text stringlengths 0 73.6k | source stringclasses 4
values |
|---|---|
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-Quantum-like models of information processing ("quantum-like brain") The brain is definitely a macroscopic physical system operating on scales of time, space and temperature that -- from the mainstream view -- differs crucially from the corresponding quantum scales. Macroscop... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-Although, at the moment, we cannot present the concrete neurophysiological mechanisms of creation of the quantum-like representation of information in the brain, we can present general informational considerations supporting the idea that information processing in the brain m... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-Decision making Suppose a person is given an opportunity to play two rounds of the following gamble: a coin toss will determine whether the subject wins $200 or loses $100. Suppose the subject has decided to play the first round, and does so. Some subjects are then given the ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-When subjects believe they lost the first round, the majority of subjects choose to play again on the second round.Given these two separate choices, according to the sure thing principle of rational decision theory, they should also play the second round even if they don't kn... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-This finding violates the law of total probability, yet it can be explained as a quantum interference effect in a manner similar to the explanation for the results from double-slit experiment in quantum physics. Similar violations of the sure-thing principle are seen in empir... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-Human probability judgments Quantum probability provides a new way to explain human probability judgment errors including the conjunction and disjunction errors. A conjunction error occurs when a person judges the probability of a likely event L and an unlikely event U to be ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-Knowledge representation Concepts are basic cognitive phenomena, which provide the content for inference, explanation, and language understanding. Cognitive psychology has researched different approaches for understanding concepts including exemplars, prototypes, and neural n... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-Exploit the contextuality of quantum theory to account for the contextuality of concepts in cognition and language and the phenomenon of emergent properties when concepts combine Use quantum entanglement to model the semantics of concept combinations in a non-decompositional ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-Semantic analysis and information retrieval The research in (iv) had a deep impact on the understanding and initial development of a formalism to obtain semantic information when dealing with concepts, their combinations and variable contexts in a corpus of unstructured docum... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-Gestalt perception There are apparent similarities between Gestalt perception and quantum theory. In an article discussing the application of Gestalt to chemistry, Anton Amann writes: "Quantum mechanics does not explain Gestalt perception, of course, but in quantum mechanics ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-Quantum mechanics and Gestalt perception are organized in a holistic way. Subentities do not necessarily exist in a distinct, individual sense. | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-In quantum mechanics and Gestalt perception objects have to be created by elimination of holistic correlations with the 'rest of the world'."Each of the points mentioned in the above text in a simplified manner (Below explanations correlate respectively with the above-mention... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-Both in quantum mechanics and Gestalt perception, the objects must be studied as a whole rather than finding properties of individual components and interpolating the whole object. | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-Main subjects of research-In Gestalt concept creation of a new object from another previously existing object means that the previously existing object now becomes a sub entity of the new object, and hence "elimination of holistic correlations" occurs. Similarly a new quantum object made from a previo... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quantum cognition-History-Ideas for applying the formalisms of quantum theory to cognition first appeared in the 1990s by Diederik Aerts and his collaborators Jan Broekaert, Sonja Smets and Liane Gabora, by Harald Atmanspacher, Robert Bordley, and Andrei Khrennikov. A special issue on Quantum Cognition and Decision app... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quillen–Lichtenbaum conjecture-Quillen–Lichtenbaum conjecture-In mathematics, the Quillen–Lichtenbaum conjecture is a conjecture relating étale cohomology to algebraic K-theory introduced by Quillen (1975, p. 175), who was inspired by earlier conjectures of Lichtenbaum (1973). Kahn (1997) and Rognes & Weibel (2000) pro... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quillen–Lichtenbaum conjecture-Statement-The conjecture in Quillen's original form states that if A is a finitely-generated algebra over the integers and l is prime, then there is a spectral sequence analogous to the Atiyah–Hirzebruch spectral sequence, starting at etale Spec A[ℓ−1],Zℓ(−q/2)), (which is understood to ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quillen–Lichtenbaum conjecture-K-theory of the integers-Assuming the Quillen–Lichtenbaum conjecture and the Vandiver conjecture, the K-groups of the integers, Kn(Z), are given by: 0 if n = 0 mod 8 and n > 0, Z if n = 0 Z ⊕ Z/2 if n = 1 mod 8 and n > 1, Z/2 if n = 1. | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Quillen–Lichtenbaum conjecture-K-theory of the integers-Z/ck ⊕ Z/2 if n = 2 mod 8 Z/8dk if n = 3 mod 8 0 if n = 4 mod 8 Z if n = 5 mod 8 Z/ck if n = 6 mod 8 Z/4dk if n = 7 mod 8where ck/dk is the Bernoulli number B2k/k in lowest terms and n is 4k − 1 or 4k − 2 (Weibel 2005). | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
1,3-beta-D-glucan phosphorylase-1,3-beta-D-glucan phosphorylase-In enzymology, a 1,3-beta-D-glucan phosphorylase (EC 2.4.1.97) is an enzyme that catalyzes the chemical reaction (1,3-beta-D-glucosyl)n + phosphate ⇌ (1,3-beta-D-glucosyl)n-1 + alpha-D-glucose 1-phosphateThus, the two substrates of this enzyme are (1,3-be... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Circuit breaker analyzer-Circuit breaker analyzer-A circuit breaker analyzer is an instrument that measures the parameters of a circuit breaker.In 1984, Megger patented a digital circuit breaker analyzer, controlled by a microprocessor. in 2020 few companies develop software to control circuit breaker analyzers from di... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Circuit breaker analyzer-Circuit breaker analyzer-The analyzer operates the circuit breaker under fault current conditions. After finishing the test of the breaker, the system measures currents, voltages and other main parameters of the breaker and through a set algorithm diagnoses the condition of the device under dif... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Circuit breaker analyzer-Measured values-Timing measurements Motion measurements Coil currents Dynamic resistance measurement (DRM) Vibration analysis Dynamic capacitance measurement Static and dynamic resistance measurement | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Estradiol (medication)-Estradiol (E2) is a medication and naturally occurring steroid hormone. It is an estrogen and is used mainly in menopausal hormone therapy and to treat low sex hormone levels in women. It is also used in hormonal birth control for women, in hormone therapy for transgender w... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Hormone therapy Menopause Estradiol is used in menopausal hormone therapy to prevent and treat moderate to severe menopausal symptoms such as hot flashes, vaginal dryness and atrophy, and osteoporosis (bone loss). As unopposed estrogen therapy (using estrogen alone without progestero... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Hypogonadism Estrogen is responsible for the mediation of puberty in females, and in girls with delayed puberty due to hypogonadism (low-functioning gonads, which can result in low sex hormone levels) such as in Turner syndrome, estradiol is used to induce the development of and main... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Transgender women Estradiol is used as part of feminizing hormone therapy for transgender women. The drug is used in higher dosages prior to sex reassignment surgery or orchiectomy to help suppress testosterone levels; after this procedure, estradiol continues to be used at lower dos... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Birth control Although almost all combined oral contraceptives contain the synthetic estrogen ethinylestradiol, natural estradiol itself is also used in some hormonal contraceptives, including in estradiol-containing oral contraceptives and combined injectable contraceptives. It is f... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Hormonal cancer Prostate cancer Estradiol is used as a form of high-dose estrogen therapy to treat prostate cancer and is similarly effective to other therapies such as androgen deprivation therapy with castration and antiandrogens. It is used in the form of long-lasting injected est... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Breast cancer High-dose estrogen therapy is effective in the treatment of about 35% of cases of breast cancer in women who are at least 5 years menopausal and has comparable effectiveness to antiestrogen therapy with medications like the selective estrogen receptor modulator (SERM) t... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Other uses Infertility Estrogens may be used in treatment of infertility in women when there is a need to develop sperm-friendly cervical mucous or an appropriate uterine lining.It is also commonly used during in vitro fertilization (IVF). Estrogen helps maintain the endometrial lini... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Lactation suppression Estrogens can be used to suppress and cease lactation and breast engorgement in postpartum women who do not wish to breastfeed. They do this by directly decreasing the sensitivity of the alveoli of the mammary glands to the lactogenic hormone prolactin. | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Tall stature Estrogens have been used to limit final height in adolescent girls with tall stature. They do this by inducing epiphyseal closure and suppressing growth hormone-induced hepatic production and by extension circulating levels of insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1), a horm... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Breast enhancement Estrogens are involved in breast development and estradiol may be used as a form of hormonal breast enhancement to increase the size of the breasts. Both polyestradiol phosphate monotherapy and pseudopregnancy with a combination of high-dosage intramuscular estradi... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Schizophrenia Estradiol has been found to be effective in the adjunctive treatment of schizophrenia in women. It has been found to significantly reduce positive, negative, and cognitive symptoms, with particular benefits on positive symptoms. Other estrogens, as well as selective est... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Sexual deviance Estradiol has been used at high doses to suppress sex drive in men with sexual deviance such as paraphilias and in sex offenders. It has specifically been used for this indication in the forms of intramuscular injections of estradiol valerate and estradiol undecylate ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Medical uses-Available forms Estradiol is available in a variety of different formulations, including oral, intranasal, transdermal/topical, vaginal, injectable, and implantable preparations. An ester may be attached to one or both of the hydroxyl groups of estradiol to improve its oral bioavaila... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Contraindications-Estrogens like estradiol have a number of contraindications. Estradiol should be avoided when there is undiagnosed abnormal vaginal bleeding, known, suspected or a history of breast cancer, current treatment for metastatic disease, known or suspected estrogen-dependent neoplasia... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Side effects-Common side effects of estradiol in women include headache, breast pain or tenderness, breast enlargement, irregular vaginal bleeding or spotting, abdominal cramps, bloating, fluid retention, and nausea. Other possible side effects of estrogens may include high blood pressure, high b... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Side effects-Blood clots Oral estradiol and estradiol valerate, for instance in menopausal hormone therapy or birth control pills, are associated with a significantly higher risk of venous thromboembolism (VTE) than non-use. Higher doses of oral estrogens are associated with higher risks of VTE. ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Side effects-Long-term effects Uncommon but serious possible side effects of estrogens associated with long-term therapy may include breast cancer, uterine cancer, stroke, heart attack, blood clots, dementia, gallbladder disease, and ovarian cancer. Warning signs of these serious side effects inc... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Overdose-Estrogens are relatively safe in overdose. During pregnancy, levels of estradiol increase to very high concentrations that are as much as 100-fold normal levels. In late pregnancy, the body produces and secretes approximately 100 mg of estrogens, including estradiol, estrone, and estriol... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Interactions-Inducers of cytochrome P450 enzymes like CYP3A4 such as St. John's wort, phenobarbital, carbamazepine and rifampicin decrease the circulating levels of estradiol by accelerating its metabolism, whereas inhibitors of cytochrome P450 enzymes like CYP3A4 such as erythromycin, cimetidine... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Pharmacology-Pharmacodynamics Estradiol is an estrogen, or an agonist of the estrogen receptors (ERs), the ERα and ERβ. It is also an agonist of membrane estrogen receptors (mERs), including the GPER, Gq-mER, ER-X, and ERx. Estradiol is highly selective for these ERs and mERs, and does not intera... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Pharmacology-Pharmacokinetics Estradiol can be taken by a variety of different routes of administration. These include oral, buccal, sublingual, intranasal, transdermal (gels, creams, patches), vaginal (tablets, creams, rings, suppositories), rectal, by intramuscular or subcutaneous injection (in... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Chemistry-Estradiol is a naturally occurring estrane steroid. It is also known as 17β-estradiol (to distinguish it from 17α-estradiol) or as estra-1,3,5(10)-triene-3,17β-diol. It has two hydroxyl groups, one at the C3 position and the other at the C17β position, as well as three double bonds in t... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Chemistry-Hemihydrate A hemihydrate form of estradiol, estradiol hemihydrate, is widely used medically under a large number of brand names similarly to estradiol. In terms of activity and bioequivalence, estradiol and its hemihydrate are identical, with the only disparities being an approximate 3... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Chemistry-Derivatives A variety of C17β and/or C3 ester prodrugs of estradiol, such as estradiol acetate, estradiol benzoate, estradiol cypionate, estradiol dipropionate, estradiol enantate, estradiol undecylate, estradiol valerate, and polyestradiol phosphate (an estradiol ester in polymeric for... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-History-Estradiol was first discovered and synthesized in 1933 via reduction of estrone. Subsequently, estradiol was isolated for the first time in 1935. It was also originally known as dihydroxyestrin, dihydrofolliculin, or alpha-estradiol.Estradiol was first introduced for medical use, in the f... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Society and culture-Generic names Estradiol is the generic name of estradiol in American English and its INN, USAN, USP, BAN, DCF, and JAN. Estradiolo is the name of estradiol in Italian and the DCIT and estradiolum is its name in Latin, whereas its name remains unchanged as estradiol in Spanish,... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Society and culture-Brand names Estradiol is marketed under a large number of brand names throughout the world. Examples of major brand names in which estradiol has been marketed in include Climara, Climen, Dermestril, Divigel, Estrace, Natifa, Estraderm, Estraderm TTS, Estradot, Estreva, Estrima... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Society and culture-Slang Names Estradiol has a number of humorous nicknames among the transgender community. Among them are titty skittles, breast mints, femme&m’s, antiboyotics, trans-mission fluid, and the Notorious H.R.T.
Availability Estradiol and/or its esters are widely available in countr... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Society and culture-United States As of November 2016, estradiol is available in the United States in the following forms: Oral tablets (Femtrace (as estradiol acetate), Gynodiol, Innofem, generics) Transdermal patches (Alora, Climara, Esclim, Estraderm, FemPatch, Menostar, Minivelle, Vivelle, Vi... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Society and culture-Other countries Pharmaceutical estradiol subcutaneous pellet implants were formerly available in the United Kingdom and Australia under the brand name Estradiol Implants or Oestradiol Implants (Organon; 25, 50, or 100 mg), but have been discontinued. However, an estradiol subc... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Society and culture-Cost Generic oral estradiol tablets are much less expensive than other forms of estradiol such as transdermal gel and patches and vaginal rings. | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Estradiol (medication)-Research-A variety of estradiol-containing combined birth control pills were studied but never marketed. In addition, a variety of estradiol-containing combined injectable contraceptives were studied but never marketed.Estradiol has been studied in the treatment of postpartum depression and postp... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
SKIM-SKIM-Sea surface kinematics multiscale monitoring (SKIM) was one of the two candidate missions for the 9th Earth Explorer mission of in the Living Planet Programme of the European Space Agency (ESA). SKIM and the other candidate (FORUM) were pre-selected for a detailed study in November 2017. Only one of the two c... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
SKIM-Context-SKIM builds on the technological heritage of the SWIM instrument now flying on the China-France Ocean Satellite, with the important addition of Doppler measurement and changing from Ku to Ka-band. SKIM also inherits experience with Ka-band altimetry from the Indian-France SARAL-AltiKa mission. | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
SKIM-Scientific Objectives-The mission's science goals are to determine how the dynamics of the ocean total surface current velocity influence the integrated Earth systemmore specifically, Determine the transport by waves and currents of material at the ocean surface including plankton, nutrients, heat, carbon, oil, ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Rydberg matter-Rydberg matter-Rydberg matter is an exotic phase of matter formed by Rydberg atoms; it was predicted around 1980 by É. A. Manykin, M. I. Ozhovan and P. P. Poluéktov. It has been formed from various elements like caesium, potassium, hydrogen and nitrogen; studies have been conducted on theoretical possibi... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Rydberg matter-Physical-Rydberg matter consists of usually hexagonal planar clusters; these cannot be very big because of the retardation effect caused by the finite velocity of the speed of light. Hence, they are not gases or plasmas; nor are they solids or liquids; they are most similar to dusty plasmas with small cl... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Rydberg matter-Lifetime-Due to reasons still debated by the physics community because of the lack of methods to observe clusters, Rydberg matter is highly stable against disintegration by emission of radiation; the characteristic lifetime of a cluster at n = 12 is 25 seconds. Reasons given include the lack of overlap b... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Rydberg matter-Excitations-In ordinary metals, interatomic distances are nearly constant through a wide range of temperatures and pressures; this is not the case with Rydberg matter, whose distances and thus properties vary greatly with excitations. A key variable in determining these properties is the principal quantu... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Rydberg matter-Condensation-Like bosons that can be condensed to form Bose–Einstein condensates, Rydberg matter can be condensed, but not in the same way as bosons. The reason for this is that Rydberg matter behaves similarly to a gas, meaning that it cannot be condensed without removing the condensation energy; ionisa... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Rydberg matter-Disputed-The research claiming to create ultradense hydrogen Rydberg matter (with interatomic spacing of ~2.3pm: many orders of magnitude less than in most solid matter) is disputed:″The paper of Holmlid and Zeiner-Gundersen makes claims that would be truly revolutionary if they were true. We have shown ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Isotropic quadratic form-Isotropic quadratic form-In mathematics, a quadratic form over a field F is said to be isotropic if there is a non-zero vector on which the form evaluates to zero. Otherwise the quadratic form is anisotropic. More explicitly, if q is a quadratic form on a vector space V over F, then a non-zero ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Isotropic quadratic form-Hyperbolic plane-Let F be a field of characteristic not 2 and V = F2. If we consider the general element (x, y) of V, then the quadratic forms q = xy and r = x2 − y2 are equivalent since there is a linear transformation on V that makes q look like r, and vice versa. Evidently, (V, q) and (V, r)... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Isotropic quadratic form-Hyperbolic plane-The affine hyperbolic plane was described by Emil Artin as a quadratic space with basis {M, N} satisfying M2 = N2 = 0, NM = 1, where the products represent the quadratic form.Through the polarization identity the quadratic form is related to a symmetric bilinear form B(u, v) = ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Isotropic quadratic form-Split quadratic space-A space with quadratic form is split (or metabolic) if there is a subspace which is equal to its own orthogonal complement; equivalently, the index of isotropy is equal to half the dimension.: 57 The hyperbolic plane is an example, and over a field of characteristic not e... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Isotropic quadratic form-Relation with classification of quadratic forms-From the point of view of classification of quadratic forms, anisotropic spaces are the basic building blocks for quadratic spaces of arbitrary dimensions. For a general field F, classification of anisotropic quadratic forms is a nontrivial proble... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Isotropic quadratic form-Field theory-If F is an algebraically closed field, for example, the field of complex numbers, and (V, q) is a quadratic space of dimension at least two, then it is isotropic.
If F is a finite field and (V, q) is a quadratic space of dimension at least three, then it is isotropic (this is a con... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Integrated Encryption Scheme-Integrated Encryption Scheme-Integrated Encryption Scheme (IES) is a hybrid encryption scheme which provides semantic security against an adversary who is able to use chosen-plaintext or chosen-ciphertext attacks. The security of the scheme is based on the computational Diffie–Hellman probl... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Integrated Encryption Scheme-Informal description of DLIES-As a brief and informal description and overview of how IES works, a Discrete Logarithm Integrated Encryption Scheme (DLIES) is used, focusing on illuminating the reader's understanding, rather than precise technical details. | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Integrated Encryption Scheme-Informal description of DLIES-Alice learns Bob's public key gx through a public key infrastructure or some other distribution method.Bob knows his own private key x Alice generates a fresh, ephemeral value y , and its associated public value gy Alice then computes a symmetric key k usi... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Integrated Encryption Scheme-Formal description of ECIES-Required information To send an encrypted message to Bob using ECIES, Alice needs the following information: The cryptography suite to be used, including a key derivation function (e.g., ANSI-X9.63-KDF with SHA-1 option), a message authentication code (e.g., HMAC... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Integrated Encryption Scheme-Formal description of ECIES-Bob's public key KB , which Bob generates it as follows: KB=kBG , where kB∈[1,n−1] is the private key he chooses at random.
Some optional shared information: S1 and S2 O which denotes the point at infinity. | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Integrated Encryption Scheme-Formal description of ECIES-Encryption To encrypt a message m Alice does the following: generates a random number r∈[1,n−1] and calculates R=rG derives a shared secret: S=Px , where P=(Px,Py)=rKB (and P≠O uses a KDF to derive symmetric encryption keys and MAC keys: KDF (S‖S1) encrypt... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Internal combustion engine cooling-Internal combustion engine cooling uses either air or liquid to remove the waste heat from an internal combustion engine. For small or special purpose engines, cooling using air from the atmosphere makes for a lightweight and relatively simple system... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Internal combustion engine cooling-Water has a higher heat capacity than air, and can thus move heat more quickly away from the engine, but a radiator and pumping system add weight, complexity, and cost. Higher-power engines generate more waste heat, but can move more weight, meaning ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Internal combustion engine cooling-Aircraft design more strongly favors lower weight and air-cooled designs. Rotary engines were popular on aircraft until the end of World War I, but had serious stability and efficiency problems. Radial engines were popular until the end of World War ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Overview-Heat engines generate mechanical power by extracting energy from heat flows, much as a water wheel extracts mechanical power from a flow of mass falling through a distance. Engines are inefficient, so more heat energy enters the engine than comes out as mechanical power; the ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Overview-Engines with higher efficiency have more energy leave as mechanical motion and less as waste heat. Some waste heat is essential: it guides heat through the engine, much as a water wheel works only if there is some exit velocity (energy) in the waste water to carry it away and... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Overview-Cooling is also needed because high temperatures damage engine materials and lubricants and becomes even more important in hot climates. Internal-combustion engines burn fuel hotter than the melting temperature of engine materials, and hot enough to set fire to lubricants. En... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-Most internal combustion engines are fluid cooled using either air (a gaseous fluid) or a liquid coolant run through a heat exchanger (radiator) cooled by air. Marine engines and some stationary engines have ready access to a large volume of water at a suitable temper... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-Most liquid-cooled engines use a mixture of water and chemicals such as antifreeze and rust inhibitors. The industry term for the antifreeze mixture is 'engine coolant'. Some antifreezes use no water at all, instead using a liquid with different properties, such as pr... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-There are many demands on a cooling system. One key requirement is to adequately serve the entire engine, as the whole engine fails if just one part overheats. Therefore, it is vital that the cooling system keep all parts at suitably low temperatures. Liquid-cooled en... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-Only the fixed parts of the engine, such as the block and head, are cooled directly by the main coolant system. Moving parts such as the pistons, and to a lesser extent the crankshaft and connecting rods, must rely on the lubrication oil as a coolant, or to a very lim... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-Liquid-cooled engines usually have a circulation pump. The first engines relied on thermosiphon cooling alone, where hot coolant left the top of the engine block and passed to the radiator, where it was cooled before returning to the bottom of the engine. Circulation ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-Conductive heat transfer is proportional to the temperature difference between materials. If engine metal is at 250 °C and the air is at 20 °C, then there is a 230 °C temperature difference for cooling. An air-cooled engine uses all of this difference. In contrast, a ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-However, properties of the coolant (water, oil, or air) also affect cooling. As example, comparing water and oil as coolants, one gram of oil can absorb about 55% of the heat for the same rise in temperature (called the specific heat capacity). Oil has about 90% the d... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-Comparing air and water, air has vastly lower heat capacity per gram and per volume (4000) and less than a tenth the conductivity, but also much lower viscosity (about 200 times lower: 17.4 × 10−6 Pa·s for air vs 8.94 × 10−4 Pa·s for water).
Continuing the calculation... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-Moving heat from the cylinder to a large surface area for air cooling can present problems such as difficulties manufacturing the shapes needed for good heat transfer and the space needed for free flow of a large volume of air. Water boils at about the same temperatur... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-An engine needs different temperatures. The inlet including the compressor of a turbo and in the inlet trumpets and the inlet valves need to be as cold as possible. A countercurrent heat exchanger with forced cooling air does the job. The cylinder-walls should not hea... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-The temperature of the cooling air may range from well below freezing to 50 °C. Further, while engines in long-haul boat or rail service may operate at a steady load, road vehicles often see widely varying and quickly varying load. Thus, the cooling system is designed... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-Finally, other concerns may dominate cooling system design. As example, air is a relatively poor coolant, but air cooling systems are simple, and failure rates typically rise as the square of the number of failure points. Also, cooling capacity is reduced only slightl... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Basic principles-Air-cooled and liquid-cooled engines are both used commonly. Each principle has advantages and disadvantages, and particular applications may favor one over the other. For example, most cars and trucks use liquid-cooled engines, while many small airplane and low-cost ... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Generalization difficulties-It is difficult to make generalizations about air-cooled and liquid-cooled engines. Air-cooled diesel engines are chosen for reliability even in extreme heat, because air-cooling would be simpler and more effective at coping with the extremes of temperature... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Generalization difficulties-It is usually more difficult to achieve either low emissions or low noise from an air-cooled engine, two more reasons most road vehicles use liquid-cooled engines. It is also often difficult to build large air-cooled engines, so nearly all air-cooled engine... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Air-cooling-Cars and trucks using direct air cooling (without an intermediate liquid) were built over a long period from the very beginning and ending with a small and generally unrecognized technical change. Before World War II, water-cooled cars and trucks routinely overheated while... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Internal combustion engine cooling-Air-cooling-ACS (Auto Club Suisse) maintains historical monuments to that era on the Susten Pass where two radiator refill stations remain. These have instructions on a cast metal plaque and a spherical bottom watering can hanging next to a water spigot. The spherical bottom was inten... | milkshake721/2.1M-wiki-STEM |
Subsets and Splits
No community queries yet
The top public SQL queries from the community will appear here once available.