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The local structure is a term in nuclear spectroscopy that refers to the structure of the nearest neighbours around an atom in crystals and molecules. E. g | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Lodestones are naturally magnetized pieces of the mineral magnetite. They are naturally occurring magnets, which can attract iron. The property of magnetism was first discovered in antiquity through lodestones | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A magnetic circuit is made up of one or more closed loop paths containing a magnetic flux. The flux is usually generated by permanent magnets or electromagnets and confined to the path by magnetic cores consisting of ferromagnetic materials like iron, although there may be air gaps or other materials in the path. Magnetic circuits are employed to efficiently channel magnetic fields in many devices such as electric motors, generators, transformers, relays, lifting electromagnets, SQUIDs, galvanometers, and magnetic recording heads | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In electromagnetism, a magnetic dipole is the limit of either a closed loop of electric current or a pair of poles as the size of the source is reduced to zero while keeping the magnetic moment constant. It is a magnetic analogue of the electric dipole, but the analogy is not perfect. In particular, a true magnetic monopole, the magnetic analogue of an electric charge, has never been observed in nature | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In electromagnetism, the magnetic moment is the magnetic strength and orientation of a magnet or other object that produces a magnetic field. Examples of objects that have magnetic moments include loops of electric current (such as electromagnets), permanent magnets, elementary particles (such as electrons), composite particles (such as protons and neutrons), various molecules, and many astronomical objects (such as many planets, some moons, stars, etc).
More precisely, the term magnetic moment normally refers to a system's magnetic dipole moment, the component of the magnetic moment that can be represented by an equivalent magnetic dipole: a magnetic north and south pole separated by a very small distance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Magnetic reluctance, or magnetic resistance, is a concept used in the analysis of magnetic circuits. It is defined as the ratio of magnetomotive force (mmf) to magnetic flux. It represents the opposition to magnetic flux, and depends on the geometry and composition of an object | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In electromagnetism, the magnetic susceptibility (from Latin susceptibilis 'receptive'; denoted χ, chi) is a measure of how much a material will become magnetized in an applied magnetic field. It is the ratio of magnetization M (magnetic moment per unit volume) to the applied magnetizing field intensity H. This allows a simple classification, into two categories, of most materials' responses to an applied magnetic field: an alignment with the magnetic field, χ > 0, called paramagnetism, or an alignment against the field, χ < 0, called diamagnetism | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In classical electromagnetism, magnetization is the vector field that expresses the density of permanent or induced magnetic dipole moments in a magnetic material. Movement within this field is described by direction and is either Axial or Diametric. The origin of the magnetic moments responsible for magnetization can be either microscopic electric currents resulting from the motion of electrons in atoms, or the spin of the electrons or the nuclei | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A magneto-optic effect is any one of a number of phenomena in which an electromagnetic wave propagates through a medium that has been altered by the presence of a quasistatic magnetic field. In such a medium, which is also called gyrotropic or gyromagnetic, left- and right-rotating elliptical polarizations can propagate at different speeds, leading to a number of important phenomena. When light is transmitted through a layer of magneto-optic material, the result is called the Faraday effect: the plane of polarization can be rotated, forming a Faraday rotator | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Magnetostatics is the study of magnetic fields in systems where the currents are steady (not changing with time). It is the magnetic analogue of electrostatics, where the charges are stationary. The magnetization need not be static; the equations of magnetostatics can be used to predict fast magnetic switching events that occur on time scales of nanoseconds or less | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In optics, an optical medium is material through which light and other electromagnetic waves propagate. It is a form of transmission medium. The permittivity and permeability of the medium define how electromagnetic waves propagate in it | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The microwave heat distribution is the distribution (allocation) of the heat release inside the microwave absorptive material irradiated with high intensive microwaves.
The pattern of microwave heat distribution depends on many physical parameters, which may include the electromagnetic field, the specific absorption rate and structure of the processed material, the geometrical dimensions of the processing cavity, etc.
Most of the industrial microwave heating applications need a uniform heat distribution | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In superparamagnetism (a form of magnetism), the Néel effect appears when a superparamagnetic material in a conducting coil is subject to varying frequencies of magnetic fields. The non-linearity of the superparamagnetic material acts as a frequency mixer, with voltage measured at the coil terminals. It consists of several frequency components, at the initial frequency and at the frequencies of certain linear combinations | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Nicolson–Ross–Weir method is a measurement technique for determination of complex permittivities and permeabilities of material samples for microwave frequencies. The method is based on insertion of a material sample with a known thickness inside a waveguide, such as a coaxial cable or a rectangular waveguide, after which the dispersion data is extracted from the resulting scattering parameters. The method is named after A | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A nonlinear metamaterial is an artificially constructed material that can exhibit properties not yet found in nature. Its response to electromagnetic radiation can be characterized by its permittivity and material permeability. The product of the permittivity and permeability results in the refractive index | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The nucleon magnetic moments are the intrinsic magnetic dipole moments of the proton and neutron, symbols μp and μn. The nucleus of an atom comprises protons and neutrons, both nucleons that behave as small magnets. Their magnetic strengths are measured by their magnetic moments | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Paramagnetism is a form of magnetism whereby some materials are weakly attracted by an externally applied magnetic field, and form internal, induced magnetic fields in the direction of the applied magnetic field. In contrast with this behavior, diamagnetic materials are repelled by magnetic fields and form induced magnetic fields in the direction opposite to that of the applied magnetic field. Paramagnetic materials include most chemical elements and some compounds; they have a relative magnetic permeability slightly greater than 1 (i | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Permeance, in general, is the degree to which a material admits a flow of matter or energy. Permeance is usually represented by a curly capital P:
P
{\displaystyle {\mathcal {P}}}
.
Electromagnetism
In electromagnetism, permeance is the inverse of reluctance | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The planar Hall sensor is a type of magnetic sensor based on the planar Hall effect of ferromagnetic materials. It measures the change in anisotropic magnetoresistance caused by an external magnetic field in the Hall geometry. As opposed to an ordinary Hall sensor, which measures field components perpendicular to the sensor plane, the planar Hall sensor responds to magnetic field components in the sensor plane | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Polarizability usually refers to the tendency of matter, when subjected to an electric field, to acquire an electric dipole moment in proportion to that applied field. It is a property of all matter, considering that matter is made up of elementary particles which have an electric charge, namely protons and electrons. When subject to an electric field, the negatively charged electrons and positively charged atomic nuclei are subject to opposite forces and undergo charge separation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In classical electromagnetism, polarization density (or electric polarization, or simply polarization) is the vector field that expresses the density of permanent or induced electric dipole moments in a dielectric material. When a dielectric is placed in an external electric field, its molecules gain electric dipole moment and the dielectric is said to be polarized. The electric dipole moment induced per unit volume of the dielectric material is called the electric polarization of the dielectric | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Quantum paraelectricity is a type of incipient ferroelectricity where the onset of ferroelectric order is suppressed by quantum fluctuations. From the soft mode theory of ferroelectricity, this occurs when a ferroelectric instability is stabilized by quantum fluctuations. In this case the soft-mode frequency never becomes unstable (Fig | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Spin-density wave (SDW) and charge-density wave (CDW) are names for two similar low-energy ordered states of solids. Both these states occur at low temperature in anisotropic, low-dimensional materials or in metals that have high densities of states at the Fermi level
N
(
E
F
)
{\displaystyle N(E_{F})}
. Other low-temperature ground states that occur in such materials are superconductivity, ferromagnetism and antiferromagnetism | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Tauc–Lorentz model is a mathematical formula for the frequency dependence of the complex-valued relative permittivity, sometimes referred to as the dielectric function. The model has been used to fit the complex refractive index of amorphous semiconductor materials at frequencies greater than their optical band gap. The dispersion relation bears the names of Jan Tauc and Hendrik Lorentz, whose previous works were combined by G | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A temperature coefficient describes the relative change of a physical property that is associated with a given change in temperature. For a property R that changes when the temperature changes by dT, the temperature coefficient α is defined by the following equation:
d
R
R
=
α
d
T
{\displaystyle {\frac {dR}{R}}=\alpha \,dT}
Here α has the dimension of an inverse temperature and can be expressed e. g | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Tunnel magnetoresistance (TMR) is a magnetoresistive effect that occurs in a magnetic tunnel junction (MTJ), which is a component consisting of two ferromagnets separated by a thin insulator. If the insulating layer is thin enough (typically a few nanometres), electrons can tunnel from one ferromagnet into the other. Since this process is forbidden in classical physics, the tunnel magnetoresistance is a strictly quantum mechanical phenomenon | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics and electrical engineering, the universal dielectric response, or UDR, refers to the observed emergent behaviour of the dielectric properties exhibited by diverse solid state systems. In particular this widely observed response involves power law scaling of dielectric properties with frequency under conditions of alternating current, AC. First defined in a landmark article by A | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Weak localization is a physical effect which occurs in disordered electronic systems at very low temperatures. The effect manifests itself as a positive correction to the resistivity of a metal or semiconductor. The name emphasizes the fact that weak localization is a precursor of Anderson localization, which occurs at strong disorder | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics, electromagnetism is an interaction that occurs between particles with electric charge via electromagnetic fields. The electromagnetic force is one of the four fundamental forces of nature. It is the dominant force in the interactions of atoms and molecules | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Absorption cross section is a measure for the probability of an absorption process. More generally, the term cross section is used in physics to quantify the probability of a certain particle-particle interaction, e. g | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics, the algebra of physical space (APS) is the use of the Clifford or geometric algebra Cl3,0(R) of the three-dimensional Euclidean space as a model for (3+1)-dimensional spacetime, representing a point in spacetime via a paravector (3-dimensional vector plus a 1-dimensional scalar).
The Clifford algebra Cl3,0(R) has a faithful representation, generated by Pauli matrices, on the spin representation C2; further, Cl3,0(R) is isomorphic to the even subalgebra Cl[0]3,1(R) of the Clifford algebra Cl3,1(R).
APS can be used to construct a compact, unified and geometrical formalism for both classical and quantum mechanics | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Alternating current field measurement (ACFM) is an electromagnetic technique for non-destructive testing detection and sizing of surface breaking discontinuities. It was derived from the methods used in eddy-current testing and works on all metals, ferrous or non-ferrous. Since it doesn't require direct electrical contact with the surface it can work through thin coatings such as paint | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Ambiguity resolution is used to find the value of a measurement that requires modulo sampling.
This is required for pulse-Doppler radar signal processing.
Measurements
Some types of measurements introduce an unavoidable modulo operation in the measurement process | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In classical electromagnetism, Ampère's circuital law (not to be confused with Ampère's force law) relates the circulation of a magnetic field around a closed loop to the electric current passing through the loop. James Clerk Maxwell (not Ampère) derived it using hydrodynamics in his 1861 published paper "On Physical Lines of Force" In 1865 he generalized the equation to apply to time-varying currents by adding the displacement current term, resulting in the modern form of the law, sometimes called the Ampère–Maxwell law, which is one of Maxwell's equations which form the basis of classical electromagnetism.
Maxwell's original circuital law
In 1820 Danish physicist Hans Christian Ørsted discovered that an electric current creates a magnetic field around it, when he noticed that the needle of a compass next to a wire carrying current turned so that the needle was perpendicular to the wire | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics and applied mathematics, analytical regularization is a technique used to convert boundary value problems which can be written as Fredholm integral equations of the first kind involving singular operators into equivalent Fredholm integral equations of the second kind. The latter may be easier to solve analytically and can be studied with discretization schemes like the finite element method or the finite difference method because they are pointwise convergent. In computational electromagnetics, it is known as the method of analytical regularization | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Axial multipole moments are a series expansion of the electric potential of a charge distribution localized close to the origin along one Cartesian axis, denoted here as the z-axis. However, the axial multipole expansion can also be applied to any potential or field that varies inversely with the distance to the source, i. e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics, specifically electromagnetism, the Biot–Savart law ( or ) is an equation describing the magnetic field generated by a constant electric current. It relates the magnetic field to the magnitude, direction, length, and proximity of the electric current. The Biot–Savart law is fundamental to magnetostatics, When magnetostatics does not apply, the Biot–Savart law should be replaced by Jefimenko's equations | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In electromagnetics, the catapult description of magnetic forces refers to when a current is passed through a loose wire in a magnetic field. The loose wire is then catapulted horizontally away from the magnetic field. This occurs due to the Lorentz force acting on the electric current in the wire due to the magnetic field | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In mathematics and electronics, Cavity perturbation theory describes methods for derivation of perturbation formulae for performance changes of a cavity resonator.
These performance changes are assumed to be caused by either introduction of a small foreign object into the cavity, or a small deformation of its boundary. Various mathematical methods can be used to study the characteristics of cavities, which are important in the field of microwave systems, and more generally in the field of electro magnetism | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Characteristic modes (CM) form a set of functions which, under specific boundary conditions, diagonalizes operator relating field and induced sources. Under certain conditions, the set of the CM is unique and complete (at least theoretically) and thereby capable of describing the behavior of a studied object in full.
This article deals with characteristic mode decomposition in electromagnetics, a domain in which the CM theory has originally been proposed | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics, a charge is any of many different quantities, such as the electric charge in electromagnetism or the color charge in quantum chromodynamics. Charges correspond to the time-invariant generators of a symmetry group, and specifically, to the generators that commute with the Hamiltonian. Charges are often denoted by the letter Q, and so the invariance of the charge corresponds to the vanishing commutator
[
Q
,
H
]
=
0
{\displaystyle [Q,H]=0}
, where H is the Hamiltonian | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics, charge conservation is the principle that the total electric charge in an isolated system never changes. The net quantity of electric charge, the amount of positive charge minus the amount of negative charge in the universe, is always conserved. Charge conservation, considered as a physical conservation law, implies that the change in the amount of electric charge in any volume of space is exactly equal to the amount of charge flowing into the volume minus the amount of charge flowing out of the volume | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics, circulation is the line integral of a vector field around a closed curve. In fluid dynamics, the field is the fluid velocity field. In electrodynamics, it can be the electric or the magnetic field | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Classical Electrodynamics is a textbook written by theoretical particle and nuclear physicist John David Jackson. The book originated as lecture notes that Jackson prepared for teaching graduate-level electromagnetism first at McGill University and then at the University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign. Intended for graduate students, and often known as Jackson for short, it has been a standard reference on its subject since its first publication in 1962 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Classical electromagnetism or classical electrodynamics is a branch of theoretical physics that studies the interactions between electric charges and currents using an extension of the classical Newtonian model; It is, therefore, a classical field theory. The theory provides a description of electromagnetic phenomena whenever the relevant length scales and field strengths are large enough that quantum mechanical effects are negligible. For small distances and low field strengths, such interactions are better described by quantum electrodynamics, which is a quantum field theory | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The theory of special relativity plays an important role in the modern theory of classical electromagnetism. It gives formulas for how electromagnetic objects, in particular the electric and magnetic fields, are altered under a Lorentz transformation from one inertial frame of reference to another. It sheds light on the relationship between electricity and magnetism, showing that frame of reference determines if an observation follows electric or magnetic laws | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics and engineering, Coenergy (or co-energy) is a non-physical quantity, measured in energy units, used in theoretical analysis of energy in physical systems. The concept of co-energy can be applied to many conservative systems (inertial mechanical, electromagnetic, etc. ), which can be described by a linear relationship between the input and stored energy | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In physics a conserved current is a current,
j
μ
{\displaystyle j^{\mu }}
, that satisfies the continuity equation
∂
μ
j
μ
=
0
{\displaystyle \partial _{\mu }j^{\mu }=0}
. The continuity equation represents a conservation law, hence the name.
Indeed, integrating the continuity equation over a volume
V
{\displaystyle V}
, large enough to have no net currents through its surface, leads to the conservation law
where
Q
=
∫
V
j
0
d
V
{\textstyle Q=\int _{V}j^{0}dV}
is the conserved quantity | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A conventional electrical unit (or conventional unit where there is no risk of ambiguity) is a unit of measurement in the field of electricity which is based on the so-called "conventional values" of the Josephson constant, the von Klitzing constant agreed by the International Committee for Weights and Measures (CIPM) in 1988, as well as ΔνCs used to define the second. These units are very similar in scale to their corresponding SI units, but are not identical because of the different values used for the constants. They are distinguished from the corresponding SI units by setting the symbol in italic typeface and adding a subscript "90" – e | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Counter-electromotive force (counter EMF, CEMF, back EMF), is the electromotive force (EMF) manifesting as a voltage that opposes the change in current which induced it. CEMF is the EMF caused by electromagnetic induction.
Details
For example, the voltage appearing across an inductor or coil is due to a change in current which causes a change in the magnetic field within the coil, and therefore the self-induced voltage | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The covariant formulation of classical electromagnetism refers to ways of writing the laws of classical electromagnetism (in particular, Maxwell's equations and the Lorentz force) in a form that is manifestly invariant under Lorentz transformations, in the formalism of special relativity using rectilinear inertial coordinate systems. These expressions both make it simple to prove that the laws of classical electromagnetism take the same form in any inertial coordinate system, and also provide a way to translate the fields and forces from one frame to another. However, this is not as general as Maxwell's equations in curved spacetime or non-rectilinear coordinate systems | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
In electromagnetism, current sources and sinks are analysis formalisms which distinguish points, areas, or volumes through which electric current enters or exits a system. While current sources or sinks are abstract elements used for analysis, generally they have physical counterparts in real-world applications; e. g | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Cylindrical multipole moments are the coefficients in a series expansion of a potential that varies logarithmically with the distance to a source, i. e. , as
ln
R
{\displaystyle \ln \ R}
| https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Haulpak was a very successful line of off-highway mining trucks. The name was used from 1953 until around 1999; the line continues under the Komatsu name. The name was adopted as Wabco Haulpak when R | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Haul trucks are off-highway, rigid dump trucks specifically engineered for use in high-production mining and heavy-duty construction environments. Haul trucks are also used for transporting construction equipment from job site to job site. Some are multi-axle in order to support the equipment that is being hauled | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A gook was a piece of protective headgear worn by bal maidens (female manual labourers in the mining industries of Cornwall and Devon). The gook was a bonnet which covered the head and projected forward over the face, to protect the wearer's head and face from sunlight and flying debris. Bal maidens often worked outdoors or in very crude surface-level shelters, and the gook also gave protection from extreme weather conditions | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
P&H Mining Equipment designs, builds and supports a line of drilling and material handling machinery marketed under the "P&H" trademark and applied to minerals and energy surface mining operations worldwide. The firm is an operating subsidiary of Joy Global Inc. In 2017 Joy Global Inc | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Schramm, Inc. is a privately held manufacturer of mobile, top-head hydraulic drilling rigs and related equipment for the global mining, energy, and water well industries. In October 2019, it was acquired by GenNx360 Capital Partners | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A mine railway (or mine railroad, U. S. ), sometimes pit railway, is a railway constructed to carry materials and workers in and out of a mine | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Llancaiach Branch railway line was a mineral branch line in Glamorganshire, South Wales. It was authorised in 1836 as part of the Taff Vale Railway, and its purpose was to connect collieries at Llancaiach and bring their output to Cardiff for onward shipment. It was designed by Isambard Kingdom Brunel and built on the standard gauge | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Maerdy Branch was a railway branch line in South Wales. Financed and operated by the Taff Vale Railway, on amalgamation it became part of the Great Western Railway in 1923. Designed and mainly operated as a coal mining freight railway, its creation and demise was wholly defined by the South Wales Coalfield | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Transylvanian Mining Railway was a local interest narrow-gauge (760mm gauge) railway which was the first mining railway in Transylvania. This railway was built to ease the transportation of the iron ore mined from the iron ore mines from Ghelari to the blast furnace in Govăjdia and the ironworks from Hunedoara. This railway was also known as the "Hunedoara-Ghelari Local Interest Railway", "CFI Hunedoara", "Mocăniţa Hunedoara", "Calea Ferată Minieră Ardeleană", "Erdélyi Bányavasút" in Hungarian | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A stamp mill (or stamp battery or stamping mill) is a type of mill machine that crushes material by pounding rather than grinding, either for further processing or for extraction of metallic ores. Breaking material down is a type of unit operation.
Description
A stamp mill consists of a set of heavy steel (iron-shod wood in some cases) stamps, loosely held vertically in a frame, in which the stamps can slide up and down | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Good Hope Mine was the principal gold mine in the Pinacate Mining District, Riverside County, California.
Good Hope Mine was reputedly begun by a Frenchman named Mache, although the washes in the area were originally placer mined by Mexicans in the 1850s during the California Gold Rush using arrastras. The Good Hope quartz vein was found in 1874 | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Homestake Mine was a deep underground gold mine (8,000 feet or 2,438 m) located in Lead, South Dakota. Until it closed in 2002 it was the largest and deepest gold mine in North America. The mine produced more than forty million troy ounces (43,900,000 oz; 1,240,000 kg) of gold during its lifetime | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Wall Street Mill in Joshua Tree National Park was a complete and operable gold ore crushing mill featuring late-19th century two-stamp mill machinery. Consequently, the significance encompasses the mill machinery, the building which houses it, the well which supplied water for the mill's operation, and the well pump. It is the only gold ore crushing mill in the region that retains integrity | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Gonçalo António da Silva Ferreira Sampaio (29 March 1865 in São Gens de Calvos – 28 July 1937 in Porto) was a Portuguese botanist.
He studied mathematics at the University of Coimbra and chemistry, mineralogy and botany at the Polytechnic Academy of Porto. From 1890 he served as an assistant naturalist at the Polytechnic Academy | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Vitruvius (; c. 80–70 BC – after c. 15 BC) was a Roman architect and engineer during the 1st century BC, known for his multi-volume work titled De architectura | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Arcesius or (T)arcesius was an Ionian architect who worked in Ionia during the 3rd century BCE. He is mentioned in a passage of Vitruvius and it is considered that the T of his name was assimilated in the relevant manuscript from the previous word negavit. He allegedly worked in Tralles and was assigned the Temple of Asclepius there | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Asmus and Clark was an architectural firm based in Nashville, Tennessee. Asmus and Norton was a predecessor firm.
It was a partnership of Christian A | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Beuttler & Arnold was an architectural firm in Sioux City, Iowa that designed several works that are listed on the National Register of Historic Places for their architecture.
William Buettler (1883-1963) and Ralph Arnold (1889-1961) both worked for architect Wilfred W. Beach in Sioux City | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Daniell and Beutell was an architectural firm in Atlanta during 1919 to 1941. It was a partnership of Sydney S. Daniell and Russell L | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Gove & Walsh was an architectural firm based in Denver, Colorado which operated from 1896 to 1918. Aaron M. Gove (July 12,1867 – February 29,1924) and Thomas F | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
W. R. Kaufman & Son was an architectural firm in Texas | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
PILATUS is the name of a series of x-ray detectors originally developed by the Paul Scherrer Institute at the Swiss Light Source and further developed and commercialized by DECTRIS. The PILATUS detectors are based on hybrid photon counting (HPC) technology, by which X-rays are converted to electrical signals by the photoelectric effect in a semiconductor sensor layer—either silicon or cadmium telluride—which is subject to a substantial bias voltage. The electric signals are counted directly by a series of cells in an ASIC bonded to the sensor | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The ratio detector is a type of detector circuit, commonly used in radio receivers for demodulating frequency modulated (FM) signal. The ratio detector is a variant of the Foster–Seeley discriminator, but one diode conducts in an opposite direction, and using a tertiary winding in the preceding transformer. The output in this case is taken between the sum of the diode voltages and the center tap | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A Readout integrated circuit (ROIC) is an integrated circuit (IC) specifically used for reading detectors of a particular type. They are compatible with different types of detectors such as infrared and ultraviolet. The primary purpose for ROICs is to accumulate the photocurrent from each pixel and then transfer the resultant signal onto output taps for readout | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A smoke detector is a device that senses smoke, typically as an indicator of fire. Smoke detectors are usually housed in plastic enclosures, typically shaped like a disk about 150 millimetres (6 in) in diameter and 25 millimetres (1 in) thick, but shape and size vary. Smoke can be detected either optically (photoelectric) or by physical process (ionization) | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A water detector is an electronic device that is designed to detect the presence of water for purposes such as to provide an alert in time to allow the prevention of water leakage. A common design is a small cable or device that lies flat on a floor and relies on the electrical conductivity of water to decrease the resistance across two contacts. The device then sounds an audible alarm together with providing onward signaling in the presence of enough water to bridge the contacts | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A window detector circuit, also called window comparator circuit or dual edge limit detector circuits is used to determine whether an unknown input is between two precise reference threshold voltages. It employs two comparators to detect over-voltage or under-voltage. Each single comparator detects the common input voltage against one of two reference voltages, normally upper and lower limits | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Workplace exposure monitoring is the monitoring of substances in a workplace that are chemical or biological hazards. It is performed in the context of workplace exposure assessment and risk assessment. Exposure monitoring analyzes hazardous substances in the air or on surfaces of a workplace, and is complementary to biomonitoring, which instead analyzes toxicants or their effects within workers | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
X-ray detectors are devices used to measure the flux, spatial distribution, spectrum, and/or other properties of X-rays.
Detectors can be divided into two major categories: imaging detectors (such as photographic plates and X-ray film (photographic film), now mostly replaced by various digitizing devices like image plates or flat panel detectors) and dose measurement devices (such as ionization chambers, Geiger counters, and dosimeters used to measure the local radiation exposure, dose, and/or dose rate, for example, for verifying that radiation protection equipment and procedures are effective on an ongoing basis).
X-ray imaging
To obtain an image with any type of image detector the part of the patient to be X-rayed is placed between the X-ray source and the image receptor to produce a shadow of the internal structure of that particular part of the body | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A calibration gas is a reference gas or gas mixture used as comparative standard in the calibration of analytical instruments, like gas analysers or gas detectors. Therefore, a calibration gas has to be of a precisely defined nature or composition, like zero gas or span gas, for example 500 ppm carbon monoxide in nitrogen.
To be a calibration gas, the gas must be traceable to a national or international standard | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A carbon dioxide recorder (or CO2 recorder) is a machine that can record the level of carbon dioxide at different times. It is more sophisticated than a carbon dioxide detector which only has to indicate the presence of carbon dioxide. There are three main types of carbon dioxide recorder: chemical, physical, and electrical | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A carbon dioxide sensor or CO2 sensor is an instrument for the measurement of carbon dioxide gas. The most common principles for CO2 sensors are infrared gas sensors (NDIR) and chemical gas sensors. Measuring carbon dioxide is important in monitoring indoor air quality, the function of the lungs in the form of a capnograph device, and many industrial processes | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A catalytic bead sensor is a type of sensor that is used for combustible gas detection from the family of gas sensors known as pellistors.
Principle
The catalytic bead sensor consists of two coils of fine platinum wire each embedded in a bead of alumina, connected electrically in a Wheatstone bridge circuit. One of the pellistors is impregnated with a special catalyst which promotes oxidation whilst the other is treated to inhibit oxidation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A chemoreceptor, also known as chemosensor, is a specialized sensory receptor which transduces a chemical substance (endogenous or induced) to generate a biological signal. This signal may be in the form of an action potential, if the chemoreceptor is a neuron, or in the form of a neurotransmitter that can activate a nerve fiber if the chemoreceptor is a specialized cell, such as taste receptors, or an internal peripheral chemoreceptor, such as the carotid bodies. In physiology, a chemoreceptor detects changes in the normal environment, such as an increase in blood levels of carbon dioxide (hypercapnia) or a decrease in blood levels of oxygen (hypoxia), and transmits that information to the central nervous system which engages body responses to restore homeostasis | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An exhaust gas analyser or exhaust carbon monoxide (CO) analyser is an instrument for the measurement of carbon monoxide among other gases in the exhaust, caused by an incorrect combustion, the Lambda coefficient measurement is the most common.
The principles used for CO sensors (and other types of gas) are infrared gas sensors and chemical gas sensors. Carbon monoxide sensors are used to assess the CO amount during an Ministry of Transport test | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An explosive gas leak detector is a device used to detect explosive gas leaks in enclosed spaces. Typically, a local alarm will be triggered, and optionally a remote alarm may also be connected.
Carbon monoxide detectors will not detect explosive mistures; thus the device is often recommended to complement the CO detector | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A gas detector is a device that detects the presence of gases in an area, often as part of a safety system. A gas detector can sound an alarm to operators in the area where the leak is occurring, giving them the opportunity to leave. This type of device is important because there are many gases that can be harmful to organic life, such as humans or animals | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A hydrogen sulfide sensor or H2S sensor is a gas sensor for the measurement of hydrogen sulfide.
Principle
The H2S sensor is a metal oxide semiconductor (MOS) sensor which operates by a reversible change in resistance caused by adsorption and desorption of hydrogen sulfide in a film with hydrogen sulfide sensitive material like tin oxide thick films and gold thin films. Current response time is 25 ppb to 10 ppm < one minute | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
Infrared open-path gas detectors send out a beam of infrared light, detecting gas anywhere along the path of the beam. This linear 'sensor' is typically a few metres up to a few hundred metres in length. Open-path detectors can be contrasted with infrared point sensors | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An infrared point sensor is a point gas detector based on the nondispersive infrared sensor technology.
Principle
Dual source and dual receivers are used for self compensation of changes in alignment, light source intensity and component efficiency. The transmitted beams from two infrared sources are superimposed onto an internal beam splitter | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A nondispersive infrared sensor (or NDIR sensor) is a simple spectroscopic sensor often used as a gas detector. It is non-dispersive in the fact that no dispersive element (e. g a prism or diffraction grating as is often present in other spectrometers) is used to separate out (like a monochromator) the broadband light into a narrow spectrum suitable for gas sensing | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A pellistor is a solid-state device used to detect gases which are either combustible or which have a significant difference in thermal conductivity to that of air. The word "pellistor" is a combination of pellet and resistor.
Principle
The detecting element consists of small "pellets" of catalyst loaded ceramic whose resistance changes in the presence of gas | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
The Severinghaus electrode is an electrode that measures carbon dioxide (CO2). It was developed by Dr. John W | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
A zinc oxide nanorod sensor or ZnO nanorod sensor is an electronic or optical device detecting presence of certain gas or liquid molecules (e. g. humidity, NO, hydrogen, etc | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An image sensor or imager is a sensor that detects and conveys information used to form an image. It does so by converting the variable attenuation of light waves (as they pass through or reflect off objects) into signals, small bursts of current that convey the information. The waves can be light or other electromagnetic radiation | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An active-pixel sensor (APS) is an image sensor, which was invented by Peter J. W. Noble in 1968, where each pixel sensor unit cell has a photodetector (typically a pinned photodiode) and one or more active transistors | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
An angle-sensitive pixel (ASP) is a CMOS sensor with a sensitivity to incoming light that is sinusoidal in incident angle.
Principles of operation
ASPs are typically composed of two gratings (a diffraction grating and an analyzer grating) above a single photodiode. ASPs exploit the moire effect and the Talbot effect to gain their sinusoidal light sensitivity | https://huggingface.co/datasets/fmars/wiki_stem |
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