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▁in ▁the ▁population ▁in ▁general ▁was ▁also ▁bl amed ▁for ▁Rome ' s ▁down fall , ▁claim ing ▁that ▁It ali ans ▁as ▁a ▁whole ▁were ▁a ▁hy brid ▁of ▁races , ▁including ▁black ▁African ▁races . ▁Due ▁to ▁the ▁dark er ▁complex ion ▁of ▁Mediter rane an ▁pe op les , ▁Hitler ▁regarded ▁them ▁as ▁having ▁traces ▁of ▁Neg roid ▁blood ▁and ▁therefore ▁were ▁not ▁pure ▁A ry ans ▁and ▁inferior ▁to ▁those ▁without ▁such ▁her itage . ▁Hitler ▁pra ised ▁post - R oman ▁era ▁achiev ements ▁of ▁northern ▁It ali ans ▁such ▁as ▁Sand ro ▁B ott ic elli , ▁Michel ang elo , ▁D ante ▁Al igh ieri ▁and ▁Ben ito ▁M uss ol ini . ▁The ▁Naz is ▁as cribed ▁the ▁great ▁achiev ements ▁of ▁post - R oman ▁era ▁northern ▁It ali ans ▁to ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁Nord ic ▁ra cial ▁her itage ▁in ▁such ▁people ▁who ▁via ▁their ▁Nord ic ▁her itage ▁had ▁German ic ▁ancest ors , ▁such ▁as ▁Naz i ▁ide ologist ▁Alfred ▁Ros enberg ▁recogn izing ▁Michel ang elo ▁and ▁Leon ardo ▁da ▁V inci ▁as ▁exempl ary ▁Nord ic ▁men ▁of ▁history . ▁However , ▁the ▁Naz is ▁did ▁claim ▁that ▁aside ▁from ▁bi olog ically ▁Nord ic ▁people ▁that ▁a ▁Nord ic ▁soul ▁could ▁inhab it ▁a ▁non - N ord ic ▁body . ▁Hitler ▁emphas ized ▁the ▁role ▁of ▁German ic ▁influence ▁in ▁Northern ▁Italy , ▁such ▁as ▁stating ▁that ▁the ▁art ▁of ▁Northern ▁Italy ▁was ▁" nothing ▁but ▁pure |
▁German ". ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁after math ▁of ▁Aust rian ▁Naz is ▁killing ▁Aust rian ▁Chan cell or ▁Engel bert ▁D oll f uss ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 4 , ▁an ▁al ly ▁of ▁Italy , ▁M uss ol ini ▁became ▁en rag ed ▁and ▁respond ed ▁by ▁an gr ily ▁den oun cing ▁Naz ism . ▁M uss ol ini ▁re bu ked ▁Naz ism ' s ▁Nord ic ism , ▁claim ing ▁that ▁the ▁Naz is ' ▁emphas izing ▁of ▁a ▁common ▁Nord ic ▁" G erman ic ▁race " ▁was ▁abs urd ▁by ▁saying ▁that ▁" a ▁German ic ▁race ▁does ▁not ▁exist . ▁[...] ▁We ▁repeat . ▁Does ▁not ▁exist . ▁Scient ists ▁say ▁so . ▁Hitler ▁says ▁so ". ▁The ▁fact ▁that ▁Germ ans ▁were ▁not ▁purely ▁Nord ic ▁was ▁indeed ▁acknowled ged ▁by ▁prominent ▁Naz i ▁ra cial ▁the or ist ▁Hans ▁F . ▁K . ▁Gün ther ▁in ▁his ▁ 1 9 2 2 ▁book ▁R ass enk unde ▁des ▁deutschen ▁Vol kes ▁( R a cial ▁Science ▁of ▁the ▁German ▁People ), ▁where ▁Gün ther ▁recognized ▁Germ ans ▁as ▁being ▁composed ▁of ▁five ▁ra cial ▁types , ▁namely ▁Nord ic , ▁Mediter rane an , ▁Din ar ic , ▁Al pine ▁and ▁East ▁Balt ic ▁while ▁as ser ting ▁that ▁the ▁Nord ics ▁were ▁the ▁highest ▁in ▁a ▁ra cial ▁hierarchy ▁of ▁the ▁five ▁types . ▁ ▁By ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁the ▁t ensions ▁between ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁and ▁Naz |
i ▁Germany ▁reduced ▁and ▁relations ▁became ▁more ▁am ic able . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁decided ▁to ▁launch ▁a ▁ra cial ▁programme ▁in ▁Italy ▁and ▁was ▁interested ▁in ▁the ▁ra cial ▁studies ▁being ▁conducted ▁by ▁Giul io ▁C og ni . ▁C og ni ▁was ▁a ▁Nord ic ist , ▁but ▁did ▁not ▁equ ate ▁Nord ic ▁identity ▁with ▁German ic ▁identity ▁as ▁was ▁commonly ▁done ▁by ▁German ▁Nord ic ists . ▁C og ni ▁had ▁travel led ▁to ▁Germany ▁where ▁he ▁had ▁become ▁im pressed ▁by ▁Naz i ▁ra cial ▁theory ▁and ▁sought ▁to ▁create ▁his ▁own ▁version ▁of ▁ra cial ▁theory . ▁On ▁ 1 1 ▁September ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁C og ni ▁sent ▁M uss ol ini ▁a ▁copy ▁of ▁his ▁newly ▁published ▁book ▁Il ▁R azz ismo ▁( 1 9 3 6 ). ▁C og ni ▁declared ▁the ▁ra cial ▁aff inity ▁of ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁and ▁Nord ic ▁ra cial ▁sub types ▁of ▁the ▁A ry an ▁race ▁and ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁inter mix ing ▁of ▁Nord ic ▁A ry ans ▁and ▁Mediter rane an ▁A ry ans ▁in ▁Italy ▁produced ▁a ▁superior ▁synth esis ▁of ▁A ry an ▁It ali ans . ▁C og ni ▁addressed ▁the ▁issue ▁of ▁ra cial ▁differences ▁between ▁northern ▁and ▁southern ▁It ali ans , ▁declaring ▁Southern ▁It ali ans ▁were ▁mixed ▁between ▁A ry an ▁and ▁non - A ry an ▁races , ▁which ▁he ▁claimed ▁was ▁most ▁likely ▁due |
▁to ▁in fil tr ation ▁by ▁A si atic ▁pe op les ▁in ▁Roman ▁times ▁and ▁later ▁Arab ▁invas ions . ▁As ▁such , ▁C og ni ▁viewed ▁Southern ▁Italian ▁Mediter rane ans ▁as ▁being ▁poll uted ▁with ▁orient al izing ▁t endencies . ▁He ▁would ▁later ▁change ▁his ▁idea ▁and ▁claim ▁that ▁Nord ics ▁and ▁Southern ▁It ali ans ▁were ▁closely ▁related ▁groups ▁both ▁ra cially ▁and ▁spirit ually , ▁as ▁they ▁were ▁generally ▁responsible ▁for ▁what ▁is ▁the ▁best ▁in ▁European ▁civil ization . ▁Initial ly , ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁not ▁im pressed ▁with ▁C og ni ' s ▁work , ▁but ▁C og ni ' s ▁ideas ▁entered ▁into ▁the ▁official ▁F asc ist ▁ra cial ▁policy ▁several ▁years ▁later . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 8 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁concerned ▁that ▁if ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁did ▁not ▁recognize ▁Nord ic ▁her itage ▁within ▁It ali ans , ▁then ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁inferior ity ▁complex ▁would ▁return ▁to ▁Italian ▁society . ▁Therefore , ▁in ▁summer ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁officially ▁recognized ▁It ali ans ▁as ▁having ▁Nord ic ▁her itage ▁and ▁being ▁of ▁Nord ic - Med iter rane an ▁descent ▁and ▁in ▁a ▁meeting ▁with ▁P NF ▁members . ▁In ▁June ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁in ▁a ▁meeting ▁with ▁P NF ▁members , ▁M uss ol ini ▁identified ▁himself ▁as ▁Nord ic ▁and ▁declared ▁that ▁previous ▁policy ▁of ▁focus ▁on ▁Mediter rane an ism |
▁was ▁to ▁be ▁replaced ▁by ▁a ▁focus ▁on ▁A ry an ism . ▁ ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁began ▁publication ▁of ▁the ▁ra cial ist ▁magazine ▁La ▁D if esa ▁della ▁Raz za ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 . ▁The ▁Nord ic ist ▁ra cial ▁the or ist ▁Gu ido ▁Land ra ▁took ▁a ▁major ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁work ▁of ▁La ▁D if esa ▁and ▁published ▁the ▁Man if esto ▁of ▁Ra cial ▁Scient ists ▁in ▁the ▁magazine ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 . ▁ ▁The ▁Man if esto ▁directly ▁addressed ▁its ▁conception ▁of ▁rac ism ▁and ▁emphas ized ▁its ▁aut onomy ▁from ▁German ▁ra cial ▁theories ▁by ▁stating : ▁▁ ▁The ▁emphas is ▁in ▁the ▁Man if esto ▁on ▁a ▁psych ological ▁model ▁of ▁a ▁superior ▁human ▁being ▁was ▁in ▁reference ▁to ▁the ▁Italian ▁ant is emit ic ▁ra cial ▁the or ists ▁Giovanni ▁Pap ini ▁and ▁Paolo ▁O rano ▁that ▁stated ▁that ▁those ▁Jews ▁who ▁had ▁associated ▁themselves ▁as ▁being ▁Italian ▁were ▁examples ▁of ▁inferior ▁psych ological ▁types ▁that ▁were ▁character ized ▁by ▁moral ▁ab jection , ▁f als eness ▁and ▁cow ard ice ▁that ▁could ▁not ▁be ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁Italian ▁community . ▁After ▁Article ▁ 7 ▁of ▁the ▁Man if esto , ▁the ▁remainder ▁claimed ▁that ▁pe op les ▁of ▁the ▁Oriental ▁race , ▁African ▁races ▁and ▁Jews , ▁as ▁not ▁belonging ▁to ▁the ▁Italian ▁race ; ▁and ▁in ▁Article ▁ 1 0 ▁declared ▁that ▁the ▁physical ▁and ▁psych ological ▁characteristics ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁people |
▁must ▁not ▁be ▁alter ed ▁by ▁cross bre eding ▁with ▁non - Europe an ▁races . ▁ ▁The ▁Man if esto ▁received ▁substantial ▁criticism , ▁including ▁its ▁assertion ▁of ▁It ali ans ▁being ▁a ▁" p ure ▁race ", ▁as ▁critics ▁viewed ▁the ▁notion ▁as ▁abs urd . ▁La ▁D if esa ▁published ▁other ▁theories ▁that ▁described ▁long - term ▁Nord ic ▁A ry an ▁amongst ▁It ali ans , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁theory ▁that ▁in ▁the ▁E ne ol ith ic ▁age ▁Nord ic ▁A ry ans ▁arrived ▁in ▁Italy . ▁Many ▁of ▁the ▁writers ▁of ▁La ▁D if esa ▁della ▁Raz za ▁took ▁up ▁the ▁traditional ▁Nord ic ist ▁claim ▁that ▁the ▁decl ine ▁and ▁fall ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁was ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁arrival ▁of ▁Sem it ic ▁imm igr ants . ▁La ▁D if esa ' s ▁writers ▁were ▁divided ▁on ▁their ▁claims ▁that ▁described ▁how ▁It ali ans ▁extr ic ated ▁themselves ▁from ▁Sem it ic ▁influence . ▁ ▁The ▁Nord ic ist ▁direction ▁of ▁F asc ist ▁ra cial ▁policy ▁was ▁challeng ed ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁by ▁a ▁res urg ence ▁of ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ▁fa ction ▁in ▁the ▁P NF . ▁By ▁ 1 9 3 9 , ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ists ▁advoc ated ▁a ▁n ativ ist ▁ra cial ▁theory ▁which ▁rejected ▁as cri bing ▁the ▁achiev ements ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁people ▁to ▁Nord ic ▁pe op les . ▁This ▁n ativ ist ▁ra cial ▁policy ▁was ▁prom in ently |
▁promoted ▁by ▁U go ▁R ell ini . ▁R ell ini ▁rejected ▁the ▁notion ▁of ▁large ▁scale ▁invas ions ▁of ▁Italy ▁by ▁Nord ic ▁A ry ans ▁in ▁the ▁E ne ol ith ic ▁age ▁and ▁claimed ▁that ▁It ali ans ▁were ▁an ▁ind igen ous ▁people ▁desc ended ▁from ▁the ▁Cro - M agn ons . ▁R ell ini ▁claimed ▁that ▁Mediter rane an ▁and ▁later ▁Nord ic ▁pe op les ▁arrived ▁and ▁peace fully ▁inter m ixed ▁in ▁small ▁numbers ▁with ▁the ▁ind igen ous ▁Italian ▁population . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 1 , ▁the ▁P NF ' s ▁Mediter rane an ists ▁through ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁Gia como ▁A cer bo ▁put ▁forward ▁a ▁compreh ensive ▁definition ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁race . ▁However , ▁these ▁efforts ▁were ▁challeng ed ▁by ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁end ors ement ▁of ▁Nord ic ist ▁figures ▁with ▁the ▁appointment ▁of ▁sta unch ▁spiritual ▁Nord ic ist ▁Alberto ▁L uch ini ▁as ▁head ▁of ▁Italy ' s ▁Ra cial ▁Office ▁in ▁May ▁ 1 9 4 1 , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁with ▁M uss ol ini ▁becoming ▁interested ▁with ▁Julius ▁E vol a ' s ▁spiritual ▁Nord ic ism ▁in ▁late ▁ 1 9 4 1 . ▁A cer bo ▁and ▁the ▁Mediter rane an ists ▁in ▁his ▁High ▁Council ▁on ▁Dem ography ▁and ▁Race ▁sought ▁to ▁bring ▁the ▁regime ▁back ▁to ▁supporting ▁Mediter rane an ism ▁by ▁thoroughly ▁den oun cing ▁the ▁pro - N ord ic ist ▁Man if |
esto ▁of ▁the ▁Ra cial ▁Scient ists . ▁The ▁Council ▁recognized ▁A ry ans ▁as ▁being ▁a ▁lingu istic - based ▁group ▁and ▁condem ned ▁the ▁Man if esto ▁for ▁den ying ▁the ▁influence ▁of ▁pre - A ry an ▁civil ization ▁on ▁modern ▁Italy , ▁saying ▁that ▁the ▁Man if esto ▁" const it utes ▁an ▁un just ifiable ▁and ▁und emon stra ble ▁neg ation ▁of ▁the ▁anth rop ological , ▁eth n ological , ▁and ▁arch ae ological ▁discover ies ▁that ▁have ▁occurred ▁and ▁are ▁occurr ing ▁in ▁our ▁country ". ▁Furthermore , ▁the ▁Council ▁den ounced ▁the ▁Man if esto ▁for ▁" imp licit ly " ▁cred iting ▁German ic ▁inv aders ▁of ▁Italy ▁in ▁the ▁gu ise ▁of ▁the ▁Lomb ards ▁for ▁having ▁" a ▁form ative ▁influence ▁on ▁the ▁Italian ▁race ▁in ▁a ▁dis pro port ional ▁degree ▁to ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁inv aders ▁and ▁to ▁their ▁bi ological ▁pre domin ance ". ▁The ▁Council ▁claimed ▁that ▁the ▁obvious ▁superior ity ▁of ▁the ▁ancient ▁Gree ks ▁and ▁Rom ans ▁in ▁comparison ▁with ▁the ▁ancient ▁German ic ▁tribes ▁made ▁it ▁incon ce iv able ▁that ▁Italian ▁culture ▁ow ed ▁a ▁deb t ▁to ▁ancient ▁A ry an ▁Germ ans . ▁The ▁Council ▁den ounced ▁the ▁Man if esto ' s ▁Nord ic ist ▁supre mac ist ▁attitude ▁towards ▁Mediter rane ans ▁that ▁it ▁claimed ▁was ▁" cons ider ing ▁them ▁as ▁slaves " ▁and ▁was ▁" a ▁rep udi ation ▁of ▁the ▁entire ▁Italian ▁civil ization ". ▁▁ |
▁Att itude ▁and ▁policies ▁regarding ▁Jews ▁▁ ▁In ▁his ▁early ▁years ▁as ▁F asc ist ▁leader , ▁while ▁M uss ol ini ▁har b oured ▁negative ▁s tere ot ypes ▁of ▁Jews ▁he ▁did ▁not ▁hold ▁a ▁firm ▁st ance ▁on ▁Jews ▁and ▁his ▁official ▁st ances ▁oscill ated ▁and ▁shift ed ▁to ▁meet ▁the ▁political ▁dem ands ▁of ▁the ▁various ▁fa ctions ▁of ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement , ▁rather ▁than ▁having ▁anything ▁concrete . ▁M uss ol ini ▁had ▁held ▁ant is emit ic ▁belief s ▁prior ▁to ▁becoming ▁a ▁F asc ist , ▁such ▁as ▁in ▁a ▁ 1 9 0 8 ▁ess ay ▁on ▁the ▁topic ▁of ▁N iet z sche ' s ▁Über m ensch , ▁in ▁which ▁M uss ol ini ▁condem ned ▁" p all id ▁J ude ans " ▁for ▁" w reck ing " ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ; ▁and ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 3 ▁as ▁editor ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁Social ist ▁Party ' s ▁( P SI ) ▁Av anti ! ▁newspaper ▁again ▁wrote ▁about ▁the ▁Jews ▁having ▁caused ▁hav oc ▁in ▁ancient ▁Rome . ▁Although ▁M uss ol ini ▁held ▁these ▁negative ▁att itudes , ▁he ▁was ▁aware ▁that ▁Italian ▁Jews ▁were ▁a ▁deeply ▁integrated ▁and ▁small ▁community ▁in ▁Italy ▁who ▁were ▁by ▁and ▁large ▁perce ived ▁fav ou rab ly ▁in ▁Italy ▁for ▁fighting ▁val i antly ▁for ▁Italy ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁I . ▁Of ▁the ▁ 1 1 7 ▁original ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁F as ci ▁Italian i ▁di ▁Com |
b att imento ▁founded ▁on ▁ 2 3 ▁March ▁ 1 9 1 9 , ▁five ▁were ▁Jewish . ▁Since ▁the ▁movement ' s ▁early ▁years , ▁there ▁were ▁a ▁small ▁number ▁of ▁prominent ▁open ly ▁ant is emit ic ▁F asc ists ▁such ▁as ▁Roberto ▁Far in acci . ▁There ▁were ▁also ▁prominent ▁F asc ists ▁who ▁completely ▁rejected ▁ant is emit ism , ▁such ▁as ▁Ital o ▁Bal bo ▁who ▁lived ▁in ▁Ferr ara ▁that ▁had ▁a ▁substantial ▁Jewish ▁community ▁that ▁was ▁accepted ▁and ▁ant is emit ic ▁inc idents ▁were ▁rare ▁in ▁the ▁city . ▁ ▁In ▁response ▁to ▁his ▁observation ▁of ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁Jews ▁amongst ▁the ▁B ols he vik s ▁and ▁claims ▁( that ▁were ▁later ▁confirmed ▁to ▁be ▁true ) ▁that ▁the ▁B ols he vik s ▁and ▁Germany ▁( that ▁Italy ▁was ▁fighting ▁in ▁World ▁War ▁I ) ▁were ▁polit ically ▁connected , ▁M uss ol ini ▁said ▁ant is emit ic ▁statements ▁involving ▁the ▁B ols he vik - G erman ▁connection ▁as ▁being ▁an ▁" un hol y ▁al liance ▁between ▁H inden burg ▁and ▁the ▁syn agog ue ". ▁M uss ol ini ▁came ▁to ▁believe ▁rum ours ▁that ▁B ols he vik ▁leader ▁Vladimir ▁Len in ▁was ▁of ▁Jewish ▁descent . ▁In ▁an ▁article ▁in ▁Il ▁Pop olo ▁d ' Italia ▁in ▁June ▁ 1 9 1 9 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁wrote ▁a ▁highly ▁ant is emit ic ▁analysis ▁on ▁the ▁situation ▁in ▁Europe ▁involving ▁B ols he v |
ism ▁following ▁the ▁October ▁Revolution , ▁the ▁Russian ▁Civil ▁War ▁and ▁war ▁in ▁Hung ary ▁involving ▁the ▁Hung arian ▁Soviet ▁Republic : ▁▁ ▁This ▁statement ▁by ▁M uss ol ini ▁on ▁a ▁Jewish - B ols he vik - pl ut ocr atic ▁connection ▁and ▁consp i racy ▁was ▁met ▁with ▁opposition ▁in ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement , ▁resulting ▁in ▁M uss ol ini ▁respond ing ▁to ▁this ▁opposition ▁amongst ▁his ▁supp or ters ▁by ▁abandon ing ▁this ▁st ance ▁shortly ▁afterwards ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 9 . ▁Upon ▁abandon ing ▁this ▁st ance ▁due ▁to ▁opposition ▁to ▁it , ▁M uss ol ini ▁no ▁longer ▁said ▁his ▁previous ▁assertion ▁that ▁B ols he v ism ▁was ▁Jewish , ▁but ▁war ned ▁that ▁due ▁to ▁the ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁Jews ▁in ▁the ▁B ols he vik ▁movement ▁the ▁rise ▁of ▁B ols he v ism ▁in ▁Russia ▁would ▁result ▁in ▁a ▁f ero cious ▁wave ▁of ▁ant is emit ism ▁in ▁Russia . ▁He ▁then ▁claimed ▁that ▁" ant is emit ism ▁is ▁foreign ▁to ▁the ▁Italian ▁people ", ▁but ▁war ned ▁Z ion ists ▁that ▁they ▁should ▁be ▁careful ▁not ▁to ▁stir ▁up ▁ant is emit ism ▁in ▁" the ▁only ▁country ▁where ▁it ▁has ▁not ▁existed ". ▁ ▁Marg her ita ▁Sar f atti ▁was ▁an ▁influ ential ▁Jewish ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁P NF ▁whom ▁M uss ol ini ▁had ▁known ▁since ▁he ▁and ▁her ▁had ▁been ▁members ▁of ▁the ▁P SI ▁and ▁she ▁had ▁been ▁his ▁mist ress |
▁and ▁helped ▁write ▁D ux ▁( 1 9 2 6 ), ▁a ▁bi ography ▁of ▁M uss ol ini . ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁Jewish ▁financial ▁supp or ters ▁of ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement ▁was ▁To e pl itz , ▁whom ▁M uss ol ini ▁had ▁earlier ▁accused ▁of ▁being ▁a ▁tra itor ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁I . ▁Another ▁prominent ▁Jewish ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁was ▁E tt ore ▁O v az za , ▁who ▁was ▁a ▁sta unch ▁Italian ▁national ist ▁and ▁an ▁oppon ent ▁of ▁Z ion ism ▁in ▁Italy . ▁ 2 3 0 ▁Italian ▁Jews ▁took ▁part ▁in ▁the ▁F asc ists ' ▁March ▁on ▁Rome ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 2 . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 2 0 s , ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁c aut ious ▁on ▁topics ▁of ▁Italian ▁Jewish ▁financi ers ▁that ▁arose ▁from ▁time ▁to ▁time ▁from ▁ant is emit ic ▁elements ▁in ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement , ▁while ▁he ▁regarded ▁them ▁as ▁un tr ust worth y ▁he ▁believed ▁that ▁he ▁could ▁draw ▁them ▁to ▁his ▁side . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 2 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁made ▁his ▁private ▁attitude ▁about ▁Jews ▁known ▁to ▁the ▁Aust rian ▁amb assador ▁when ▁discuss ing ▁the ▁issue ▁by ▁saying : ▁" I ▁have ▁no ▁love ▁for ▁the ▁Jews , ▁but ▁they ▁have ▁great ▁influence ▁everywhere . ▁It ▁is ▁better ▁to ▁leave ▁them ▁alone . ▁Hitler ' s ▁ant is emit ism ▁has ▁already ▁brought ▁him ▁more ▁enemies ▁than ▁is |
▁necessary ". ▁ ▁On ▁the ▁e ve ▁of ▁the ▁March ▁on ▁Rome , ▁the ▁leadership ▁of ▁the ▁P NF ▁declared ▁that ▁ ▁" a ▁Jewish ▁question ▁does ▁not ▁exist ▁in ▁our ▁country ▁and ▁let ▁us ▁hope ▁that ▁there ▁never ▁shall ▁be ▁one , ▁at ▁least ▁not ▁until ▁Z ion ism ▁pos es ▁Italian ▁Jews ▁with ▁the ▁d ile m ma ▁of ▁choosing ▁between ▁their ▁Italian ▁hom eland ▁and ▁another ▁hom eland ". ▁The ▁relations ▁between ▁the ▁regime ▁and ▁Jews ▁as ▁in ▁those ▁pract icing ▁the ▁religion ▁of ▁J uda ism ▁was ▁affected ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ists ' ▁accommod ation ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁beginning ▁in ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 2 0 s ▁in ▁which ▁it ▁sought ▁to ▁remove ▁previous ▁prov isions ▁of ▁equality ▁of ▁faith s ▁and ▁imp ose ▁state ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁supre m acy ▁of ▁Catholic ism . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 8 , ▁fr ustration ▁arose ▁in ▁the ▁regime ▁over ▁Z ion ism ▁in ▁which ▁M uss ol ini ▁respond ed ▁to ▁the ▁Italian ▁Z ion ist ▁Congress ▁by ▁public ly ▁declaring ▁a ▁question ▁to ▁Italy ' s ▁Jews ▁on ▁their ▁self - identity : ▁" Are ▁you ▁a ▁religion ▁or ▁are ▁you ▁a ▁nation ? ". ▁Z ion ist ▁and ▁anti - Z ion ist ▁Jews ▁respond ed , ▁the ▁anti - Z ion ist ▁Jews ▁prof essed ▁they ▁were ▁religious ▁Jews ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁nation , ▁while ▁Z ion ist ▁Jews ▁declared ▁that ▁there ▁was ▁no ▁dispute ▁between ▁Z ion ism ▁and |
▁said ▁that ▁all ▁Italian ▁Jews ▁held ▁patri otic ▁respect ▁for ▁Italy . ▁Upon ▁these ▁responses ▁arriv ing , ▁M uss ol ini ▁declared ▁that ▁these ▁revealed ▁that ▁a ▁Jewish ▁problem ▁existed ▁in ▁terms ▁of ▁Jewish ▁identity ▁in ▁Italy ▁as ▁a ▁result ▁of ▁conflic ting ▁national ▁lo y alt ies ▁amongst ▁Z ion ist ▁Jews ▁by ▁saying : ▁▁ ▁The ▁F asc ists ▁at ▁this ▁time ▁were ▁not ▁wh olly ▁opposed ▁to ▁Z ion ism , ▁but ▁took ▁an ▁instrument al ▁approach ▁to ▁it ▁as ▁they ▁were ▁host ile ▁to ▁it ▁when ▁it ▁caused ▁conflict ▁in ▁Italy ▁with ▁the ▁country ' s ▁Catholic ▁community ▁and ▁when ▁such ▁Z ion ists ▁were ▁seen ▁as ▁associated ▁with ▁British ▁interests , ▁though ▁they ▁were ▁fav ou rable ▁to ▁Z ion ists ▁who ▁opposed ▁the ▁British ▁and ▁sought ▁Italy ' s ▁support ▁as ▁their ▁prote ctor . ▁In ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁M uss ol ini ▁held ▁discuss ions ▁with ▁Z ion ist ▁leadership ▁figures ▁over ▁propos als ▁to ▁encou rage ▁the ▁em igration ▁of ▁Italian ▁Jews ▁to ▁the ▁mand ate ▁of ▁Palest ine , ▁as ▁M uss ol ini ▁hoped ▁that ▁the ▁presence ▁of ▁pro - Ital ian ▁Jews ▁in ▁the ▁region ▁would ▁weak en ▁pro - B rit ish ▁sentiment ▁and ▁potentially ▁over turn ▁the ▁British ▁mand ate . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁Mont re ux ▁F asc ist ▁conference ▁cha ired ▁by ▁the ▁Italian - led ▁Com it ati ▁d ' A zione ▁per ▁l ' |
Univers al ita ▁di ▁Roma ▁( CA UR ) ▁that ▁sought ▁to ▁found ▁a ▁F asc ist ▁International , ▁the ▁issue ▁of ▁ant is emit ism ▁was ▁deb ated ▁amongst ▁various ▁fasc ist ▁parties , ▁with ▁some ▁more ▁fav ou rable ▁to ▁it ▁and ▁others ▁less ▁fav ou rable . ▁Two ▁final ▁comprom ises ▁were ▁adopted , ▁creating ▁the ▁official ▁st ance ▁of ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁International : ▁▁ ▁In ▁a ▁discussion ▁with ▁President ▁of ▁the ▁World ▁Z ion ist ▁Organ ization ▁Cha im ▁We iz mann ▁over ▁requests ▁for ▁Italy ▁to ▁provide ▁refuge ▁for ▁Jews ▁fle eing ▁Naz i ▁Germany , ▁M uss ol ini ▁agreed ▁that ▁he ▁would ▁accept ▁Jewish ▁refuge es , ▁but ▁war ned ▁We iz mann ▁about ▁consequences ▁if ▁such ▁Jews ▁har med ▁Italy ▁by ▁saying : ▁▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ' s ▁att itudes ▁towards ▁Z ion ism ▁and ▁Jews ▁in ▁general ▁under w ent ▁a ▁shift ▁in ▁response ▁to ▁the ▁Second ▁Ital o - E th iop ian ▁War . ▁At ▁the ▁out set ▁of ▁the ▁war , ▁M uss ol ini ▁sought ▁to ▁gain ▁fav ou rable ▁support ▁for ▁Italy ' s ▁inter vention ▁in ▁Eth iop ia ▁and ▁appe aled ▁to ▁Z ion ists ▁by ▁offering ▁them ▁a ▁solution ▁to ▁the ▁Jewish ▁question , ▁in ▁which ▁Italy ▁would ▁set ▁aside ▁a ▁certain ▁amount ▁of ▁territory ▁from ▁conquer ed ▁Eth iop ia ▁to ▁be ▁a ▁hom eland ▁for ▁Jews . ▁M uss ol ini ▁claimed ▁that ▁territory ▁from ▁conquer ed ▁Eth iop ia |
▁would ▁make ▁an ▁ideal ▁hom eland ▁for ▁the ▁Jews , ▁not ing ▁that ▁there ▁were ▁large ▁numbers ▁of ▁Fal asha ▁already ▁living ▁there ▁who ▁identified ▁as ▁Jews . ▁However , ▁Z ion ist ▁leaders ▁rejected ▁this ▁proposal ▁by ▁saying ▁that ▁they ▁would ▁only ▁live ▁in ▁the ▁Holy ▁Land ▁in ▁the ▁Lev ant . ▁M uss ol ini ▁viewed ▁this ▁as ▁an ▁off ensive ▁sn ub ▁and ▁respond ed ▁in ▁fr ustration ▁saying : ▁" If ▁Eth iop ia ▁is ▁good ▁enough ▁for ▁my ▁It ali ans ▁why ▁isn ' t ▁it ▁good ▁enough ▁for ▁you ▁Jews ? ". ▁After wards , ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁relations ▁with ▁the ▁Z ion ist ▁movement ▁co o led ▁and ▁became ▁ag gra v ated ▁with ▁his ▁observation ▁that ▁many ▁Jews ▁opposed ▁the ▁Ital o - E th iop ian ▁War , ▁to ▁which ▁he ▁respond ed : ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 6 , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁began ▁to ▁promote ▁ra cial ▁ant is emit ism ▁and ▁M uss ol ini ▁claimed ▁that ▁international ▁Jew ry ▁had ▁s ided ▁with ▁Britain ▁against ▁Italy ▁during ▁Italy ' s ▁war ▁with ▁Eth iop ia . ▁Histor ian ▁Ren zo ▁De ▁Fel ice ▁believed ▁that ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime ' s ▁purs uit ▁of ▁al liance ▁with ▁Naz i ▁Germany ▁that ▁began ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 6 ▁explains ▁the ▁ad option ▁of ▁ant is emit ism ▁as ▁a ▁p rag m atic ▁component ▁of ▁purs uit ▁of ▁that ▁al liance . ▁De |
▁Fel ice ' s ▁interpretation ▁has ▁been ▁challeng ed ▁by ▁H . ▁Stuart ▁Hugh es , ▁who ▁has ▁claimed ▁that ▁direct ▁Naz i ▁pressure ▁to ▁adopt ▁ant is emit ic ▁policy ▁had ▁little ▁or ▁no ▁impact ▁on ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁decision . ▁Hugh es ▁notes ▁that ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁version ▁of ▁ant is emit ism ▁was ▁based ▁on ▁spiritual ist ▁consider ations ▁while ▁es ch ew ing ▁anth rop ological ▁or ▁bi ological ▁arguments , ▁unlike ▁the ▁Naz i ▁version ▁of ▁ant is emit ism . ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁adopted ▁ant is emit ism ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁ 1 9 3 0 s ▁and ▁M uss ol ini ▁personally ▁returned ▁to ▁invoke ▁ant is emit ic ▁statements ▁as ▁he ▁had ▁done ▁earlier . ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁used ▁ant is emit ic ▁propag anda ▁for ▁the ▁Spanish ▁Civil ▁War ▁from ▁ 1 9 3 7 ▁to ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁that ▁emphas ized ▁that ▁Italy ▁was ▁supporting ▁Spain ' s ▁National ist ▁forces ▁against ▁a ▁" J ew ish ▁International ". ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 8 , ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁passed ▁the ▁Italian ▁Ra cial ▁La ws ▁which ▁forb id ▁Jews ▁from ▁their ▁citizens hip ▁and ▁forb id ▁sexual ▁relations ▁and ▁mar ri ages ▁between ▁It ali ans ▁and ▁Jews . ▁The ▁ad option ▁of ▁such ▁ra cial ▁laws ▁was ▁met ▁with ▁opposition ▁from ▁F asc ist ▁members ▁including ▁Bal bo , ▁who ▁regarded ▁ant is emit ism ▁as ▁having ▁nothing ▁to ▁do |
▁with ▁F asc ism ▁and ▁sta unch ly ▁opposed ▁the ▁ant is emit ic ▁laws . ▁▁ ▁Total itar ian ism ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 5 , ▁the ▁P NF ▁declared ▁that ▁Italy ' s ▁F asc ist ▁state ▁was ▁to ▁be ▁total itar ian . ▁The ▁term ▁" total itar ian " ▁had ▁initially ▁been ▁used ▁as ▁a ▁pe jor ative ▁accus ation ▁by ▁Italy ' s ▁liberal ▁opposition ▁that ▁den ounced ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement ▁for ▁seeking ▁to ▁create ▁a ▁total ▁dict ator ship . ▁However , ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁respond ed ▁by ▁accepting ▁that ▁they ▁were ▁total itar ian , ▁but ▁presented ▁total itar ian ism ▁from ▁a ▁positive ▁view point . ▁M uss ol ini ▁described ▁total itar ian ism ▁as ▁seeking ▁to ▁for ge ▁an ▁author itar ian ▁national ▁state ▁that ▁would ▁be ▁capable ▁of ▁comple ting ▁Ris org imento ▁of ▁the ▁Italia ▁Ir red enta , ▁for ge ▁a ▁powerful ▁modern ▁Italy ▁and ▁create ▁a ▁new ▁kind ▁of ▁citiz en ▁– ▁polit ically ▁active ▁F asc ist ▁It ali ans . ▁ ▁The ▁Do ctrine ▁of ▁F asc ism ▁( 1 9 3 2 ) ▁described ▁the ▁nature ▁of ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ' s ▁total itar ian ism , ▁stating ▁the ▁following : ▁▁ ▁American ▁journalist ▁H . ▁R . ▁Kn icker bo cker ▁wrote ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 1 : ▁" M uss ol ini ' s ▁F asc ist ▁state ▁is ▁the ▁least ▁terror istic ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁total |
itar ian ▁states . ▁The ▁terror ▁is ▁so ▁m ild ▁in ▁comparison ▁with ▁the ▁Soviet ▁or ▁Naz i ▁vari eties , ▁that ▁it ▁almost ▁fails ▁to ▁qual ify ▁as ▁terror istic ▁at ▁all ." ▁As ▁example ▁he ▁described ▁an ▁Italian ▁journalist ▁friend ▁who ▁refused ▁to ▁become ▁a ▁F asc ist . ▁He ▁was ▁fired ▁from ▁his ▁newspaper ▁and ▁put ▁under ▁ 2 4 - hour ▁surve ill ance , ▁but ▁otherwise ▁not ▁har ass ed ; ▁his ▁employ ment ▁contract ▁was ▁settled ▁for ▁a ▁l ump ▁sum ▁and ▁he ▁was ▁allowed ▁to ▁work ▁for ▁the ▁foreign ▁press . ▁Kn icker bo cker ▁contrast ed ▁his ▁treatment ▁with ▁the ▁in ev itable ▁tort ure ▁and ▁execution ▁under ▁St alin ▁or ▁Hitler , ▁and ▁stated ▁" you ▁have ▁a ▁fair ▁idea ▁of ▁the ▁compar ative ▁m ild ness ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁kind ▁of ▁total itar ian ism ". ▁ ▁However , ▁since ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁histor ians ▁have ▁noted ▁that ▁in ▁Italy ' s ▁colon ies ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁displayed ▁extreme ▁levels ▁of ▁violence . ▁The ▁death s ▁of ▁one - t enth ▁of ▁the ▁population ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁col ony ▁of ▁Lib ya ▁occurred ▁during ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁era , ▁including ▁from ▁the ▁use ▁of ▁g ass ings , ▁concentration ▁cam ps , ▁star v ation ▁and ▁disease ; ▁and ▁in ▁Eth iop ia ▁during ▁the ▁Second ▁Ital o - E th iop ian ▁War ▁and ▁afterwards ▁by ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁a ▁quarter ▁of ▁a ▁million ▁Eth iop ians ▁had |
▁died . ▁▁ ▁Corpor at ist ▁econom ics ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁promoted ▁a ▁corpor at ist ▁economic ▁system . ▁The ▁economy ▁involved ▁employ er ▁and ▁employee ▁synd ic ates ▁being ▁linked ▁together ▁in ▁corpor ative ▁associations ▁to ▁collect ively ▁represent ▁the ▁nation ' s ▁economic ▁produ cers ▁and ▁work ▁alongside ▁the ▁state ▁to ▁set ▁national ▁economic ▁policy . ▁M uss ol ini ▁declared ▁such ▁econom ics ▁as ▁a ▁" Th ird ▁Altern ative " ▁to ▁capital ism ▁and ▁Marx ism ▁that ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁regarded ▁as ▁" ob sole te ▁do ctr ines ". ▁For ▁instance , ▁he ▁said ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 5 ▁that ▁orth odox ▁capital ism ▁no ▁longer ▁existed ▁in ▁the ▁country . ▁Pre lim inary ▁plans ▁as ▁of ▁ 1 9 3 9 ▁intended ▁to ▁divide ▁the ▁country ▁into ▁ 2 2 ▁corpor ations ▁which ▁would ▁send ▁represent atives ▁to ▁Parliament ▁from ▁each ▁industry . ▁ ▁State ▁permission ▁was ▁required ▁for ▁almost ▁any ▁business ▁activity , ▁such ▁as ▁ending ▁employ ment ▁or ▁expand ing ▁a ▁factory . ▁All ▁w ages ▁were ▁set ▁by ▁the ▁government . ▁However , ▁restrictions ▁on ▁labor ▁were ▁greater . ▁While ▁corpor ations ▁still ▁could ▁ear n ▁prof its , ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁supported ▁criminal ization ▁of ▁strik es ▁by ▁employees ▁and ▁lock outs ▁by ▁employ ers ▁as ▁illegal ▁acts ▁it ▁de emed ▁as ▁pre jud icial ▁to ▁the ▁national ▁community ▁as ▁a ▁whole . ▁Similar ▁to ▁the ▁B ols he vik s ▁in ▁Soviet ▁Russia , ▁M uss ol |
ini ▁national ized ▁all ▁independent ▁trade ▁un ions ▁into ▁one ▁government - oper ated ▁synd icate , ▁the ▁Conf istr ada , ▁mand ating ▁union ▁membership ▁for ▁every ▁worker . ▁▁ ▁Age ▁and ▁gender ▁roles ▁ ▁The ▁Italian ▁F asc ists ' ▁political ▁anth em ▁was ▁called ▁Giov ine zza ▁( Y outh ). ▁F asc ism ▁ident ifies ▁the ▁physical ▁age ▁period ▁of ▁youth ▁as ▁a ▁critical ▁time ▁for ▁the ▁moral ▁development ▁of ▁people ▁that ▁will ▁affect ▁society . ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁purs ued ▁what ▁it ▁called ▁" m oral ▁h yg iene " ▁of ▁youth , ▁particularly ▁regarding ▁sexual ity . ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁promoted ▁what ▁it ▁considered ▁normal ▁sexual ▁behaviour ▁in ▁youth ▁while ▁den oun cing ▁what ▁it ▁considered ▁devi ant ▁sexual ▁behaviour . ▁It ▁condem ned ▁por n ography , ▁most ▁forms ▁of ▁birth ▁control ▁and ▁contra cept ive ▁devices ▁( with ▁the ▁exception ▁of ▁the ▁cond om ), ▁hom osex ual ity ▁and ▁prost itution ▁as ▁devi ant ▁sexual ▁behaviour . ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁regarded ▁the ▁promotion ▁of ▁male ▁sexual ▁exc itation ▁before ▁pub ert y ▁as ▁the ▁cause ▁of ▁criminal ity ▁amongst ▁male ▁youth . ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁reflected ▁the ▁belief ▁of ▁most ▁It ali ans ▁that ▁hom osex ual ity ▁was ▁wrong . ▁Instead ▁of ▁the ▁traditional ▁Catholic ▁teaching ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁sin , ▁a ▁new ▁approach ▁was ▁taken , ▁based ▁on ▁then - mod ern ▁ps y cho analysis , ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁a ▁social ▁disease . ▁F asc |
ist ▁Italy ▁purs ued ▁an ▁ag gress ive ▁campaign ▁to ▁reduce ▁prost itution ▁of ▁young ▁women . ▁ ▁M uss ol ini ▁perce ived ▁women ' s ▁primary ▁role ▁to ▁be ▁child b ear ers ▁while ▁men ▁were ▁war riors , ▁once ▁saying ▁that ▁" war ▁is ▁to ▁man ▁what ▁mat ern ity ▁is ▁to ▁the ▁woman ". ▁In ▁an ▁effort ▁to ▁increase ▁birth r ates , ▁the ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁gave ▁financial ▁in cent ives ▁to ▁women ▁who ▁raised ▁large ▁families ▁and ▁initi ated ▁policies ▁designed ▁to ▁reduce ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁women ▁employed . ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁called ▁for ▁women ▁to ▁be ▁hon oured ▁as ▁" re produ cers ▁of ▁the ▁nation " ▁and ▁the ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁held ▁rit ual ▁cer emon ies ▁to ▁honour ▁women ' s ▁role ▁within ▁the ▁Italian ▁nation . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 4 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁declared ▁that ▁employ ment ▁of ▁women ▁was ▁a ▁" major ▁aspect ▁of ▁the ▁th orn y ▁problem ▁of ▁un emp loyment " ▁and ▁that ▁for ▁women ▁working ▁was ▁" in compatible ▁with ▁child b ear ing ". ▁M uss ol ini ▁went ▁on ▁to ▁say ▁that ▁the ▁solution ▁to ▁un emp loyment ▁for ▁men ▁was ▁the ▁" ex od us ▁of ▁women ▁from ▁the ▁work ▁force ". ▁Although ▁the ▁initial ▁F asc ist ▁Man if esto ▁contained ▁a ▁reference ▁to ▁universal ▁suff rage , ▁this ▁broad ▁opposition ▁to ▁femin ism ▁meant ▁that ▁when ▁it ▁granted ▁women ▁the ▁right ▁to ▁vote ▁in |
▁ 1 9 2 5 ▁it ▁was ▁limited ▁purely ▁to ▁voting ▁in ▁local ▁elections . Ke vin ▁Pass more , ▁Women , ▁G ender ▁and ▁F asc ism ▁in ▁Europe , ▁p . ▁ 1 6 ▁▁ ▁Trad ition ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁believed ▁that ▁the ▁success ▁of ▁Italian ▁national ism ▁required ▁a ▁clear ▁sense ▁of ▁a ▁shared ▁past ▁amongst ▁the ▁Italian ▁people ▁along ▁with ▁a ▁commit ment ▁to ▁a ▁modern ized ▁Italy . ▁In ▁a ▁famous ▁speech ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 6 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁called ▁for ▁F asc ist ▁art ▁that ▁was ▁" trad itional ist ▁and ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁modern , ▁that ▁looks ▁to ▁the ▁past ▁and ▁at ▁the ▁same ▁time ▁to ▁the ▁future ". ▁ ▁Trad itional ▁symbols ▁of ▁Roman ▁civil ization ▁were ▁util ized ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ists , ▁particularly ▁the ▁fas ces ▁that ▁symbol ized ▁unity , ▁authority ▁and ▁the ▁exercise ▁of ▁power . ▁Other ▁traditional ▁symbols ▁of ▁ancient ▁Rome ▁used ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁included ▁the ▁she - w olf ▁of ▁Rome . ▁The ▁fas ces ▁and ▁the ▁she - w olf ▁symbol ized ▁the ▁shared ▁Roman ▁her itage ▁of ▁all ▁the ▁regions ▁that ▁constit uted ▁the ▁Italian ▁nation . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 6 , ▁the ▁fas ces ▁was ▁adopted ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁of ▁Italy ▁as ▁a ▁symbol ▁of ▁the ▁state . ▁In ▁that ▁year , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁attempted ▁to ▁have ▁the ▁Italian ▁national ▁flag ▁red es igned ▁to ▁incorpor ate |
▁the ▁fas ces ▁on ▁it . ▁However , ▁this ▁attempt ▁to ▁incorpor ate ▁the ▁fas ces ▁on ▁the ▁flag ▁was ▁stopped ▁by ▁strong ▁opposition ▁to ▁the ▁proposal ▁by ▁Italian ▁monarch ists . ▁After wards , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁in ▁public ▁cer emon ies ▁rose ▁the ▁national ▁tr icol our ▁flag ▁along ▁with ▁a ▁F asc ist ▁black ▁flag . ▁However , ▁years ▁later ▁and ▁after ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁forced ▁from ▁power ▁by ▁the ▁King ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁only ▁to ▁be ▁res cu ed ▁by ▁German ▁forces , ▁the ▁Italian ▁Social ▁Republic ▁founded ▁by ▁M uss ol ini ▁and ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁did ▁incorpor ate ▁the ▁fas ces ▁on ▁the ▁state ' s ▁war ▁flag , ▁which ▁was ▁a ▁variant ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁tr icol our ▁national ▁flag . ▁ ▁The ▁issue ▁of ▁the ▁rule ▁of ▁mon archy ▁or ▁republic ▁in ▁Italy ▁was ▁an ▁issue ▁that ▁changed ▁several ▁times ▁through ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁Italian ▁F asc ism , ▁as ▁initially ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁was ▁republic an ▁and ▁den ounced ▁the ▁Sav oy ▁mon archy . ▁However , ▁M uss ol ini ▁tact ically ▁abandoned ▁republic an ism ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 2 ▁and ▁recognized ▁that ▁the ▁accept ance ▁of ▁the ▁mon archy ▁was ▁a ▁necessary ▁comprom ise ▁to ▁gain ▁the ▁support ▁of ▁the ▁establishment ▁to ▁challenge ▁the ▁liberal ▁constitution al ▁order ▁that ▁also ▁supported ▁the ▁mon archy . ▁King ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁III ▁had ▁become ▁a ▁popular ▁r uler ▁in ▁the ▁after math ▁of |
▁Italy ' s ▁g ains ▁after ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁and ▁the ▁army ▁held ▁close ▁loyal ty ▁to ▁the ▁King , ▁thus ▁any ▁idea ▁of ▁over throw ing ▁the ▁mon archy ▁was ▁disc arded ▁as ▁fool hard y ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁at ▁this ▁point . ▁Import antly , ▁F asc ism ' s ▁recognition ▁of ▁mon archy ▁provided ▁F asc ism ▁with ▁a ▁sense ▁of ▁historical ▁continu ity ▁and ▁legit im acy . ▁The ▁F asc ists ▁public ly ▁identified ▁King ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁II , ▁the ▁first ▁King ▁of ▁a ▁reun ited ▁Italy ▁who ▁had ▁initi ated ▁the ▁Ris org imento , ▁along ▁with ▁other ▁historic ▁Italian ▁figures ▁such ▁as ▁G ai us ▁Mar ius , ▁Julius ▁Ca esar , ▁Giuseppe ▁M azz ini , ▁Camil lo ▁B enso , ▁Count ▁of ▁Cav our , ▁Giuseppe ▁Gar ib ald i ▁and ▁others , ▁for ▁being ▁within ▁a ▁tradition ▁of ▁dict ator ship ▁in ▁Italy ▁that ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁declared ▁that ▁they ▁em ulated . ▁However , ▁this ▁comprom ise ▁with ▁the ▁mon archy ▁did ▁not ▁yield ▁a ▁cord ial ▁relationship ▁between ▁the ▁King ▁and ▁M uss ol ini . ▁Although ▁M uss ol ini ▁had ▁formally ▁accepted ▁the ▁mon archy , ▁he ▁purs ued ▁and ▁largely ▁achieved ▁reducing ▁the ▁power ▁of ▁the ▁King ▁to ▁that ▁of ▁a ▁figure head . ▁The ▁King ▁initially ▁held ▁complete ▁nom inal ▁legal ▁authority ▁over ▁the ▁military ▁through ▁the ▁Stat uto ▁Albert ino , ▁but ▁this ▁was ▁ended ▁during ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁when |
▁M uss ol ini ▁created ▁the ▁position ▁of ▁First ▁Marsh al ▁of ▁the ▁Empire ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 , ▁a ▁two - person ▁position ▁of ▁control ▁over ▁the ▁military ▁held ▁by ▁both ▁the ▁King ▁and ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁government ▁that ▁had ▁the ▁effect ▁of ▁elimin ating ▁the ▁King ' s ▁previously ▁exclusive ▁legal ▁authority ▁over ▁the ▁military ▁by ▁giving ▁M uss ol ini ▁equal ▁legal ▁authority ▁to ▁the ▁King ▁over ▁the ▁military . ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 0 s , ▁M uss ol ini ▁became ▁ag gra v ated ▁by ▁the ▁mon archy ' s ▁continued ▁existence ▁due ▁to ▁env y ▁of ▁the ▁fact ▁that ▁his ▁counter part ▁in ▁Germany ▁Adolf ▁Hitler ▁was ▁both ▁head ▁of ▁state ▁and ▁head ▁of ▁government ▁of ▁a ▁republic ; ▁and ▁M uss ol ini ▁in ▁private ▁den ounced ▁the ▁mon archy ▁and ▁indicated ▁that ▁he ▁had ▁plans ▁to ▁dis m ant le ▁the ▁mon archy ▁and ▁create ▁a ▁republic ▁with ▁himself ▁as ▁head ▁of ▁state ▁of ▁Italy ▁upon ▁an ▁Italian ▁success ▁in ▁the ▁then - antic ip ated ▁major ▁war ▁about ▁to ▁er upt ▁in ▁Europe . ▁ ▁After ▁being ▁removed ▁from ▁office ▁and ▁placed ▁under ▁arrest ▁by ▁the ▁King ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 3 , ▁with ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy ' s ▁new ▁non - f asc ist ▁government ▁switching ▁sides ▁from ▁the ▁A xis ▁to ▁the ▁Al lies , ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁returned ▁to ▁republic an ism ▁and ▁condem n ation ▁of ▁the ▁mon archy . ▁On ▁ 1 |
8 ▁September ▁ 1 9 4 3 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁made ▁his ▁first ▁public ▁address ▁to ▁the ▁Italian ▁people ▁since ▁his ▁rescue ▁from ▁arrest ▁by ▁al lied ▁German ▁forces , ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁comm ended ▁the ▁loyal ty ▁of ▁Hitler ▁as ▁an ▁al ly ▁while ▁condem ning ▁King ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁III ▁of ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy ▁for ▁bet ray ing ▁Italian ▁F asc ism . ▁On ▁the ▁topic ▁of ▁the ▁mon archy ▁removing ▁him ▁from ▁power ▁and ▁dis m ant ling ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime , ▁M uss ol ini ▁stated : ▁" It ▁is ▁not ▁the ▁regime ▁that ▁has ▁bet rayed ▁the ▁mon archy , ▁it ▁is ▁the ▁mon archy ▁that ▁has ▁bet rayed ▁the ▁regime " ▁and ▁that ▁" When ▁a ▁mon archy ▁fails ▁in ▁its ▁duties , ▁it ▁los es ▁every ▁reason ▁for ▁being . ▁... ▁The ▁state ▁we ▁want ▁to ▁establish ▁will ▁be ▁national ▁and ▁social ▁in ▁the ▁highest ▁sense ▁of ▁the ▁word ; ▁that ▁is , ▁it ▁will ▁be ▁F asc ist , ▁thus ▁returning ▁to ▁our ▁orig ins ". ▁The ▁F asc ists ▁at ▁this ▁point ▁did ▁not ▁den ounce ▁the ▁House ▁of ▁Sav oy ▁in ▁the ▁entire ty ▁of ▁its ▁history ▁and ▁cred ited ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁II ▁for ▁his ▁re jection ▁of ▁" sc orn fully ▁d ish on ou rable ▁p act s " ▁and ▁den ounced ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁III ▁for ▁bet ray ing ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁II ▁by ▁entering ▁a ▁d ish on ou rable ▁p act ▁with |
▁the ▁Al lies . ▁ ▁The ▁relationship ▁between ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁and ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁was ▁mixed , ▁as ▁originally ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁were ▁highly ▁anti - cler ical ▁and ▁host ile ▁to ▁Catholic ism , ▁though ▁from ▁the ▁mid ▁to ▁late ▁ 1 9 2 0 s ▁anti - cler ical ism ▁lost ▁ground ▁in ▁the ▁movement ▁as ▁M uss ol ini ▁in ▁power ▁sought ▁to ▁seek ▁accord ▁with ▁the ▁Church ▁as ▁the ▁Church ▁held ▁major ▁influence ▁in ▁Italian ▁society ▁with ▁most ▁It ali ans ▁being ▁Catholic . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 9 , ▁the ▁Italian ▁government ▁signed ▁the ▁Later an ▁Tre aty ▁with ▁the ▁Holy ▁See , ▁a ▁conc ord at ▁between ▁Italy ▁and ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁that ▁allowed ▁for ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁a ▁small ▁enc lave ▁known ▁as ▁V at ican ▁City ▁as ▁a ▁so ver eign ▁state ▁representing ▁the ▁pap acy . ▁This ▁ended ▁years ▁of ▁perce ived ▁al ien ation ▁between ▁the ▁Church ▁and ▁the ▁Italian ▁government ▁after ▁Italy ▁an nex ed ▁the ▁Pap al ▁States ▁in ▁ 1 8 7 0 . ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁just ified ▁its ▁ad option ▁of ▁ant is emit ic ▁laws ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 ▁by ▁claim ing ▁that ▁Italy ▁was ▁ful fill ing ▁the ▁Christian ▁religious ▁mand ate ▁of ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁that ▁had ▁been ▁initi ated ▁by ▁Pope ▁In noc ent ▁III ▁in ▁the ▁Four th ▁Later an ▁Council ▁of ▁ 1 2 1 5 , ▁where by ▁the ▁Pope ▁issued ▁strict ▁reg ulation |
▁of ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁Jews ▁in ▁Christian ▁lands . ▁Jews ▁were ▁prohib ited ▁from ▁holding ▁any ▁public ▁office ▁that ▁would ▁give ▁them ▁power ▁over ▁Christians ▁and ▁Jews ▁were ▁required ▁to ▁wear ▁distinct ive ▁cl othing ▁to ▁distinguish ▁them ▁from ▁Christians . ▁▁ ▁Do ctrine ▁The ▁Do ctrine ▁of ▁F asc ism ▁( La ▁dot tr ina ▁del ▁fasc ismo , ▁ 1 9 3 2 ) ▁by ▁the ▁actual ist ▁phil os opher ▁Giovanni ▁Gent ile ▁is ▁the ▁official ▁form ulation ▁of ▁Italian ▁F asc ism , ▁published ▁under ▁Ben ito ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁name ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 3 . ▁Gent ile ▁was ▁intellect ually ▁influenced ▁by ▁H eg el , ▁Pl ato , ▁Bened etto ▁Cro ce ▁and ▁Gi amb att ista ▁V ico , ▁thus ▁his ▁actual ▁ideal ism ▁philosophy ▁was ▁the ▁basis ▁for ▁F asc ism . ▁Hence , ▁the ▁Do ctr ines ▁Welt ans ch au ung ▁propos es ▁the ▁world ▁as ▁action ▁in ▁the ▁real m ▁of ▁human ity ▁— ▁beyond ▁the ▁quot id ian ▁con str ict ions ▁of ▁contemporary ▁political ▁tr end , ▁by ▁reject ing ▁" per pet ual ▁peace " ▁as ▁fant ast ical ▁and ▁accepting ▁Man ▁as ▁a ▁species ▁contin ually ▁at ▁war ; ▁those ▁who ▁meet ▁the ▁challenge , ▁achieve ▁nob ility . ▁To ▁wit , ▁actual ▁ideal ism ▁generally ▁accepted ▁that ▁conquer ors ▁were ▁the ▁men ▁of ▁historical ▁consequence , ▁e . g . ▁the ▁Roman ▁Julius ▁Ca esar , ▁the ▁Greek ▁Alexander ▁the ▁Great , |
▁the ▁Frank ▁Char lemagne ▁and ▁the ▁French ▁Napoleon . ▁The ▁phil os opher – int el lect ual ▁Gent ile ▁was ▁especially ▁inspired ▁by ▁the ▁Roman ▁Empire ▁( 2 7 ▁BC ▁– ▁AD ▁ 4 7 6 , ▁ 1 4 5 3 ), ▁from ▁wh ence ▁der ives ▁F asc ism : ▁▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 5 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁assumed ▁the ▁title ▁Du ce ▁( L ead er ), ▁derived ▁from ▁the ▁Latin ▁du x ▁( le ader ), ▁a ▁Roman ▁Republic ▁military - command ▁title . ▁Moreover , ▁although ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁( 1 9 2 2 – 1 9 4 3 ) ▁is ▁histor ically ▁considered ▁an ▁author itar ian – total itar ian ▁dict ator ship , ▁it ▁retained ▁the ▁original ▁" li ber al ▁dem ocr atic " ▁government ▁fa ç ade : ▁the ▁Grand ▁Council ▁of ▁F asc ism ▁remained ▁active ▁as ▁administr ators ; ▁and ▁King ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁III ▁of ▁Italy ▁could — at ▁the ▁risk ▁of ▁his ▁crown — d ismiss ▁M uss ol ini ▁as ▁Italian ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁as ▁in ▁the ▁event ▁he ▁did . ▁ ▁Gent ile ▁defined ▁F asc ism ▁as ▁an ▁anti - int el lect ual ▁doctrine , ▁ep ist em olog ically ▁based ▁on ▁faith ▁rather ▁than ▁reason . ▁F asc ist ▁myst ic ism ▁emphas ized ▁the ▁importance ▁of ▁political ▁myth s , ▁which ▁were ▁true ▁not ▁as ▁empir ical ▁facts , ▁but ▁as ▁" met are ality ". ▁F asc |
ist ▁art , ▁architecture ▁and ▁symbols ▁constit uted ▁a ▁process ▁which ▁converted ▁F asc ism ▁into ▁a ▁sort ▁of ▁a ▁civil ▁religion ▁or ▁political ▁religion . ▁La ▁dot tr ina ▁del ▁fasc ismo ▁states ▁that ▁F asc ism ▁is ▁a ▁" rel ig ious ▁conception ▁of ▁life " ▁and ▁forms ▁a ▁" sp irit ual ▁community " ▁in ▁contrast ▁to ▁b our ge ois ▁material ism . ▁The ▁s log an ▁Cred ere ▁O bb ed ire ▁Com b atter e ▁(" Bel ieve , ▁O bey , ▁Fight ") ▁reflect s ▁the ▁importance ▁of ▁political ▁faith ▁in ▁F asc ism . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁historian ▁Ze ev ▁Stern hell , ▁" most ▁synd ical ist ▁leaders ▁were ▁among ▁the ▁found ers ▁of ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁movement ", ▁who ▁in ▁later ▁years ▁gained ▁key ▁posts ▁in ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁regime . ▁M uss ol ini ▁expressed ▁great ▁adm iration ▁for ▁the ▁ideas ▁of ▁Georges ▁Sor el , ▁who ▁he ▁claimed ▁was ▁instrument al ▁in ▁bir thing ▁the ▁core ▁principles ▁of ▁Italian ▁fasc ism . ▁J . ▁L . ▁Tal mon ▁argued ▁that ▁F asc ism ▁bil led ▁itself ▁" not ▁only ▁as ▁an ▁alternative , ▁but ▁also ▁as ▁the ▁he ir ▁to ▁social ism ". La ▁dot tr ina ▁del ▁fasc ismo ▁proposed ▁an ▁Italy ▁of ▁greater ▁living ▁standards ▁under ▁a ▁one - party ▁F asc ist ▁system ▁than ▁under ▁the ▁multi - party ▁liberal ▁dem ocr atic ▁government ▁of ▁ 1 9 2 0 . ▁As ▁the ▁leader |
▁of ▁the ▁National ▁F asc ist ▁Party ▁( PN F , ▁Part ito ▁Nazionale ▁F asc ista ), ▁M uss ol ini ▁said ▁that ▁dem ocracy ▁is ▁" be aut iful ▁in ▁theory ; ▁in ▁practice , ▁it ▁is ▁a ▁f alla cy " ▁and ▁spoke ▁of ▁celebr ating ▁the ▁bur ial ▁of ▁the ▁" put rid ▁cor pse ▁of ▁liberty ". ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 3 , ▁to ▁give ▁Deput y ▁M uss ol ini ▁control ▁of ▁the ▁pl ural ist ▁parliament ary ▁government ▁of ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy ▁( 1 8 6 1 – 1 9 4 6 ), ▁an ▁econom ist , ▁the ▁Baron ▁Gia como ▁A cer bo , ▁proposed — and ▁the ▁Italian ▁Parliament ▁approved — the ▁A cer bo ▁Law , ▁changing ▁the ▁elect oral ▁system ▁from ▁proportional ▁representation ▁to ▁majority ▁representation . ▁The ▁party ▁who ▁received ▁the ▁most ▁votes ▁( prov ided ▁they ▁possessed ▁at ▁least ▁ 2 5 ▁percent ▁of ▁cast ▁votes ) ▁won ▁two - third s ▁of ▁the ▁parliament ; ▁the ▁remaining ▁third ▁was ▁proportion ately ▁shared ▁among ▁the ▁other ▁parties , ▁thus ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁manip ulation ▁of ▁liberal ▁dem ocr atic ▁law ▁that ▁rendered ▁Italy ▁a ▁one - party ▁state . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 4 , ▁the ▁P NF ▁won ▁the ▁election ▁with ▁ 6 5 ▁percent ▁of ▁the ▁votes , ▁yet ▁the ▁United ▁Social ist ▁Party ▁refused ▁to ▁accept ▁such ▁a ▁defeat — es pecially ▁Deput y ▁Gia como ▁Mat te otti , ▁who ▁on |
▁ 3 0 ▁May ▁ 1 9 2 4 ▁in ▁Parliament ▁formally ▁accused ▁the ▁P NF ▁of ▁elect oral ▁fra ud ▁and ▁re iter ated ▁his ▁den unci ations ▁of ▁P NF ▁Black sh irt ▁political ▁violence ▁and ▁was ▁publishing ▁The ▁F asc isti ▁Ex posed : ▁A ▁Year ▁of ▁F asc ist ▁Dom ination , ▁a ▁book ▁subst anti ating ▁his ▁accus ations . Spe ech ▁of ▁the ▁ 3 0 th ▁of ▁May ▁ 1 9 2 4 ▁ ▁the ▁last ▁speech ▁of ▁Mat te otti , ▁from ▁it . wik is ource ▁Con sequently , ▁on ▁ 2 4 ▁June ▁ 1 9 2 4 , ▁the ▁Ce ka ▁( ost ens ibly ▁a ▁party ▁secret ▁police , ▁model led ▁on ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Che ka ) ▁assass in ated ▁Mat te otti ▁and ▁of ▁the ▁five ▁men ▁arrested , ▁Amer igo ▁Dum ini , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁Il ▁Sic ario ▁del ▁Du ce ▁( The ▁Le ader ' s ▁Ass ass in ), ▁was ▁sent enced ▁to ▁five ▁years ' ▁imprison ment , ▁but ▁served ▁only ▁eleven ▁months ▁and ▁was ▁fre ed ▁under ▁am n esty ▁from ▁King ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁III . ▁Moreover , ▁when ▁the ▁King ▁supported ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁M uss ol ini ▁the ▁social ists ▁quit ▁Parliament ▁in ▁protest , ▁leaving ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁to ▁govern ▁uno pp osed . ▁In ▁that ▁time , ▁assass ination ▁was ▁not ▁yet ▁the ▁mod us ▁oper and i ▁norm ▁and ▁the ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁Du ce ▁usually ▁dis |
posed ▁of ▁oppon ents ▁in ▁the ▁Imperial ▁Roman ▁way : ▁political ▁arrest ▁pun ished ▁with ▁island ▁ban ishment . ▁▁ ▁Cond itions ▁precip it ating ▁F asc ism ▁▁▁ ▁National ist ▁dis content ▁ ▁After ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁( 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 1 8 ), ▁despite ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy ▁( 1 8 6 1 – 1 9 4 6 ) ▁being ▁a ▁full - part ner ▁Al lied ▁Power ▁against ▁the ▁Central ▁Pow ers , ▁Italian ▁national ism ▁claimed ▁Italy ▁was ▁che ated ▁in ▁the ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁Saint - G erm ain - en - L aye ▁( 1 9 1 9 ), ▁thus ▁the ▁Al lies ▁had ▁imp eded ▁Italy ' s ▁progress ▁to ▁becoming ▁a ▁" Gre at ▁Power ". ▁Th ence for th , ▁the ▁P NF ▁successfully ▁explo ited ▁that ▁" sl ight " ▁to ▁Italian ▁national ism ▁in ▁present ing ▁F asc ism ▁as ▁best - su ited ▁for ▁gover ning ▁the ▁country ▁by ▁successfully ▁claim ing ▁that ▁dem ocracy , ▁social ism ▁and ▁liberal ism ▁were ▁failed ▁systems . ▁The ▁P NF ▁assumed ▁Italian ▁government ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 2 , ▁consequ ent ▁to ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁Le ader ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁or atory ▁and ▁Black sh irt ▁par amil it ary ▁political ▁violence . ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁Paris ▁Peace ▁Conference ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 9 , ▁the ▁Al lies ▁comp elled ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy ▁to ▁yield ▁to ▁Y ug oslav ia ▁the ▁Cro |
at ian ▁se ap ort ▁of ▁F ium e ▁( R ije ka ), ▁a ▁mostly ▁Italian ▁city ▁of ▁little ▁national ist ▁significance , ▁until ▁early ▁ 1 9 1 9 . ▁Moreover , ▁elsewhere ▁Italy ▁was ▁then ▁ex cluded ▁from ▁the ▁w art ime ▁secret ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁London ▁( 1 9 1 5 ) ▁it ▁had ▁conc ord ed ▁with ▁the ▁Tri ple ▁Ent ente ; ▁where in ▁Italy ▁was ▁to ▁leave ▁the ▁Tri ple ▁Alliance ▁and ▁join ▁the ▁enemy ▁by ▁declaring ▁war ▁against ▁the ▁German ▁Empire ▁and ▁Austria - H ung ary ▁in ▁exchange ▁for ▁territ ories ▁at ▁war ' s ▁end , ▁upon ▁which ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy ▁held ▁claims ▁( see ▁Italia ▁ir red enta ). ▁ ▁In ▁September ▁ 1 9 1 9 , ▁the ▁national ist ▁response ▁of ▁out rag ed ▁war ▁hero ▁Gab rie le ▁D ' An n un z io ▁was ▁declaring ▁the ▁establishment ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁Reg ency ▁of ▁Car n aro . ▁To ▁his ▁independent ▁Italian ▁state , ▁he ▁installed ▁himself ▁as ▁the ▁Reg ent ▁Du ce ▁and ▁prom ul g ated ▁the ▁Cart a ▁del ▁Car n aro ▁( Ch arter ▁of ▁Car n aro , ▁ 8 ▁September ▁ 1 9 2 0 ), ▁a ▁polit ically ▁syn cret ic ▁constitution al ▁am alg am ation ▁of ▁right - wing ▁and ▁left - wing ▁an arch ist , ▁proto - f asc ist ▁and ▁dem ocr atic ▁republic an ▁politics , ▁which ▁much ▁influenced ▁the ▁politico - ph il |
osoph ic ▁development ▁of ▁early ▁Italian ▁F asc ism . ▁Con sequ ent ▁to ▁the ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁Rap allo ▁( 1 9 2 0 ), ▁the ▁metropol itan ▁Italian ▁military ▁de posed ▁the ▁Reg ency ▁of ▁Du ce ▁D ' An n un z io ▁on ▁Christmas ▁ 1 9 2 0 . ▁In ▁the ▁development ▁of ▁the ▁fasc ist ▁model ▁of ▁government , ▁D ' An n un z io ▁was ▁a ▁national ist ▁and ▁not ▁a ▁fasc ist , ▁whose ▁legacy ▁of ▁political – p ra xis ▁(" Pol it ics ▁as ▁Theatre ") ▁was ▁sty list ic ▁( cer em ony , ▁uniform , ▁har ang ue ▁and ▁chant ing ) ▁and ▁not ▁substant ive , ▁which ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁art fully ▁developed ▁as ▁a ▁government ▁model . R og er ▁E at well , ▁F asc ism : ▁A ▁History ▁( 1 9 9 5 ) p . ▁ 4 9 ▁ ▁At ▁the ▁same ▁time , ▁M uss ol ini ▁and ▁many ▁of ▁his ▁revolution ary ▁synd ical ist ▁ad her ents ▁grav itated ▁towards ▁a ▁form ▁of ▁revolution ary ▁national ism ▁in ▁an ▁effort ▁to ▁" ident ify ▁the ▁' comm un ality ' ▁of ▁man ▁not ▁with ▁class , ▁but ▁with ▁the ▁nation ". ▁According ▁to ▁A . ▁James ▁Greg or , ▁M uss ol ini ▁came ▁to ▁believe ▁that ▁" F asc ism ▁was ▁the ▁only ▁form ▁of ▁' social ism ' ▁appropriate ▁to ▁the ▁pro let arian ▁nations ▁of ▁the ▁tw enti |
eth ▁century " ▁while ▁he ▁was ▁in ▁the ▁process ▁of ▁sh ifting ▁his ▁views ▁from ▁social ism ▁to ▁national ism . ▁En rico ▁Cor rad ini , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁early ▁influ ences ▁on ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁thought ▁and ▁later ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁his ▁administration , ▁champion ed ▁the ▁concept ▁of ▁pro let arian ▁national ism , ▁writing ▁about ▁Italy ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 0 : ▁" We ▁are ▁the ▁pro let arian ▁people ▁in ▁respect ▁to ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁world . ▁National ism ▁is ▁our ▁social ism ". ▁M uss ol ini ▁would ▁come ▁to ▁use ▁similar ▁word ing , ▁for ▁instance ▁referring ▁to ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁as ▁the ▁" pro let arian ▁nations ▁that ▁rise ▁up ▁against ▁the ▁plut ocr ats ". ▁▁ ▁Labor ▁un rest ▁▁ ▁Given ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ' s ▁p rag m atic ▁political ▁am alg am ations ▁of ▁left - wing ▁and ▁right - wing ▁so cio - e conom ic ▁policies , ▁dis content ed ▁workers ▁and ▁pe as ants ▁proved ▁an ▁abund ant ▁source ▁of ▁popular ▁political ▁power , ▁especially ▁because ▁of ▁pe asant ▁opposition ▁to ▁social ist ▁agricult ural ▁collect iv ism . ▁Thus ▁armed , ▁the ▁former ▁social ist ▁Ben ito ▁M uss ol ini ▁or ator ically ▁inspired ▁and ▁mobil ized ▁country ▁and ▁working - class ▁people : ▁" We ▁declare ▁war ▁on ▁social ism , ▁not ▁because ▁it ▁is ▁social ist , ▁but ▁because ▁it ▁has ▁opposed ▁national ism |
". ▁Moreover , ▁for ▁campaign ▁finan cing ▁in ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 0 – 1 9 2 1 ▁period ▁the ▁National ▁F asc ist ▁Party ▁also ▁court ed ▁the ▁industrial ists ▁and ▁( histor ically ▁fe ud al ) ▁land own ers ▁by ▁appe aling ▁to ▁their ▁fear s ▁of ▁left - wing ▁social ist ▁and ▁B ols he vik ▁labor ▁politics ▁and ▁urban ▁and ▁rural ▁strik es . ▁The ▁F asc ists ▁promised ▁a ▁good ▁business ▁climate ▁of ▁cost - effect ive ▁labor , ▁w age ▁and ▁political ▁stability ; ▁and ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁Party ▁was ▁en ▁route ▁to ▁power . ▁ ▁Histor ian ▁Charles ▁F . ▁Del z ell ▁reports : ▁" At ▁first , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁Revolution ary ▁Party ▁( PF R ) ▁was ▁concentr ated ▁in ▁Milan ▁and ▁a ▁few ▁other ▁cities . ▁They ▁gained ▁ground ▁quite ▁slowly , ▁between ▁ 1 9 1 9 ▁and ▁ 1 9 2 0 ; ▁not ▁until ▁after ▁the ▁sc are , ▁brought ▁about ▁by ▁the ▁workers ▁" occupation ▁of ▁the ▁fact ories " ▁in ▁the ▁late ▁summer ▁of ▁ 1 9 2 0 ▁did ▁fasc ism ▁become ▁really ▁w ides p read . ▁The ▁industrial ists ▁began ▁to ▁throw ▁their ▁financial ▁support ▁behind ▁M uss ol ini ▁after ▁he ▁renamed ▁his ▁party ▁and ▁ret ract ed ▁his ▁former ▁support ▁for ▁Len in ▁and ▁the ▁Russian ▁Revolution . ▁Moreover , ▁toward ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁ 1 9 2 0 , ▁fasc ism ▁began ▁to ▁spread ▁into ▁the ▁coun |
tr ys ide , ▁b idd ing ▁for ▁the ▁support ▁of ▁large ▁land own ers , ▁particularly ▁in ▁the ▁area ▁between ▁Bolog na ▁and ▁Ferr ara , ▁a ▁traditional ▁strong hold ▁of ▁the ▁Left , ▁and ▁scene ▁of ▁frequent ▁violence . ▁Social ist ▁and ▁Catholic ▁organiz ers ▁of ▁farm ▁hands ▁in ▁that ▁region , ▁Venez ia ▁Giul ia , ▁T usc any , ▁and ▁even ▁distant ▁Ap ul ia , ▁were ▁soon ▁attacked ▁by ▁Black sh irt ▁squad s ▁of ▁F asc ists , ▁armed ▁with ▁cast or ▁oil , ▁black jack s , ▁and ▁more ▁le th al ▁weapons . ▁The ▁era ▁of ▁squad r ismo ▁and ▁night ly ▁exped itions ▁to ▁burn ▁Social ist ▁and ▁Catholic ▁labor ▁headquarters ▁had ▁begun . ▁During ▁this ▁time ▁period , ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁fasc ist ▁squad s ▁also ▁engaged ▁in ▁violent ▁attacks ▁against ▁the ▁Church ▁where ▁" se ver al ▁pri ests ▁were ▁assass in ated ▁and ▁churches ▁burn ed ▁by ▁the ▁F asc ists ". ▁▁ ▁F asc ism ▁emp ower ed ▁ ▁Italy ' s ▁use ▁of ▁dare dev il ▁el ite ▁shock ▁troops , ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Ar d iti , ▁beginning ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 7 , ▁was ▁an ▁important ▁influence ▁on ▁F asc ism . ▁The ▁Ar d iti ▁were ▁soldiers ▁who ▁were ▁specifically ▁trained ▁for ▁a ▁life ▁of ▁violence ▁and ▁wore ▁unique ▁black sh irt ▁uniform s ▁and ▁fe zz es . ▁The ▁Ar d iti ▁formed ▁a ▁national ▁organization ▁in ▁November ▁ 1 9 |
1 8 , ▁the ▁Ass ocia zione ▁fra ▁gli ▁Ar d iti ▁d ' Italia , ▁which ▁by ▁mid - 1 9 1 9 ▁had ▁about ▁twenty ▁thousand ▁young ▁men ▁within ▁it . ▁M uss ol ini ▁appe aled ▁to ▁the ▁Ar d iti ▁and ▁the ▁F asc ists ' ▁squad rist i , ▁developed ▁after ▁the ▁war , ▁were ▁based ▁upon ▁the ▁Ar d iti . ▁ ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁infl ated ▁Italy ' s ▁economy ▁with ▁great ▁deb ts , ▁un emp loyment ▁( ag gra v ated ▁by ▁thousands ▁of ▁dem obil ised ▁soldiers ), ▁social ▁dis content ▁featuring ▁strik es , ▁organ ised ▁crime ▁and ▁an arch ist , ▁social ist ▁and ▁commun ist ▁ins urre ctions . ▁When ▁the ▁elected ▁Italian ▁Liberal ▁Party ▁Government ▁could ▁not ▁control ▁Italy , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁Revolution ary ▁Party ▁( Part ito ▁F asc ista ▁Riv ol uz ionario , ▁P FR ) ▁leader ▁M uss ol ini ▁took ▁matters ▁in ▁hand , ▁comb ating ▁those ▁issues ▁with ▁the ▁Black sh ir ts , ▁par amil it ary ▁squad s ▁of ▁First ▁World ▁War ▁veter ans ▁and ▁ex ▁social ists ▁when ▁Prime ▁Minister s ▁such ▁as ▁Giovanni ▁Gi ol itt i ▁allowed ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁taking ▁the ▁law ▁in ▁hand . ▁The ▁violence ▁between ▁social ists ▁and ▁the ▁mostly ▁self - organ ized ▁squad rist i ▁milit ias , ▁especially ▁in ▁the ▁coun tr ys ide , ▁had ▁increased ▁so ▁dram atically ▁that ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁press ured |
▁to ▁call ▁a ▁tr uce ▁to ▁bring ▁about ▁“ re con c ili ation ▁with ▁the ▁Social ists ”. ▁Sign ed ▁in ▁early ▁August ▁ 1 9 2 1 , ▁M uss ol ini ▁and ▁the ▁Italian ▁Social ist ▁Party ▁( PN F ) ▁agreed ▁to ▁the ▁P act ▁of ▁Pac ification , ▁which ▁was ▁immediately ▁condem ned ▁by ▁most ▁ras ▁leaders ▁in ▁the ▁squad r ismo . ▁The ▁peace ▁p act ▁was ▁officially ▁den ounced ▁during ▁the ▁Third ▁F asc ist ▁Congress ▁on ▁ 7 – 1 0 ▁November ▁ 1 9 2 1 . ▁ ▁The ▁Liberal ▁government ▁preferred ▁F asc ist ▁class ▁collaboration ▁to ▁the ▁Commun ist ▁Party ▁of ▁Italy ' s ▁class ▁conflict ▁should ▁they ▁assume ▁government ▁as ▁had ▁Vladimir ▁Len in ' s ▁B ols he vik s ▁in ▁the ▁recent ▁Russian ▁Revolution ▁of ▁ 1 9 1 7 , ▁although ▁M uss ol ini ▁had ▁originally ▁pra ised ▁Len in ' s ▁October ▁Revolution ▁and ▁public ly ▁referred ▁to ▁himself ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 9 ▁as ▁" Len in ▁of ▁Italy ". The ▁Man if esto ▁of ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁Str ug gle ▁( J une ▁ 1 9 1 9 ) ▁of ▁the ▁P FR ▁presented ▁the ▁politico - ph il osoph ic ▁ten ets ▁of ▁F asc ism . ▁The ▁manif esto ▁was ▁author ed ▁by ▁national ▁synd ical ist ▁Alc este ▁De ▁Am br is ▁and ▁Fut ur ist ▁movement ▁leader ▁Fil ipp o ▁T omm aso ▁Mar in etti . ▁The |
▁manif esto ▁was ▁divided ▁into ▁four ▁sections , ▁describing ▁the ▁movement ' s ▁object ives ▁in ▁political , ▁social , ▁military ▁and ▁financial ▁fields . ▁ ▁By ▁the ▁early ▁ 1 9 2 0 s , ▁popular ▁support ▁for ▁the ▁P FR ' s ▁fight ▁against ▁B ols he v ism ▁number ed ▁some ▁ 2 5 0 , 0 0 0 ▁people . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 1 , ▁the ▁F asc isti ▁( F asc ists ) ▁met am orph osed ▁into ▁the ▁P NF ▁and ▁achieved ▁political ▁legit im acy ▁when ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁elected ▁to ▁the ▁Chamber ▁of ▁Deput ies ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 2 . ▁Although ▁the ▁Liberal ▁Party ▁retained ▁power , ▁the ▁gover ning ▁prime ▁minist ries ▁proved ▁e ph em eral , ▁especially ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁fifth ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁Luigi ▁Fact a , ▁whose ▁government ▁proved ▁vac ill ating . ▁ ▁To ▁dep ose ▁the ▁weak ▁parliament ary ▁dem ocracy , ▁Deput y ▁M uss ol ini ▁( with ▁military , ▁business ▁and ▁liberal ▁right - wing ▁support ) ▁launched ▁the ▁P NF ▁March ▁on ▁Rome ▁( 2 7 – 2 9 ▁October ▁ 1 9 2 2 ) ▁coup ▁d ' état ▁to ▁ou st ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁Luigi ▁Fact a ▁and ▁assume ▁the ▁government ▁of ▁Italy ▁to ▁restore ▁national ist ▁pride , ▁restart ▁the ▁economy , ▁increase ▁product ivity ▁with ▁labor ▁controls , ▁remove ▁economic ▁business ▁controls ▁and ▁imp ose ▁law ▁and ▁order . ▁On ▁ 2 8 ▁October , ▁whilst |
▁the ▁" M arch " ▁occurred , ▁King ▁Victor ▁Em manuel ▁III ▁with d rew ▁his ▁support ▁of ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁Fact a ▁and ▁appointed ▁P NF ▁Le ader ▁Ben ito ▁M uss ol ini ▁as ▁the ▁sixth ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁of ▁Italy . ▁ ▁The ▁March ▁on ▁Rome ▁became ▁a ▁victory ▁para de : ▁the ▁F asc ists ▁believed ▁their ▁success ▁was ▁revolution ary ▁and ▁traditional ist . ▁▁ ▁Econom y ▁▁ ▁Until ▁ 1 9 2 5 , ▁when ▁the ▁liberal ▁econom ist ▁Alberto ▁de ▁Stef ani , ▁although ▁a ▁former ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁squad rist i , ▁was ▁removed ▁from ▁his ▁post ▁as ▁Minister ▁of ▁Econom ics ▁( 1 9 2 2 – 1 9 2 5 ), ▁Italy ' s ▁coal ition ▁government ▁was ▁able ▁to ▁restart ▁the ▁economy ▁and ▁bal anced ▁the ▁national ▁budget . ▁Stef ani ▁developed ▁economic ▁policies ▁that ▁were ▁aligned ▁with ▁classical ▁liberal ism ▁principles ▁as ▁inheritance , ▁lux ury ▁and ▁foreign ▁capital ▁tax es ▁were ▁abol ished ; ▁and ▁life ▁ins urance ▁( 1 9 2 3 ) ▁and ▁the ▁state ▁communic ations ▁mon opol ies ▁were ▁priv at ised ▁and ▁so ▁on . ▁During ▁Italy ' s ▁coal ition ▁government ▁era , ▁pro - bus iness ▁policies ▁apparently ▁did ▁not ▁contradict ▁the ▁State ' s ▁finan cing ▁of ▁banks ▁and ▁industry . ▁Political ▁scient ist ▁Franklin ▁Hugh ▁Ad ler ▁referred ▁to ▁this ▁coal ition ▁period ▁between ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁appointment ▁as ▁prime ▁minister ▁on ▁ 3 1 ▁October ▁ 1 9 2 |
2 ▁and ▁his ▁ 1 9 2 5 ▁dict ator ship ▁as ▁" L iber al - F asc ism , ▁a ▁hy brid , ▁un stable , ▁and ▁trans itory ▁regime ▁type ▁under ▁which ▁the ▁formal ▁jur id ical - inst itution al ▁framework ▁of ▁the ▁liberal ▁regime ▁was ▁conser ved ", ▁which ▁still ▁allowed ▁pl ural ism , ▁compet itive ▁elections , ▁freedom ▁of ▁the ▁press ▁and ▁the ▁right ▁of ▁trade ▁un ions ▁to ▁strike . ▁Liberal ▁Party ▁leaders ▁and ▁industrial ists ▁thought ▁that ▁they ▁could ▁neutral ize ▁M uss ol ini ▁by ▁making ▁him ▁the ▁head ▁of ▁a ▁coal ition ▁government , ▁where ▁as ▁Luigi ▁Albert ini ▁remarked ▁that ▁" he ▁will ▁be ▁much ▁more ▁subject ▁to ▁influence ". ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁Prime ▁Minister ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁first ▁acts ▁was ▁the ▁ 4 0 0 - mill ion - li ra ▁finan cing ▁of ▁G io . ▁An sal do ▁& ▁C ., ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁country ' s ▁most ▁important ▁engineering ▁companies . ▁Sub sequ ent ▁to ▁the ▁ 1 9 2 6 ▁def lation ▁crisis , ▁banks ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Ban co ▁di ▁Roma ▁( B ank ▁of ▁Rome ), ▁the ▁Ban co ▁di ▁Napoli ▁( B ank ▁of ▁Nap les ) ▁and ▁the ▁Ban co ▁di ▁Sic ilia ▁( B ank ▁of ▁Sic ily ) ▁also ▁were ▁state - fin anced . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 4 , ▁a ▁private ▁business ▁enter prise ▁established ▁Un ione ▁Radio fon ica ▁Italiana ▁( URI ) |
▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Mar con i ▁company , ▁to ▁which ▁the ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁Government ▁granted ▁official ▁radio - bro ad cast ▁mon opol y . ▁After ▁the ▁defeat ▁of ▁F asc ism ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 4 , ▁URI ▁became ▁Radio ▁Aud izioni ▁Italian e ▁( RA I ) ▁and ▁was ▁renamed ▁RA I ▁— ▁Rad i ote le vis ione ▁Italiana ▁with ▁the ▁advent ▁of ▁television ▁in ▁ 1 9 5 4 . ▁ ▁Given ▁the ▁over wh el ming ly ▁rural ▁nature ▁of ▁Italian ▁economy ▁in ▁the ▁period , ▁agricult ure ▁was ▁vital ▁to ▁F asc ist ▁economic ▁policies ▁and ▁propag anda . ▁To ▁strength en ▁the ▁domestic ▁Italian ▁production ▁of ▁gra in , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁Government ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 5 ▁protection ist ▁policies ▁that ▁ultimately ▁failed ▁( see ▁the ▁Battle ▁for ▁Gra in ). ▁Histor ian ▁Den is ▁Mack ▁Smith ▁reports : ▁" Success ▁in ▁this ▁battle ▁was ▁[...] ▁another ▁ill us ory ▁propag anda ▁victory , ▁won ▁at ▁the ▁exp ense ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁economy ▁in ▁general , ▁and ▁consum ers ▁in ▁particular . ▁[...] ▁Those ▁who ▁gained ▁were ▁the ▁own ers ▁of ▁the ▁Lat if und ia , ▁or ▁" lat if ond i ", ▁and ▁the ▁proper t ied ▁classes ▁in ▁general . ▁[...] ▁[ M uss ol ini ' s ] ▁policy ▁con ferred ▁a ▁heavy ▁subs id y ▁on ▁the ▁Lat if ond isti ". ▁ ▁From ▁ 1 9 2 6 ▁following ▁the ▁P act |
▁of ▁the ▁Vid oni ▁Palace ▁and ▁the ▁Sy nd ical ▁La ws , ▁business ▁and ▁labour ▁were ▁organized ▁into ▁ 1 2 ▁separate ▁associations , ▁out law ing ▁or ▁integr ating ▁all ▁others . ▁These ▁organizations ▁negoti ated ▁labour ▁contract s ▁on ▁beh alf ▁of ▁all ▁its ▁members ▁with ▁the ▁state ▁acting ▁as ▁the ▁arbitr ator . ▁The ▁state ▁t ended ▁to ▁favour ▁big ▁industry ▁over ▁small ▁industry , ▁commerce , ▁bank ing , ▁agricult ure , ▁labour ▁and ▁transport ▁even ▁though ▁each ▁sector ▁officially ▁had ▁equal ▁representation . ▁Pr icing , ▁production ▁and ▁distribution ▁practices ▁were ▁controlled ▁by ▁employ er ▁associations ▁rather ▁than ▁individual ▁fir ms ▁and ▁labour ▁synd ic ates ▁negoti ated ▁collect ive ▁labour ▁contract s ▁binding ▁all ▁fir ms ▁in ▁the ▁particular ▁sector . ▁En for cement ▁of ▁contract s ▁was ▁difficult ▁and ▁the ▁large ▁b ureau c racy ▁delayed ▁resolution s ▁of ▁labour ▁disput es . ▁ ▁After ▁ 1 9 2 9 , ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁regime ▁counter ed ▁the ▁Great ▁De pression ▁with ▁massive ▁public ▁works ▁programs , ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁dra ining ▁of ▁the ▁Pont ine ▁Marsh es , ▁hydro elect ric ity ▁development , ▁railway ▁improvement ▁and ▁re arm ament . ▁In ▁ 1 9 3 3 , ▁the ▁Ist ituto ▁per ▁la ▁Ric ost ru zione ▁Indust ri ale ▁( I RI ▁— ▁Institute ▁for ▁Indust rial ▁Re const ruction ) ▁was ▁established ▁to ▁subs id ize ▁failing ▁companies ▁and ▁soon ▁controlled ▁important ▁port ions ▁of ▁the ▁national ▁economy ▁via ▁government - |
link ed ▁companies , ▁among ▁them ▁Al fa ▁Rome o . ▁The ▁Italian ▁economy ' s ▁G ross ▁National ▁Product ▁increased ▁ 2 ▁percent ; ▁autom obile ▁production ▁was ▁increased , ▁especially ▁that ▁of ▁the ▁F iat ▁motor ▁company ; ▁and ▁the ▁aer onaut ical ▁industry ▁was ▁developing . ▁Es pecially ▁after ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 6 ▁Society ▁of ▁Nation ' s ▁san ctions ▁against ▁Italian ▁invasion ▁of ▁Eth iop ia , ▁M uss ol ini ▁strongly ▁advoc ated ▁agr arian ism ▁and ▁aut archy ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁his ▁economic ▁" b att les " ▁for ▁Land , ▁the ▁Li ra ▁and ▁Gra in . ▁As ▁Prime ▁Minister , ▁M uss ol ini ▁phys ically ▁participated ▁with ▁the ▁workers ▁in ▁doing ▁the ▁work ; ▁the ▁" polit ics ▁as ▁theatre " ▁legacy ▁of ▁Gab rie le ▁D ' ▁Ann un z io ▁yield ed ▁great ▁propag anda ▁images ▁of ▁Il ▁Du ce ▁as ▁ ▁" Man ▁of ▁the ▁People ". ▁ ▁A ▁year ▁after ▁the ▁creation ▁of ▁the ▁I RI , ▁M uss ol ini ▁bo asted ▁to ▁his ▁Chamber ▁of ▁Deput ies : ▁" Three - four th s ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁economy , ▁industrial ▁and ▁agricult ural , ▁is ▁in ▁the ▁hands ▁of ▁the ▁state ". Car l ▁Schmidt , ▁The ▁Corpor ate ▁State ▁in ▁Action , ▁London : ▁Victor ▁G oll an cz ▁Ltd ., ▁ 1 9 3 9 , ▁pp . ▁ 1 5 3 – 7 6 ▁As ▁Italy ▁continued ▁to ▁national ize ▁its ▁economy , |
▁the ▁I RI ▁" bec ame ▁the ▁owner ▁not ▁only ▁of ▁the ▁three ▁most ▁important ▁Italian ▁banks , ▁which ▁were ▁clearly ▁too ▁big ▁to ▁fail , ▁but ▁also ▁of ▁the ▁l ion ' s ▁share ▁of ▁the ▁Italian ▁indust ries ". ▁During ▁this ▁period , ▁M uss ol ini ▁identified ▁his ▁economic ▁policies ▁with ▁" state ▁capital ism " ▁and ▁" state ▁social ism ", ▁which ▁later ▁was ▁described ▁as ▁" e conom ic ▁dirig isme ", ▁an ▁economic ▁system ▁where ▁the ▁state ▁has ▁the ▁power ▁to ▁direct ▁economic ▁production ▁and ▁allocation ▁of ▁resources . ▁By ▁ 1 9 3 9 , ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁att ained ▁the ▁highest ▁rate ▁of ▁state – own ership ▁of ▁an ▁economy ▁in ▁the ▁world ▁other ▁than ▁the ▁Soviet ▁Union , ▁where ▁the ▁Italian ▁state ▁" control led ▁over ▁four - fif th s ▁of ▁Italy ' s ▁sh ipping ▁and ▁ship building , ▁three - quarters ▁of ▁its ▁p ig ▁iron ▁production ▁and ▁almost ▁half ▁that ▁of ▁steel ". ▁▁ ▁Rel ations ▁with ▁the ▁Catholic ▁Church ▁ ▁In ▁the ▁ 1 9 th ▁century , ▁the ▁forces ▁of ▁Ris org imento ▁( 1 8 1 5 – 1 8 7 1 ) ▁had ▁conquer ed ▁Rome ▁and ▁taken ▁control ▁of ▁it ▁away ▁from ▁the ▁Pap acy , ▁which ▁saw ▁itself ▁hence for th ▁as ▁a ▁prisoner ▁in ▁the ▁V at ican . ▁In ▁February ▁ 1 9 2 9 , ▁as ▁Italian ▁Head ▁of ▁Government , ▁M uss ol ini ▁concluded ▁the ▁un resol ved |
▁Church – State ▁conflict ▁of ▁the ▁Roman ▁Question ▁( La ▁Question e ▁rom ana ) ▁with ▁the ▁Later an ▁Tre aty ▁between ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy ▁and ▁the ▁Holy ▁See , ▁establish ing ▁the ▁V at ican ▁City ▁micro state ▁in ▁Rome . ▁Upon ▁rat ification ▁of ▁the ▁Later an ▁Tre aty , ▁the ▁pap acy ▁recognized ▁the ▁state ▁of ▁Italy ▁in ▁exchange ▁for ▁diplom atic ▁recognition ▁of ▁the ▁V at ican ▁City , ▁territorial ▁compens ations , ▁introduction ▁of ▁religious ▁education ▁into ▁all ▁state ▁fund ed ▁schools ▁in ▁Italy Ch amb ers ▁Dictionary ▁of ▁World ▁History ▁( 2 0 0 0 ), ▁pp . ▁ 4 6 4 – 6 5 . ▁and ▁ 5 0 ▁million ▁pounds ▁ster ling ▁that ▁were ▁shift ed ▁from ▁Italian ▁bank ▁shares ▁into ▁a ▁Swiss ▁company ▁Prof ima ▁SA . ▁British ▁w art ime ▁records ▁from ▁the ▁National ▁Archives ▁in ▁K ew ▁also ▁confirmed ▁Prof ima ▁SA ▁as ▁the ▁V at ican ' s ▁company ▁which ▁was ▁accused ▁during ▁W W ▁II ▁of ▁eng aging ▁in ▁" activ ities ▁contrary ▁to ▁Al lied ▁interests ". ▁Cambridge ▁historian ▁John ▁F . ▁Pol l ard ▁wrote ▁in ▁his ▁book ▁that ▁this ▁financial ▁settlement ▁ens ured ▁the ▁" p ap acy ▁[...] ▁would ▁never ▁be ▁poor ▁again ". How ▁the ▁V at ican ▁built ▁a ▁secret ▁property ▁emp ire ▁using ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁millions ▁. ▁Pap acy ▁used ▁off sh ore ▁tax ▁ha vens ▁to ▁create ▁£ 5 0 0 m ▁international ▁port folio , ▁featuring |
▁real ▁estate ▁in ▁UK , ▁France ▁and ▁Switzerland . ▁The ▁Guardian , ▁ 2 1 ▁January ▁ 2 0 1 3 ▁ ▁Not ▁long ▁after ▁the ▁Later an ▁Tre aty ▁was ▁signed , ▁M uss ol ini ▁was ▁almost ▁" ex communic ated " ▁over ▁his ▁" int ract able " ▁determ ination ▁to ▁prevent ▁the ▁V at ican ▁from ▁having ▁control ▁over ▁education . ▁In ▁reply , ▁the ▁Pope ▁protest ed ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁" pag an ▁worship ▁of ▁the ▁state " ▁and ▁the ▁im position ▁of ▁an ▁" ex clus ive ▁o ath ▁of ▁ob ed ience " ▁that ▁oblig ated ▁everyone ▁to ▁u ph old ▁fasc ism . ▁Once ▁declaring ▁in ▁his ▁youth ▁that ▁" rel ig ion ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁mental ▁disease ", ▁M uss ol ini ▁" w anted ▁the ▁appearance ▁of ▁being ▁greatly ▁fav oured ▁by ▁the ▁Pope " ▁while ▁simultaneously ▁" sub ordinate ▁to ▁no ▁one ". ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁wid ow ▁att ested ▁in ▁her ▁ 1 9 7 4 ▁book ▁that ▁her ▁husband ▁was ▁" bas ically ▁ir rel ig ious ▁until ▁the ▁later ▁years ▁of ▁his ▁life ". ▁▁ ▁In flu ence ▁outside ▁Italy ▁ ▁The ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁model ▁was ▁very ▁influ ential ▁beyond ▁Italy . ▁In ▁the ▁twenty - one - year ▁inter bell um ▁period , ▁many ▁political ▁scient ists ▁and ▁philosoph ers ▁sought ▁ide ological ▁insp iration ▁from ▁Italy . ▁M uss ol ini ' s ▁establishment ▁of ▁law ▁and ▁order |
▁to ▁Italy ▁and ▁its ▁society ▁was ▁pra ised ▁by ▁W inst on ▁Church ill , ▁Sig mund ▁Fre ud , ▁George ▁Bernard ▁Shaw ▁and ▁Thomas ▁Ed ison ▁as ▁the ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁comb ated ▁organ ised ▁crime ▁and ▁the ▁M af ia ▁with ▁violence ▁and ▁vend etta ▁( hon our ). ▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ism ▁was ▁copied ▁by ▁Adolf ▁Hitler ' s ▁Naz i ▁Party , ▁the ▁Russian ▁F asc ist ▁Organ ization , ▁the ▁Roman ian ▁National ▁F asc ist ▁Mov ement ▁( the ▁National ▁Roman ian ▁F as cia , ▁National ▁Ital o - R oman ian ▁Cultural ▁and ▁Econom ic ▁Mov ement ) ▁and ▁the ▁Dutch ▁fasc ists ▁were ▁based ▁upon ▁the ▁Verb ond ▁van ▁Act ual isten ▁journal ▁of ▁H . ▁A . ▁S inc la ir ▁de ▁Ro chem ont ▁and ▁Alfred ▁Ha ight on . ▁The ▁Sam mar inese ▁F asc ist ▁Party ▁established ▁an ▁early ▁F asc ist ▁government ▁in ▁San ▁Mar ino ▁and ▁their ▁politico - ph il osoph ic ▁basis ▁essentially ▁was ▁Italian ▁F asc ism . ▁In ▁the ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Y ug oslav ia , ▁Milan ▁Sto j adin ović ▁established ▁his ▁Y ug oslav ▁Rad ical ▁Union . ▁They ▁wore ▁green ▁sh ir ts ▁and ▁Š aj ka č a ▁caps ▁and ▁used ▁the ▁Roman ▁sal ute . ▁Sto j adin ović ▁also ▁adopted ▁the ▁title ▁of ▁V od ja . ▁In ▁Switzerland , ▁pro - N azi ▁Colonel ▁Arthur ▁Fon j alla z ▁of ▁the ▁National ▁Front ▁became ▁an |
▁ar dent ▁M uss ol ini ▁adm ir er ▁after ▁visit ing ▁Italy ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 2 ▁and ▁advoc ated ▁the ▁Italian ▁an nex ation ▁of ▁Switzerland ▁whilst ▁receiving ▁F asc ist ▁foreign ▁aid . ▁The ▁country ▁was ▁host ▁for ▁two ▁Italian ▁politico - c ult ural ▁activities : ▁the ▁International ▁Centre ▁for ▁F asc ist ▁Studies ▁( C INE F ▁— ▁Centre ▁International ▁d ' ▁Ét udes ▁F asc istes ) ▁and ▁the ▁ 1 9 3 4 ▁con gress ▁of ▁the ▁Action ▁Committee ▁for ▁the ▁Univers ality ▁of ▁Rome ▁( CA UR ▁— ▁Com it ato ▁d ' ▁A zione ▁della ▁Univers ità ▁de ▁Roma ). ▁In ▁Spain , ▁the ▁writer ▁Ern esto ▁G im é nez ▁Cab all ero ▁in ▁Gen io ▁de ▁España ▁( The ▁Gen ius ▁of ▁Spain , ▁ 1 9 3 2 ) ▁called ▁for ▁the ▁Italian ▁an nex ation ▁of ▁Spain , ▁led ▁by ▁M uss ol ini ▁pres iding ▁an ▁international ▁Latin ▁Roman ▁Catholic ▁emp ire . ▁He ▁then ▁progress ed ▁to ▁close ▁associated ▁with ▁Fal ang ism , ▁leading ▁to ▁disc arding ▁the ▁Spanish ▁an nex ation ▁to ▁Italy . ▁▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁intellect uals ▁▁ ▁Ben ito ▁M uss ol ini ▁ ▁Mass imo ▁B ont emp elli ▁ ▁Giuseppe ▁Bot ta i ▁ ▁En rico ▁Cor rad ini ▁ ▁Carlo ▁Cost am agna ▁ ▁Julius ▁E vol a ▁ ▁En rico ▁Fer ri ▁ ▁Giovanni ▁Gent ile ▁ ▁Cor rado ▁G ini ▁ ▁Ag ost ino ▁L |
anz illo ▁ ▁Cur z io ▁Mal ap arte ▁ ▁Fil ipp o ▁T omm aso ▁Mar in etti ▁ ▁Robert ▁Mich els ▁ ▁Ang elo ▁Oliv iero ▁Oliv etti ▁ ▁Ser gio ▁Pan un z io ▁ ▁Giovanni ▁Pap ini ▁ ▁Giuseppe ▁Pre zz ol ini ▁ ▁Alfred o ▁Roc co ▁ ▁Ed mond o ▁Ros son i ▁ ▁Marg her ita ▁Sar f atti ▁ ▁Ar d engo ▁So ff ici ▁ ▁U go ▁Sp ir ito ▁ ▁Giuseppe ▁Ung are tt i ▁ ▁G io ac ch ino ▁Vol pe ▁▁ ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁s log ans ▁▁▁ ▁Me ▁ne ▁fre go ▁(" I ▁don ' t ▁give ▁a ▁dam n !" ), ▁the ▁Italian ▁F asc ist ▁mot to . ▁ ▁Lib ro ▁e ▁mos ch etto , ▁fasc ista ▁perf etto ▁(" Book ▁and ▁mus ket , ▁perfect ▁F asc ist "). ▁ ▁T utto ▁nello ▁Stato , ▁n iente ▁al ▁di ▁fu ori ▁dello ▁Stato , ▁n ulla ▁contro ▁lo ▁Stato ▁(" Every thing ▁in ▁the ▁State , ▁nothing ▁outside ▁the ▁State , ▁nothing ▁against ▁the ▁State "). ▁ ▁Cred ere , ▁ob bed ire , ▁comb atter e ▁(" Bel ieve , ▁O bey , ▁Fight "). ▁▁ ▁Chi ▁si ▁fer ma ▁è ▁perd uto ▁(" He ▁who ▁hes it ates ▁is ▁lost "). ▁ ▁Se ▁av an zo , ▁segu item i ; ▁se ▁ind iet re gg io , ▁ucc id et emi ; ▁se ▁mu o io , ▁vend ic at emi |
▁(" If ▁I ▁advance , ▁follow ▁me . ▁If ▁I ▁retre at , ▁kill ▁me . ▁If ▁I ▁die , ▁a ven ge ▁me "). ▁Bor row ed ▁from ▁French ▁Royal ist ▁General ▁Henri ▁de ▁la ▁Ro che ja que lein . ▁ ▁V iva ▁il ▁Du ce ▁(" Long ▁live ▁the ▁Le ader "). ▁ ▁La ▁guerra ▁è ▁per ▁l ' u omo ▁come ▁la ▁mat ern ità ▁è ▁per ▁la ▁donna ▁(" W ar ▁is ▁to ▁man ▁as ▁mother hood ▁is ▁to ▁woman "). ▁ ▁Bo ia ▁chi ▁mol la ▁(" Who ▁gives ▁up ▁is ▁a ▁ro gue "); ▁the ▁first ▁meaning ▁of ▁" bo ia " ▁is ▁" execution er , ▁hang man ", ▁but ▁in ▁this ▁context ▁it ▁means ▁" sc ound rel , ▁ro gue , ▁villa in , ▁black guard , ▁kn ave , ▁low life " ▁and ▁it ▁can ▁also ▁be ▁used ▁as ▁an ▁ex clam ation ▁of ▁strong ▁ir rit ation ▁or ▁disappoint ment ▁or ▁as ▁a ▁pe jor atively ▁super l ative ▁ad jective ▁( e . g . ▁tempo ▁bo ia , ▁" aw ful ▁weather "). ▁ ▁Mol ti ▁nem ici , ▁molto ▁on ore ▁(" Many ▁enemies , ▁much ▁Honor "). ▁ ▁È ▁l ' ar atro ▁che ▁tra cc ia ▁il ▁sol co , ▁ma ▁è ▁la ▁sp ada ▁che ▁lo ▁dif ende ▁(" The ▁pl ough ▁cut s ▁the ▁fur row , ▁but ▁the ▁sword ▁def ends ▁it "). ▁ ▁D ux ▁me a ▁lux ▁(" The ▁Le ader |
▁is ▁my ▁light "), ▁Latin ▁phrase . ▁ ▁Du ce , ▁a ▁no i ▁(" D uce , ▁to ▁us "). ▁ ▁M uss ol ini ▁ha ▁sempre ▁rag ione ▁(" M uss ol ini ▁is ▁always ▁right "). ▁ ▁V inc ere , ▁e ▁vin cer emo ▁(" To ▁win , ▁and ▁we ▁shall ▁win ! "). ▁▁ ▁See ▁also ▁▁ ▁De fin itions ▁of ▁fasc ism ▁ ▁Econom y ▁of ▁Italy ▁under ▁fasc ism ▁ ▁F asc ism ▁ ▁F asc ist ▁synd ical ism ▁ ▁Italian ▁fasc ist ▁states ▁ ▁Kingdom ▁of ▁Italy ▁( 1 9 2 2 – 1 9 4 3 ; ▁as ▁a ▁fasc ist ▁state ) ▁ ▁Italian ▁Social ▁Republic ▁( 1 9 4 3 – 1 9 4 5 ) ▁ ▁Model ▁of ▁mascul inity ▁under ▁fasc ist ▁Italy ▁ ▁National ▁F asc ist ▁Party ▁ ▁Pro pag anda ▁of ▁F asc ist ▁Italy ▁ ▁Sic ilian ▁ma f ia ▁during ▁the ▁fasc ism ▁ ▁Squad r ismo ▁ ▁F asc ist ▁architecture ▁▁ ▁References ▁▁▁ ▁S ources ▁▁ ▁" L abor ▁Char ter " ▁( 1 9 2 7 – 1 9 3 4 ). ▁ ▁M uss ol ini , ▁Ben ito . ▁Do ctrine ▁of ▁F asc ism ▁which ▁was ▁published ▁as ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁entry ▁for ▁fasc ismo ▁in ▁the ▁Enc iclopedia ▁Italiana ▁ 1 9 3 2 . ▁ ▁Sor el , ▁Georges . ▁Ref lections ▁on ▁Vi ol ence . ▁▁ ▁Further ▁reading ▁▁ ▁General ▁▁ ▁De ▁Fel ice |
, ▁Ren zo ▁Inter pret ations ▁of ▁F asc ism , ▁translated ▁by ▁Br enda ▁H uff ▁Ever ett , ▁Cambridge ; ▁London : ▁Harvard ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 1 9 7 7 ▁. ▁ ▁E at well , ▁Roger . ▁ 1 9 9 6 . ▁F asc ism : ▁A ▁History . ▁New ▁York : ▁Allen ▁Lane . ▁ ▁Hugh es , ▁H . ▁Stuart . ▁ 1 9 5 3 . ▁The ▁United ▁States ▁and ▁Italy . ▁Cambridge , ▁MA : ▁Harvard ▁University ▁Press . ▁ ▁M ises , ▁Ludwig ▁von . ▁ 1 9 4 4 . ▁Om n ip ot ent ▁Government : ▁The ▁R ise ▁of ▁the ▁Total ▁State ▁and ▁Total ▁War . ▁Gro ve ▁City : ▁Libert arian ▁Press . ▁ ▁Pa xt on , ▁Robert ▁O . ▁ 2 0 0 4 . ▁The ▁An atom y ▁of ▁F asc ism . ▁New ▁York : ▁Alfred ▁A . ▁Kn opf , ▁. ▁ ▁Pay ne , ▁Stanley ▁G . ▁ 1 9 9 5 . ▁A ▁History ▁of ▁F asc ism , ▁ 1 9 1 4 – 4 5 . ▁Mad ison , ▁W isc .: ▁University ▁of ▁Wisconsin ▁Press ▁. ▁ ▁Reich , ▁Wilhelm . ▁ 1 9 7 0 . ▁The ▁Mass ▁Psych ology ▁of ▁F asc ism . ▁New ▁York : ▁F arr ar , ▁Stra us ▁& ▁Gir oux . ▁ ▁S eld es , ▁George . ▁ 1 9 3 5 . ▁S aw d ust ▁Ca esar : |
▁The ▁U nt old ▁History ▁of ▁M uss ol ini ▁and ▁F asc ism . ▁New ▁York ▁and ▁London : ▁Har per ▁and ▁Brothers . ▁ ▁Alfred ▁Sohn - R eth el ▁Econom y ▁and ▁Class ▁Str ucture ▁of ▁German ▁F asc ism , ▁London , ▁C SE ▁B ks , ▁ 1 9 7 8 ▁. ▁ ▁Ad ler , ▁Frank , ▁and ▁Dan ilo ▁Bres chi , ▁ed s ., ▁Special ▁Issue ▁on ▁Italian ▁F asc ism , ▁T EL OS ▁ 1 3 3 ▁( W inter ▁ 2 0 0 5 ). ▁▁▁▁ ▁F asc ist ▁ide ology ▁▁ ▁De ▁Fel ice , ▁Ren zo ▁F asc ism : ▁An ▁Inform al ▁Introduction ▁to ▁Its ▁Theory ▁and ▁Pract ice : ▁An ▁Inter view ▁with ▁Michael ▁L ede en , ▁New ▁Brun sw ick , ▁N . J . ▁: ▁Trans action ▁Books , ▁ 1 9 7 6 ▁. ▁ ▁Fritz sche , ▁Peter . ▁ 1 9 9 0 . ▁Re he ars als ▁for ▁F asc ism : ▁Pop ul ism ▁and ▁Political ▁M obil ization ▁in ▁We imar ▁Germany . ▁New ▁York : ▁Oxford ▁University ▁Press . ▁. ▁ ▁Greg or , ▁A . ▁James ▁" M uss ol ini ' s ▁Intel lect uals : ▁F asc ist ▁Social ▁and ▁Political ▁Th ought ". ▁Pr inc eton , ▁N . ▁J .: ▁Pr inc eton ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 2 0 0 5 . ▁. ▁ ▁Griff in , ▁Roger . ▁ 2 0 0 |
0 . ▁" Re volution ▁from ▁the ▁Right : ▁F asc ism ," ▁chapter ▁in ▁David ▁Parker ▁( ed .) ▁Revolution s ▁and ▁the ▁Revolution ary ▁Trad ition ▁in ▁the ▁West ▁ 1 5 6 0 – 1 9 9 1 , ▁Rout ledge , ▁London . ▁ ▁La que ur , ▁Walter . ▁ 1 9 6 6 . ▁F asc ism : ▁Past , ▁Pres ent , ▁Future , ▁New ▁York : ▁Oxford : ▁Oxford ▁University ▁Press , ▁ 1 9 9 7 . ▁ ▁Sch api ro , ▁J . ▁Sal w yn . ▁ 1 9 4 9 . ▁Liberal ism ▁and ▁The ▁Challenge ▁of ▁F asc ism , ▁Social ▁Forces ▁in ▁England ▁and ▁France ▁( 1 8 1 5 – 1 8 7 0 ). ▁New ▁York : ▁McG raw - H ill . ▁ ▁Lac lau , ▁Ern esto . ▁ 1 9 7 7 . ▁Polit ics ▁and ▁Ide ology ▁in ▁Marx ist ▁Theory : ▁Capital ism , ▁F asc ism , ▁Pop ul ism . ▁London : ▁N L B / At l antic ▁High lands ▁Human ities ▁Press . ▁ ▁Stern hell , ▁Ze ev ▁with ▁Mario ▁Sz na j der ▁and ▁Ma ia ▁Ash eri . ▁[ 1 9 8 9 ] ▁ 1 9 9 4 . ▁The ▁B irth ▁of ▁F asc ist ▁Ide ology , ▁From ▁Cultural ▁Reb ell ion ▁to ▁Political ▁Revolution ., ▁Trans . ▁David ▁Ma ise i . ▁Pr inc eton , ▁N J : ▁Pr inc |
eton ▁University ▁Press . ▁▁ ▁International ▁fasc ism ▁▁ ▁Co og an , ▁Kevin . ▁ 1 9 9 9 . ▁Dream er ▁of ▁the ▁Day : ▁Francis ▁Parker ▁Y ockey ▁and ▁the ▁Post war ▁F asc ist ▁International . ▁Brook lyn , ▁N . Y .: ▁Aut onom edia . ▁ ▁Greg or , ▁A . ▁James . ▁ 2 0 0 6 . ▁" The ▁Search ▁for ▁Ne of asc ism : ▁The ▁Use ▁and ▁Ab use ▁of ▁Social ▁Science ". ▁New ▁York : ▁Cambridge ▁University ▁Press . ▁ ▁Griff in , ▁Roger . ▁ 1 9 9 1 . ▁The ▁Nature ▁of ▁F asc ism . ▁New ▁York : ▁St . ▁Martin ' s ▁Press . ▁ ▁Pa xt on , ▁Robert ▁O . ▁ 2 0 0 4 . ▁The ▁An atom y ▁of ▁F asc ism . ▁New ▁York : ▁Alfred ▁A . ▁Kn opf . ▁ ▁We ber , ▁Eugen . ▁[ 1 9 6 4 ] ▁ 1 9 8 5 . ▁Vari eties ▁of ▁F asc ism : ▁Do ctr ines ▁of ▁Revolution ▁in ▁the ▁Tw enti eth ▁Century , ▁New ▁York : ▁Van ▁N ost rand ▁Rein hold ▁Company , ▁contains ▁chap ters ▁on ▁fasc ist ▁movements ▁in ▁different ▁countries . ▁ ▁Wal lace , ▁Henry . ▁" The ▁D angers ▁of ▁American ▁F asc ism ". ▁The ▁New ▁York ▁Times ' ', ▁Sunday , ▁ 9 ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 4 . ▁ ▁T rot sky , ▁Leon . ▁ 1 9 |
4 4 ▁" F asc ism , ▁What ▁it ▁is ▁and ▁how ▁to ▁fight ▁it " ▁P ione er ▁Publish ers ▁( p am ph let ). ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁" F asc ist ▁Italy ▁and ▁the ▁Jews : ▁M yth ▁versus ▁Re ality ", ▁an ▁online ▁lecture ▁by ▁Dr . ▁I ael ▁N id am - Or vi eto ▁of ▁Y ad ▁V ash em . ▁ ▁" F asc ism ▁Part ▁I ▁– ▁Under standing ▁F asc ism ▁and ▁Anti - S emit ism ". ▁ ▁" The ▁Function s ▁of ▁F asc ism ", ▁a ▁radio ▁lecture ▁by ▁Michael ▁Par enti . ▁ ▁" The ▁Political ▁and ▁Social ▁Do ctrine ▁of ▁F asc ism " ▁( 1 9 3 3 ), ▁author ized ▁translation . ▁ ▁" Ital ian ▁F asc ism ". ▁▁▁ ▁Category : F asc ism ▁Category : Pol it ics ▁of ▁Italy ▁Category : Pol it ical ▁movements <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Health ▁Haz ard ▁E valu ation ▁( H HE ) ▁program ▁is ▁a ▁work place ▁health ▁program ▁admin ister ed ▁by ▁the ▁National ▁Institute ▁for ▁Occ up ational ▁Saf ety ▁and ▁Health ▁( NI OS H ). ▁N IOS H ▁developed ▁the ▁H HE ▁program ▁to ▁comp ly ▁with ▁a ▁mand ate ▁in ▁the ▁Occ up ational ▁Saf ety ▁and ▁Health ▁Act ▁of ▁ 1 9 7 0 ▁to ▁investigate ▁work place ▁health ▁ha z ards ▁reported ▁by ▁employ ers ▁and ▁employees . ▁According ▁to ▁Section ▁ 2 0 ( a )( 6 ) |
▁of ▁the ▁Act , ▁the ▁Secretary ▁of ▁Health ▁and ▁Human ▁Services ▁is ▁author ized ▁" follow ing ▁a ▁written ▁request ▁by ▁any ▁employ er ▁or ▁author ized ▁representative ▁of ▁employees , ▁to ▁determine ▁whether ▁any ▁subst ance ▁normally ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁place ▁of ▁employ ment ▁has ▁potentially ▁to xic ▁effects ▁in ▁such ▁concentr ations ▁as ▁used ▁or ▁found ." ▁▁ ▁Emp loy ees , ▁employ ers , ▁and ▁labor ▁un ions ▁can ▁request ▁assistance ▁from ▁the ▁H HE ▁program ▁at ▁no ▁cost ▁to ▁them . ▁The ▁H HE ▁program ▁respond s ▁to ▁requests ▁through ▁a ▁variety ▁of ▁methods , ▁including ▁tele phone ▁consult ations ▁and ▁field ▁investig ations . ▁For ▁field ▁investig ations , ▁N IOS H ▁provides ▁a ▁report ▁detail ing ▁the ▁ha z ards ▁found ▁and ▁out lin ing ▁rem ed iation ▁recommend ations . ▁N IOS H ▁does ▁not ▁have ▁the ▁authority ▁to ▁force ▁the ▁employ er ▁to ▁comp ly ▁with ▁these ▁recommend ations . ▁The ▁report ▁is ▁given ▁to ▁the ▁request or , ▁the ▁employ er , ▁employee ▁represent atives , ▁OS HA , ▁and ▁other ▁appropriate ▁ag encies ; ▁most ▁reports ▁are ▁posted ▁on ▁the ▁N IOS H ▁website . ▁ ▁Request s ▁N IOS H ▁recomm ends ▁request ing ▁an ▁H HE ▁if ▁employees ▁are ▁sick ▁and ▁the ▁cause ▁is ▁unknown ▁or ▁the ▁number ▁of ▁ill ness es ▁or ▁inj uries ▁is ▁higher ▁than ▁expected ▁in ▁a ▁group ▁of ▁employees . ▁Request s ▁should ▁also ▁be ▁made ▁when ▁employees ▁are ▁exposed ▁to ▁a ▁new ▁ha z ard |
▁or ▁a ▁ha z ard ▁un reg ulated ▁by ▁OS HA ▁or ▁when ▁employees ▁are ▁experien cing ▁ill ▁health ▁when ▁their ▁expos ure ▁to ▁an ▁agent ▁is ▁below ▁the ▁occup ational ▁expos ure ▁limits . ▁If ▁multiple ▁ha z ard ous ▁agents ▁or ▁conditions ▁are ▁present ▁in ▁the ▁work place , ▁an ▁H HE ▁request ▁can ▁be ▁benef icial . ▁Common ▁ha z ards ▁evaluated ▁include ▁chemical s , ▁particul ates , ▁noise , ▁radiation , ▁bi ological ▁agents , ▁erg onom ics , ▁heat ▁stress , ▁and ▁occup ational ▁stress . ▁ ▁An ▁H HE ▁can ▁be ▁requested ▁by ▁current ▁employee ( s ) ▁of ▁the ▁work place , ▁a ▁management ▁official ▁on ▁beh alf ▁of ▁the ▁employ er , ▁or ▁a ▁labor ▁union ▁representing ▁employees ▁at ▁the ▁work place . ▁For ▁work p laces ▁with ▁more ▁than ▁three ▁employees , ▁an ▁employee ▁request ▁must ▁be ▁supported ▁by ▁the ▁sign atures ▁of ▁three ▁employees . ▁If ▁the ▁work place ▁has ▁three ▁or ▁fewer ▁employees , ▁only ▁one ▁employee ▁signature ▁is ▁required . ▁ ▁The ▁Occ up ational ▁Saf ety ▁and ▁Health ▁Act ▁gives ▁N IOS H ▁the ▁authority ▁to ▁conduct ▁H HE s ▁in ▁the ▁private ▁sector ▁and ▁federal ▁work p laces . ▁When ▁the ▁work place ▁is ▁part ▁of ▁a ▁state ▁or ▁local ▁government , ▁N IOS H ▁authority ▁is ▁more ▁limited ▁and ▁the ▁employ er ' s ▁co operation ▁may ▁be ▁necessary ▁before ▁N IOS H ▁can ▁do ▁an ▁evaluation . ▁ ▁H HE ▁process ▁ ▁N IOS H ▁typically |
▁initially ▁contacts ▁the ▁request or ▁within ▁ 3 0 ▁days ▁to ▁discuss ▁the ▁request . ▁How ▁the ▁request ▁is ▁addressed ▁largely ▁depends ▁on ▁the ▁nature ▁of ▁the ▁request . ▁In ▁most ▁cases , ▁N IOS H ▁respond s ▁with ▁a ▁tele phone ▁consult ation ▁to ▁discuss ▁the ▁problems ▁and ▁how ▁to ▁correct ▁them . ▁For ▁other ▁requests , ▁N IOS H ▁vis its ▁the ▁work place ▁to ▁learn ▁more ▁about ▁the ▁health ▁ha z ards ▁present . ▁In ▁a ▁small ▁number ▁of ▁cases , ▁N IOS H ▁refers ▁the ▁request ▁to ▁a ▁more ▁appropriate ▁ag ency . ▁ ▁On - site ▁work place ▁evalu ations ▁are ▁coordin ated ▁with ▁the ▁employ er ; ▁N IOS H ▁does ▁not ▁usually ▁make ▁un ann ounced ▁vis its . ▁At ▁the ▁conclusion ▁of ▁an ▁initial ▁site ▁visit , ▁N IOS H ▁reports ▁its ▁pre lim inary ▁find ings ▁verb ally ▁to ▁the ▁employ er , ▁employees , ▁and ▁employee ▁represent atives ▁( such ▁as ▁labor ▁un ions ). ▁At ▁this ▁point ▁in ▁the ▁evaluation , ▁the ▁results ▁are ▁mostly ▁incomplete , ▁and ▁in ▁some ▁cases , ▁more ▁vis its ▁are ▁necessary . ▁Emp loy ees ▁who ▁particip ate ▁in ▁expos ure ▁or ▁health ▁testing ▁will ▁receive ▁their ▁personal ▁tests ▁results ▁if ▁they ▁choose ▁so . ▁After ▁results ▁are ▁completely ▁analyz ed , ▁N IOS H ▁comp iles ▁a ▁final ▁report . ▁The ▁report ▁contains ▁the ▁official ▁find ings ▁of ▁the ▁evaluation ▁and ▁recommend ations ▁on ▁how ▁to ▁address ▁health ▁ha z ards ▁found ▁or ▁to ▁improve |
▁programs ▁for ▁protect ing ▁employee ▁health . ▁This ▁report ▁is ▁sent ▁to ▁the ▁employ er , ▁the ▁employee ▁representative , ▁OS HA , ▁and ▁other ▁ag encies . ▁The ▁employ er ▁must ▁post ▁this ▁report ▁in ▁the ▁work place ▁where ▁all ▁employees ▁can ▁view ▁it . ▁ ▁Employee ▁protection ▁Federal ▁laws ▁and ▁reg ulations ▁provide ▁some ▁protection ▁against ▁possible ▁disc rimin atory ▁actions ▁in ▁the ▁work place ▁for ▁employees ▁who ▁request ▁an ▁H HE ▁or ▁particip ate ▁in ▁an ▁evaluation . ▁If ▁an ▁employee ▁requests ▁it , ▁N IOS H ▁will ▁not ▁disc lose ▁their ▁name ▁to ▁the ▁employ er . ▁Additionally , ▁the ▁Occ up ational ▁Saf ety ▁and ▁Health ▁Act ▁and ▁the ▁Federal ▁Mine ▁Saf ety ▁and ▁Health ▁Act ▁prohib it ▁employ ers ▁from ▁pun ishing ▁employees ▁for ▁reporting ▁a ▁health ▁ha z ard ▁or ▁particip ating ▁in ▁N IOS H ▁investig ations . ▁ ▁Comple ted ▁reports ▁N IOS H ▁has ▁completed ▁over ▁ 3 , 0 0 0 ▁H HE ▁reports ▁detail ing ▁on - site ▁work place ▁evalu ations ▁in ▁all ▁ 5 0 ▁states . ▁The ▁reports ▁are ▁available ▁from ▁the ▁N IOS H ▁website ▁or ▁by ▁contact ing ▁the ▁H HE ▁program . ▁H HE ▁reports ▁can ▁be ▁searched ▁online . ▁ ▁H HE ▁program ▁impact ▁ ▁The ▁H HE ▁Program ▁conduct s ▁“ follow back ▁activities ” ▁to ▁learn ▁if ▁evaluated ▁work p laces ▁found ▁the ▁H HE ▁useful , ▁whether ▁employ ers ▁implemented ▁recommend ations , ▁and ▁to ▁determine ▁if ▁work p laces ▁need |
▁additional ▁help . ▁Follow back ▁activities ▁can ▁include ▁surve ys , ▁conference ▁calls , ▁and ▁return ▁vis its . ▁Follow back ▁data ▁shows ▁the ▁majority ▁of ▁respond ents ▁have ▁implemented ▁the ▁H HE ▁program ’ s ▁recommend ations , ▁think ▁the ▁evaluation ▁improved ▁the ▁health ▁and ▁safety ▁of ▁the ▁work place , ▁and ▁would ▁request ▁an ▁H HE ▁again . ▁ ▁Com parison ▁to ▁OS HA ▁ins pe ctions ▁and ▁the ▁OS HA ▁consult ation ▁program ▁ ▁Although ▁OS HA ▁inspect ors ▁and ▁H HE ▁program ▁staff ▁have ▁legal ▁authority ▁to ▁enter ▁work p laces , ▁there ▁are ▁important ▁differences ▁between ▁the ▁programs . ▁OS HA ▁is ▁a ▁regul atory ▁ag ency . ▁OS HA ▁ins pe ctions ▁focus ▁on ▁known ▁and ▁reg ulated ▁ha z ards , ▁and ▁inspect ors ▁can ▁issue ▁cit ations ▁and ▁fin es ▁for ▁non comp liance ▁with ▁safety ▁and ▁health ▁reg ulations . ▁N IOS H ▁is ▁a ▁research ▁ag ency . ▁Its ▁evalu ations ▁cover ▁known ▁or ▁un recogn ized ▁ha z ards . ▁The ▁H HE ▁program ▁does ▁not ▁issue ▁fin es ▁or ▁cit ations . ▁ ▁The ▁OS HA ▁on - site ▁consult ation ▁program ▁shares ▁some ▁features ▁with ▁the ▁H HE ▁program . ▁Both ▁programs ▁provide ▁services ▁at ▁no ▁cost ▁to ▁the ▁request ors ▁and ▁assess ▁occup ational ▁health ▁and ▁safety ▁issues . ▁Ne ither ▁program ▁issues ▁cit ations , ▁fin es , ▁or ▁pen alt ies . ▁However , ▁only ▁small ▁or ▁mid - s ized ▁business ▁own ers ▁can ▁request ▁an |
▁OS HA ▁consult ation , ▁and ▁own ers ▁are ▁required ▁to ▁correct ▁identified ▁ha z ards . ▁In ▁contrast , ▁employ ers , ▁employees , ▁and ▁un ions ▁from ▁any ▁s ized ▁business ▁can ▁request ▁an ▁H HE , ▁and ▁employ ers ▁are ▁not ▁required ▁to ▁follow ▁H HE ▁program ▁recommend ations . ▁ ▁Emer gency ▁response ▁activities ▁ ▁The ▁H HE ▁Program ▁provides ▁technical ▁assistance ▁during ▁federal ▁emer gen cies . ▁Staff ▁are ▁trained ▁to ▁respond ▁to ▁a ▁natural ▁dis aster s ▁and ▁bi ological , ▁chemical , ▁explos ive , ▁and ▁radi ological ▁events . ▁The ▁H HE ▁Program ▁provided ▁protection ▁to ▁emer gency ▁response ▁workers ▁in ▁the ▁September ▁ 1 1 ▁attacks , ▁anth ra x ▁attacks , ▁H urr icane ▁K atr ina , ▁Deep water ▁Hor izon ▁oil ▁sp ill , ▁and ▁the ▁E bol a ▁ep ide mic . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Occ up ational ▁h yg iene ▁Occ up ational ▁medicine ▁Occ up ational ▁safety ▁and ▁health ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁N IOS H ▁Health ▁Haz ard ▁E valu ation ▁page ▁ ▁Dire ctions ▁for ▁request ing ▁an ▁evaluation ▁ ▁National ▁Institute ▁for ▁Occ up ational ▁Saf ety ▁and ▁Health ▁ ▁Category : National ▁Institute ▁for ▁Occ up ational ▁Saf ety ▁and ▁Health <0x0A> </s> ▁T inus ▁per egr inus ▁is ▁a ▁species ▁of ▁nur ser y ▁web ▁sp ider ▁in ▁the ▁family ▁P is aur idae . ▁It ▁is ▁found ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁and ▁Mexico . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : P |
is aur idae ▁Category : Art icles ▁created ▁by ▁Q bug bot ▁Category : Sp iders ▁described ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 4 <0x0A> </s> ▁Betty ▁Loren - M alt ese ▁is ▁the ▁former ▁town ▁president ▁of ▁Cic ero , ▁Illinois . ▁She ▁is ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Republican ▁Party ▁ ▁and ▁received ▁national ▁attention ▁for ▁her ▁role ▁in ▁an ▁ins urance ▁sc am ▁which ▁ro bb ed ▁the ▁town ▁of ▁$ 1 2 ▁million . ▁ ▁Biography ▁Loren - M alt ese ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Bat on ▁Rou ge , ▁Louisiana , ▁but ▁she ▁was ▁raised ▁in ▁the ▁Chicago ▁area . ▁After ▁working ▁as ▁a ▁wait ress , ▁real tor , ▁and ▁newspaper ▁publish er , ▁she ▁became ▁active ▁in ▁the ▁politics ▁of ▁Cic ero , ▁a ▁sub urb ▁adjacent ▁to ▁the ▁west ▁side ▁of ▁Chicago . ▁ ▁Her ▁husband , ▁Frank ▁M alt ese , ▁was ▁the ▁Cic ero ▁town ship ▁ass essor ▁and ▁mid - level ▁mob ster ; ▁among ▁other ▁duties , ▁he ▁was ▁the ▁driver ▁for ▁Cic ero ▁town ▁president ▁Henry ▁K los ak . ▁Frank ▁M alt ese ▁was ▁also ▁a ▁book maker ▁for ▁the ▁mob ▁and ▁died ▁in ▁ 1 9 9 1 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 3 , ▁Loren - M alt ese ▁was ▁appointed ▁president ▁by ▁her ▁husband ▁after ▁K los ak ▁died ▁and ▁Frank ▁M alt ese ▁began ▁to ▁serve ▁time . ▁ ▁Loren - M alt ese ▁was ▁well ▁liked ▁by ▁many ▁white ▁residents ▁for ▁her ▁attempts ▁at ▁" |
community ▁improvement ," ▁much ▁of ▁which ▁was ▁aim ed ▁at ▁seg reg ating , ▁ev ict ing , ▁and ▁per sec uting ▁Mexican - American ▁citizens . ▁She ▁was ▁particularly ▁well ▁known ▁for ▁her ▁efforts ▁in ▁helping ▁senior ▁citizens ▁with ▁free ▁services , ▁ordering ▁false ▁arr ests ▁of ▁His pan ic ▁residents , ▁and ▁implementing ▁policies ▁that ▁disc rimin ated ▁against ▁minor ities . ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 0 2 ▁she ▁was ▁found ▁guilty ▁of ▁helping ▁to ▁ste al ▁$ 1 2 ▁million ▁of ▁the ▁city ' s ▁funds ▁in ▁an ▁ins urance ▁sc am . ▁She ▁was ▁sent enced ▁to ▁eight ▁years ▁in ▁a ▁federal ▁prison ▁in ▁California , ▁and ▁designated ▁Pr ison er ▁# 1 3 7 0 6 - 4 2 4 . ▁Her ▁term ▁was ▁started ▁two ▁months ▁early , ▁in ▁order ▁to ▁prevent ▁further ▁em be zz ling ▁in ▁the ▁inter im ▁between ▁sent encing ▁and ▁serving ▁the ▁sentence . ▁She ▁was ▁released ▁on ▁February ▁ 2 6 , ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁This ▁American ▁Life : ▁Cic ero ▁ ▁Category : C ic ero , ▁Illinois ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Pol it icians ▁conv icted ▁of ▁ra ck ete ering ▁Category : Pol it icians ▁conv icted ▁of ▁mail ▁and ▁wire ▁fra ud ▁Category : Ill inois ▁polit icians ▁conv icted ▁of ▁cr imes ▁Category : American ▁people ▁of ▁Lith uan ian ▁descent ▁Category : Year ▁of ▁birth ▁missing ▁( l iving ▁people ) <0x0A> |
</s> ▁William ▁Ver beck ▁( J anu ary ▁ 1 8 , ▁ 1 8 6 1 ▁- ▁August ▁ 2 4 , ▁ 1 9 3 0 ) ▁was ▁a ▁Dutch – American ▁educ ator ▁and ▁soldier . ▁ ▁He ▁served ▁as ▁head ▁of ▁the ▁St . ▁John ' s ▁Military ▁Academy ▁in ▁New ▁York . ▁ ▁He ▁also ▁served ▁as ▁Ad j ut ant ▁General ▁of ▁New ▁York , ▁commander ▁of ▁the ▁New ▁York ▁National ▁Guard ▁from ▁June ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 1 0 , ▁to ▁January ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 1 3 , ▁and ▁was ▁given ▁the ▁rank ▁of ▁Brig ad ier ▁General . ▁ ▁Early ▁life ▁and ▁education ▁ ▁Ver beck ▁was ▁born ▁in ▁Nag as aki , ▁Japan , ▁on ▁January ▁ 1 8 , ▁ 1 8 6 1 , ▁the ▁son ▁of ▁Gu ido ▁Ver beck ▁and ▁Maria ▁Ver beck ▁( née ▁Man ion ). ▁His ▁father ▁worked ▁in ▁Nag as aki ▁as ▁a ▁mission ary ▁and ▁educ ator ▁for ▁the ▁Dutch ▁Re formed ▁Church . ▁He ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁six ▁brothers ▁and ▁three ▁sister s . ▁His ▁brother ▁was ▁the ▁cart oon ist , ▁Gust ave ▁Ver be ek . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 7 9 , ▁at ▁the ▁age ▁of ▁ 1 8 , ▁Ver beck ▁em igr ated ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁He ▁en rolled ▁in ▁the ▁California ▁Military ▁Academy . ▁He ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁Fif th ▁California ▁Infantry , ▁rising ▁to ▁the ▁rank ▁of ▁major . |
▁ ▁Career ▁Following ▁in ▁his ▁father ' s ▁foot steps , ▁Ver beck ▁began ▁teaching ▁at ▁the ▁Saint ▁Matthew ' s ▁Hall , ▁in ▁San ▁Mate o , ▁California , ▁where ▁he ▁taught ▁for ▁two ▁years . ▁He ▁moved ▁to ▁New ▁York ▁state ▁to ▁work ▁ ▁with ▁C . J . ▁Wright ▁at ▁the ▁C ay uga ▁Lake ▁Military ▁Academy ▁and ▁the ▁Pe ek sk ill ▁Military ▁Academy . ▁He ▁moved ▁to ▁St . ▁John ' s ▁Academy , ▁where ▁he ▁became ▁its ▁president , ▁serving ▁there ▁until ▁he ▁became ▁the ▁Ad j ut ant ▁General ▁of ▁New ▁York . ▁ ▁He ▁served ▁as ▁Ad j ut ant ▁General ▁of ▁New ▁York , ▁commander ▁of ▁the ▁New ▁York ▁National ▁Guard , ▁from ▁June ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 1 0 , ▁to ▁January ▁ 1 , ▁ 1 9 1 3 , ▁and ▁was ▁given ▁the ▁rank ▁of ▁Brig ad ier ▁General . ▁ ▁Ver beck ▁led ▁the ▁National ▁Sc outs ▁of ▁America , ▁running ▁summer ▁cam ps ▁for ▁boys ▁at ▁Camp ▁Mass a we pie ▁in ▁conj unction ▁with ▁the ▁Man lius ▁School . ▁Upon ▁the ▁mer ger ▁of ▁the ▁NS A ▁with ▁the ▁Boy ▁Sc outs ▁of ▁America ▁he ▁briefly ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁National ▁Commission er ▁of ▁the ▁Boy ▁Sc outs ▁of ▁America . ▁ ▁Personal ▁life ▁He ▁married ▁K atherine ▁Jordan ▁on ▁July ▁ 2 8 , ▁ 1 8 8 6 . ▁They ▁had ▁three ▁children : ▁Gu ido ▁Frid olin , ▁Karl ▁Heinrich ▁Wille m ▁and ▁William |
▁Jordan . ▁In ▁ 1 9 2 7 , ▁Ver beck ▁was ▁made ▁a ▁Commander ▁of ▁the ▁Order ▁of ▁the ▁Crown ▁of ▁Italy . ▁He ▁was ▁granted ▁American ▁citizens hip ▁on ▁June ▁ 9 , ▁ 1 9 2 9 , ▁in ▁an ▁Act ▁of ▁Congress . ▁ ▁He ▁died ▁on ▁August ▁ 2 4 , ▁ 1 9 3 0 , ▁of ▁heart ▁disease ▁at ▁his ▁home ▁in ▁Man lius . ▁ ▁References ▁▁ ▁Category : 1 8 6 1 ▁birth s ▁Category : 1 9 3 0 ▁death s ▁Category : New ▁York ▁National ▁Guard ▁personnel ▁Category : Ad j ut ants ▁General ▁of ▁New ▁York ▁( state ) ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁Nag as aki ▁Category : Pe ople ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁Boy ▁Sc outs ▁of ▁America <0x0A> </s> ▁USS ▁R aby ▁( DE / DE C - 6 9 8 ) ▁was ▁a ▁ ▁for ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Navy . ▁ ▁She ▁was ▁named ▁for ▁R ear ▁Admir al ▁James ▁Joseph ▁R aby ▁( 1 8 7 4 – 1 9 3 4 ). ▁ ▁R aby ▁was ▁laid ▁down ▁on ▁ 7 ▁June ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁at ▁the ▁De fo e ▁Sh ip building ▁Company , ▁Bay ▁City , ▁Michigan , ▁R ear ▁Admir al ▁R aby ' s ▁home ▁town . ▁ ▁The ▁ship ▁was ▁named ▁R aby ▁on ▁ 2 2 ▁June ▁ 1 9 4 3 , ▁and ▁launched ▁on ▁ 4 ▁September ▁ 1 9 4 3 , ▁spons ored ▁by |
▁Mrs . ▁James ▁Joseph ▁R aby , ▁the ▁Admir al ' s ▁wid ow . ▁ ▁She ▁was ▁commission ed ▁on ▁ 7 ▁December ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁at ▁New ▁Orleans , ▁Louisiana , ▁with ▁Lieutenant ▁Commander ▁J . ▁Scott ▁II , ▁in ▁command . ▁ ▁Service ▁history ▁ ▁World ▁War ▁II , ▁ 1 9 4 3 – 1 9 4 5 ▁After ▁sh aked own ▁off ▁B erm uda , ▁R aby ▁sa iled ▁from ▁Nor folk , ▁Virginia ▁on ▁ 1 0 ▁February ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁via ▁the ▁Pan ama ▁Canal ▁for ▁N ou mé a , ▁arriv ing ▁on ▁ 1 1 ▁March . ▁ ▁She ▁then ▁esc orted ▁fast ▁con vo ys ▁from ▁Gu adal can al ▁as ▁far ▁as ▁Man us ▁Island , ▁in ▁the ▁Admir alt ies . ▁ ▁R aby ▁was ▁engaged ▁in ▁h unter - k iller ▁activities ▁in ▁the ▁Sol om ons ▁during ▁the ▁early ▁spring . ▁ ▁On ▁ 1 6 ▁May , ▁she ▁sa iled ▁from ▁Florida ▁Island , ▁in ▁the ▁Sol om ons , ▁in ▁a ▁h unter - k iller ▁group ▁with ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁on ▁what ▁was ▁to ▁become ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁most ▁successful ▁anti - sub marine ▁actions ▁in ▁the ▁Pacific ▁war . ▁ ▁During ▁this ▁pat rol ▁from ▁ 1 9 ▁to ▁ 3 1 ▁May , ▁the ▁three - ship ▁team ▁s ank ▁six ▁Japanese ▁sub mar ines ▁( , ▁, ▁, ▁, ▁, ▁and ▁) ▁in ▁waters ▁north ▁of ▁the ▁B |
ism ar ck ▁Arch ip el ago . ▁ ▁R aby ▁res umed ▁con voy ▁esc ort ▁miss ions ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁June , ▁remaining ▁in ▁the ▁Sol om ons ▁until ▁ 2 6 ▁October ▁when ▁she ▁got ▁under way ▁for ▁Man us ▁for ▁similar ▁duty ▁in ▁the ▁Admir alt ies . ▁ ▁In ▁December , ▁she ▁shift ed ▁to ▁Ul ith i . ▁On ▁the ▁evening ▁of ▁ 2 1 ▁January ▁ 1 9 4 5 , ▁a ▁plane ▁sp otted ▁a ▁Japanese ▁sub marine ▁on ▁the ▁surface ▁ 1 8 ▁miles ▁due ▁west ▁of ▁Ul ith i . ▁The ▁alarm ▁brought ▁a ▁h unter ▁k iller ▁team ▁composed ▁of ▁DE s ▁R aby , ▁ ▁and ▁ ▁ste aming ▁quickly ▁from ▁U ith i . ▁ ▁The ▁three ▁ships ▁conducted ▁an ▁expand ing ▁search ▁that ▁last ed ▁all ▁day ▁and ▁night ▁on ▁the ▁ 2 2 nd . ▁Early ▁in ▁the ▁morning ▁of ▁the ▁ 2 3 rd , ▁rad ar ▁contact ▁was ▁made . ▁ ▁After ▁the ▁sub marine ▁sub mer ged , ▁son ar ▁contact ▁was ▁established . ▁Several ▁attempts ▁with ▁h edge h og ▁mort ars ▁resulted ▁in ▁the ▁destruction ▁of ▁Japanese ▁sub marine ▁. ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁January , ▁R aby ▁proceeded ▁to ▁Gu am ▁where ▁she ▁served ▁as ▁esc ort ▁and ▁pat rol ▁ship ▁into ▁June . ▁ ▁Between ▁ 2 2 ▁June ▁and ▁ 3 1 ▁August , ▁she ▁completed ▁two ▁slow ▁to ws ▁to ▁Ok ina wa , ▁and ▁on ▁ 1 |
3 ▁September , ▁she ▁ste amed ▁for ▁Pear l ▁Har bor ▁and ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁ ▁Post - war ▁activities , ▁ 1 9 4 6 – 1 9 5 3 ▁Rem aining ▁in ▁California ▁waters ▁through ▁the ▁winter , ▁she ▁under w ent ▁a ▁conversion ▁where ▁the ▁three - inch ▁guns ▁were ▁replaced ▁by ▁two ▁single ▁ 5 - inch ▁guns ▁and ▁a ▁h edge h og ▁anti - sub marine ▁launch er . ▁ ▁She ▁reported ▁to ▁the ▁ 7 th ▁Fle et ▁for ▁duty ▁in ▁the ▁Far ▁East ▁on ▁ 6 ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 6 , ▁res cu ing ▁on ▁the ▁same ▁day ▁the ▁crew ▁of ▁a ▁down ed ▁B - 2 9 ▁bom ber . ▁ ▁She ▁subsequently ▁put ▁into ▁Hong ▁Kong , ▁Ki ir un , ▁Shang hai , ▁and ▁T sing ta o , ▁reaching ▁Ok ina wa ▁on ▁ 2 6 ▁June . ▁ ▁She ▁operated ▁out ▁of ▁Ok ina wa , ▁China , ▁and ▁Japan ▁until ▁returning ▁to ▁San ▁Diego ▁on ▁ 9 ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 7 . ▁She ▁was ▁assigned ▁to ▁Task ▁Force ▁ 1 5 ▁and ▁made ▁two ▁runs ▁from ▁the ▁west ▁coast ▁to ▁Pear l ▁Har bor ▁before ▁getting ▁under way ▁on ▁ 7 ▁December ▁for ▁En iw et ok , ▁K w aj ale in , ▁and ▁B ik ini ▁where ▁she ▁arrived ▁on ▁ 1 ▁May ▁ 1 9 4 8 . ▁ ▁She ▁returned ▁to ▁Pear l ▁Har bor ▁on ▁ 2 7 ▁May |
▁and ▁to ▁San ▁Diego ▁on ▁ 2 8 ▁January ▁ 1 9 4 9 . ▁ ▁She ▁conducted ▁local ▁operations ▁on ▁the ▁west ▁coast , ▁making ▁two ▁tri ps ▁to ▁Pear l ▁Har bor ▁during ▁the ▁rest ▁of ▁the ▁year . ▁ ▁Rec lass ified ▁as ▁control ▁esc ort ▁ship ▁DE C - 6 9 8 ▁on ▁ 2 ▁November ▁ 1 9 4 9 , ▁R aby ▁trans ited ▁the ▁Pan ama ▁Canal ▁on ▁ 2 5 ▁January ▁ 1 9 5 0 , ▁and ▁arrived ▁at ▁Nor folk ▁on ▁ 1 ▁February . ▁ ▁During ▁the ▁next ▁ 3 ½ ▁years , ▁she ▁operated ▁altern ately ▁in ▁the ▁Nor folk ▁area ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁Car ib bean . ▁ ▁De comm ission ing ▁and ▁sale , ▁ 1 9 5 3 – 1 9 6 8 ▁She ▁was ▁at ▁the ▁Philadelphia ▁Naval ▁Sh ip yard , ▁from ▁June ▁to ▁September ▁ 1 9 5 3 ▁for ▁de activ ation , ▁and ▁she ▁arrived ▁in ▁the ▁Atlantic ▁Reserve ▁Fle et ▁ber thing ▁area ▁at ▁St . ▁James ▁River , ▁Florida , ▁on ▁ 2 4 ▁September . ▁ ▁R aby ▁de comm ission ed ▁on ▁ 2 2 ▁December ▁ 1 9 5 3 . ▁ ▁She ▁was ▁re - design ated ▁back ▁to ▁DE - 6 9 8 ▁on ▁ 2 7 ▁December ▁ 1 9 5 7 . ▁ ▁She ▁was ▁transferred ▁to ▁the ▁Orange , ▁Texas , ▁ber thing ▁area ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 0 . ▁ ▁R |
aby ▁was ▁struck ▁from ▁the ▁Navy ▁List ▁on ▁ 1 ▁June ▁ 1 9 6 8 , ▁and ▁subsequently ▁sold ▁for ▁sc rap . ▁ ▁Awards ▁R aby ▁earned ▁three ▁battle ▁stars ▁for ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁service . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : B uck ley - class ▁destroy er ▁esc ort s ▁Category : Un ited ▁States ▁Navy ▁Michigan - related ▁ships ▁Category : Sh ips ▁built ▁in ▁Bay ▁City , ▁Michigan ▁Category : World ▁War ▁II ▁fr ig ates ▁and ▁destroy er ▁esc ort s ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : 1 9 4 3 ▁ships <0x0A> </s> ▁Van ja ▁R up ena ▁( born ▁) ▁is ▁a ▁Cro at ian ▁model . ▁She ▁won ▁the ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁Miss ▁Cro atia ▁beauty ▁page ant ▁and ▁represented ▁Cro atia ▁in ▁the ▁Miss ▁World ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁page ant ▁in ▁Bang al ore , ▁India . ▁ ▁She ▁appeared ▁on ▁the ▁cover ▁of ▁the ▁Cro at ian ▁edition ▁of ▁Elle ▁magazine ▁in ▁July ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁July ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁and ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 0 . ▁ ▁In ▁May ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁she ▁became ▁host ▁of ▁R TL ' s ▁reality ▁document ary ▁series ▁Hr vat ski ▁Top ▁Model , ▁the ▁Cro at ian ▁edition ▁of ▁America ' s ▁Next ▁Top ▁Model . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁Van ja ▁R up ena ▁at ▁the ▁F ashion ▁Model ▁Directory ▁ ▁Category : 1 9 7 8 |
▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : Pe ople ▁from ▁K oper ▁Category : Miss ▁World ▁ 1 9 9 6 ▁deleg ates ▁Category : C ro at ian ▁female ▁models ▁Category : C ro at ian ▁beauty ▁page ant ▁w inners ▁Category : S lo ven ian ▁people ▁of ▁Cro at ian ▁descent <0x0A> </s> ▁Joy ce ▁L om alis a ▁Mut amb ala ▁( born ▁ 1 8 ▁June ▁ 1 9 9 3 ) ▁is ▁a ▁Cong ol ese ▁footballer ▁who ▁currently ▁plays ▁as ▁a ▁def ender ▁for ▁the ▁Belg ian ▁club ▁Royal ▁Excel ▁M ous c ron , ▁on ▁loan ▁from ▁the ▁Cong ol ese ▁club ▁AS ▁V ita ▁Club . ▁ ▁International ▁career ▁L om alis a ▁made ▁his ▁first ▁senior ▁international ▁appearance ▁in ▁a ▁friendly ▁in ▁and ▁against ▁Z amb ia ▁on ▁ 6 ▁November ▁ 2 0 1 5 , ▁in ▁which ▁he ▁played ▁the ▁entire ▁match . ▁ ▁Hon ours ▁V ita ▁Club ▁ ▁L ina foot ▁( 1 ): ▁ 2 0 1 5 ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : 1 9 9 3 ▁birth s ▁Category : L iving ▁people ▁Category : D em ocr atic ▁Republic ▁of ▁the ▁Congo ▁football ers ▁Category : Associ ation ▁football ▁def enders ▁Category : D em ocr atic ▁Republic ▁of ▁the ▁Congo ▁international ▁football ers ▁Category : 2 0 1 7 ▁Africa ▁Cup ▁of ▁Nations ▁players <0x0A> </s> ▁Saint - P la cide ▁may ▁refer ▁to : ▁ ▁Saint - P la |
cide , ▁Quebec ▁ ▁Saint - P la cide ▁( Par is ▁Metro ) ▁ ▁Saint ▁P lac id us <0x0A> </s> ▁Texas ▁Te ch ▁University ▁College ▁of ▁Human ▁Sciences ▁is ▁a ▁college ▁at ▁Texas ▁Te ch ▁University ▁in ▁Lub bo ck , ▁Texas . ▁It ▁was ▁founded ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 5 ▁as ▁the ▁College ▁of ▁Home ▁Econom ics , ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁four ▁original ▁colleg es ▁of ▁Texas ▁Te ch . ▁ ▁Academ ic ▁depart ments ▁▁ ▁Department ▁of ▁Community , ▁Family , ▁and ▁Add iction ▁Sciences ▁ ▁Department ▁of ▁Design ▁ ▁Department ▁of ▁Family ▁and ▁Cons umer ▁Sciences ▁Education ▁ ▁Department ▁of ▁Hospital ity ▁and ▁Ret ail ▁Management ▁ ▁Department ▁of ▁Human ▁Development ▁and ▁Family ▁Studies ▁ ▁Department ▁of ▁N ut r itional ▁Sciences ▁ ▁Department ▁of ▁Personal ▁Fin an cial ▁Pl anning ▁ ▁Research ▁cent ers ▁▁ ▁Center ▁for ▁Fin an cial ▁Res p ons ibility ▁Center ▁for ▁Early ▁Head ▁Start ▁ ▁Center ▁for ▁the ▁Study ▁of ▁Add iction ▁& ▁Rec overy ▁ ▁Child ▁Development ▁Research ▁Center ▁ ▁C urr icul um ▁Center ▁for ▁Family ▁and ▁Cons umer ▁Sciences ▁ ▁Sky views ▁R estaur ant ▁ ▁Texas ▁W ine ▁Mark eting ▁Research ▁Institute ▁ ▁Women ' s ▁Studies ▁ ▁Notable ▁people ▁ ▁Form er ▁Stud ents ▁ ▁Fac ulty ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁ ▁Category : E du c ational ▁institutions ▁established ▁in ▁ 1 9 2 5 ▁Human ▁Sciences <0x0A> </s> ▁Sar cy ▁ ▁is ▁a ▁commune ▁in ▁the ▁Mar ne ▁department ▁in ▁north - e |
astern ▁France . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁Comm unes ▁of ▁the ▁Mar ne ▁department ▁Mont agne ▁de ▁Re ims ▁Regional ▁Natural ▁Park ▁ ▁Category : Comm unes ▁of ▁Mar ne ▁( de partment ) <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁ ▁is ▁in ▁Nag as aki ▁Peace ▁Park ▁in ▁Nag as aki , ▁Japan . ▁During ▁W W II , ▁at ▁least ▁ 4 0 , 0 0 0 ▁Chinese ▁labor ers ▁were ▁for ci b ly ▁brought ▁to ▁Japan ▁from ▁China ▁to ▁make ▁up ▁for ▁a ▁nation wide ▁labor ▁short age . ▁There ▁were ▁about ▁ 1 , 0 0 0 ▁Chinese ▁labor ers ▁forced ▁to ▁work ▁in ▁mines ▁in ▁Nag as aki . ▁During ▁the ▁atomic ▁bomb ▁on ▁Nag as aki , ▁ 3 2 ▁of ▁those ▁Chinese ▁labor ers ▁died . ▁ ▁The ▁Nag as aki ▁mem orial ▁comm emor ates ▁those ▁ 3 2 ▁Chinese , ▁brought ▁to ▁Japan ▁as ▁forced ▁labour ers ▁and ▁made ▁to ▁work ▁as ▁coal - min ers , ▁who ▁were ▁in ▁U rak ami ▁Pr ison ▁and ▁died ▁in ▁the ▁atomic ▁bomb ing ▁of ▁the ▁city ▁on ▁August ▁ 9 , ▁ 1 9 4 5 , ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁II . ▁The ▁monument ▁was ▁un ve iled ▁on ▁July ▁ 7 , ▁ 2 0 1 3 . ▁ ▁According ▁to ▁the ▁Japan ▁Times , ▁there ▁were ▁ 3 3 ▁Chinese ▁prisoners ▁in ▁j ail ▁for ▁various ▁charges , ▁which ▁included ▁sp ying . ▁There ▁was ▁one ▁surv iv or ▁from ▁among ▁the ▁prisoners , ▁who ▁later |
▁died ▁under ▁inter rog ation . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : World ▁War ▁II ▁mem orial s ▁in ▁Japan ▁Category : Mon uments ▁associated ▁with ▁the ▁atomic ▁bomb ings ▁of ▁H iro sh ima ▁and ▁Nag as aki <0x0A> </s> ▁USS ▁Ro ch am be au ▁( AP - 6 3 ) ▁was ▁a ▁transport ▁ship ▁that ▁saw ▁service ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Navy ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁II . ▁She ▁was ▁the ▁only ▁U . S . ▁Naval ▁vessel ▁to ▁be ▁named ▁for ▁the ▁French ▁no blem an , ▁Jean - B apt iste ▁Don at ien ▁de ▁V ime ur , ▁comte ▁de ▁Ro ch am be au ▁( 1 7 2 5 – 1 8 0 7 ), ▁who ▁commanded ▁the ▁French ▁troops ▁in ▁Washington ' s ▁army ▁during ▁the ▁American ▁Revolution ary ▁War . ▁ ▁History ▁ ▁French ▁ownership ▁Ro ch am be au ▁was ▁originally ▁built ▁as ▁Mare ch al ▁J off re ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 1 ▁by ▁the ▁Soci ete ▁Pro ven ç ale ▁de ▁Const ru ctions ▁Nav ales ▁of ▁La ▁Ci ot at , ▁France ▁for ▁the ▁Soci ete ▁des ▁Services ▁Cont ract u els ▁des ▁Mess ager ies ▁Mar it imes . ▁Mann ed ▁by ▁V ich y ▁French ▁Forces ▁after ▁the ▁fall ▁of ▁France ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 0 , ▁Mare ch al ▁J off re ▁was ▁in ▁the ▁Philippines ▁when ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁entered ▁World ▁War ▁II . ▁She ▁was ▁taken ▁over ▁by ▁a ▁crew ▁of ▁down ed ▁US ▁Navy |
▁f liers ▁from ▁Pat rol ▁Wing ▁ 1 0 ▁and ▁with ▁the ▁help ▁of ▁some ▁of ▁the ▁French ▁sail ors ▁who ▁were ▁not ▁support ive ▁of ▁the ▁V ich y ▁government ▁sa iled ▁on ▁the ▁ 1 8 th ▁for ▁Bal ik p apan , ▁wh ence ▁she ▁proceeded ▁to ▁Australia , ▁New ▁Zealand , ▁and ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁She ▁arrived ▁at ▁San ▁Francisco ▁with ▁a ▁cargo ▁of ▁w ool ▁and ▁z ir con ▁sand ▁on ▁ 1 9 ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 2 . ▁ ▁US ▁Navy ▁use ▁The ▁following ▁day , ▁she ▁was ▁taken ▁over ▁by ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Mar itime ▁Commission ▁and ▁transferred ▁to ▁the ▁Navy . ▁Commission ed ▁ 2 7 ▁April ▁ 1 9 4 2 ▁with ▁Lieutenant ▁Thomas ▁G . ▁War field ▁in ▁command , ▁she ▁was ▁renamed ▁Ro ch am be au ▁and ▁designated ▁AP - 6 3 ▁on ▁the ▁ 2 9 th . ▁ ▁Ro ch am be au , ▁converted ▁for ▁use ▁as ▁a ▁cas ual ty ▁ev acu ation ▁ship , ▁depart ed ▁Oak land , ▁California ▁on ▁ 2 0 ▁October ▁for ▁her ▁first ▁operation , ▁under ▁the ▁U . S . ▁flag . ▁With ▁rep lac ements ▁and ▁rein for c ements ▁for ▁the ▁Gu adal can al ▁campaign ▁emb ark ed ▁on ▁her ▁west ward ▁passage , ▁she ▁made ▁N ou mé a ; ▁dis emb ark ed ▁her ▁passengers ; ▁replaced ▁them ▁with ▁cas ual ties ▁from ▁hosp it als ▁there , ▁at ▁Su va , |
▁and ▁at ▁B ora ▁B ora ; ▁and ▁returned ▁to ▁San ▁Francisco ▁on ▁ 3 ▁December . ▁At ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁December , ▁she ▁sa iled ▁west ▁again . ▁Ext ending ▁her ▁range ▁to ▁New ▁Zealand ▁and ▁Australia ▁on ▁that ▁voyage , ▁she ▁limited ▁her ▁next ▁run , ▁ 9 ▁to ▁ 2 7 ▁March , ▁to ▁New ▁C aled onia ▁and ▁the ▁New ▁Heb rides . ▁On ▁that ▁trip ▁she ▁carried ▁Lieutenant ▁( j . g .) ▁John ▁F . ▁Kennedy ▁to ▁Esp ir itu ▁Santo ▁where ▁he ▁was ▁transferred ▁to ▁L ST - 4 4 9 ▁and ▁taken ▁to ▁the ▁Sol om ons . ▁During ▁May , ▁Ro ch am be au ▁remained ▁in ▁waters ▁off ▁California , ▁then , ▁on ▁ 5 ▁June , ▁res umed ▁her ▁passenger / cas ual ty ▁runs ▁to ▁the ▁south ▁and ▁south west ▁Pacific . ▁Cont inu ing ▁those ▁runs ▁well ▁into ▁ 1 9 4 4 , ▁she ▁added ▁ports ▁in ▁New ▁Guinea ▁to ▁her ▁stops ▁in ▁September ▁ 1 9 4 3 ▁and ▁the ▁central ▁Sol om ons ▁in ▁the ▁spring ▁of ▁ 1 9 4 4 . ▁On ▁her ▁last ▁run , ▁ 1 6 ▁November ▁ 1 9 4 4 ▁– ▁ 1 7 ▁January ▁ 1 9 4 5 ▁she ▁brought ▁back ▁cas ual ties ▁from ▁hosp it als ▁on ▁En iw et ok , ▁Gu am , ▁and ▁K w aj ale in ▁in ▁the ▁company ▁of ▁the ▁ ▁and ▁. ▁ ▁De comm ission ing ▁ ▁On |
▁ 9 ▁February , ▁Ro ch am be au ▁head ed ▁for ▁New ▁York ▁City . ▁Ar riv ing ▁on ▁the ▁ 2 5 th , ▁she ▁was ▁de comm ission ed ▁and ▁transferred ▁to ▁the ▁U . S . ▁Mar itime ▁Commission ' s ▁War ▁Sh ipping ▁Administration ▁( WS A ) ▁on ▁ 1 7 ▁March . ▁Her ▁name ▁was ▁struck ▁from ▁the ▁Naval ▁V essel ▁Register ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁the ▁month . ▁Then ▁she ▁was ▁returned ▁to ▁her ▁French ▁own ers ▁Mess ager ies ▁Mar it imes ▁and ▁res umed ▁the ▁name ▁Mare ch al ▁J off re ▁and , ▁operating ▁for ▁W SA , ▁was ▁used ▁to ▁transport ▁American ▁troops ▁from ▁Europe ▁to ▁the ▁United ▁States . ▁The ▁h ull ▁was ▁rep aint ed ▁black ▁with ▁a ▁white ▁super structure ▁and ▁▁ ▁From ▁ 1 9 4 6 ▁to ▁ 1 9 5 0 ▁she ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁tro op ship ▁for ▁the ▁French ▁Army ▁in ▁Ind och ina . ▁Between ▁ 1 9 5 0 ▁and ▁ 1 9 5 1 ▁she ▁returned ▁to ▁La ▁Ci ot at ▁for ▁re building ▁and ▁the ▁two ▁fun n els ▁were ▁replaced ▁with ▁a ▁single ▁o val ▁fun nel ▁and ▁painted ▁white ▁overall . ▁She ▁then ▁served ▁as ▁a ▁l iner ▁across ▁the ▁Indian ▁Ocean ▁to ▁the ▁Far ▁East . ▁▁ ▁Sc ra pped ▁in ▁Os aka , ▁Japan , ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 0 . ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁auxili aries ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Navy |
▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁▁▁▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : Trans ports ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Navy ▁Category : World ▁War ▁II ▁auxili ary ▁ships ▁of ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Category : N aval ▁ships ▁captured ▁by ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁during ▁World ▁War ▁II ▁Category : Sh ips ▁built ▁in ▁France ▁Category : 1 9 3 1 ▁ships ▁Category : Mil it ary ▁of ▁V ich y ▁France <0x0A> </s> ▁S idi ▁Sem iane ▁is ▁a ▁town ▁and ▁commune ▁in ▁T ip aza ▁Province ▁in ▁northern ▁Al ger ia . ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁Category : Pop ulated ▁places ▁in ▁T ip aza ▁Province ▁Category : Comm unes ▁of ▁Al ger ia <0x0A> </s> ▁Or ona ▁at oll , ▁also ▁known ▁as ▁H ull ▁Island , ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁Phoenix ▁Islands ▁in ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁Ki rib ati . ▁It ▁measures ▁approximately ▁ ▁by ▁, ▁and ▁like ▁K anton , ▁is ▁a ▁narrow ▁rib bon ▁of ▁land ▁surrounding ▁a ▁s izable ▁l ago on ▁with ▁depth s ▁of ▁. ▁N umer ous ▁pass ages ▁connect ▁the ▁l ago on ▁to ▁the ▁surrounding ▁ocean , ▁only ▁a ▁couple ▁of ▁which ▁will ▁admit ▁even ▁a ▁small ▁boat . ▁ ▁Total ▁land ▁area ▁is ▁, ▁and ▁the ▁maximum ▁elev ation ▁is ▁nine ▁metres . ▁ ▁Ki rib ati ▁declared ▁the ▁Phoenix ▁Islands ▁Prote cted ▁Area ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 , ▁with ▁the ▁park ▁being ▁expanded ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 . ▁The ▁ 1 6 4 , 2 0 0 - square - mile ▁( 4 |
2 5 , 3 0 0 - square - kil ometer ) ▁marine ▁reserve ▁contains ▁eight ▁cor al ▁at oll s ▁including ▁O rano . ▁▁ ▁Although ▁occupied ▁at ▁various ▁times ▁during ▁the ▁past , ▁including ▁as ▁late ▁as ▁ 2 0 0 4 , ▁Or ona ▁is ▁un in hab ited ▁today . ▁ ▁Flora ▁and ▁fa una ▁Like ▁Man ra , ▁Or ona ▁is ▁covered ▁with ▁co con ut ▁pal ms ▁( most ly ▁on ▁the ▁western ▁side ), ▁tower ing ▁ ▁above ▁the ▁surface . ▁The ▁remainder ▁of ▁the ▁at oll ▁is ▁covered ▁with ▁scr ub ▁forest , ▁her bs , ▁and ▁grass es , ▁with ▁a ▁maximum ▁height ▁of ▁. ▁Fer al ▁c ats ▁exist ▁on ▁the ▁island , ▁together ▁with ▁r ats , ▁p igs , ▁and ▁dogs . ▁D uck s ▁and ▁ch ick ens ▁were ▁raised ▁by ▁the ▁former ▁inhabitants , ▁but ▁it ▁is ▁unknown ▁whether ▁any ▁remain . ▁Or ona ▁also ▁bo asts ▁three ▁species ▁of ▁l iz ards , ▁land ▁and ▁herm it ▁c rab s , ▁together ▁with ▁approximately ▁fifty ▁species ▁of ▁insect s . ▁T urt les ▁are ▁also ▁known ▁to ▁use ▁the ▁island ▁as ▁a ▁nest ing ▁area . ▁ ▁Un like ▁Man ra , ▁whose ▁l ago on ▁is ▁too ▁sal ty ▁for ▁marine ▁life , ▁Or ona ' s ▁l ago on ▁te ems ▁with ▁fish ▁and ▁giant ▁cl ams . ▁▁ ▁A ▁survey ▁of ▁Or ona ▁carried ▁out ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 6 ▁did ▁not ▁detect ▁r |
ats . ▁However , ▁Pol yn esian ▁r ats ▁were ▁located ▁on ▁the ▁island ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 9 , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁more ▁than ▁ 2 0 c ats . ▁ ▁History ▁Like ▁Man ra , ▁Or ona ▁contains ▁evidence ▁of ▁pre histor ic ▁Pol yn esian ▁inhab itation . ▁An ▁ancient ▁stone ▁mar ae ▁stands ▁on ▁the ▁eastern ▁tip ▁of ▁the ▁island , ▁together ▁with ▁ru ins ▁of ▁sh el ters , ▁gra ves ▁and ▁other ▁platforms . ▁ ▁No ▁one ▁is ▁certain ▁who ▁discovered ▁Or ona ▁or ▁when , ▁but ▁history ▁shows ▁that ▁it ▁was ▁named ▁" H ull ▁Island " ▁in ▁honor ▁of ▁Com mod ore ▁Isaac ▁H ull , ▁US N ▁by ▁Commander ▁Charles ▁Wil kes ▁of ▁the ▁USS ▁V inc ennes ▁when ▁he ▁visited ▁the ▁island ▁on ▁ 2 6 ▁August ▁ 1 8 4 0 ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁States ▁Ex pl oring ▁Ex ped ition . ▁It ▁continued ▁to ▁be ▁generally ▁known ▁by ▁this ▁name ▁until ▁the ▁Republic ▁of ▁Ki rib ati ▁was ▁granted ▁independence ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 , ▁when ▁its ▁name ▁was ▁changed ▁to ▁the ▁I - K i rib ati ▁Or ona . ▁ ▁Un like ▁Man ra , ▁Or ona ▁does ▁not ▁seem ▁to ▁have ▁been ▁worked ▁for ▁gu ano , ▁and ▁was ▁apparently ▁not ▁claimed ▁( un like ▁the ▁other ▁Phoenix ▁Islands ) ▁by ▁American ▁gu ano ▁dig gers . ▁The ▁British ▁flag ▁was ▁raised ▁there ▁on ▁ 1 1 ▁July ▁ 1 8 8 9 , |
▁and ▁the ▁island ▁became ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Gilbert ▁and ▁El lice ▁Islands ▁col ony . ▁Or ona ▁was ▁le ased ▁in ▁ 1 9 1 6 ▁to ▁a ▁Captain ▁Allen ▁of ▁the ▁" S amo an ▁Sh ipping ▁and ▁Tr ading ▁Company ", ▁and ▁became ▁a ▁cop ra ▁plant ation . ▁Allen ' s ▁le ase ▁was ▁bought ▁out ▁by ▁the ▁British ▁government ▁in ▁ 1 9 3 8 . ▁ ▁It ▁was ▁one ▁of ▁the ▁islands ▁involved ▁in ▁the ▁Phoenix ▁Islands ▁S ett lement ▁Sch eme , ▁the ▁final ▁colonial ▁expansion ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁Empire . ▁Res idents ▁were ▁ev acu ated ▁in ▁ 1 9 6 3 , ▁due ▁to ▁persistent ▁dr ought ▁and ▁the ▁decl ining ▁cop ra ▁market . ▁Ph otos ▁of ▁the ▁abandoned ▁settlement , ▁Ar ar iki , ▁circa ▁ 1 9 6 7 , ▁may ▁be ▁seen ▁here . ▁H ull ▁Island ▁Post ▁Office ▁opened ▁on ▁ 1 ▁January ▁ 1 9 3 9 ▁and ▁closed ▁around ▁January ▁ 1 9 6 4 . ▁After ▁being ▁abandoned , ▁the ▁island ▁was ▁re occup ied ▁by ▁American ▁authorities ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 0 ▁and ▁admin ister ed ▁from ▁the ▁C anton ▁and ▁End er bury ▁Islands ▁Cond omin ium . ▁British ▁and ▁American ▁claims ▁to ▁the ▁island ▁ended ▁in ▁ 1 9 7 9 ▁with ▁the ▁independence ▁of ▁Ki rib ati ▁from ▁Great ▁Britain ▁and ▁the ▁signing ▁of ▁the ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁Tar awa ▁in ▁which ▁the ▁US ▁retain s ▁the ▁right ▁to ▁re - est |
ab lish ▁a ▁military ▁base . ▁Administration ▁was ▁transferred ▁to ▁Ki rib ati ▁authority ▁in ▁ 1 9 8 1 . ▁ ▁The ▁island ▁was ▁briefly ▁re occup ied ▁between ▁ 2 0 0 1 ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 4 ▁by ▁tre p angers ▁from ▁the ▁Gilbert ▁Islands ▁supported ▁by ▁a ▁pat rol ▁boat ▁of ▁the ▁Ki rib ati ▁Navy . ▁ ▁Or ona , ▁together ▁with ▁the ▁other ▁Phoenix ▁Islands , ▁was ▁proc laimed ▁in ▁ 2 0 0 8 ▁to ▁be ▁part ▁of ▁the ▁Phoenix ▁Islands ▁Prote cted ▁Area , ▁the ▁world ' s ▁largest ▁marine ▁protected ▁area . ▁ ▁Ph oto ▁gallery ▁ ▁See ▁also ▁ ▁List ▁of ▁Gu ano ▁Island ▁claims ▁ ▁References ▁ ▁External ▁links ▁ ▁Jane ▁Rest ure ▁page , ▁with ▁links ▁to ▁ 1 9 6 7 ▁photos ▁US - K i rib ati ▁Tre aty ▁of ▁Friend ship ▁ ▁Category : P ho enix ▁Islands ▁( K i rib ati ) ▁Category : Un in hab ited ▁islands ▁of ▁Ki rib ati ▁Category : Is lands ▁claimed ▁under ▁the ▁Gu ano ▁Islands ▁Act ▁Category : Form er ▁populated ▁places ▁in ▁O ce ania ▁Category : P ho enix ▁Islands ▁S ett lement ▁Sch eme ▁Category : Is lands ▁of ▁Ki rib ati ▁Category : Form er ▁disput ed ▁islands <0x0A> </s> ▁HMS ▁R ipp on ▁was ▁a ▁ 7 4 - gun ▁third ▁rate ▁ship ▁of ▁the ▁line ▁of ▁the ▁Royal ▁Navy , ▁launched ▁on ▁ 8 ▁August ▁ 1 8 1 2 ▁at |
▁B urs led on . ▁She ▁was ▁broken ▁up ▁in ▁ 1 8 2 1 . ▁ ▁Career ▁Capt ure ▁of ▁Wes er : ▁On ▁ 3 0 ▁September ▁ 1 8 1 3 , ▁the ▁, ▁under ▁the ▁command ▁of ▁cap itaine ▁de ▁v ais seau ▁Cant z la at , ▁Che val ier ▁de ▁l ' Ord re ▁Imp éri al ▁de ▁la ▁Ré union , ▁sa iled ▁from ▁the ▁Tex el ▁for ▁the ▁North ▁Sea . ▁There ▁she ▁captured ▁two ▁Swedish ▁ships ▁before ▁a ▁g ale ▁on ▁ 1 6 ▁October ▁took ▁away ▁her ▁main ▁and ▁m iz zen ▁m ast . ▁Two ▁days ▁later ▁, ▁Commander ▁Col in ▁Mac don ald , ▁captain , ▁encountered ▁her ▁ 6 0 ▁le agues ▁west ▁of ▁U sh ant , ▁making ▁her ▁way ▁towards ▁Br est ▁under ▁j ury ▁main ▁and ▁m iz zen ▁m asts . ▁R ather ▁than ▁eng age ▁her ▁and ▁risk ▁being ▁cri pp led ▁and ▁so ▁unable ▁to ▁follow ▁her ▁given ▁the ▁weather , ▁Mac don ald ▁decided ▁to ▁follow ▁her . ▁ ▁Fort uit ously , ▁on ▁ 2 0 ▁October , ▁, ▁Commander ▁J . J . ▁Gordon ▁Bre mer , ▁captain , ▁arrived ▁and ▁Mac don ald ▁and ▁Bre mer ▁decided ▁to ▁attack ▁Wes er . ▁They ▁engaged ▁her ▁for ▁about ▁an ▁hour ▁and ▁a ▁half ▁before ▁they ▁had ▁to ▁withdraw ▁to ▁repair ▁their ▁rig ging . ▁At ▁about ▁this ▁time ▁a ▁third ▁British ▁vessel , ▁R ipp on , ▁Captain ▁Christopher ▁Cole , |
▁came ▁up . ▁Bre mer ▁joined ▁Cole ▁and ▁informed ▁him ▁of ▁the ▁situation ▁while ▁S cy lla ▁remained ▁with ▁Wes er . ▁ ▁The ▁next ▁morning , ▁as ▁R ipp on ▁and ▁Royal ist ▁sa iled ▁towards ▁S cy lla ▁to ▁renew ▁their ▁attack , ▁Wes er ▁sa iled ▁towards ▁R ipp on ▁and ▁struck , ▁after ▁first ▁firing ▁two ▁broad s ides ▁towards ▁S cy lla . ▁S cy lla ▁suffered ▁only ▁two ▁men ▁wounded ▁in ▁the ▁entire ▁eng agement . ▁Royal ist ▁suffered ▁more ▁heavily , ▁having ▁two ▁men ▁killed ▁and ▁nine ▁wounded . ▁Wes er ▁lost ▁four ▁men ▁killed ▁and ▁ 1 5 ▁wounded . ▁ ▁R ipp on ▁took ▁Wes ers ▁crew ▁on ▁board ▁as ▁prisoners ▁and ▁to wed ▁her ▁into ▁port . ▁The ▁Royal ▁Navy ▁took ▁her ▁into ▁service ▁as ▁HMS ▁Wes er . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 1 4 ▁R ipp on ▁sa iled ▁with ▁troops ▁to ▁North ▁America . ▁ ▁F ate ▁R ipp on ▁was ▁paid ▁off ▁into ▁Ord inary ▁in ▁August ▁ 1 8 1 4 . ▁Two ▁years ▁later ▁she ▁was ▁roof ed ▁over . ▁She ▁was ▁broken ▁up ▁in ▁March ▁ 1 8 2 1 . ▁ ▁Notable ▁crew ▁members ▁John ▁Sept im us ▁Ro e , ▁mid ship man ▁ ▁Notes , ▁cit ations , ▁and ▁references ▁Notes ▁ ▁Cit ations ▁ ▁References ▁▁▁▁▁ ▁Category : Sh ips ▁of ▁the ▁line ▁of ▁the ▁Royal ▁Navy ▁Category : V en ge ur - class ▁ships ▁of ▁the ▁line ▁Category : 1 |
8 1 2 ▁ships ▁Category : Sh ips ▁built ▁on ▁the ▁River ▁Ham ble <0x0A> </s> ▁The ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ’ s ▁Royal ▁Military ▁School , ▁more ▁commonly ▁called ▁the ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ’ s , ▁is ▁a ▁co - ed uc ational ▁Academy ▁( for ▁students ▁aged ▁ 1 1 ▁to ▁ 1 8 ) ▁with ▁military ▁trad itions ▁in ▁D over , ▁Kent . ▁ ▁Since ▁becoming ▁an ▁Academy ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁the ▁school ▁is ▁now ▁spons ored ▁by ▁the ▁M OD , ▁and ▁accepts ▁applications ▁from ▁any ▁student ▁wish ing ▁to ▁board . ▁Before ▁ 2 0 1 0 , ▁only ▁those ▁students ▁whose ▁parents ▁were ▁serving ▁or ▁had ▁served ▁in ▁the ▁armed ▁forces ▁were ▁el ig ible . ▁ ▁With ▁the ▁transition ▁to ▁Academy ▁status , ▁the ▁school ▁became ▁a ▁state ▁board ing ▁a cademy ▁( and ▁is ▁both ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁State ▁Board ing ▁Forum ▁and ▁Board ing ▁School s ▁Association ) ▁and ▁o vers ight ▁transferred ▁from ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Def ence ▁to ▁the ▁Department ▁for ▁Education . ▁ ▁The ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ’ s ▁has ▁many ▁trad itions ▁and ▁rich ▁history , ▁which ▁includes ▁cer emon ial ▁par ades ▁and ▁uniform s , ▁a ▁monitor ial ▁style ▁of ▁education ▁model led ▁on ▁the ▁English ▁public ▁school ▁system . ▁ ▁This ▁rich ▁history ▁includes ▁a ▁long ▁line ▁of ▁notable ▁al umn i , ▁known ▁as ▁D uk ies , ▁including ▁senior ▁gener als ▁( such ▁as ▁Sir ▁Arch ib ald ▁N ye |
, ▁Gary ▁Cow ard ▁and ▁David ▁Mark ▁C ull en ), ▁famous ▁mus icians ▁( such ▁as ▁Henry ▁Laz arus ), ▁sports men ▁( like ▁Maurice ▁Col cl ough ), ▁many ▁leading ▁academic ▁scient ists ▁( including ▁Prof ess ors ▁Paul ▁Shaw , ▁Tim othy ▁F oster ▁and ▁Mark ▁Gard iner ) ▁and ▁cl erg ymen ▁( James ▁Jones ▁and ▁Bill ▁Ind ) ▁and ▁a ▁long ▁list ▁of ▁decor ated ▁armed ▁forces ▁personnel . ▁ ▁History ▁F ounded ▁in ▁ 1 8 0 3 ▁by ▁act ▁of ▁Royal ▁W arr ant ▁d ating ▁from ▁ 1 8 0 1 , ▁the ▁school ▁was ▁until ▁ 1 8 9 2 ▁called ▁the ▁Royal ▁Military ▁As yl um . ▁The ▁school ’ s ▁primary ▁purpose ▁was ▁to ▁educ ate ▁the ▁or ph ans ▁of ▁British ▁serv ic emen ▁killed ▁in ▁the ▁Napole onic ▁Wars ▁of ▁ 1 7 9 3 - 1 8 1 5 . ▁Between ▁ 1 8 0 3 ▁and ▁ 1 9 0 9 ▁the ▁Royal ▁Military ▁As yl um ▁was ▁located ▁at ▁what ▁is ▁now ▁known ▁as ▁the ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ' s ▁Head quarters ▁in ▁Ch else a , ▁London . ▁The ▁school ▁was ▁co - ed uc ational ; ▁making ▁the ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ' s ▁the ▁second ▁co - ed uc ational ▁board ing ▁school ▁in ▁the ▁United ▁Kingdom . ▁The ▁first ▁co - ed uc ational ▁institution ▁was ▁the ▁Royal ▁Hi bern ian ▁Military ▁School ▁in ▁Dublin , ▁which ▁was ▁re located ▁and ▁merged ▁with ▁Duke |
▁of ▁York ' s ▁after ▁Ireland ▁declared ▁independence . ▁Today ▁the ▁Ch else a ▁site ▁is ▁home ▁to ▁the ▁Sa atch i ▁Gallery . ▁ ▁The ▁school ▁adopted ▁the ▁" Mad ras ▁system ▁of ▁education " ▁developed ▁by ▁Dr . ▁Andrew ▁Bell , ▁to ▁which ▁Joseph ▁Lanc aster ▁made ▁certain ▁improvements . ▁In ▁ 1 8 1 2 , ▁three ▁African ▁youth s ▁attended ▁the ▁school ▁as ▁teachers ▁for ▁several ▁months ▁thanks ▁to ▁the ▁inter vention ▁of ▁the ▁Duke ▁of ▁Gl ouc ester . ▁They ▁were ▁then ▁sent ▁by ▁the ▁African ▁Institution ▁to ▁Sierra ▁Le one , ▁where ▁they ▁were ▁employed ▁as ▁teachers ▁by ▁the ▁Secretary ▁of ▁State ▁for ▁War ▁and ▁the ▁Col on ies , ▁the ▁Earl ▁of ▁Liverpool . ▁ ▁Between ▁ 1 8 1 6 ▁and ▁ 1 8 4 0 , ▁the ▁As yl um ▁had ▁a ▁branch ▁in ▁South am pton ▁which ▁provided ▁school ing ▁for ▁up ▁to ▁ 4 0 0 ▁military ▁or ph ans ▁and ▁children ▁of ▁serving ▁soldiers ▁of ▁both ▁sex es ▁until ▁ 1 8 2 3 , ▁when ▁the ▁boys ▁were ▁transferred ▁to ▁Ch else a , ▁with ▁South am pton ▁taking ▁more ▁girls . ▁A ▁decl ine ▁in ▁the ▁school ▁numbers ▁resulted ▁in ▁its ▁closure ▁in ▁ 1 8 4 0 . ▁From ▁ 1 8 4 1 , ▁the ▁buildings ▁were ▁taken ▁over ▁by ▁the ▁Or dn ance ▁Survey . ▁ ▁One ▁of ▁the ▁more ▁notable ▁Command ants ▁of ▁the ▁Royal ▁Military ▁As yl um ▁was ▁Major ▁General ▁Peter ▁Brown . |
▁A ▁veter an ▁of ▁the ▁Napole onic ▁Wars ▁Brown ▁was ▁unusual ▁in ▁that ▁he ▁was ▁promoted ▁whilst ▁in ▁post ▁( from ▁colon el ▁to ▁major ▁general ), ▁which ▁was ▁highly ▁unusual ▁given ▁the ▁post ▁was ▁not ▁an ▁active ▁command ▁and ▁his ▁prede cess ors ▁and ▁success ors ▁were ▁never ▁promoted ▁in ▁post . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 8 9 2 , ▁the ▁Royal ▁Military ▁As yl um ▁was ▁renamed ▁The ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ' s ▁Royal ▁Military ▁School ▁and ▁in ▁the ▁process ▁became ▁an ▁all - bo ys ▁school . ▁In ▁ 1 9 0 9 , ▁the ▁school ▁re located ▁to ▁new ▁prem ises ▁constructed ▁on ▁the ▁cl iffs ▁above ▁D over ▁in ▁Kent . ▁For ▁the ▁duration ▁of ▁World ▁War ▁I ▁( 1 9 1 4 – 1 9 1 8 ), ▁the ▁school ▁was ▁ev acu ated ▁to ▁H utton , ▁near ▁Br ent wood , ▁Es sex . ▁The ▁reason ▁for ▁the ▁ev acu ation ▁was ▁to ▁provide ▁the ▁military ▁authorities ▁with ▁a ▁trans it ▁point ▁in ▁D over ▁for ▁troops ▁moved ▁to ▁and ▁from ▁the ▁Western ▁Front . ▁In ▁ 1 9 4 0 ▁the ▁school ▁was ▁ev acu ated ▁to ▁the ▁Sa un ton ▁S ands ▁Hotel , ▁Braun ton , ▁North ▁Dev on , ▁returning ▁to ▁D over ▁in ▁ 1 9 4 6 . ▁ ▁In ▁ 1 9 9 4 , ▁the ▁school ▁re - ad m itted ▁girls ▁and ▁returned ▁to ▁co - ed uc ation . ▁ ▁Academ ic ▁standards ▁Between ▁ |
2 0 0 7 ▁and ▁ 2 0 0 9 ▁more ▁than ▁ 9 0 % ▁of ▁pup ils ▁gained ▁ 5 ▁or ▁more ▁GC SE s ▁at ▁gr ades ▁A * - C ▁( including ▁English ▁and ▁Mathemat ics ). ▁More ▁than ▁ 1 3 % ▁of ▁gr ades ▁were ▁A */ A ▁during ▁the ▁same ▁period . ▁ ▁During ▁this ▁period ▁( 2 0 0 7 – 2 0 0 9 ) ▁ 1 9 % ▁of ▁gr ades ▁gained ▁were ▁A / B ▁at ▁AS ▁level ▁and ▁ 1 2 % ▁of ▁gr ades ▁were ▁A / B ▁at ▁A 2 ▁level . ▁A ▁total ▁of ▁ 3 2 % ▁of ▁gr ades ▁gained ▁were ▁passes ▁at ▁A 2 ▁level . ▁ ▁Most ▁recent ▁results ▁can ▁be ▁found ▁on ▁the ▁School ▁website . ▁ ▁Sports ▁facilities ▁P up ils ▁have ▁access ▁to ▁extensive ▁sport ing ▁facilities ; ▁indeed ▁sports ▁take ▁place ▁every ▁day , ▁with ▁main ▁sports ▁like ▁rugby ▁and ▁hockey ▁being ▁played ▁twice ▁per ▁week . ▁P up ils ▁can ▁also ▁eng age ▁in ▁sports ▁and ▁athlet ic ▁training ▁in ▁their ▁own ▁time ▁each ▁day . ▁The ▁school ▁has ▁a ▁strong ▁sport ing ▁culture . ▁The ▁ 1 5 0 ▁acres ▁( 6 0 7 , 0 0 0 ▁m 2 ) ▁of ▁land ▁on ▁the ▁school ▁site ▁includes ▁a ▁full ▁size ▁athlet ics ▁track , ▁two ▁sports ▁h alls , ▁sw imming ▁pool , ▁ind oor ▁squ ash ▁courts , ▁g ymnasium ▁and ▁a ▁dozen ▁full ▁size ▁grass |
▁pitch es ▁for ▁rugby ▁union , ▁cr icket ▁and ▁tennis . ▁£ 2 4 . 9 ▁million ▁was ▁inv ested ▁in ▁the ▁School ' s ▁facilities ▁in ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁with ▁a ▁Sports ▁Hall ▁designed ▁to ▁Sports ▁England ▁specification ▁being ▁added ▁to ▁the ▁site ▁to ▁enh ance ▁its ▁already ▁impress ive ▁facilities . ▁ ▁Ex changes ▁with ▁NAT O ▁member ▁military ▁schools ▁The ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ' s ▁runs ▁exchange ▁program mes ▁with ▁military ▁schools ▁within ▁NAT O . ▁Of ▁these ▁the ▁most ▁notable ▁is ▁the ▁programme ▁run ▁with ▁the ▁school ' s ▁French ▁equivalent , ▁the ▁Ly c ée ▁Mil itaire ▁in ▁A ix - en - Pro v ence . ▁There ▁are ▁also ▁pla c ements ▁for ▁recent ▁school ▁le a vers ▁from ▁respective ▁military ▁schools ▁to ▁assume ▁teaching ▁assistant ▁posts ▁at ▁corresponding ▁schools . ▁The ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ' s ▁also ▁maintain s ▁connections ▁with ▁Missouri ▁Military ▁Academy , ▁Valley ▁For ge ▁Military ▁Academy ▁and ▁College , ▁Wayne , ▁Pennsylvania , ▁and ▁F au j dar hat ▁Cad et ▁College , ▁Ch itt ag ong , ▁Bang l adesh . ▁ ▁Par ading , ▁military ▁instruction , ▁advent ur ous ▁training ▁Cer emon ial ▁Par ades ▁take ▁place ▁on ▁some ▁Sunday ▁m orn ings ; ▁the ▁grand est ▁of ▁these ▁being ▁on ▁Rem emb rance ▁Sunday ▁and ▁the ▁Grand ▁Day ▁at ▁the ▁end ▁of ▁summer ▁term . ▁On ▁Par ade , ▁as ▁well ▁as ▁for ▁all ▁military ▁activities , ▁pup ils ▁are ▁called ▁cad ets ▁and ▁are |
▁organ ised ▁into ▁cer emon ial ▁Gu ards ▁or ▁they ▁play ▁an ▁instrument ▁in ▁the ▁Band . ▁Cad ets ▁wear ▁the ▁standard ▁dark ▁blue ▁cer emon ial ▁uniform ▁of ▁the ▁British ▁Army . ▁The ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ’ s ▁Royal ▁Military ▁School ▁Cer emon ial ▁Band ▁is ▁the ▁largest ▁within ▁and ▁since ▁ 2 0 1 0 ▁outside ▁the ▁Ministry ▁of ▁Def ence , ▁being ▁larger ▁still ▁than ▁the ▁Mass ed ▁B ands ▁of ▁the ▁Foot ▁Gu ards ▁of ▁the ▁House hold ▁Division . ▁The ▁considerable ▁number ▁of ▁notable ▁mus icians ▁educated ▁at ▁the ▁school ▁over ▁the ▁last ▁ 2 0 7 ▁years ▁demonstr ates ▁the ▁very ▁high ▁standards ▁in ▁music ▁tu ition . ▁In ▁recent ▁years ▁the ▁band ▁has ▁performed ▁at : ▁▁ ▁T wick en ham ▁Stadium ▁( for ▁the ▁annual ▁rugby ▁match ▁between ▁the ▁Royal ▁Navy ▁and ▁British ▁Army ) ▁ ▁Lord ' s ▁( for ▁International ▁Test ▁Match ▁Cr icket ) ▁ ▁Ch ath am ▁Historic ▁D ock yard ▁( Ar med ▁Forces ▁Day ), ▁alongside ▁The ▁Band ▁of ▁H M ▁Royal ▁Mar ines ▁ ▁Ald ers hot ▁( for ▁the ▁Army ▁Rugby ▁League ▁Final s ). ▁ ▁The ▁school ▁emp lo ys ▁a ▁Regiment al ▁Serge ant ▁Major ▁to ▁co - ordinate ▁cer emon ial ▁dr ill ▁and ▁military ▁instruction . ▁ ▁All ▁pup ils ▁are ▁cad ets , ▁with ▁ranks ▁r anging ▁from ▁cad et ▁to ▁senior ▁under ▁officer , ▁and ▁entrance ▁to ▁the ▁armed ▁forces ▁at ▁all ▁ranks ▁- ▁as ▁either ▁a ▁ranking ▁soldier ▁or ▁commission |
ed ▁officer ▁entr ant ▁– ▁occurs ▁regularly . ▁ ▁Advent ur ous ▁Training ▁is ▁run ▁by ▁the ▁school ▁and ▁is ▁available ▁to ▁senior ▁school ▁pup ils . ▁Each ▁training ▁camp ▁is ▁completed ▁on ▁D art mo or ▁at ▁Oak ham pton ▁Training ▁Camp ▁ ▁and ▁last s ▁one ▁week , ▁compr ising ▁mostly ▁field craft ▁and ▁end urance ▁skills ; ▁but ▁always ▁including ▁an ▁extended ▁exercise . ▁ ▁High ▁Table ▁High ▁Table ▁ ▁where ▁a ▁member ▁of ▁the ▁Senior ▁Le ad ership ▁Team , ▁two ▁sixth ▁form ▁pre fect s ▁and ▁other ▁students ▁( t aken ▁from ▁each ▁house ▁in ▁rotation ) ▁and ▁guests ▁take ▁lun che on . ▁The ▁table ▁is ▁waited ▁on . ▁Gu ests ▁are ▁invited ▁from ▁the ▁Offic ers ' ▁Mess es ▁of ▁nearby ▁Army ▁batt al ions , ▁Royal ▁Navy ▁ships ▁and ▁Royal ▁Air ▁Force ▁squad rons . ▁M embers ▁of ▁the ▁school ' s ▁board ▁of ▁govern ors , ▁who ▁are ▁themselves ▁among ▁the ▁most ▁senior ▁military ▁officers ▁and ▁leaders ▁in ▁business ▁and ▁commerce , ▁are ▁also ▁invited ▁regularly . ▁ ▁Board ing ▁houses ▁The ▁school ▁is ▁currently ▁divided ▁into ▁twelve ▁H ouses , ▁nine ▁of ▁which ▁are ▁named ▁after ▁famous ▁British ▁gener als , ▁one ▁after ▁a ▁famous ▁adm iral ▁of ▁the ▁Royal ▁Navy , ▁another ▁after ▁a ▁famous ▁mar shal ▁of ▁the ▁Royal ▁Air ▁Force : ▁ ▁Junior ▁H ouses ▁( Year s ▁ 7 ) ▁Nelson ▁T rench ard ▁ ▁Senior ▁H ouses ▁( Year s ▁ 8 - 1 1 ) ▁Ha ig |
▁K itch ener ▁Roberts ▁Wol se ley ▁Well ington ▁C live ▁Wol fe ▁Mar l borough ▁Alan bro oke ▁ ▁Years ▁ 1 2 - 1 3 ▁Cent en ary ▁House ▁( open ed ▁in ▁September ▁ 2 0 1 0 ) ▁ ▁In ▁ 2 0 1 4 , ▁a ▁£ 2 5 m ▁ref urb ishment ▁of ▁School ▁prem ises ▁was ▁completed ▁including ▁a ▁new ▁sports ▁hall , ▁upgrad ing ▁of ▁the ▁main ▁hall ▁into ▁a ▁performing ▁arts ▁centre , ▁two ▁new ▁teaching ▁wings ▁and ▁four ▁new ▁resident ial ▁houses ▁along ▁with ▁the ▁upgrad ing ▁of ▁the ▁existing ▁ones . ▁School ▁pup il ▁numbers ▁capacity ▁has ▁been ▁increased ▁by ▁over ▁ 5 0 %. ▁ ▁Music ▁Music ▁plays ▁an ▁important ▁role ▁in ▁the ▁life ▁of ▁the ▁school . ▁The ▁school ▁has ▁several ▁music ▁ens emb les ▁of ▁varying ▁size , ▁pre domin antly ▁featuring ▁military ▁band ▁instruments . ▁The ▁school ' s ▁march ing ▁band ▁has ▁performed ▁at ▁public ▁events ▁such ▁as ▁the ▁Ch ath am ▁D ock yard ▁Rem emb rance ▁Day ▁Par ade ▁and ▁has ▁been ▁a ▁regular ▁pre - match ▁feature ▁at ▁the ▁Army ▁vs ▁Navy ▁rugby ▁match ▁at ▁T wick en ham ▁for ▁many ▁years . ▁ ▁In ▁addition ▁to ▁the ▁concert s ▁and ▁military ▁band ▁engag ements ▁that ▁are ▁held ▁throughout ▁the ▁year , ▁the ▁school ▁cho ir ▁has ▁featured ▁in ▁local ▁television ▁and ▁radio ▁broadcast s ▁with ▁their ▁special ▁version ▁of ▁" Where ver ▁You ▁Are ", ▁a ▁song ▁by ▁the ▁composer ▁Paul ▁Me al |
or ▁which ▁was ▁performed ▁by ▁the ▁Military ▁W ives ▁Ch oir ▁at ▁the ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁Festival ▁of ▁Rem emb rance . ▁The ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ' s ▁School ▁version ▁featured ▁a ▁pup il ▁of ▁the ▁school ▁reading ▁a ▁letter ▁to ▁her ▁father ▁who ▁served ▁in ▁Afghan istan ▁over ▁Christmas ▁ 2 0 1 1 ▁and ▁was ▁broadcast ▁on ▁the ▁Chris ▁Evans ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁ 2 ▁breakfast ▁show ▁on ▁Wed nes day ▁ 1 4 ▁December ▁and ▁repeated ▁several ▁times ▁in ▁full ▁on ▁BBC ▁Radio ▁Kent ▁throughout ▁the ▁Christmas ▁period . ▁The ▁YouTube ▁video ▁of ▁the ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ' s ▁School ▁aver aged ▁ 1 0 0 0 ▁hits ▁a ▁day ▁during ▁the ▁weeks ▁leading ▁up ▁to ▁Christmas . ▁ ▁March ing ▁Be ats ▁ ▁Regiment al ▁Col our ▁- ▁the ▁School ▁has ▁its ▁own ▁" stand ▁of ▁Col ours ". ▁The ▁School ▁Col our ▁is ▁tro oped ▁at ▁many ▁Par ades . ▁ ▁School ▁Quick ▁March : ▁S ons ▁Of ▁The ▁Bra ve ▁ ▁School ▁S low ▁March : ▁The ▁Duke ▁Of ▁York ▁ ▁School ▁Song : ▁" Play ▁Up ▁D uk ies " ▁ ▁School ▁H ymn : ▁" S ons ▁of ▁the ▁Bra ve " ▁ ▁School ▁March ▁off : ▁" M arch in ' ▁through ▁Georgia " ▁ ▁Military ▁Col ours ▁Al ong ▁with ▁E ton ▁College ▁and ▁Ch el ten ham ▁College , ▁the ▁Duke ▁of ▁York ' s ▁Royal ▁Military ▁School ▁is ▁one ▁of ▁only ▁three ▁English ▁schools ▁to ▁have ▁military ▁colours . ▁While |