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1975-11-01 | On-site detection speeds response to flammable cryogenic gas leaks. | A cryogenic line leak detector | 10.1007/BF02593024 |
1975-09-01 | High-speed turboexpanders with gas bearings for cryogenic helium plants | 10.1007/BF01152485 | |
1975-09-01 | Hydraulic shocks in dead-end branch pipes of cryogenic equipment | 10.1007/BF01152479 | |
1975-09-01 | Development of cryogenic techniques and refrigerating-machine construction in the USSR | 10.1007/BF01152474 | |
1975-04-01 | Experimental investigation of hydraulic characteristics of filters for cryogenic systems | 10.1007/BF01144751 | |
1975-03-01 | In cats under nembutal or chloralose anesthesia, unilateral temporary cryogenic blockades of the primary visual cortex were performed and their influence on unitary responses to restricted light spots was tested in the ipsilateral geniculate nucleus. No significant effect could thus be observed, at variance with previous positive results obtained by our group in structures like superior colliculus and pulvinar complex using the same experimental procedure. | A study of geniculate unit activity during cryogenic blockade of the primary visual cortex in the cat | 10.1007/BF00234766 |
1975-02-01 | Effect of heat treatment on properties of steel 03Kh13AG19 at cryogenic temperatures | 10.1007/BF00679169 | |
1975-01-01 | Deuterium, a heavy hydrogen isotope, is used in certain bubble chambers and also for experiments in nuclear fusion. However, the greatest demand for deuterium is associated with nuclear reactor technology, particularly for reactors of high power output. These reactors have attained importance because they can use natural uranium. This makes them attractive in those countries that have no U-235 enrichment plants or that prefer natural uranium for other reasons and is one reason why the demand for heavy water is increasing. | Heavy Water Production by Cryogenic Processing | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0208-8_54 |
1975-01-01 | Transition boiling is one of the least investigated domains of heat transfer. This is due both to the complexity of the process and to the fact that in most studies the boiling curve is investigated at fixed heat flux. Present progress in cryogenic technology and increased demands on the precision in calculations of the quenching regime have revived an interest in transition boiling. The purpose of this presentation is to summarize all experimental data known to the authors on heat transfer in the transition boiling mode and to develop a model to predict transition boiling. | Heat Transfer in Transition Boiling of Cryogenic Liquids | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0208-8_35 |
1975-01-01 | Liquid helium is an indispensable cryogen for devices operating at temperatures below 10 K. Examples are semiconductor and superconductor far-infrared detectors and superconductive sensors, magnets, and logic elements. For planned scientific experiments associated with space missions, such as the Stanford/NASA gyroscope test of general relativity [^1], the proposed Large Space Telescope, and the Shuttle Infrared Telescope Facility, the use of liquid helium as cryogen, probably as a superfluid, is considered essential or highly desirable. The application of liquid helium in the zero-gravity environment poses problems concerning the spatial distribution of liquid within the dewar, both for thermal reasons and because dynamic behavior may affect the spacecraft attitude control system. A small, high-accuracy, rapid-response low-power-dissipation sensor is needed to determine the distribution of liquid in the flight dewar with minimum disturbance to the fluid. Standard techniques using pure superconductor wire or carbon resistors [^2,3] have proved inapplicable in the enclosed isothermal environment of a superfluid-filled dewar. A new sensor, based on the resistance change of the normal-superconductive transition, has been developed and is described in this paper. The sensor can be made suitable for use in either normal or superfluid helium by proper choice of material for the superconducting coating. | Sensor for Distinguishing Liquid-Vapor Phases of Superfluid Helium | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0208-8_31 |
1975-01-01 | Present progress in plasma research has been promising to the point that several groups have started to study technological problems (including safety issues) of controlled thermonuclear reactors (CTR) [^1], in particular Tokamaks. Similar conceptual design studies have also been carried out for inductive energy storage systems. The components and systems to be developed will include large superconducting magnets, which have been investigated for both CTR and advanced inductive storage systems. Along with the evolution of conceptual design studies [^1], safety investigations have been conducted which address anomalous operating conditions of the superconducting solenoids. Large amounts of energy are stored in the various CTR magnets (approaching energies of 100 GJ). If these energies were to be released in an uncontrolled fashion, considerable damage might occur as a consequence of some unfavorable event (e.g., earthquake with coolant and control system failure). | Temperature Excursions during Loss of Magnet Coolant Accidents with Thermalization of Energy of Large Superconducting Solenoids | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0208-8_14 |
1975-01-01 | The process design engineer usually relies upon correlations for predicting the liquid-vapor equilibria of multicomponent systems. These correlations require accurate binary data—both as a test and as a source of binary interaction parameters. With this problem in mind, the authors have compiled and evaluated liquid-vapor equilibria data for four binary systems of interest in liquefied natural gas technology. The systems considered are methane with ethane, propane, n -butane, and isobutane. | On the Consistency of Liquid-Vapor Equilibria Data for Binary Mixtures of Methane with the Light Paraffin Hydrocarbons | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0208-8_57 |
1975-01-01 | Optimization studies seem to indicate that a typical Tokamak power reactor will have a thermal output of 5000 MW, a major radius of 13 m, and a minor radius of 5 m. The D-shaped superconductive toroidal field magnets for such a reactor will probably have a bore of 25 m. Radiation damage to the plasma containment vessel will require its periodic replacement by remote control. This implies that the magnets should be easily removed from the reactor, or alternatively, be large enough to allow sections of the containment vessel to be removed from within their enclosure. | Engineering Considerations of the Toroidal Magnet and Dewar for Uwmak-11—a Wisconsin Tokamak Fusion Reactor Design | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0208-8_10 |
1974-12-01 | Determination of the conditions for the start of surface boiling of a cryogenic liquid | 10.1007/BF01137345 | |
1974-11-01 | In 4 dorsolateral thalamic nuclei (LA, DLAmc, DLLd and DLLv) short latency evoked responses were recorded after electrical or photic stimulation of the contralateral eye. Electrical stimulation of these 4 nuclei led to bilaterally evoked responses in the wulst, where previous experiments had demonstrated an oligosynaptic projection from the retina. Cooling in DLL, while stimulating the contralateral optic nerve, leads to a severe decrement of both wulst responses suggesting that the thalamus functions as a relay within the retino-thalamo-hyperstriatal pathway. When the optic nerve ipsilateral to the cooled thalamus is stimulated the ipsilateral wulst response is unchanged while the contralateral wulst response is enhanced, suggesting a disinhibition. Similarly an inhibitory effect of the thalamus on one side upon the contralateral wulst response was found after concomitant stimulation of one optic nerve and a delayed stimulation of the ipsilateral thalamus. The dorsolateral thalamic group is the origin of bilateral wulst projections, the pathway to the contralateral telencephalon was demonstrated to pass via the supraoptic decussation DSO. Cooling DSO diminished the inhibitory thalamic effect upon the contralateral wulst. DSO was corroborated as part of the ipsilateral retino-wulst system. | The dorsolateral thalamus as a relay in the retino-wulst pathway in pigeon (Columba livia) | 10.1007/BF00235744 |
1974-06-01 | The effect of heat leakage to the outside surface of a heat bridge on the temperature variation along such a bridge has been analyzed qualitatively and quantitatively. | Temperature variation along a cylindrical heat bridge in cryogenic pipelines | 10.1007/BF00829828 |
1974-05-01 | Use of cryogenic treatment to restore worn plug gages | 10.1007/BF01137271 | |
1974-05-01 | Terminology in cryogenic engineering | 10.1007/BF01137269 | |
1974-04-01 | Smalley committee to offer aflatoxin check meal series | 10.1007/BF02639717 | |
1974-01-01 | The research in the field of large scale application of superconductivity is supported in FRANCE by three different sources. | Programs on Large Scale Applications of Superconductivity in France | 10.1007/978-1-4684-2784-4_11 |
1974-01-01 | The effects of cavitating cryogenic liquids at elevated static pressures on metals | 10.1007/BF00728550 | |
1974-01-01 | Design of processes for cooling cryogenic equipment | 10.1007/BF01146128 | |
1974-01-01 | The good combination of strength and toughness of HF9-4-X steels permits them to be used for heavily loaded high-pressure tanks [24], submarine hulls, and parts of nuclear reactors [18], as well as for cryogenic applications [25]. | Medium-carbon structural steels with high strength and toughness alloyed with 9% Ni and 4% Co | 10.1007/BF00679202 |
1974-01-01 | Isolated newborn rat heart cells were cultured for several days, then subjected to a standard procedure of trypsinization, slow freezing in 10% dimethylsulfoxide, storage at −180° to −190°C for 1 to 3 days, rapid thawing, and recultivation. The same cells were recycled two more times in identical procedures. Morphological observations were made by phase-contrast optics and cinematography between each cycle and at the end of every experiment. After comparing the cellular morphology and contractile patterns of treated cells with control cultures, it was shown from the results of more than 15 experiments that most myocardial cells survived the standard procedures of trypsinization, freezing, and thawing and regained the ability to contract normally and form synchronized networks. Evidence was obtained which indicates that a cycle of the standard trypsinization-freezing-thawing procedure permits a recovery rate of 83 to 91% viable cells, with myocardial cells surviving to the same extent as endothelial cells. Of the cells which were nonviable, approximately half the deaths were a result of prior damage by trypsin and half were due to the freezing-thawing procedures. The same proportion of spontaneously contracting myocardial cells was observed after a cycle of trypsinization-freezing-thawing as before. Occasionally, there was a delay of 24 hr after thawing before myocardial cells began contracting spontaneously in vitro. An experiment using Viokase (in place of trypsin) and glycerol (in place of dimethylsulfoxide) excellent results after one cycle of freezing-thawing. It was concluded that myocardial cells exhibited a remarkable recovery from the toxic effects of trypsin and the traumatic influences of multiple freezing-thawing procedures. Endothelial cells in the cultures survived the same procedures and proliferated normally in vitro. | Reanimation of cultured mammalian myocardial cells during multiple cycles of trypsinization-freezing-thawing | 10.1007/BF02616070 |
1973-06-01 | Results are shown of an experimental study with regard to the equilibrium or departure from it during the cooling of cryogenic liquids by vapor evacuation or by paddling with bubbles of an uncondensable gas. | Experimental study with regard to the cooling of cryogenic liquids | 10.1007/BF00831676 |
1973-02-01 | Results are shown of a study concerning the critical film boiling of various cryogenic liquids. The physical mechanism of this process is analyzed and recommendations are made for calculating it. | A study of critical film boiling under natural convection | 10.1007/BF00828854 |
1973-01-01 | During the past two decades we have witnessed and participated in a phenomenal growth of the applications and requirements of large-scale cryotechnology. A necessary ingredient for this growth has been a concomitant increase in sophistication of the instrumentation techniques necessary for the surveillance and regulation of cryogenic systems. As we look to the future no crystal ball is needed to predict an increasingly larger involvement of cryotechnology affecting nearly all sectors of our society. As examples of this we mention the following. | Cryogenic Instrumentation at and above Liquid Hydrogen Temperature—Present and Future | 10.1007/978-1-4684-3111-7_33 |
1973-01-01 | Thermocouple circuits [^1,2] vary widely, depending on their particular application. The circuit most commonly used for multiple thermocouple applications, as shown in Fig. 1, incorporates a single reference junction located outside of the process column. This conventional design approach will be compared with a “difference thermocouple” technique in this presentation, and a laboratory test using this improved system for cryogenic measurement will be described. | The Use of Difference Thermocouples in Cryogenic Systems | 10.1007/978-1-4684-3111-7_38 |
1973-01-01 | The ability of Type II superconductors to maintain zero electrical resistance under direct current conditions while in the presence of high magnetic fields has led to various current and proposed future uses for superconducting coils. These include high energy physics applications, containment coils for controlled thermonuclear fusion research, saddle shaped coils for energy conversion in magnetohydrodynamic power generation, superconducting coils for the field windings of electrical motors and generators, both for utility applications as well as for electric ship propulsion, levitating coils to suspend a high speed ground vehicle above an electrically conducting guideway, coils for magnetic storage of electrical energy, as well as Laboratory coils for use in a wide variety of research ranging from low temperature solid state physics to novel applications of the magnetic fields. | Superconducting Coils | 10.1007/978-1-4615-8978-5_4 |
1972-08-01 | A unit for investigating the low-cycle fatigue of alloys at cryogenic temperatures | 10.1007/BF01529706 | |
1972-07-01 | The optimal strength, ductility, and toughness of alloy KhN40MDTYu at cryogenic temperatures result from quenching + aging or from deformation with no heat treatment: σ_b = 180kg/mm^2, σ_0.2 = 100–120 kg/mm^2, δ=20%, ψ=15%, a _n=5–7 kg-m/cm^2 at −253°C. | Mechanical properties of alloy KhN40MDTYu at low temperatures | 10.1007/BF00647882 |
1972-06-01 | The strength of welded joints in high strength stainless steels at cryogenic temperatures | 10.1007/BF01529922 | |
1972-04-01 | Attachment for studying optical properties of crystals in the vacuum-ultraviolet region at cryogenic temperatures | 10.1007/BF00646166 | |
1972-02-01 | The influence of stress concentrators on the properties of steel in cryogenic technology | 10.1007/BF01527580 | |
1972-01-01 | Determination of the strength of materials and welded joints at cryogenic temperatures by bending tests on discs supported around the periphery | 10.1007/BF01527691 | |
1972-01-01 | The thermal behavior of the Apollo cryogenic gas storage system is directly related to gravity because of stratification effects. Several interesting things happen when this system is operated in the near-zero-gravity environment of orbital and translunar flight. Stratification is very evident when the thermal performance is analyzed and compared with ground test data. Pressure is inclined to decay somewhat when sudden mixing occurs. Small inaccuracies in the quantity gage readings as a result of stratification have been observed. The single point temperature sensors located within the center of these tanks consistently indicate temperatures which are higher than the calculated equilibrium fluid temperature. | Zero-Gravity Thermal Performance of the Apollo Cryogenic Gas Storage System | 10.1007/978-1-4684-7826-6_15 |
1972-01-01 | A superconducting prototype linear accelerator for protons of 60 MeV and a radio-frequency particle separator are being developed at this Institute. The prototype accelerator [^1], which should demonstrate the feasibility of a large high-current accelerator, will be composed of a 10-m helix type structure for acceleration from 0.8- to 20-MeV, running at 90 MHz, and a 15-m disc-loaded type structure at 720 MHz for acceleration to the final energy of 60 MeV. The particle separator [^2,3] which is provided for K—π-meson separation in the 10 GeV range at the 28-GeV proton synchrotron at CERN, Geneva, consists of two deflectors arranged in series to be installed at a distance of 20 or 50 m. | Continuously Cooled Superconducting Linear Accelerator and Particle Separator Models at 4.4 and 2°K | 10.1007/978-1-4684-7826-6_25 |
1972-01-01 | Among the various modes of heat transport to liquids, film boiling is considered to be an inefficient mechanism. However, in many practical engineering applications it occurs. Consequently, film boiling must be studied and understood for design applications. Film boiling is invariably encountered in quenching of metals, in chilling of biological species, in regenerative cooling of rockets, and in cooling down a cryogenic fuel tank, and occasionally film boiling can also happen in a nuclear reactor or in a cryomagnet. | A Review of Film Boiling at Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4684-7826-6_40 |
1972-01-01 | Two-phase flow is difficult to avoid in cryogenic systems. Each time such systems are cooled to operating temperatures, two-phase flow is encountered unless the system pressure is maintained well above the critical pressure. In addition, many applications involve the low-pressure vaporization of cryogenic liquids in heat exchangers which must operate continuously in the two-phase region. In order to design such systems, a knowledge of the complicated distributions of gas and liquid must be known so that hydrodynamic and heat transfer analyses can be made. Both gross and detailed structure measurements are of interest. These include the average density, fluid quality (mass of vapor/total mass of fluid), void fraction (volume occupied by the gas/total volume), void distribution, flow regimes, and local velocities. In this paper various techniques for investigating these items will be discussed. | Techniques for Determining Average Density and Related Parameters in Two-Phase Cryogenic Flow Systems | 10.1007/978-1-4684-7826-6_23 |
1972-01-01 | This paper outlines the recent trends in cryogenic fluid production in the United States. Some predictions for the near future are made. They are based on recent growth patterns and estimates of the impact of certain technological advances. | Trends in Cryogenic Fluid Production in the United States | 10.1007/978-1-4684-7826-6_1 |
1972-01-01 | Current space program plans indicate a nuclear vehicle will be developed for operation as a cargo/personnel shuttle between earth orbit and lunar orbit, between low earth orbit and synchronous orbit, and possibly for use with interplanetary probes. The economic feasibility of such a nuclear shuttle is expected to be highly dependent upon the success of propellant transfer and long-term storage in the earth orbital environment. | Orbital Propellant Depot System | 10.1007/978-1-4684-7826-6_16 |
1972-01-01 | Glass fibers have shown outstanding strength and strength-to-density ratio properties that make their application to pressure vessels particularly attractive. The application has been generally in the form of filament-wound glass-reinforced plastic [^1]. However, after extended periods of static or dynamic loading at ambient temperatures, the rate of strength-degradation of filament-wound glass-reinforced plastic pressure vessels has been high compared with that of metallic pressure vessels [^2]. Under stress, the resin matrix generally cracks or crazes [^3,4] which exposes the glass fibers to atmospheric moisture causing degradation of the fibers. At cryogenic temperatures, however, the moisture problem is reduced, and an improvement in fatigue properties would be expected. Furthermore, the glass strength increases significantly as the temperature is lowered [^4]. | Static and Dynamic Fatigue Behavior of Glass Filament-Wound Pressure Vessels at Ambient and Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4684-7826-6_17 |
1971-10-01 | Mechanical properties of high-strength stainless steel of transitional class ÉP288 (Kh16N6, SN-2A) at cryogenic temperatures | 10.1007/BF01527505 | |
1971-01-01 | Because of its low temperature, a cryogenic fluid can film-boil by simply bringing it in contact with an ambient or room-temperature surface. As a result, film boiling is an important aspect of cryogenic heat transfer. It is also important in conventional boilers, in quenching, and in similar applications. | Experimental Effects of Pressure, Subcooling, and Diameter on Thin-Wire Film Boiling of Liquid Nitrogen | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0244-6_52 |
1971-01-01 | It is well known that the magnetic properties of soft ferromagnetic alloys are affected by temperature. In this respect a great deal of work is reported in the literature on the effects of elevated temperatures, but only a few references concerning low-temperature properties are available to design engineers. One of the most comprehensive papers published on the influence of low temperatures is that of Gniewek and Ploge [^1] which deals with Si-Fe and 48 % Ni-Fe strip, both oriented and non-oriented. The increasing use of electromagnetic devices at cryogenic temperatures has created a need for information about other soft magnetic alloys, e.g. the high Ni-Fe permalloys and Co-Fe alloys. This study has investigated the behavior of a number of commercial alloys at low temperatures in an effort to supply some of the desired information. | Magnetic Properties of Commercial Soft Magnetic Alloys at Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0244-6_6 |
1971-01-01 | This paper presents the results of an experimental investigation of saturated film pool boiling from flat horizontal surfaces. Nitrogen at atmospheric pressure was used as the boiling fluid. Heat-transfer results were obtained over a range of temperature differences of approximately 1000°F (plate temperatures of 100 to 1100°F). The scope of the research has included correlation of data with analytical expressions relating heat flux, heat-transfer coefficients, fluid properties, and the temperature difference between the fluid temperature and the plate temperature for stable film boiling from flat horizontal surfaces in nitrogen. The experimental results and theoretical correlations for prediction of heat-transfer coefficients for film boiling are expected to have value in the design and analysis of nuclear reactors, space vehicles, quenching operations, and cryogenic systems. | Film Pool Boiling of Nitrogen from Flat Surfaces | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0244-6_51 |
1971-01-01 | An ion implanted silicon sensor is presented where conductivity variation of the semiconductor with temperature is monitored, the useful range of temperature measurement being determined by the doping concentration of the implanted layer. The advantages of ion implanted technology with respect to other methods are pointed out, from the basis of precision and reproductibility of the requested doping level. Results obtained on devices implanted with phosphorus ions show that temperatures in the range 4 °K – 1 °K can be measured with a sensitivity of 0.65 kΩ/°K, and possibilities of measurement extended below 1 °K. | Ion Implanted Thermoresistive Device for Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-3-642-80660-5_54 |
1971-01-01 | Ion implantation of nitrogen in silicon has been studied at 28 °K and 283 °K. Van der Pauw Hall measurements and sheet resistivity have been used to characterize the electrical properties of the implanted layer. Low temperature implants produce an essentially total amorphous layer which upon annealing shows enhanced carrier concentrations. The relative amount of amorphization is determined through back-scattering measurements. | Nitrogen Implantation of p-Silicon at Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-3-642-80660-5_67 |
1971-01-01 | The frequent use of Apiezon grease as a thermal bonding agent at cryogenic temperatures has led to interest in its physical properties [^1]. Westrum, Chou, Osborne, and Flotow [^2] have carried out heat-capacity measurements on a 32.54-g sample of Apiezon T grease. Their results reveal a broad anomaly in the temperature range 205 to 320°K. In a recent note on the specific heat of Apiezon N grease, Bunting, Ashworth, and Steeple [^3] have also reported a broad anomalous region (see Fig. 1). Their results disclose a foothill extending from 200 to 260°K and a peak which has a maximum value at about 296°K. It is the purpose of this paper to comment on the specific-heat anomalies and to present evidence that the upturn in the specific heat of Apiezon N and T greases is associated with the glass transition [^4] temperature T _g. | The Glass Temperature and the Specific Heat of Apiezon N and T Greases | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0244-6_7 |
1971-01-01 | For purposes of either operational control of a reaction or reactor design, a mathematical expression relating the overall reaction rate to the composition of the fluid phase is essential. From the viewpoint of design or control, the fewer parameters in this expression, the better. Unfortunately, theory has not yet made sufficient progress that a priori calculation of these parameters is possible. Thus, at present, the principal use in the fields of control and design for these reaction-rate expressions is in interpolation and extrapolation of existing data. For extrapolation from one set of process conditions to another, the behavior of the parameters with changes in temperature and pressure should be known. The goal of this paper is to compare expressions which have been proposed for describing the low-temperature para-orthohydrogen shift reaction, to discuss the reliability of the expressions for different applications, and to consider the behavior with pressure and temperature of the parameters in these expressions. | A Comparison of Rate Expressions for the Low-Temperature Para-Orthohydrogen Shift | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0244-6_12 |
1971-01-01 | The film-boiling data presently available over a wide range of pressures seem to be very limited. More data are required in order that theoretical equations and the effects of pressure and diameter on film boiling can be ascertained. This study was initiated to provide data for the above reasons and to provide design data for nitrogen and argon. | A Study of Film Boiling of Corresponding-States Fluids over a Wide Pressure Range with Cylindrical Heaters | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0244-6_50 |
1971-01-01 | Thermal radiation even at low temperatures is important when conduction and convection heat transfer are minimized, as under certain vacuum situations found in space simulators and cryogenic storage vessels. But in such cases, the radiative heat transfer cannot be estimated with a high degree of accuracy. The uncertainty depends on the available information about the radiation properties. | Total Normal Emittances of Some Real Surfaces at Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0244-6_57 |
1971-01-01 | Film-boiling heat transfer between two liquids at different temperatures has been under extensive investigation recently in consideration of propellant-spillage accidents [^1]. If liquid propellants spill accidently during test-stand or launching operations, a catastrophic explosion resulting from the detonation of the fuel and oxidizer is possible. In particular, a number of experiments [^1] have been performed involving the mixing of small kerosene spheres in liquid oxygen. When small kerosene spheres are dispersed in a matrix of liquid oxygen, the sensible heat of the kerosene spheres vaporizes the liquid oxygen, thereby forming a film of oxygen vapor around the sphere. In film boiling, the vaporization rates are one or more orders of magnitude less than those of peak-nucleate boiling. In nucleate boiling, extreme turbulence and mixing will occur because of the large amount of vapor sporadically generated at the interface. On the other hand, film boiling is a relatively quiescent phenomenon, and as such can have a significant damping effect on the explosive potential of the mixture. The encapsulation of the liquid sphere (as it freezes), as shown herein, can also provide significant damping. | Liquid or Solid on Liquid in Leidenfrost Film Boiling | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0244-6_56 |
1971-01-01 | The mechanical properties of polymers differ fundamentally in many respects from those of metals and much of this difference can be ascribed to the characteristic structures of these two classes of material. Most polymers consist of long molecular chains which are built up from a large number of single molecular units called mers . These molecular chains vary in length and hence the material has a range of molecular weights whose average can vary from a few hundred for a simple polymer up to about a million for those with very long chains. The chains are rarely straight, being typically coiled or tangled randomly; they may have side branches, and they can be built up from two or more basic mers to form copolymer chains. Polymers can be divided into two basic groups, the thermoplastics and the thermosetting resins, and their dissimilar mechanical properties are a reflection of their different structures. | The Properties of Nonmetals | 10.1007/978-1-4684-1887-3_4 |
1971-01-01 | If slush as well as liquid hydrogen is to be used effectively as a fuel or propellant in space missions, it is apparent that accurate and convenient instrumentation must be available to (1) continuously monitor the quantity (total mass) of hydrogen available in storage vessels; and (2) show the mass flow rate during any transfer operation. | Instrumentation for Storage and Transfer of Hydrogen Slush | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0244-6_28 |
1971-01-01 | Cryogenic nitrogen is inert, inexpensive, and generally available in large quantities at many research centers. It is used for cooling equipment, heating or cooling other fluids, as a modeling fluid, and in many cases as the primary test fluid in a heat-transfer and fluid-dynamics research, ntwo is a Fortran iv family of subroutines which was developed on a 7094–7044 DCS machine to determine the thermodynamic and transport properties of nitrogen, and to be used in conjunction with other research programs. The ntwo property package is subdivided into subroutines and functions for computing the individual properties. The individual subroutines may be used independently of subroutine ntwo if the user’s requirements are of a more restricted nature (say, memory- or time-limited). A descriptive breakdown of all the functions and subroutines used by the master subroutine will be given elsewhere [^1]. | NTWO—A Nitrogen-Properties Package | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0244-6_10 |
1970-08-01 | Urgent problems in the investigation into the load-carrying ability of cryogenic pressure vessels | 10.1007/BF01527722 | |
1970-01-01 | The application of cold has been employed from time immemorial to relieve the discomfort of inflammation and injury but it is a description of the more specific uses of temperatures at, or well below, freezing point that will be discussed in this chapter. Cryosurgery can be considered under the following headings: 1. Cold as a physical tool in the surgical handling of tissues; 2. Neurological inhibition and tissue destruction; 3. Cold as a specific treatment in neoplastic disease. | Cryogenic Surgery | 10.1007/978-1-4757-9933-0_8 |
1969-10-01 | Mit einem aus einer Analysenwaage konstruierten Spezialgerät wurden Untersuchungen an je vier Leber- und vier Hirngewebsproben zur Frage der Haftfähigkeit der Cooperschen Kältesonde am Gewebe vorgenommen. Gemessen wurden Zugkraft und Dilatation in Abhängigkeit von der Temperatur. Es erwies sich, daß die Haftfähigkeit einmal mit dem Wassergehalt ansteigt und zweitens von gewebsspezifischen Faktoren abhängig ist. Wird eine mechanisch brauchbare Festigkeit der Haftzone und des angrenzenden Gewebes bei der Kälteanwendung verlangt, so ist es zweckmäßig, bis zu −60° C und tiefer abzukühlen, wenn das Gewebe wasserarm ist. Bei wasserreichem Gewebe genügt bereits eine Abkühlung auf unterhalb von −20° C. Soll die Kältehaftung gering sein, so empfiehlt sich, eine Vereisungstemperatur von −20° C nicht zu unterschreiten. With the use of a modified analytical balance investigations were carried out on four liver and four brain tissue samples to determine the adhesive capacity to the tissues of the Cooper cryogenic probe. Tensile strength and dilation were measured in terms of temperature change. It was shown that the adhesive strength firstly rises according to the water content of the tissue and secondly, depends on specific properties of the tissue. In the case of tissues with a relatively low water content, temperatures of −60° C and lower are required in order to attain an adequate adhesive bond for cryogenic extractions. For tissues with a relatively high water content, this effect can be obtained at temperature below −20° C. Is a minimal rigidity of the adhesive zone desired, temperatures of not lower than −20° C should be applied. | Untersuchungen zur Gewebehaftung in der Kryochirurgie | 10.1007/BF02044670 |
1969-09-01 | Structure and properties of steels for operation at cryogenic temperatures | 10.1007/BF00653158 | |
1969-05-01 | 1. The toughness of nickel, stainless, and complex alloyed martensitic steels at room and cryogenic temperatures can be increased by stabilizing 10\2-25% austenite in a dispersed state. 2. A large amount of stable austenite can be obtained in Fe\t-Ni, Fe\t-Cr\t-Ni, and other martensitic steels by heating them 30\2-80\dg above the beginning temperature of the reverse transformation for long periods (2\2-3 h). With increasing nickel concentrations the amount of stable austenite fixed in the reverse transformation (while retaining the martensitic struture) increases, thus increasing the toughness at cryogenic temperatures. 3. Multiple heating at reverse transformation temperatures increases the amount of stable austenite by comparison with single heating, but only in those cases where the direct martensitic transformation occurs during intermediate cooling. 4. The lower impact toughness at cryogenic temperatures in stainless martensitic steels as compared with Fe\t-Ni steels with the same amount of stable austenite is due to the lower toughness of the martensitic matrix itself and to a considerably extent to the formation, of a carbide network in the grain boundaries during heating 5. The highest mechanical properties of stainless martensitic steels at room and cryogenic temperatures can be obtained by stabilizing 15\2-25% austenite in the direct transformation without the formation of a carbide network. This process consists of austenitizing, quenching in a medium with a temperature between M_s and M_f, and immediate heating to a temperature below the temperature of aging or intensive carbide formation. This method of austenite stabilization is applicable to a large number of martensitic steels with fairly low M_s (\<-250\dgC). | Increasing the ductility of martensitic steels by heat treatment | 10.1007/BF00648621 |
1969-01-01 | Very few mechanical property tests have been conducted on welded or brazed copper and copper alloys. The only published low-temperature results are those of Lismer [^1] who tested welded copper-nickel alloys. These alloys (Cu-20, 30% Ni) exhibited Increased tensile and notch-tensile weld strengths as the temperature was lowered below room temperature. | Low-Temperature Mechanical Properties of Welded and Brazed Copper | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_10 |
1969-01-01 | Analysis of theoretical and practical work in the literature indicates that slush hydrogen can be manufactured and transferred through facility piping to a point near a launch vehicle. The rate of flow of the solids, i.e., the product of the volumetric rate of flow, the slush density, and the slush solid fraction at that point, also can probably be determined with reasonable accuracy. However, the percentage solid on board the vehicle at the moment of launch (the process end-point) is difficult to control up to the moment of launch [^1–5]. Various on-stage devices such as nuclear radiation detector arrays arranged in removable blankets, interstage weighing systems, and in-tank capacitance matrices have been proposed for loaded mass determination, together with point liquid level sensors for volume determination [^1,2,6]. These devices do not appear to solve completely the specific slush loading problem which can be simply stated as follows: Load a mass of slush hydrogen into the upper stage of a vehicle on a launch pad, under controlled conditions, so that a prespecified mass of slush hydrogen occupies the upper stage tank immediately prior to liftoff. | Prelaunch Slush Hydrogen Loading Factors Affecting Instrumentation and Control | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_38 |
1969-01-01 | It has been shown that a method of loading a specified solid fraction of slush hydrogen aboard a vehicle on the launch pad is feasible. This is based upon a loading equation derived from an energy balance of a slush tankage system over time[^1,2] using surface level as a controlling parameter. | Use of Capacitance Level Gauging for Prelaunch Loading of Slush Hydrogen | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_39 |
1969-01-01 | The NASA Centaur vehicle utilizes Flexible Linear Shaped Charges (FLSC) containing 7 to 15 grains of RDX/ft to perform various separation functions (Fig. 1). Although the systems have consistently performed satisfactorily on flight vehicles, a few unexplained propagation failures occurred during early development tests in environments intentionally more severe than those encountered in light. All of these were in areas of low temperature (-400°F), high thermal gradients (~ 100°F/in.), and small bend radii (< 1/2 in.). In addition to the possibility of random damage of the test specimens during installation into the test assembly, where they were mechanically worked to conform to complex curves, it was felt that the possibility also existed that extreme temperature changes during testing could have caused intolerable dimensional changes at the points of failure. In linear charges, critical dimension effects exist where propagation velocity, normally a function of the type of explosive only, becomes dependent on geometry (because of edge energy losses), and propagation eventually fails if cross sections fall below minimum values for a particular set of circumstances. The results of a NASA Lewis Research Center sponsored program to compare room-temperature propagation velocities with those at cryogenic temperature for these materials have already been reported in the literature [^1]. No gross changes were indicated, and no effects were seen to which the original test failures could be attributed. | Investigation of Propagation Failures of Flexible Linear Shaped Charges at Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_58 |
1969-01-01 | Future orbital lunar, and Interplanetary space flights require long-term storage of cryogens for life support, power from fuel cells, and propulsion. Successful accomplishment of these missions Is enhanced by optimization of high-performance Insulation and other system conditions such as Initial cryogenic state (e.g.. subcooled or slush). | Slush and Subcooled Propellants for Lunar and Interplanetary Missions | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_3 |
1969-01-01 | Recent advances in the engineering of cryogenic systems, especially the liquefaction of natural gas, have made new demands on equations of state. Accurate representation of the thermodynamic properties of methane and mixtures containing methane at low temperatures is now required for process calculations. | Benedict-Webb-Rubin Equation of State for Methane at Cryogenic Conditions | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_6 |
1969-01-01 | Due to the rapid growth of cryogenic technology and the accompanying rise in the use of high vacuum insulation, thermal radiation of metais at cryogenic temperatures has become an area of increasing importance. A recent review article [^1] of the subject indicates the extent to which the development of experimental as well as theoretical techniques involved in this area has rapidly progressed. | Predictions of the Total Emissivity of Metals at Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_29 |
1969-01-01 | A heat-driven refrigerator was first patented by Vullteumier in 1913. Related designs were patented by Vannevar Bush in 1938 and K. W. Taconis in 1951. While all of these involve different physical apparatus, they are similar in principle of operation. All produce refrigeration at a low temperature, with power being supplied by a heat source at a high temperature and heat rejected at an intermediate temperature. These processes are accomplished by forcing gas to flow between three variable volumes at three different temperatures by the motion of two regenerators (displacers), the total volume of the refrigerator remaining constant. | Steady-State Operation of the Idealized Vuilleumier Refrigerator | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_44 |
1969-01-01 | A principal objective of controlled, thermonuclear fusion research has been the stable confinement of a hydrogen plasma. Material containers are not suitable, but magnetic fields are known to exert strong forces on the electrically charged particles of a plasma. A cusped field, increasing in all directions away from the plasma (creating a magnetic well), has been found to be most favorable for confinement, as was experimentally demonstrated by Ioffe [^1] in 1961 with a mirror-pair and a superimposed hexapole. | Large Superconducting Baseball Magnet | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_12 |
1969-01-01 | In the past 20 years, a great need has been developing for compact cryogenic refrigerators to give reliable cryogenic temperatures (2° to 150°K) in small regions, possibly only 1 to 100 cc in volume. As a result, there has been a great deal of activity in the development of small cryogenic refrigerators. | Compact Cryogenic Thermal Regenerator Performance | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_45 |
1969-01-01 | Indicator diagram of a high pressure pump for cryogenic liquid | 10.1007/BF01136879 | |
1969-01-01 | Adsorptive purifiers are fixed-bed units in which the carrier gas containing the impurity to be adsorbed is passed through a packed bed of adsorbent. In this type of operation there are two distinct mass transfer processes: the diffusion of the impurity through the gas phase to the surface of the adsorbent, and diffusion into the particle. If both of these processes were extremely rapid, equilibrium would exist at all points in the adsorbent bed, and a plot of the adsorber outlet concentration as a function of time would be a step function. Usually, however, one or both of the mass transfer processes are relatively slow, with the result that the concentration-time (breakthrough) curve assumes an S shape. The prediction of breakthrough curves is of considerable practical importance, since the determination of the amount of adsorbent that is unsaturated when the first trace of impurity appears at the outlet of the adsorbent bed requires a knowledge of the breakthrough curve for the system under consideration. | The Kinetics of Adsorption of Methane and Nitrogen from Hydrogen Gas | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_5 |
1969-01-01 | The exhaust piume of rocket engines fired In the vacuum of space experiences an extremely wide expansion. The compact packaging on space vehicles, due to weight and space limitations, very often subjects equipment to engine exhaust plume heating. The impingement heating rates cannot be measured In the laboratory because of the difficulty In maintaining a vacuum environment during engine firing and the significant change of plume expansion characteristics due to the presence of a pressure field. On vehicles using cryogenic propeliants, Impingement heating becomes even more important because of the increased temperature potential between exhaust products and cryogenic temperature components and the general requirement to keep heating to the propellants at a minimum. | Hydrogen Peroxide Motor Exhaust Heating to Components at Cryogenic Temperatures in the Vacuum of Space | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0549-2_57 |
1967-12-01 | The main parameters of cryogenic vacuum chambers are examined and the possibility of their calculation by the Monte Carlo method is shown. An algorithm for calculating the parameters and its realization on a computer are described. | Calculation of the parameters of cryogenic vacuum chambers by the Monte Carlo method | 10.1007/BF00828977 |
1967-10-01 | Steels and alloys for cryogenic technology | 10.1007/BF00655794 | |
1967-06-01 | The most promising alloy for cryogenic technology of those tested is AT2-2. In the α+β alloys VT3-1 and VT14 the plasticity decreases sharply at −196°C, and therefore they cannot be recommended for operation below that temperature. | Titanium alloys for cryogenic technology | 10.1007/BF00657591 |
1967-03-01 | Effect of cryogenic temperatures, vacuum, and gaseous media on friction and wear of materials | 10.1007/BF00716211 | |
1967-01-01 | Certain in-orbit experiments, which are presently in the planning stage, have stringent low-temperature environmental requirements. In the case to be considered here, it is necessary to maintain a cylindrical interior having a volume of several cubic feet at a spatially uniform temperature. The magnitude of the temperature should not exceed 30°K. In addition, small electronic components must be kept at a constant temperature of 5°K or less. The required lifetime of these environments is approximately one week in orbit. This paper discusses some of the problems encountered in designing systems to meet these requirements in low gravity and proposes tentative solutions to the problems. | Systems for Environments in Space at Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_13 |
1967-01-01 | The accurate measurement of low-temperature volumetric properties of fluids is becoming increasingly important in the field of cryogenics. These properties are necessary for the prediction of the physical behavior of cryogenic systems and are utilized also in the calculation of thermodynamic properties. | Low Temperature Determination of P-V-T Properties of Gases and Liquids | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_73 |
1967-01-01 | The production of reliable phase equilibria data for systems of cryogenic fluid mixtures has been of increasing importance in the last several years. Until recently, the data for systems containing neon were conspicuously lacking. At present, however, data have been published for several systems containing neon with another cryogenic fluid. Those binary systems which have been studied in the liquid-vapor region are neon with: n-H_2 [^1–3], p-H_2 [^4], D_2 [^5,6], N_2 [^7] Ar [^8–10], O_2 [^11]. Of this list, only the Ne-n-H_2 system has been thoroughly covered. The N_2 and Ar systems have been covered up to 1000 psi. The O_2 system has been covered up to 5000 psi. Finally, the D_2 and p-H_2 systems have only been investigated near the solidus curve. In the preceding list of systems, there is one system obviously lacking: the Ne-He system. This was the subject of the present investigation. | Liquid-Vapor Equilibria of the Neon-Helium System | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_75 |
1967-01-01 | In an earlier paper, a new refrigeration cycle was described by Gifford and McMahon [^1,2]. Since this first paper, several other papers have described performance, improvements, and embodiments of this thermodynamic cycle [^3–5]. Several papers point out that the Gifford-McMahon cycle is particularly inefficient when compared to the other cycles [^6,7]. This has not, hitherto, been commented on critically. | Performance of a 4°K Refrigerator | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_58 |
1967-01-01 | Nickel-base alloys are of particular interest for applications at cryogenic temperatures for a number of reasons. They possess a face-centered cubic crystal structure which is known to retain its toughness down to temperatures approaching absolute zero. Also the nickel-base alloys have excellent high temperature properties, thereby making it possible to have a material which may be employed for structural applications over the temperature range from — 423°F to 1300°-1600°F. The need for such materials in cryogenic fueled, recoverable space vehicles, as well as many other applications, is apparent. | Mechanical Properties of Several Nickel-Base Alloys at Room and Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_54 |
1967-01-01 | Liquid helium in an open system frequently is used to provide cooling at 4.2°K. In lieu of liquid helium supply systems which may be impractical for many applications (particularly, mobile, airborne, and space requirements), a refrigerator may be required to maintain the temperature of the apparatus. A survey has been made to determine the physical characteristics of such refrigerators. These characteristics are important because in practice they may limit the applicability and operating time of the equipment. Although the data acquired through the survey show considerable scatter, the expected trends can be detected and attempts have been made to establish guides by which the weight, volume, and power requirements may be estimated. | Size and Power Requirements of 4.2°K Refrigerators | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_59 |
1967-01-01 | In setting up a magnet installation considerable engineering effort is needed for both the power supply and the cooling plant. For a 100-kOe facility we have seen that the power required is around 2 MW, and for 250 kOe around 12 MW, which is within the realm of heavy industrial equipment. Yet for some experiments the stability demanded may be that of precision laboratory equipment, being parts in 10^5 or even better for periods of a few minutes. | Power Supplies | 10.1007/978-1-4899-6612-4_5 |
1967-01-01 | The maraging steels are now well known for their desirable combination of high strength and good toughness at room temperature [^1–3]. Room temperature tensile strengths up to 350 ksi have been obtained with aged material; however, the fracture toughness is somewhat lowered at these high strengths. Nevertheless, reasonable compromises may be made between these two properties for room temperature applications. | Cryogenic Properties of 18Ni-9Co-5Mo and 18Ni-7Co-5Mo Maraging Steel Sheet | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_55 |
1967-01-01 | Since the inception of space vacuum simulation, there has been a need to create, at least in a small test volume, the pressure existent in space, 10^-12 to 10^-16 torr. Although this level of vacuum has been achieved in research-type facilities, requiring extreme care and expense, the conduct of a test in such a system has not become a routine matter. Reserve pumping capacity must be provided at ultrahigh vacuum to handle the out-gassing load of the test article and, hence, to maintain the vacuum level. Cryogenic pumping, which provides large pumping surfaces and high pumping speeds for the condensable gases, has proven to be a successful technique for the evacuation of test chambers. It is generally recognized that a vacuum greater than 10^-14 torr can be created in a leak-free vessel having its interior surfaces maintained at 2.5°K. However, the operation and maintenance of surfaces at liquid helium temperatures and lower present many complex engineering problems. Further, a cryogenic surface is able to pump only those gases with a partial pressure in the test chamber greater than the vapor pressure of the gas at the cryosurface temperature. For example, at 10^-11 torr, surface temperatures below 3°K are necessary to pump hydrogen. | Sorption Pumping of Residual Gases at Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_16 |
1967-01-01 | There are some applications where aluminum alloy castings, because of the ease with which they can be made into relatively complex shapes, would be very desirable for service at cryogenic temperatures. Parts which would require extensive machining from plate or hand forgings and are too intricate for the effective use of die forgings, would be suited ideally for fabrication by casting. | Notch Toughness of Some Aluminum Alloy Castings at Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_49 |
1967-01-01 | The Burnett method is an experimental technique, introduced by Burnett [^1] in 1936, which makes it possible to obtain accurate P-V-T data for pure gases and gas mixtures without requiring volume and mass measurements of the test gas at each experimental point. The mathematical formalism of the method has been presented by several authors [^2–7]. |
P-V-T Behavior of Neon at Temperatures from 70° to 120°K and Pressures to 300 Atmospheres | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_74 |
1967-01-01 | With the approach of complex space missions and long cruise times, a rapid cooldown of the cryogenic propellant line becomes mandatory. Some of the problems of long chilldown include propellant waste and delayed engine starting. Early liquidsolid contact during cooldown of engine suction lines is required to damp out liquid mass fluctuations to avoid flow instabilities and pump cavitation. | A Comparison of Cooldown Time between Internally Coated and Uncoated Propellant Lines | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_35 |
1967-01-01 | The purpose of the experimental investigation of boiling on shrouded spheres was to provide a basis for the design of high-pressure, low-temperature gas storage tanks. Shrouded helium tanks were considered for use in the Saturn V space system. Several such tanks were connected in series and were cooled by liquid nitrogen flowing between the tank walls and the shrouds (also in series) during loading. The weight of the system and the time available for loading were limited ; therefore, determination of the smallest tank-shroud gap compatible with rapid cooldown was needed. A narrow gap may inhibit boiling heat transfer from the tank walls if it is too small to permit unrestricted bubble growth and vapor flow. | Cooldown of Shrouded Spherical Vessels in Liquid Nitrogen | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_39 |
1967-01-01 | During the coast phases of space flight, or under orbit conditions, there will be extended periods of time during which high energy liquid propellants and other liquids will be subjected to a state of virtual weightlessness. Liquid orientation is necessary for venting the propellant tank to keep the vapor pressure within allowable limits, for minimizing the boiloff of the cryogenic liquid, and for thermal conditioning of the propellant. Schemes for such liquid orientation also find application in the liquid-oxygen converters of life-support equipment. To restart a high-energy upper stage or a spacecraft from a prolonged coast phase, it is often necessary to guarantee that there will always be liquid propellant located at the tank outlet. | Dynamics of a Cryogenic Liquid in an Electric Field | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_10 |
1967-01-01 | Development of a cryogenic superconductive gyroscope for gimballed platform mounting was initiated in an effort to determine whether operation in the cryogenic environment would avoid random changes in drift behavior which limit accuracy of conventional gyroscopes. At temperatures near absolute zero, the materials used are chemically inactive, electrical losses are low, and expansion coefficients and creep properties are greatly reduced. Design concepts used in the gyro described in this paper are based upon those proposed by T. A. Buchhold. | A Superconducting Gyroscope for Gimballed Platform Application | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_68 |
1967-01-01 | The thermal insulation for a cryogenic stage is closely related to the intended mission of the space vehicle. For a low-orbit, short-duration flight (less than 1 hr), the thermal insulation is used primarily to restrict the heat flux into propellants induced by kinetic heating while passing through the earth’s atmosphere. When dealing with a final stage, the weight of the non-jettisonable insulation is fully chargeable against the stage payload capability. A drastic optimization must then be carried out, taking into account boil-off losses and cavitation losses at the turbopumps, on the one hand, and insulation weight, on the other hand. | Thermal Insulation for Liquid Hydrogen Space Tankage | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_29 |
1967-01-01 | A small, open-cycle, Joule-Thomson helium refrigerator has been developed, capable of producing 500 mW of refrigeration in the 4°K range. The AC-3L CRYO-TIP^® refrigerator* uses liquid nitrogen and commercial gas cylinders of hydrogen and helium as working fluids. It is readily adaptable to a variety of experiments through the use of interchangeable vacuum shrouds and sample holders. Among its characteristics are small size, ease of operation, and rapid temperature adjustability. It also makes 4°K temperatures available to laboratories where liquid helium cannot easily be obtained. | A 4°K Joule-Thomson Laboratory Refrigerator | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0489-1_57 |
1966-01-01 | The current Interest in the use of cryogens in the solid phase is focused upon their application as heat sinks for cooling electronic components, particularly infrared detectors, in aircraft and spacecraft [^1–5]. The solid-cryogen cooler stores a solid mass of cryogen in a vented dewar system. The item to be cooled is usually mounted on a metal pedestal which is thermally communicated to the solid. The ullage space about the stored solid is evacuated to maintain the cryogen in Its solid state. Heat entering from the refrigerated object and the surroundings causes the cryogen to sublime and the resulting vapor is vented. | Cooling with Solid Cryogens—A Review | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0522-5_21 |
1966-01-01 | In a series of recent articles the authors have described the results of liquid-vapor phase equilibrium studies of several low-temperature systems for which little or no data were previously available. The systems studied and the ranges of temperature and pressure covered in each study are shown in Table I. | Liquid-Vapor Equilibrium in the System Neon-Oxygen From 63° to 152°K and at Pressures to 5000 PSI | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0522-5_39 |
1966-01-01 | Stainless steels with a high nitrogen content are commonly used at high temperatures because of their superior creep-rupture strengths and their resistance to intergranular corrosion [^1]. It has recently been noticed that the nitrogen content also has a marked effect on the yield strength of such steels [^2], as shown by the results listed in Table I. | Tensile and Creep Properties of a High Nitrogen Content 18/10 (AISI 304-L) Stainless Steel at Cryogenic Temperatures | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0522-5_48 |
1966-01-01 | Cryogenic liquids play an important role in many phases of industry and the space program. A knowledge of their physical and thermodynamic properties, e.g., density, heat capacity, surface tension, etc., is needed in solving many problems. It is essential to determine these properties accurately, preferably with relative ease. | Method for Determination of Density of Cryogenic Liquids and Mixtures | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0522-5_31 |
1966-01-01 | This paper describes how NASA MSFC uses and manages the cryogenic propellant program for Saturn applications. It also discusses the use of more stringent purity requirements in this specific program. | Saturn Vehicle Cryogenic Programs | 10.1007/978-1-4757-0522-5_28 |
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