁in ▁present - day ▁Egypt . ▁ ▁He ▁is ▁thought ▁to ▁be ▁the ▁author ▁of ▁a ▁comment ary ▁on ▁Gal en ' s ▁De ▁sect is , ▁a ▁Latin ▁version ▁of ▁which ▁surv |
ives ▁in ▁several ▁manuscript s . ▁He ▁wrote ▁a ▁comment ary ▁on ▁Hi pp ocr ates ' ▁book ▁about ▁the ▁fo et us ▁( In ▁Hi pp ocrat is ▁De ▁natur a ▁pu eri ▁comment arium ), ▁which ▁surv ives ▁in ▁one ▁Greek ▁manuscript ▁and ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 3 th - century ▁Latin ▁version ▁made ▁for ▁King ▁Man fred ▁of ▁Sic ily . ▁He ▁also ▁wrote ▁a ▁comment ary ▁on ▁the ▁sixth ▁book ▁of ▁Hi pp ocr ates ' ▁Ep ide m ics ▁( In ▁Hi pp ocrat is ▁Ep ide mi ar um ▁li br um ▁VI ▁comment ari i ▁fragment a ), ▁known ▁from ▁an ▁anonymous ▁Latin ▁translation ▁and ▁from ▁extract s ▁from ▁the ▁Greek ▁original , ▁entered ▁in ▁the ▁marg ins ▁of ▁a ▁Greek ▁translation ▁of ▁an ▁Arab ic ▁medical ▁text . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : 7 th - century ▁death s ▁Category : 7 th - century ▁By z antine ▁people ▁Category : By z antine ▁phys icians ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Alexand ria ▁Category : 7 th - century ▁phys icians ▁Category : 7 th - century ▁By z antine ▁scient ists ▁Category : 7 th - century ▁By z antine ▁writers <0x0A> </s> ▁Y ach uli ▁is ▁a ▁village ▁in ▁the ▁Indian ▁state ▁of ▁Ar un ach al ▁Pr adesh . ▁Lower ▁Sub ans iri ▁is ▁the ▁name ▁of ▁the ▁district ▁that ▁contains ▁village ▁Y ach uli . ▁ ▁Y ach uli ▁is ▁located ▁ ▁south ▁of ▁the ▁district ▁headquarters ▁of ▁Z iro . |
▁It ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁ 6 0 ▁constitu encies ▁of ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁of ▁Ar un ach al ▁Pr adesh . ▁The ▁current ▁Member ▁of ▁the ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁for ▁this ▁constitu ency ▁() ▁is ▁L ik ha ▁Sa aya . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁List ▁of ▁constitu encies ▁of ▁Ar un ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁Ar un ach al ▁Pr adesh ▁Legisl ative ▁Assembly ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Category : V ill ages ▁in ▁Lower ▁Sub ans iri ▁district ▁Category : Assembly ▁constitu encies ▁of ▁Ar un ach al ▁Pr adesh <0x0A> </s> ▁S as am oto ▁( written : ▁ <0xE7> <0xAC> <0xB9> 本 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Japanese ▁surname . ▁Notable ▁people ▁with ▁the ▁surname ▁include : ▁ ▁, ▁Japanese ▁artist ▁, ▁Japanese ▁sport ▁wrest ler ▁, ▁Japanese ▁photograph er ▁, ▁Japanese ▁writer ▁, ▁Japanese ▁voice ▁actress ▁ ▁Category : J apan ese - language ▁s urn ames <0x0A> </s> ▁African ▁femin ism ▁is ▁a ▁type ▁of ▁femin ism ▁innov ated ▁by ▁African ▁women ▁that ▁specifically ▁addresses ▁the ▁conditions ▁and ▁needs ▁of ▁contin ental ▁African ▁women ▁( A fr ican ▁women ▁who ▁res ide ▁on ▁the ▁African ▁continent ). ▁African ▁femin ism ▁includes ▁many ▁stra ins ▁of ▁its ▁own , ▁including ▁Mother ism , ▁Fem al ism , ▁Sn ail - s ense ▁Fem in ism , ▁Woman ism / w omen ▁p ala ver ing , ▁N ego - f em in ism , ▁ ▁and ▁African ▁Woman ism . ▁Because ▁Africa ▁is ▁not ▁a |
▁mon ol ith , ▁these ▁femin isms ▁are ▁not ▁all ▁reflect ive ▁of ▁the ▁experiences ▁African ▁women ▁have . ▁Some ▁of ▁the ▁femin isms ▁are ▁more ▁specific ▁to ▁certain ▁groups ▁of ▁African ▁women . ▁African ▁femin ism ▁is ▁sometimes ▁aligned ▁with , ▁in ▁dialog ue , ▁or ▁in ▁conflict ▁with ▁Black ▁Fem in ism ▁ ▁or ▁African ▁woman ism ▁( which ▁is ▁perce ived ▁as ▁by ▁and ▁for ▁African ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁di as por a , ▁rather ▁than ▁African ▁women ▁on ▁or ▁recently ▁from ▁the ▁continent ) ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁other ▁femin isms ▁and ▁femin ist ▁movements , ▁including ▁nation ally ▁based ▁ones , ▁such ▁as ▁femin ism ▁in ▁Sweden , ▁femin ism ▁in ▁India , ▁femin ism ▁in ▁Mexico , ▁femin ism ▁in ▁Japan , ▁femin ism ▁in ▁Germany , ▁femin ism ▁in ▁South ▁Africa , ▁and ▁so ▁on . ▁ ▁Need ▁for ▁an ▁African ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Some ▁argue ▁that ▁African ▁women ▁are ▁the ▁first ▁femin ists , ▁were ▁already ▁deeply ▁engaged ▁at ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 5 ▁Women ' s ' ▁Conference , ▁and ▁have ▁long ▁been ▁recogn izing ▁each ▁other ' s ▁contributions . ▁O thers ▁feel ▁African ▁femin ism ▁became ▁necessary ▁in ▁part ▁due ▁to ▁white ▁Western ▁femin ism ' s ▁ex clusion ▁of ▁the ▁experiences ▁of ▁the ▁black ▁woman ▁and ▁the ▁contin ental ▁African ▁woman . ▁White ▁Western ▁femin isms ▁does ▁not ▁take ▁into ▁account ▁the ▁particular ▁issues ▁black ▁women ▁face ▁at ▁the ▁intersection ▁of ▁both ▁their ▁black ness ▁and ▁their ▁woman hood . ▁Currently |
, ▁white ▁femin ism ▁often ▁class ifies ▁African ▁women ▁as ▁" w omen ▁of ▁color ," ▁which ▁groups ▁and ▁thereby ▁repr esses ▁the ▁African ▁woman ' s ▁historical ▁traject ory ▁and ▁specific ▁experience . ▁Haz el ▁Car by ▁in ▁" White ▁Women ▁List en ! ▁Black ▁Fem in ism ▁and ▁the ▁B ound aries ▁of ▁Sister hood " ▁notes ▁why ▁white ▁femin ism ▁is ▁considered ▁the ▁norm ative ▁experience ▁of ▁all ▁women . ▁She ▁writes , ▁" History ▁has ▁constructed ▁our ▁sexual ity ▁and ▁our ▁femin inity ▁as ▁devi ating ▁from ▁those ▁qual ities ▁with ▁which ▁white ▁women , ▁as ▁the ▁prize ▁of ▁the ▁Western ▁world , ▁have ▁been ▁end owed ." ▁However , ▁white ▁femin ism ▁cannot ▁continue ▁to ▁er ase ▁Africa ▁or ▁African ▁women ▁from ▁femin ist ▁theory ▁or ▁femin ist ▁advoc acy , ▁because ▁as ▁the ▁Mother ▁Cont inent ▁of ▁human ity , ▁the ▁narr atives ▁and ▁experiences ▁of ▁Africa ' s ▁women ▁will ▁always ▁be ▁relevant . ▁ ▁African ▁femin ism ▁was ▁not ▁wh olly ▁a ▁reaction ▁to ▁being ▁ex cluded ▁from ▁white ▁femin ists ' ▁vision ▁of ▁femin ism , ▁but ▁also ▁from ▁their ▁own ▁ing enu ity ▁and ▁desire ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁femin ism ▁that ▁emb rac ed ▁their ▁background s ▁and ▁experiences . ▁African ▁femin ism ▁voices ▁the ▁real ities ▁of ▁women ▁in ▁varying ▁African ▁countries . ▁Women ' s ▁needs , ▁reality , ▁opp ression ▁and ▁emp ower ment ▁are ▁best ▁addressed ▁by ▁having ▁an ▁inclus ive ▁and ▁accommod ating ▁understanding ▁of ▁the ▁generic ▁and |
▁more ▁general ▁issues ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁the ▁peculiar ities ▁and ▁group ▁attitude ▁to ▁self - definition ▁as ▁women . ▁Na omi ▁N ke al ah ▁writes ▁that ▁African ▁femin ism ▁" st riv es ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁new , ▁liberal , ▁product ive ▁and ▁self - re li ant ▁African ▁woman ▁within ▁the ▁heter ogeneous ▁cult ures ▁of ▁Africa . ▁Fem in isms ▁in ▁Africa , ▁ultimately , ▁aim ▁at ▁modifying ▁culture ▁as ▁it ▁affect s ▁women ▁in ▁different ▁soci eties ." ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁Africa ▁is ▁not ▁a ▁mon ol ith ▁and ▁so ▁some ▁have ▁crit iqu ed ▁any ▁idea ▁of ▁" A fr ican ▁femin ism ." ▁There ▁exist ▁differences ▁region ally , ▁eth n ically , ▁polit ically , ▁and ▁in ▁religion , ▁which ▁all ▁work ▁to ▁impact ▁how ▁women ▁concept ual ize ▁what ▁femin ism ▁and ▁freedom ▁looks ▁like ▁for ▁them . ▁While ▁African ▁women ▁from , ▁for ▁example , ▁Egypt , ▁Ken ya , ▁South ▁Africa ▁and ▁Sen eg al ▁will ▁have ▁some ▁common al ities , ▁there ▁will ▁be ▁variations ▁in ▁the ▁way ▁they ▁understand ▁gender ▁and ▁gender ▁strugg les . ▁Therefore , ▁these ▁varying ▁cult ures ▁alter ▁the ▁way ▁these ▁African ▁women ▁experience ▁the ▁world . ▁Thus , ▁one ▁cannot ▁simply ▁merge ▁all ▁woman ▁under ▁an ▁un real istic ▁expectation ▁of ▁sister hood , ▁but ▁instead ▁to ▁recognize ▁and ▁respect ▁the ▁differences ▁that ▁exist ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁these ▁divers ities . ▁There ▁is ▁a ▁common ality ▁to ▁the ▁strugg les ▁women ▁face |
▁across ▁the ▁world ▁since ▁the ▁common ▁factor ▁is ▁male ▁privile ge . ▁The ▁modern ▁African ▁woman ▁is ▁strong , ▁smart , ▁and ▁res il ient ▁and ▁has ▁w oken ▁up ▁to ▁the ▁options ▁she ▁has . ▁She ▁is ▁no ▁longer ▁satisfied ▁with ▁the ▁options ▁created ▁for ▁her , ▁but ▁see ks ▁to ▁create ▁new ▁options ▁and ▁choices ▁for ▁the ▁generation ▁of ▁other ▁African ▁women ▁that ▁will ▁come ▁after ▁her . ▁Gh ana ian ▁femin ists , ▁for ▁example , ▁contribute ▁to ▁this ▁by ▁using ▁social ▁media ▁to ▁change ▁the ▁public ▁disc ourse ▁around ▁femin ism . ▁ ▁Some ▁sch ol ars ▁have ▁called ▁for ▁more ▁attention ▁in ▁African ▁femin ist ▁theory ▁to ▁sex ▁work , ▁the ▁white ▁sav ior ▁complex ▁and ▁violence ▁against ▁African ▁women , ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁military , ▁field work ▁with ▁African ▁women , ▁same - sex ▁int ima cies , ▁contempor ane ity , ▁and ▁activ ists ' ▁thought . ▁ ▁African ▁femin ism ▁has ▁been ▁divided ▁around ▁issues ▁of ▁sexual ity : ▁" A fr ican ▁femin ists ▁are ▁sharp ly ▁divided , ▁with ▁the ▁bulk ▁of ▁the ▁majority ▁resist ant ▁to ▁challeng ing ▁heter osex ism ▁and ▁hom oph ob ia ▁in ▁their ▁pra xis ▁against ▁patri archy . ▁... ▁Only ▁a ▁few ▁radical ▁African ▁femin ists ▁address ▁heter on orm ativity , ▁while ▁a ▁much ▁smaller ▁cor pus ▁of ▁individual ▁que er ▁African ▁femin ists ▁incorpor ate ▁non - ess ential ist ▁fluid ▁and ▁dynamic ▁understand ings ▁of ▁gender ▁that ▁dig ress ▁the ▁fixed ▁binary ▁opposition |
▁of ▁men ▁and ▁women , ▁male ▁and ▁female ." ▁ ▁Princi ples ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism ▁ ▁African ▁femin isms ▁address ▁cultural ▁issues ▁that ▁they ▁feel ▁per tain ▁to ▁the ▁complex ▁experiences ▁faced ▁by ▁all ▁women ▁of ▁all ▁cult ures ▁on ▁the ▁African ▁continent . ▁In ▁regards ▁to ▁femin ist ▁the or izing , ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁authors ▁of ▁such ▁theories ▁origin ate ▁from ▁West ▁Africa ▁and ▁Niger ia ▁in ▁particular .[ 1 ] ▁ ▁In ▁her ▁article , ▁" West ▁African ▁Fem in isms ▁and ▁Their ▁Ch alleng es ", ▁Na omi ▁N ke al ah ▁discuss es ▁the ▁various ▁forms ▁of ▁African ▁femin isms . ▁First , ▁she ▁points ▁to ▁woman ism , ▁which ▁she ▁arg ues ▁is ▁not ▁part ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism , ▁as ▁it ▁per tain s ▁to ▁African ▁women ▁of ▁the ▁di as por a ▁and ▁not ▁contin ental ▁African ▁women . ▁Second , ▁she ▁looks ▁at ▁st iw an ism , ▁which , ▁on ▁the ▁contrary , ▁places ▁African ▁women ▁at ▁the ▁center ▁of ▁the ▁disc ourse ▁because ▁st iw an ism ▁is ▁deeply ▁root ed ▁in ▁the ▁experiences ▁and ▁real ities ▁African ▁women ▁face . ▁Third , ▁she ▁looks ▁at ▁Mother ism , ▁a ▁mat ernal ▁form ▁of ▁femin ism ▁that ▁sees ▁rural ▁women ▁as ▁performing ▁the ▁necessary ▁task ▁of ▁n urt uring ▁society . ▁Four th , ▁she ▁looks ▁at ▁fem al ism , ▁which ▁puts ▁the ▁woman ' s ▁body ▁at ▁the ▁center ▁of ▁femin ist ▁convers ations . ▁Finally , ▁she ▁looks |
▁at ▁n ego - f em in ism ▁and ▁sn ail - s ense ▁femin ism , ▁which ▁ur ge ▁the ▁inclusion ▁of ▁men ▁in ▁discuss ions ▁and ▁advoc acy ▁for ▁femin ism ▁and ▁both ▁argue ▁that ▁the ▁inclusion ▁of ▁men ▁is ▁necessary ▁to ▁the ▁freedom ▁of ▁women . ▁ ▁These ▁modes ▁of ▁femin isms ▁share ▁several ▁common al ities . ▁First , ▁they ▁all ▁challenge ▁the ▁term ▁" f em in ism ," ▁both ▁its ▁Western ▁term ▁and ▁roots , ▁because ▁they ▁bring ▁to ▁the ▁fore front ▁the ▁experiences ▁of ▁the ▁African ▁woman . ▁Second , ▁because ▁they ▁are ▁dependent ▁on ▁ind igen ous ▁blue print s , ▁they ▁take ▁from ▁the ▁histor ies ▁and ▁cult ures ▁of ▁African ▁pe op les ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁create ▁the ▁necessary ▁tools ▁needed ▁to ▁emb old en ▁women ▁and ▁educ ate ▁men . ▁Third , ▁they ▁incorpor ate ▁" gender ▁inclusion , ▁collaboration ▁and ▁accommod ation ▁to ▁ensure ▁that ▁both ▁women ▁and ▁men ▁contribute ▁( even ▁if ▁not ▁equally ) ▁to ▁impro ving ▁the ▁material ▁conditions ▁of ▁women ." ▁ ▁The ▁variety ▁in ▁femin isms ▁displays ▁the ▁African ▁woman ' s ▁active ▁eng agement ▁with ▁gender ▁relations . ▁ ▁Vari ants ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Woman ism ▁▁ ▁Catherine ▁Ach ol on u ▁notes ▁that ▁femin ism ▁is ▁useful . ▁" F em in ism , ▁has ▁as ▁its ▁ult imate ▁goal ▁the ▁tri um phal ▁em an cip ation ▁of ▁the ▁woman ▁as ▁a ▁unique , ▁distinct ▁individual ▁with ▁a ▁mind ▁un cl |
utter ed ▁by ▁patri arch al ▁belief s ▁and ▁ab us ive ▁submission ▁to ▁tradition ." ▁However , ▁though ▁the ▁general ▁notion ▁of ▁femin ism ▁a ims ▁to ▁provide ▁women ▁with ▁political , ▁social , ▁and ▁econom ical ▁fre ed oms , ▁it ▁has ▁been ▁critic ized ▁as ▁ex cluding ▁the ▁narr atives ▁and ▁experiences ▁of ▁women ▁of ▁color , ▁especially ▁black ▁women . ▁Because ▁of ▁this ▁ex clusion ▁in ▁femin ism , ▁woman ism ▁has ▁emer ged ▁as ▁the ▁African - American ▁and ▁African ▁variant . ▁ ▁African ▁Woman ism ▁addresses ▁femin ism ▁from ▁( 1 ) ▁an ▁African ▁perspective ; ▁( 2 ) ▁an ▁African ▁ge opol it ical ▁location ; ▁( 3 ) ▁and ▁an ▁African ▁ide ological ▁view point . ▁Woman ism ▁is ▁important ▁because ▁it ▁places ▁the ▁femin ist ▁vision ▁within ▁black ▁women ' s ▁experiences ▁with ▁culture , ▁colonial ism ▁and ▁many ▁other ▁forms ▁of ▁dom ination ▁and ▁sub j ug ation ▁that ▁impact ▁African ▁women ' s ▁lives . ▁ ▁Woman ism ▁" a ims ▁at ▁ident ifying ▁the ▁problems ▁rel ating ▁to ▁male ▁domin ance ▁in ▁society ▁while ▁seeking ▁solutions ▁to ▁women ’ s ▁marg inal ization ▁by ▁looking ▁in ward ▁and ▁out ward ." ▁ ▁A ▁variant ▁of ▁Woman ism ▁put ▁forth ▁by ▁Cl en ora ▁Hudson - We ems ▁is ▁Afr icana ▁Woman ism , ▁termin ology ▁which ▁she ▁co ined ▁in ▁the ▁mid - 1 9 8 0 s . ▁Her ▁use ▁of ▁the ▁term ▁" A fr icana " ▁indicates ▁that |
▁women - f oc used ▁activ ism ▁should ▁be ▁inclus ive ▁of ▁women ▁on ▁the ▁African ▁continent ▁and ▁women ▁in ▁the ▁African ▁D ias por a . ▁She ▁arg ues ▁a ▁complete ▁break ▁from ▁white ▁femin ism , ▁a ▁movement ▁which ▁was ▁created ▁by ▁and ▁for ▁white ▁women ▁without ▁any ▁incorpor ation ▁of ▁the ▁African ▁experience . ▁She ▁also ▁arg ues ▁that ▁Afr icana ▁men ▁and ▁women ▁have ▁more ▁in ▁common ▁than ▁Afr icana ▁women ▁do ▁with ▁white ▁women , ▁further ▁reason ▁to ▁develop ▁a ▁new ▁kind ▁of ▁activ ism . ▁ ▁St iw an ism ▁ ▁F ounded ▁by ▁Om ol ara ▁Og und ipe - Les lie , ▁St iw an ism ▁focus es ▁more ▁on ▁the ▁structures ▁that ▁opp ress ▁women ▁and ▁the ▁way ▁women ▁react ▁to ▁these ▁institution al ized ▁structures . ▁Og und ipe - Les lie ▁arg ues ▁that ▁the ▁struggle ▁for ▁African ▁women ▁is ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁colonial ▁and ▁ne o - colon ial ▁structure ▁that ▁often ▁place ▁African ▁males ▁at ▁the ▁a pe x ▁of ▁social ▁strat ification . ▁Furthermore , ▁the ▁struggle ▁African ▁women ▁face ▁are ▁also ▁im part ▁to ▁the ▁way ▁they ▁have ▁internal ized ▁the ▁patri archy ▁and ▁have ▁come ▁to ▁end or se ▁the ▁system ▁themselves . ▁ ▁N ego - f em in ism ▁ ▁African ▁femin ist , ▁writer , ▁and ▁scholar ▁Ob i oma ▁N na eme ka ▁discuss es ▁and ▁defines ▁the ▁term ▁" N ego - f em in ism " ▁in ▁her ▁article ▁N ego |
- F em in ism : ▁The or izing , ▁Pract icing , ▁and ▁Pr uning ▁Africa ' s ▁Way ." ▁She ▁writes , ▁" N ego - f em in ism ▁is ▁the ▁femin ism ▁of ▁neg ot iation ; ▁second , ▁n ego - f em in ism ▁stands ▁for ▁' no ▁e go ' ▁femin ism ▁and ▁is ▁struct ured ▁by ▁cultural ▁imper atives ▁and ▁mod ulated ▁by ▁ever sh ifting ▁local ▁and ▁global ▁ex igen cies ." ▁Most ▁African ▁cult ures ▁have ▁a ▁culture ▁of ▁neg ot iation ▁and ▁comprom ise ▁when ▁it ▁comes ▁to ▁reaching ▁agre ements . ▁In ▁N ego - f em in ism , ▁negoti ations ▁play ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁giving ▁and ▁taking . ▁For ▁African ▁femin ism , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁win ▁challeng es , ▁femin ists ▁must ▁negoti ate ▁and ▁sometimes ▁comprom ise ▁enough ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁gain ▁fre ed oms . ▁N na eme ka ▁writes ▁that ▁African ▁femin ism ▁works ▁by ▁knowing ▁" when , ▁where , ▁and ▁how ▁to ▁det on ate ▁and ▁go ▁around ▁patri arch al ▁land ▁mines ." ▁This ▁means ▁that ▁n ego - f em in ism ▁knows ▁how ▁to ▁util ize ▁the ▁culture ▁of ▁neg ot iation ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁de construct ▁the ▁patri archy ▁for ▁the ▁woman ' s ▁benefit . ▁ ▁Mother ism ▁ ▁In ▁her ▁book , ▁Mother ism : ▁The ▁Af ro cent ric ▁Altern ative ▁to ▁Fem in ism , ▁Catherine ▁Ob ian u ju ▁Ach ol on u ▁writes |
▁that ▁Africa ' s ▁alternative ▁to ▁Western ▁femin ism ▁is ▁Mother ism ▁and ▁Mother ism ▁is ▁composed ▁of ▁mother hood , ▁nature , ▁and ▁n urt ure . ▁When ▁defined , ▁Mother ism ▁is ▁a ▁mult id im ensional ▁theory ▁that ▁involves ▁the ▁" d ynam ics ▁of ▁ordering , ▁re order ing , ▁creating ▁structures , ▁building ▁and ▁re building ▁in ▁co operation ▁with ▁mother ▁nature ▁at ▁all ▁levels ▁of ▁human ▁ende avor ." ▁A ▁mother ist ▁is ▁someone ▁who ▁is ▁committed ▁to ▁the ▁surv ival ▁and ▁maintenance ▁of ▁Mother ▁Earth ▁and ▁someone ▁who ▁em bra ces ▁the ▁human ▁struggle . ▁Ach ol on u ▁makes ▁it ▁clear , ▁though , ▁that ▁a ▁mother ist ▁can ▁be ▁a ▁woman ▁or ▁a ▁man . ▁Mother ism ▁has ▁no ▁sex ▁bar riers ▁because ▁at ▁the ▁core ▁of ▁mother ism ▁is ▁partners hip , ▁co operation , ▁toler ance , ▁love , ▁understanding , ▁and ▁p atience . ▁ ▁In ▁order ▁for ▁mother ism ▁to ▁work , ▁there ▁must ▁be ▁a ▁male - f em ale ▁complement ar ity ▁that ▁ens ures ▁the ▁wh ol eness ▁of ▁human ▁existence ▁in ▁a ▁bal anced ▁e cos ystem . ▁ ▁Fem al ism ▁The ▁fem al ist ▁model ▁was ▁developed ▁by ▁Chi oma ▁O para . ▁O para ▁describes ▁fem al ism ▁as ▁" A ▁h ue ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism , ▁is ▁a ▁so fter ▁tone ▁than ▁liberal ▁femin ism ▁and ▁highly ▁polar ized ▁from ▁radical ▁femin ism ." ▁At ▁its ▁core , ▁fem al ism |
▁is ▁African ▁and ▁it ▁acc ent u ates ▁the ▁African ▁woman ' s ▁body . ▁ ▁Sn ail - s ense ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Sn ail - s ense ▁femin ism ▁is ▁a ▁theory ▁proposed ▁by ▁Ak achi ▁Ad im ora - E ze ig bo . ▁This ▁femin ism ▁encourag es ▁Niger ian ▁woman ▁to ▁work ▁slowly ▁like ▁a ▁sn ail ' s ▁movement ▁in ▁her ▁deal ings ▁with ▁men ▁in ▁the ▁" t ough ▁and ▁very ▁difficult ▁patri arch al ▁[ N iger ian ] ▁society ▁they ▁live ▁in ." ▁E ze ig bo ▁propos es ▁that ▁women ▁" must ▁learn ▁surv ival ▁strateg ies ▁to ▁be ▁able ▁to ▁overcome ▁the ▁imped iments ▁placed ▁before ▁her ▁and ▁live ▁a ▁good ▁life ." ▁ ▁Mis ov ir ism ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Mis ov ir ism ▁is ▁a ▁theory ▁In vent ed ▁by ▁Cam ero onian ▁think er ▁W ere w ere ▁L ik ing . ▁ ▁Cultural ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Cultural ▁femin ism ▁is ▁a ▁theory ▁invent ed ▁by ▁Niger ian ▁author ▁Buch i ▁E me ch eta , ▁which ▁she ▁called ▁" f em in ism ▁with ▁a ▁small ▁f ." ▁ ▁Ex amples ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism ▁ ▁Fem in ism ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁ ▁Although ▁not ew orth y ▁femin ist ▁movements ▁have ▁spr out ed ▁across ▁the ▁African ▁continent , ▁the ▁femin ist ▁movement ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁serves ▁as ▁a ▁prime ▁example ▁of ▁African ▁femin ism . ▁Following ▁the ▁ 1 9 8 2 ▁national ▁conference , ▁the |
▁inaug uration ▁of ▁the ▁organization ▁Women ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁( WIN ) ▁presented ▁femin ism ▁in ▁its ▁present ▁form ▁- ▁consistent , ▁organized , ▁with ▁clear ▁object ives ▁and ▁ide ology . ▁In ▁spite ▁of ▁rough ▁beg inn ings , ▁many ▁sch ol ars ▁pay ▁t ribute ▁to ▁W IN ▁for ▁acting ▁as ▁training ▁grounds ▁for ▁the ▁emer gence ▁of ▁organized ▁femin ist ▁strugg les ▁in ▁Niger ia . ▁ ▁During ▁its ▁first ▁ten ▁years , ▁W IN ▁facil itated ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁many ▁of ▁the ▁self - ident ified ▁femin ists ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁today . ▁W IN ▁adopted ▁an ▁open ▁membership ▁policy ▁of ▁‘ come ▁one ▁- ▁come ▁all ’ , ▁where ▁anyone , ▁male ▁or ▁female , ▁was ▁accepted ▁as ▁long ▁as ▁such ▁a ▁person ▁accepted ▁the ▁prov isions ▁of ▁W IN ' s ▁Constitution . ▁W IN ' s ▁open ▁membership ▁policy ▁allowed ▁the ▁entry ▁of ▁many ▁persons ▁who ▁had ▁no ▁clue ▁about ▁the ▁core ▁values ▁of ▁femin ism ▁and ▁principles ▁of ▁gender ▁justice . ▁ ▁From ▁its ▁in ception , ▁Women ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁spons ored ▁research ▁projects ▁while ▁eng aging ▁in ▁policy ▁advoc acy ▁and ▁activ ism ▁that ▁hol ist ically ▁aim ed ▁towards ▁en han cing ▁the ▁so cio e conom ic ▁conditions ▁under ▁which ▁many ▁women ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁experienced . ▁Furthermore , ▁the ▁uniqu eness ▁of ▁W IN ▁der ives ▁from ▁its ▁conscious ness ▁of ▁both ▁class ▁and ▁gender ▁in ▁relation ▁to ▁the ▁struggle ▁for ▁the ▁em an cip ation ▁of ▁Niger ian ▁women |
. ▁Therefore , ▁W IN ▁recognized ▁the ▁Niger ian ▁female ▁experience ▁as ▁essentially ▁as ▁“ double ▁je op ard y ,” ▁where ▁explo itation ▁and ▁opp ression ▁of ▁women ▁marked ▁as ▁dual ▁forms ▁of ▁in just ices , ▁both ▁as ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁sub ordinate ▁class ▁and ▁as ▁women . ▁ ▁W IN ▁to ▁N FF ▁ ▁In ▁January ▁ 2 0 0 8 , ▁the ▁Niger ian ▁femin ist ▁movement ▁inaugur ated ▁the ▁Niger ian ▁Fem in ist ▁Forum ▁( N FF ) ▁- ▁which ▁established ▁a ▁larger ▁and ▁more ▁coh er ent ▁coal ition ▁than ▁W IN . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 2 0 0 0 s , ▁the ▁N FF ▁was ▁created ▁after ▁an ▁inc ub ation ▁period ▁that ▁started ▁with ▁the ▁launch ing ▁of ▁the ▁African ▁Fem in ist ▁Forum ▁( A FF ) ▁in ▁Acc ra , ▁Gh ana . ▁The ▁A FF ▁published ▁the ▁Char ter ▁of ▁the ▁Fem in ist ▁Princi ples ▁which ▁serves ▁as ▁an ▁inform ative ▁guide ▁for ▁African ▁Fem in ists ▁that ▁clearly ▁states ▁how ▁African ▁femin ists ▁define ▁themselves , ▁it ▁del ivers ▁the ▁understanding ▁of ▁Fem in ism ▁and ▁Patri archy , ▁and ▁ampl ifies ▁the ▁identity , ▁eth ics ▁and ▁proper ▁knowledge ▁of ▁femin ist ▁leadership ▁across ▁the ▁continent ▁of ▁Africa . ▁ ▁After ▁much ▁success ▁at ▁the ▁grass ro ots ▁level , ▁the ▁N FF ▁effectively ▁expanded ▁and ▁replaced ▁Women ▁in ▁Niger ia ▁( WIN ) ▁as ▁the ▁official ▁Niger ian ▁Fem in ist ▁Mov ement . ▁Furthermore , |
▁these ▁newly ▁evol ved ▁Niger ian ▁femin ist ▁movements ▁took ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁contin ental ▁( Pan ▁African ) ▁femin ist ▁movement , ▁where ▁thousands ▁of ▁femin ist ▁activ ists ▁from ▁all ▁over ▁the ▁region ▁were ▁brought ▁together ▁to ▁fight ▁against ▁the ▁Patri archy . ▁ ▁Ch alleng es ▁ ▁The ▁so cio - e conom ic ▁impact s ▁of ▁in equ ity ▁and ▁in just ice ▁towards ▁African ▁femin ist ▁movements ▁serve ▁as ▁det r iment al ▁stress ors ▁that ▁in hib it ▁women ' s ▁rights , ▁which ▁t amp ers ▁with ▁their ▁overall ▁political ▁movement . ▁Over all , ▁most ▁women ▁are ▁un emp loy ed , ▁where ▁in ▁most ▁cases ▁even ▁if ▁they ▁are ▁employed , ▁women ▁are ▁often ▁employed ▁as ▁cas uals , ▁or ▁temps . ▁This ▁ultimately ▁h amp ers ▁women ' s ▁ability ▁to ▁organ ize , ▁mobil ize ▁and ▁collect ively ▁advoc ate . ▁Another ▁difficulty ▁is ▁how ▁strong ▁the ▁patri archy ▁is ▁in ▁both ▁urban ▁and ▁rural ▁African ▁communities . ▁This ▁influ ences ▁domestic ▁politics ▁within ▁the ▁household ▁and ▁ultimately ▁in ▁every ▁community , ▁which ▁s ways ▁women ▁to ▁act ▁against ▁their ▁own ▁belief s ▁and ▁against ▁other ▁women ▁as ▁well . ▁ ▁South ▁Sud an ese ▁Fem in ism ▁ ▁Background ▁History ▁of ▁Sud an ese ▁Fem in ism ▁ ▁In ▁Sud an , ▁religion ▁is ▁an ▁integral ▁part ▁of ▁how ▁the ▁lives ▁of ▁women ▁are ▁govern ed ▁( H al im ▁ 3 8 9 ). ▁Since ▁most ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁in |
▁Sud an ▁follows ▁the ▁Islam ic ▁faith , ▁they ▁ad here ▁to ▁Sh aria , ▁the ▁religious ▁law ▁enfor ced ▁through ▁the ▁l ens ▁of ▁the ▁Q ur an ▁( H ale ▁ 9 0 ). ▁The ▁Sh aria ▁law ▁was ▁implemented ▁by ▁President ▁Ga af ar ▁Moh amed ▁N ime iry ▁as ▁a ▁way ▁to ▁gain ▁support ▁in ▁a ▁time ▁of ▁inst ability ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 2 ). ▁It ▁creates ▁rules ▁for ▁the ▁Sud an ese ▁people ▁that ▁would ▁silence ▁the ▁un rest , ▁especially ▁concerning ▁the ▁control ▁over ▁women ' s ▁conduct . ▁Although ▁this ▁regime ▁was ▁ended ▁by ▁a ▁brief ▁dem ocracy , ▁it ▁did ▁nothing ▁to ▁combat ▁the ▁Sh aria ▁laws ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 0 ). ▁Many ▁reg imes ▁have ▁stated ▁the ▁equality ▁of ▁sex es ▁in ▁their ▁constitution s , ▁still , ▁women ' s ▁rights ▁are ▁targets ▁during ▁times ▁of ▁inst ability ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 0 ). ▁ ▁Sud an ese ▁Fem in ist ▁Gr oups ▁ ▁The ▁Sud an ese ▁Women ' s ▁Union ▁( SW U ) ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁influ ential ▁organizations ▁during ▁the ▁ 1 9 4 0 s ▁when ▁Sud an ▁was ▁under ▁Ang lo - Europe an ▁rule ▁( H al im ▁ 3 9 1 ). ▁The ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁SW U ▁occurred ▁simultaneously ▁with ▁the ▁national ▁movement , ▁both ▁combined ▁their ▁efforts ▁to ▁separate ▁from ▁Ang lo - E gypt ian ▁rule ▁( H al |