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Byzantine Empire	empire faced problem powerful christian state within days marching distance constantinople well fight two fronts.a great imperial expedition leo phocas romanos lekapenos ended another crushing byzantine defeat battle achelous following year bulgarians free ravage northern greece.adrianople plundered bulgarian army laid siege constantinople .simeon died suddenly however bulgarian power collapsed him.bulgaria byzantium entered long period peaceful relations empire free concentrate eastern front muslims.bulgaria overrun rus sviatoslav kiev three years later john tzimiskes defeated rus reincorporated eastern bulgaria byzantine empire.bulgarian resistance revived rule cometopuli dynasty new emperor basil ii r. – made submission bulgarians primary goal.
Byzantine Empire	basils first expedition bulgaria however resulted defeat gates trajan.next years emperor preoccupied internal revolts anatolia bulgarians expanded realm balkans.war dragged nearly twenty years.byzantine victories spercheios skopje decisively weakened bulgarian army annual campaigns basil methodically reduced bulgarian strongholds.battle kleidion bulgarians annihilated army captured said every men blinded hundredth man left one eye could lead compatriots home.
Byzantine Empire	tsar samuil saw broken remains formidable army died shock.last bulgarian strongholds surrendered country became part empire.victory restored danube frontier held since days emperor heraclius.relations kievan rus empire developed mixed relationship new state kievan rus emerged north across black sea.relationship longlasting repercussions history east slavs empire quickly became main trading cultural partner kiev.
Byzantine Empire	rus launched first attack constantinople pillaging suburbs city.appeared asian shore bosphorus time crushed indication improvements byzantine military position diplomacy able push back invaders.basil ii could ignore emerging power rus following example predecessors used religion means achieving political purposes.rus–byzantine relations became closer following marriage anna porphyrogeneta vladimir great subsequent christianisation rus.byzantine priests architects artists invited work numerous cathedrals churches around rus expanding byzantine cultural influence even numerous rus served byzantine army mercenaries notably famous varangian guard.even christianisation rus however relations always friendly.
Byzantine Empire	serious conflict two powers war – bulgaria several rus raiding expeditions byzantine cities black sea coast constantinople also recorded.although repulsed often followed treaties generally favourable rus one concluded end war rus indicated ambitions compete byzantines independent power.campaigns caucasus following years tensions basil ii led series victorious campaigns kingdom georgia resulting annexation several georgian provinces empire.basils successors also annexed bagratid armenia .importantly georgia armenia significantly weakened byzantine administrations policy heavy taxation abolishing levy.
Byzantine Empire	weakening georgia armenia played significant role byzantine defeat manzikert .apex basil ii considered among capable byzantine emperors reign apex empire middle ages.date basil iis death byzantine empire stretched armenia east calabria southern italy west.many successes achieved ranging conquest bulgaria annexation parts georgia armenia reconquest crete cyprus important city antioch.temporary tactical gains longterm reconquests.leo vi achieved complete codification byzantine law greek.
Byzantine Empire	monumental work volumes became foundation subsequent byzantine law still studied today.leo also reformed administration empire redrawing borders administrative subdivisions themata themes tidying system ranks privileges well regulating behaviour various trade guilds constantinople.leos reform much reduce previous fragmentation empire henceforth one centre power constantinople.however increasing military success empire greatly enriched gave provincial nobility power peasantry essentially reduced state serfdom.under macedonian emperors city constantinople flourished becoming largest wealthiest city europe population approximately th th centuries.period byzantine empire employed strong civil service staffed competent aristocrats oversaw collection taxes domestic administration foreign policy.
Byzantine Empire	macedonian emperors also increased empires wealth fostering trade western europe particularly sale silk metalwork.split orthodoxy catholicism macedonian period also included events momentous religious significance.conversion bulgarians serbs rus orthodox christianity drew religious map europe still resonates today.cyril methodius two byzantine greek brothers thessaloniki contributed significantly christianization slavs process devised glagolitic alphabet ancestor cyrillic script.in relations eastern western traditions chalcedonian christian church reached terminal crisis known east–west schism.although formal declaration institutional separation july three papal legates entered hagia sophia divine liturgy saturday afternoon placed bull excommunication altar socalled great schism actually culmination centuries gradual separation.
Byzantine Empire	crisis fragmentation byzantine empire soon fell period difficulties caused large extent undermining theme system neglect military.nikephoros ii john tzimiskes basil ii shifted emphasis military divisions τάγματα tagmata reactive defenceoriented citizen army army professional career soldiers increasingly dependent foreign mercenaries.mercenaries expensive however threat invasion receded th century need maintaining large garrisons expensive fortifications.basil ii left burgeoning treasury upon death neglected plan succession.none immediate successors particular military political talent imperial administration increasingly fell hands civil service.
Byzantine Empire	incompetent efforts revive byzantine economy resulted severe inflation debased gold currency.army seen unnecessary expense political threat.number standing local units demobilised augmenting armys dependence mercenaries could retained dismissed asneeded basis.at time byzantium faced new enemies.provinces southern italy threatened normans arrived italy beginning th century.period strife constantinople rome culminating eastwest schism normans began advance slowly steadily byzantine italy.
Byzantine Empire	reggio capital tagma calabria captured robert guiscard followed otranto .bari main byzantine stronghold apulia besieged august fell april .about constantine ix disbanded historian john skylitzes calls iberian army consisted men turned contemporary drungary watch.two knowledgeable contemporaries former officials michael attaleiates kekaumenos agree skylitzes demobilising soldiers constantine catastrophic harm empires eastern defences.the emergency lent weight military aristocracy anatolia secured election one romanos diogenes emperor.summer romanos undertook massive eastern campaign draw seljuks general engagement byzantine army.battle manzikert romanos suffered surprise defeat sultan alp arslan captured.
Byzantine Empire	alp arslan treated respect imposed harsh terms byzantines.constantinople however coup put power michael doukas soon faced opposition nikephoros bryennios nikephoros botaneiates.seljuks expanded rule virtually entire anatolian plateau armenia east bithynia west founded capital nicaea kilometres miles constantinople.komnenian dynasty crusades komnenian comnenian period five emperors komnenos dynasty alexios john ii manuel alexios ii andronikos presided sustained though ultimately incomplete restoration military territorial economic political position byzantine empire.although seljuk turks occupied heartland empire anatolia byzantine military efforts period directed western powers particularly normans.the empire komnenoi played key role history crusades holy land alexios helped bring also exerting enormous cultural political influence europe near east lands around mediterranean sea john manuel.
Byzantine Empire	contact byzantium latin west including crusader states increased significantly komnenian period.venetian italian traders became resident large numbers constantinople empire estimated latins constantinople alone population three four hundred thousand presence together numerous latin mercenaries employed manuel helped spread byzantine technology art literature culture throughout latin west also leading flow western ideas customs empire.in terms prosperity cultural life komnenian period one peaks byzantine history constantinople remained leading city christian world size wealth culture.renewed interest classical greek philosophy well increase literary output vernacular greek.byzantine art literature held preeminent place europe cultural impact byzantine art west period enormous longlasting significance.alexios first crusade manzikert partial recovery referred komnenian restoration made possible komnenian dynasty.
Byzantine Empire	komnenoi attained power alexios .outset reign alexios faced formidable attack normans robert guiscard son bohemund taranto captured dyrrhachium corfu laid siege larissa thessaly.robert guiscards death temporarily eased norman problem.following year seljuq sultan died sultanate split internal rivalries.efforts alexios defeated pechenegs caught surprise annihilated battle levounion april .having achieved stability west alexios could turn attention severe economic difficulties disintegration empires traditional defences.
Byzantine Empire	however still enough manpower recover lost territories asia minor advance seljuks.council piacenza envoys alexios spoke pope urban ii suffering christians east underscored without help west would continue suffer muslim rule.urban saw alexioss request dual opportunity cement western europe reunite eastern orthodox church roman catholic church rule.november pope urban ii called together council clermont urged present take arms sign cross launch armed pilgrimage recover jerusalem east muslims.response western europe overwhelming.alexios anticipated help form mercenary forces west totally unprepared immense undisciplined force soon arrived byzantine territory.comfort alexios learn four eight leaders main body crusade normans among bohemund.
Byzantine Empire	since crusade pass constantinople however emperor control it.required leaders swear restore empire towns territories might reconquer turks way holy land.return gave guides military escort.alexios able recover number important cities islands much western asia minor.crusaders agreed become alexios vassals treaty devol marked end norman threat alexios reign.john ii manuel second crusade alexioss son john ii komnenos succeeded ruled .
Byzantine Empire	john pious dedicated emperor determined undo damage empire suffered battle manzikert half century earlier.famed piety remarkably mild reign john exceptional example moral ruler time cruelty norm.reason called byzantine marcus aurelius.during twentyfiveyear reign john made alliances holy roman empire west decisively defeated pechenegs battle beroia.thwarted hungarian serbian threats allied german emperor lothair iii norman king roger ii sicily.in later part reign john focused activities east personally leading numerous campaigns turks asia minor.campaigns fundamentally altered balance power east forcing turks onto defensive restoring many towns fortresses cities across peninsula byzantines.
Byzantine Empire	defeated danishmend emirate melitene reconquered cilicia forcing raymond poitiers prince antioch recognise byzantine suzerainty.effort demonstrate emperors role leader christian world john marched holy land head combined forces empire crusader states yet despite great vigour pressing campaign hopes disappointed treachery crusader allies.john returned press claims antioch died spring following hunting accident.johns chosen heir fourth son manuel komnenos campaigned aggressively neighbours west east.palestine manuel allied crusader kingdom jerusalem sent large fleet participate combined invasion fatimid egypt.manuel reinforced position overlord crusader states hegemony antioch jerusalem secured agreement raynald prince antioch amalric king jerusalem.
Byzantine Empire	effort restore byzantine control ports southern italy sent expedition italy disputes within coalition led eventual failure campaign.despite military setback manuels armies successfully invaded southern parts kingdom hungary defeating hungarians battle sirmium.nearly whole eastern adriatic coast lay manuels hands.manuel made several alliances pope western christian kingdoms successfully handled passage second crusade empire.in east however manuel suffered major defeat battle myriokephalon turks.yet losses quickly recovered following year manuels forces inflicted defeat upon force picked turks.
Byzantine Empire	byzantine commander john vatatzes destroyed turkish invaders battle hyelion leimocheir brought troops capital also able gather army along way sign byzantine army remained strong defensive program western asia minor still successful.thcentury renaissance john manuel pursued active military policies deployed considerable resources sieges city defences aggressive fortification policies heart imperial military policies.despite defeat myriokephalon policies alexios john manuel resulted vast territorial gains increased frontier stability asia minor secured stabilisation empires european frontiers.c. c. komnenian army assured empires security enabling byzantine civilisation flourish.this allowed western provinces achieve economic revival continued close century.argued byzantium komnenian rule prosperous time since persian invasions th century.
Byzantine Empire	th century population levels rose extensive tracts new agricultural land brought production.archaeological evidence europe asia minor shows considerable increase size urban settlements together notable upsurge new towns.trade also flourishing venetians genoese others opened ports aegean commerce shipping goods crusader kingdoms outremer fatimid egypt west trading empire via constantinople.in artistic terms revival mosaic regional schools architecture began producing many distinctive styles drew range cultural influences.th century byzantines provided model early humanism renaissance interest classical authors.eustathius thessalonica byzantine humanism found characteristic expression.
Byzantine Empire	philosophy resurgence classical learning seen since th century characterised significant increase publication commentaries classical works.besides first transmission classical greek knowledge west occurred komnenian period.decline disintegration angelid dynasty manuels death september left yearold son alexios ii komnenos throne.alexios highly incompetent office mother maria antiochs frankish background made regency unpopular.eventually andronikos komnenos grandson alexios launched revolt younger relative managed overthrow violent coup détat.
Byzantine Empire	utilizing good looks immense popularity army marched constantinople august incited massacre latins.eliminating potential rivals crowned coemperor september .eliminated alexios ii took yearold wife agnes france himself.andronikos began reign well particular measures took reform government empire praised historians.according george ostrogorsky andronikos determined root corruption rule sale offices ceased selection based merit rather favouritism officials paid adequate salary reduce temptation bribery.provinces andronikoss reforms produced speedy marked improvement.
Byzantine Empire	aristocrats infuriated make matters worse andronikos seems become increasingly unbalanced executions violence became increasingly common reign turned reign terror.andronikos seemed almost seek extermination aristocracy whole.struggle aristocracy turned wholesale slaughter emperor resorted ever ruthless measures shore regime.despite military background andronikos failed deal isaac komnenos béla iii hungary r. – reincorporated croatian territories hungary stephen nemanja serbia r. – declared independence byzantine empire.yet none troubles would compare william ii sicilys r. – invasion force ships men arriving .andronikos mobilised small fleet ships defend capital indifferent populace.
Byzantine Empire	finally overthrown isaac angelos surviving imperial assassination attempt seized power aid people andronikos killed.the reign isaac ii brother alexios iii saw collapse remained centralised machinery byzantine government defence.although normans driven greece vlachs bulgars began rebellion led formation second bulgarian empire.internal policy angeloi characterised squandering public treasure fiscal maladministration.imperial authority severely weakened growing power vacuum centre empire encouraged fragmentation.evidence komnenian heirs set semiindependent state trebizond .
Byzantine Empire	according alexander vasiliev dynasty angeloi greek origin ... accelerated ruin empire already weakened without disunited within.fourth crusade pope innocent iii broached subject new crusade legates encyclical letters.stated intent crusade conquer egypt centre muslim power levant.crusader army arrived venice summer hired venetian fleet transport egypt.payment venetians captured christian port zara dalmatia vassal city venice rebelled placed hungarys protection .
Byzantine Empire	shortly afterwards alexios angelos son deposed blinded emperor isaac ii angelos made contacts crusaders.alexios offered reunite byzantine church rome pay crusaders silver marks join crusade provide supplies needed reach egypt.crusader sack constantinople crusaders arrived constantinople summer quickly attacked starting major fire damaged large parts city briefly seized control.alexios iii fled capital alexios angelos elevated throne alexios iv along blind father isaac.alexios iv isaac ii unable keep promises deposed alexios v. crusaders took city april constantinople subjected pillage massacre rank file three days.
Byzantine Empire	many priceless icons relics objects later turned western europe large number venice.according choniates prostitute even set patriarchal throne.order restored crusaders venetians proceeded implement agreement baldwin flanders elected emperor new latin empire venetian thomas morosini chosen patriarch.lands divided among leaders included former byzantine possessions though resistance continued byzantine remnants nicaea trebizond epirus.although venice interested commerce conquering territory took key areas constantinople doge took title lord quarter half quarter roman empire.
Byzantine Empire	empire exile sack constantinople latin crusaders two byzantine successor states established empire nicaea despotate epirus.third empire trebizond created alexios komnenos commanding georgian expedition chaldia weeks sack constantinople found de facto emperor established trebizond.three successor states epirus nicaea stood best chance reclaiming constantinople.nicaean empire struggled survive next decades however midth century lost much southern anatolia.weakening sultanate rûm following mongol invasion – allowed many beyliks ghazis set principalities anatolia weakening byzantine hold asia minor.
Byzantine Empire	time one beys osman created empire would eventually conquer constantinople.however mongol invasion also gave nicaea temporary respite seljuk attacks allowing concentrate latin empire north.reconquest constantinople empire nicaea founded laskarid dynasty managed effect recapture constantinople latins defeat epirus.led shortlived revival byzantine fortunes michael viii palaiologos warravaged empire illequipped deal enemies surrounded it.maintain campaigns latins michael pulled troops asia minor levied crippling taxes peasantry causing much resentment.
Byzantine Empire	massive construction projects completed constantinople repair damage fourth crusade none initiatives comfort farmers asia minor suffering raids muslim ghazis.rather holding possessions asia minor michael chose expand empire gaining shortterm success.avoid another sacking capital latins forced church submit rome temporary solution peasantry hated michael constantinople.efforts andronikos ii later grandson andronikos iii marked byzantiums last genuine attempts restoring glory empire.however use mercenaries andronikos ii often backfired catalan company ravaging countryside increasing resentment towards constantinople.fall rise ottomans fall constantinople situation became worse byzantium civil wars andronikos iii died.
Byzantine Empire	sixyearlong civil war devastated empire allowing serbian ruler stefan dušan r. – overrun empires remaining territory establish serbian empire.earthquake gallipoli devastated fort allowing ottomans hired mercenaries civil war john vi kantakouzenos establish europe.time byzantine civil wars ended ottomans defeated serbians subjugated vassals.following battle kosovo much balkans became dominated ottomans.the byzantine emperors appealed west help pope would consider sending aid return reunion eastern orthodox church see rome.church unity considered occasionally accomplished imperial decree orthodox citizenry clergy intensely resented authority rome latin rite.
Byzantine Empire	western troops arrived bolster christian defence constantinople western rulers distracted affairs nothing ottomans picked apart remaining byzantine territories.constantinople stage underpopulated dilapidated.population city collapsed severely little cluster villages separated fields.april sultan mehmeds army men large numbers irregulars laid siege city.despite desperate lastditch defence city massively outnumbered christian forces c. men foreign constantinople finally fell ottomans twomonth siege may .final byzantine emperor constantine xi palaiologos last seen casting imperial regalia throwing handtohand combat walls city taken.
Byzantine Empire	political aftermath time fall constantinople remaining territory byzantine empire despotate morea peloponnese ruled brothers last emperor thomas palaiologos demetrios palaiologos.despotate continued independent state paying annual tribute ottomans.incompetent rule failure pay annual tribute revolt ottomans finally led mehmed iis invasion morea may .a holdouts remained time.island monemvasia refused surrender first ruled short time aragonese corsair.population drove obtained consent thomas place popes protection end .
Byzantine Empire	mani peninsula moreas south end resisted loose coalition local clans area came venices rule.last holdout salmeniko moreas northwest.graitzas palaiologos military commander stationed salmeniko castle.town eventually surrendered graitzas garrison town residents held castle july escaped reached venetian territory.the empire trebizond split away byzantine empire weeks constantinople taken crusaders became last remnant last de facto successor state byzantine empire.efforts emperor david recruit european powers antiottoman crusade provoked war ottomans trebizond summer .
Byzantine Empire	monthlong siege david surrendered city trebizond august .empire trebizonds crimean principality principality theodoro part perateia lasted another years falling ottomans december .a nephew last emperor constantine xi andreas palaiologos claimed inherited title byzantine emperor.lived morea fall escaped rome lived protection papal states remainder life.since office emperor never technically hereditary andreas claim would without merit byzantine law.however empire vanished western states generally followed romanchurchsanctioned principles hereditary sovereignty.
Byzantine Empire	seeking life west andreas styled imperator constantinopolitanus emperor constantinople sold succession rights charles viii france catholic monarchs.constantine xi died without producing heir constantinople fallen might succeeded sons deceased elder brother taken palace service mehmed ii fall constantinople.oldest boy renamed murad became personal favourite mehmed served beylerbey governorgeneral balkans.younger son renamed mesih pasha became admiral ottoman fleet sancak beg governor province gallipoli.eventually served twice grand vizier mehmeds son bayezid ii.mehmed ii successors continued consider heirs roman empire demise ottoman empire early th century following world war i. considered simply shifted religious basis constantine done continued refer conquered eastern roman inhabitants orthodox christians rûm.meanwhile danubian principalities whose rulers also considered heirs eastern roman emperors harboured orthodox refugees including byzantine nobles.at death role emperor patron eastern orthodoxy claimed ivan iii grand duke muscovy.
Byzantine Empire	married andreas sister sophia palaiologina whose grandson ivan iv would become first tsar russia tsar czar meaning caesar term traditionally applied slavs byzantine emperors.successors supported idea moscow proper heir rome constantinople.idea russian empire successive third rome kept alive demise russian revolution.government bureaucracy byzantine state emperor sole absolute ruler power regarded divine origin.justinian emperor considered nomos empsychos living law lawgiver administrator.
Byzantine Empire	senate ceased real political legislative authority remained honorary council titular members.end th century civil administration focused court formed part largescale consolidation power capital rise preeminence position sakellarios related change.important administrative reform probably started midth century creation themes civil military administration exercised one person strategos.despite occasionally derogatory use terms byzantine byzantinism byzantine bureaucracy distinct ability adapting empires changing situations.elaborate system titulature precedence gave court prestige influence.officials arranged strict order around emperor depended upon imperial ranks.
Byzantine Empire	also actual administrative jobs authority could vested individuals rather offices.in th th centuries civil service constituted clearest path aristocratic status.however beginning th century civil aristocracy rivalled aristocracy nobility.according studies byzantine government thcentury politics dominated competition civil military aristocracy.period alexios undertook important administrative reforms including creation new courtly dignities offices.diplomacy fall rome key challenge empire maintain set relations neighbours.
Byzantine Empire	nations set forging formal political institutions often modelled constantinople.byzantine diplomacy soon managed draw neighbours network international interstate relations.network revolved around treatymaking included welcoming new ruler family kings assimilation byzantine social attitudes values institutions.whereas classical writers fond making ethical legal distinctions peace war byzantines regarded diplomacy form war means.example bulgarian threat could countered providing money kievan rus.diplomacy era understood intelligencegathering function top pure political function.
Byzantine Empire	bureau barbarians constantinople handled matters protocol recordkeeping issues related barbarians thus perhaps basic intelligence function itself.john b. bury believed office exercised supervision foreigners visiting constantinople supervision logothetes tou dromou.surface protocol office – main duty ensure foreign envoys properly cared received sufficient state funds maintenance kept official translators – probably security function well.byzantines availed several diplomatic practices.example embassies capital often stayed years.member royal houses would routinely requested stay constantinople potential hostage also useful pawn case political conditions came changed.
Byzantine Empire	another key practice overwhelm visitors sumptuous displays.according dimitri obolensky preservation ancient civilisation europe due skill resourcefulness byzantine diplomacy remains one byzantiums lasting contributions history europe.law codex theodosianus named theodosius ii codified byzantine law.went force eastern romanbyzantine empire also western roman empire.summarised laws also gave direction interpretation.under reign justinian tribonian notable jurist supervised revision legal code known today corpus juris civilis.
Byzantine Empire	justinians reforms clear effect evolution jurisprudence corpus juris civilis becoming basis revived roman law western world leo iiis ecloga influenced formation legal institutions slavic world.in th century leo vi wise achieved complete codification whole byzantine law greek basilika became foundation subsequent byzantine law influence extending modern balkan legal codes.science medicine imperial university constantinople sometimes known university palace hall magnaura greek πανδιδακτήριον τῆς μαγναύρας eastern roman educational institution could trace corporate origins ad emperor theodosius ii founded pandidakterion byzantine greek πανδιδακτήριον.pandidakterion refounded constantine ix monomachos created departments law διδασκαλεῖον τῶν νόμων philosophy γυμνάσιον.time various economic schools colleges polytechnics libraries fine arts academies also operated city constantinople.scholars gone far call pandidakterion first university world.the writings classical antiquity cultivated extended byzantium.
Byzantine Empire	therefore byzantine science every period closely connected ancient philosophy metaphysics.field engineering isidore miletus greek mathematician architect hagia sophia produced first compilation archimedes works c. manuscript tradition kept alive school mathematics engineering founded c. byzantine renaissance leo mathematician works known today see archimedes palimpsest.pendentive architecture specific spherical form upper corners support dome byzantine invention.although first experimentation made th century byzantine empire potential fully achieved.a mechanical sundial device consisting complex gears made byzantines excavated indicates antikythera mechanism sort analogue device used astronomy invented around late second century bc continued reactive byzantine period.j. r. partington writes thatconstantinople full inventors craftsmen.philosopher leo thessalonika made emperor theophilos – golden tree branches carried artificial birds flapped wings sang model lion moved roared bejewelled clockwork lady walked.
Byzantine Empire	mechanical toys continued tradition represented treatise heron alexandria c. a.d. wellknown byzantines.such mechanical devices reached high level sophistication made impress visitors.leo mathematician also credited system beacons sort optical telegraph stretching across anatolia cilicia constantinople gave warning enemy raids used diplomatic communication well.the byzantines knew used concept hydraulics diplomat liutprand cremona visiting byzantine emperor explained saw emperor sitting hydraulic throne made cunning manner one moment ground another rose higher seen air.john philoponus alexandrian philologist aristotelian commentator christian theologian author considerable number philosophical treatises theological works first questioned aristotles teaching physics despite flaws.unlike aristotle based physics verbal argument philoponus relied observation.commentaries aristotle philoponus wrotebut completely erroneous view may corroborated actual observation effectively sort verbal argument.let fall height two weights one many times heavy see ratio times required motion depend ratio weights difference time small one.difference weights considerable one let us say double difference else imperceptible difference time though difference weight means negligible one body weighing twice much other.john philoponus criticism aristotelian principles physics inspiration galileo galileis refutation aristotelian physics scientific revolution many centuries later galileo cited philoponus substantially works.the ship mill byzantine invention designed mill grains using hydraulic power.
Byzantine Empire	technology eventually spread rest europe use c. .the byzantines pioneered concept hospital institution offering medical care possibility cure patients reflection ideals christian charity rather merely place die.although concept uroscopy known galen see importance using diagnose disease.byzantine physicians theophilus protospatharius realised diagnostic potential uroscopy time microscope stethoscope existed.practice eventually spread rest europe.in medicine works byzantine doctors vienna dioscorides th century works paul aegina th century nicholas myrepsos late th century continued used authoritative texts europeans renaissance.latter one invented aurea alexandrina kind opiate antidote.the first known example separating conjoined twins happened byzantine empire th century pair conjoined twins armenia came constantinople.many years later one died surgeons constantinople decided remove body dead one.
Byzantine Empire	result partly successful surviving twin lived three days dying result impressive mentioned century half later historians.next case separating conjoined twins occur germany.greek fire incendiary weapon could even burn water also attributed byzantines.played crucial role empires victory umayyad caliphate siege constantinople –.discovery attributed callinicus heliopolis syria fled arab conquest syria.however also argued single person invented greek fire rather invented chemists constantinople inherited discoveries alexandrian chemical school....the first example grenade also appeared byzantine empire consisting ceramic jars holding glass nails filled explosive component greek fire.
Byzantine Empire	used battlefields.the first examples handheld flamethrower also occurred byzantine empire th century infantry units equipped hand pumps swivel tubes used project flame.the counterweight trebuchet invented byzantine empire reign alexios komnenos – komnenian restoration byzantines used newdeveloped siege weaponry devastate citadels fortifications.siege artillery marked apogee siege weaponry use cannon.byzantines armies europe asia eventually learned adopted siege weaponry.in final century empire astronomy mathematical sciences taught trebizond medicine attracted interest almost scholars.the fall constantinople fuelled era later commonly known italian renaissance.period refugee byzantine scholars principally responsible carrying person writing ancient greek grammatical literary studies mathematical astronomical knowledge early renaissance italy.also brought classical learning texts botany medicine zoology well works dioscorides john philoponus criticism aristotelian physics.
Byzantine Empire	culture religion byzantine empire theocracy said ruled god working emperor.jennifer fretland vanvoorst argues byzantine empire became theocracy sense christian values ideals foundation empires political ideals heavily entwined political goals.steven runciman says book byzantine theocracy constitution byzantine empire based conviction earthly copy kingdom heaven.god ruled heaven emperor made image rule earth carry commandments ... saw universal empire.ideally embrace peoples earth ideally members one true christian church orthodox church.
Byzantine Empire	man made gods image mans kingdom earth made image kingdom heaven.the survival empire east assured active role emperor affairs church.byzantine state inherited pagan times administrative financial routine administering religious affairs routine applied christian church.following pattern set eusebius caesarea byzantines viewed emperor representative messenger christ responsible particularly propagation christianity among pagans externals religion administration finances.cyril mango points byzantine political thinking summarised motto one god one empire one religion.constantinople generally considered cradle orthodox christian civilization.imperial role affairs church never developed fixed legally defined system.
Byzantine Empire	additionally due decline rome internal dissension eastern patriarchates church constantinople became th th centuries richest influential centre christendom.even empire reduced shadow former self church continued exercise significant influence inside outside imperial frontiers.george ostrogorsky points outthe patriarchate constantinople remained centre orthodox world subordinate metropolitan sees archbishoprics territory asia minor balkans lost byzantium well caucasus russia lithuania.church remained stable element byzantine empire.byzantine monasticism especially came everpresent feature empire monasteries becoming powerful landowners voice listened imperial politics.the official state christian doctrine determined first seven ecumenical councils emperors duty impose subjects.imperial decree later incorporated codex justinianeus orders population empire assume name catholic christians regards abide law mad foolish persons followers heretical dogmas.despite imperial decrees stringent stance state church came known eastern orthodox church eastern christianity latter never represented christians byzantium.
Byzantine Empire	mango believes early stages empire mad foolish persons labelled heretics state church majority population.besides pagans existed end th century jews many followers – sometimes even emperors – various christian doctrines nestorianism monophysitism arianism paulicianism whose teachings opposition main theological doctrine determined ecumenical councils.another division among christians occurred leo iii ordered destruction icons throughout empire.led significant religious crisis ended midth century restoration icons.period new wave pagans emerged balkans originating mainly slavic people.gradually christianised byzantiums late stages eastern orthodoxy represented christians general people remained empire.jews significant minority byzantine state throughout history according roman law constituted legally recognised religious group.
Byzantine Empire	early byzantine period generally tolerated periods tensions persecutions ensued.case arab conquests majority jews found outside empire left inside byzantine borders apparently lived relative peace th century onwards.arts art surviving byzantine art mostly religious exceptions certain periods highly conventionalised following traditional models translate carefully controlled church theology artistic terms.painting fresco illuminated manuscripts wood panel especially earlier periods mosaic main media figurative sculpture rare except small carved ivories.manuscript painting preserved end classical realist tradition missing larger works.
Byzantine Empire	byzantine art highly prestigious soughtafter western europe maintained continuous influence medieval art near end period.especially italy byzantine styles persisted modified form th century became formative influences italian renaissance art.incoming influences affected byzantine style.expansion eastern orthodox church byzantine forms styles spread throughout orthodox world beyond.influences byzantine architecture particularly religious buildings found diverse regions egypt arabia russia romania.byzantine architecture notorious use domes.
Byzantine Empire	also often featured marble columns coffered ceilings sumptuous decoration including extensive use mosaics golden backgrounds.building material used byzantine architects longer marble appreciated ancient greeks.used mostly stone brick also thin alabaster sheets windows.mosaics used cover brick walls surface fresco wouldnt resist.good examples mosaics protobyzantine era hagios demetrios thessaloniki greece basilica santapollinare nuovo basilica san vitale ravenna italy hagia sophia istanbul.
Byzantine Empire	grecoroman temples byzantine churches differ substantially terms exterior interior aspect.antiquity exterior important part temple interior cult statue deity temple built kept priest access.ceremonies held outside worshipers view facade temple consisting columns entablature two pediments.meanwhile christian liturgies held interior churches exterior usually little ornamentation.literature byzantine literature three different cultural elements recognised greek christian oriental.
Byzantine Empire	byzantine literature often classified five groups historians annalists encyclopaedists patriarch photios michael psellus michael choniates regarded greatest encyclopaedists byzantium essayists writers secular poetry.genuine heroic epic byzantines digenis acritas.remaining two groups include new literary species ecclesiastical theological literature popular poetry.of approximately two three thousand volumes byzantine literature survive consist secular poetry history science pseudoscience.flourishing period secular literature byzantium runs th th century religious literature sermons liturgical books poetry theology devotional treatises etc.developed much earlier romanos melodist prominent representative.
Byzantine Empire	music ecclesiastical forms byzantine music composed greek texts ceremonial festival church music today wellknown forms.ecclesiastical chants fundamental part genre.greek foreign historians agree ecclesiastical tones general whole system byzantine music closely related ancient greek system.remains oldest genre extant music manner performance increasing accuracy th century onwards names composers sometimes particulars musical works circumstances known.the thcentury persian geographer ibn khordadbeh d. lexicographical discussion instruments cited lyra lūrā typical instrument byzantines along urghun organ shilyani probably type harp lyre salandj probably bagpipe.first early bowed stringed instrument known byzantine lyra came called lira da braccio venice considered many predecessor contemporary violin later flourished there.
Byzantine Empire	bowed lyra still played former byzantine regions known politiki lyra lit.lyra city i.e.constantinople greece calabrian lira southern italy lijerica dalmatia.second instrument organ originated hellenistic world see hydraulis used hippodrome races.pipe organ great leaden pipes sent emperor constantine v pepin short king franks .
Byzantine Empire	pepins son charlemagne requested similar organ chapel aachen beginning establishment western church music.aulos double reeded woodwind like modern oboe armenian duduk.forms include plagiaulos πλαγίαυλος πλάγιος sideways resembled flute askaulos ἀσκός askos – wineskin bagpipe.bagpipes also known dankiyo ancient greek angion τὸ ἀγγεῖον container played even roman times continued played throughout empires former realms present.see balkan gaida greek tsampouna pontic tulum cretan askomandoura armenian parkapzuk romanian cimpoi.
Byzantine Empire	modern descendant aulos greek zourna.instruments used byzantine music kanonaki oud laouto santouri tambouras seistron defi tambourine toubeleki daouli.claim lavta may invented byzantines arrival turks.cuisine byzantine culture initially late grecoroman following millennium empires existence slowly changed something similar modern balkan anatolian culture.cuisine still relied heavily grecoroman fishsauce condiment garos also contained foods still familiar today cured meat pastirma known paston byzantine greek baklava known koptoplakous κοπτοπλακοῦς tiropita known plakountas tetyromenous tyritas plakountas famed medieval sweet wines malvasia monemvasia commandaria eponymous rumney wine.
Byzantine Empire	retsina wine flavoured pine resin also drunk still greece today producing similar reactions unfamiliar visitors add calamity greek wine account mixed pitch resin plaster us undrinkable complained liutprand cremona ambassador sent constantinople german holy roman emperor otto i. garos fish sauce condiment also much appreciated unaccustomed liutprand cremona described served food covered exceedingly bad fish liquor.byzantines also used soy saucelike condiment murri fermented barley sauce like soy sauce provided umami flavouring dishes.flags insignia history byzantine empire know use heraldry west european sense.various emblems greek σημεία sēmeia sing.σημείον sēmeion used official occasions military purposes banners shields displaying various motifs cross labarum.
Byzantine Empire	use cross images christ virgin mary various saints also attested seals officials personal rather family emblems.doubleheaded eagletetragrammic cross language apart imperial court administration military primary language used eastern roman provinces even decline western empire greek spoken region centuries latin.following romes conquest east pax romana inclusionist political practices development public infrastructure facilitated spreading entrenchment greek language east.indeed early life roman empire greek become common language church language scholarship arts large degree lingua franca trade provinces nations.greek time became diglossic spoken language known koine eventually evolving demotic greek used alongside older written form attic greek koine spoken written standard.the emperor diocletian r. – sought renew authority latin making official language roman administration also east greek expression ἡ κρατοῦσα διάλεκτος hē kratousa dialektos attests status latin language power.early th century greek gained equal status latin official language east emperors gradually began legislate greek rather latin starting reign leo thracian s. last eastern emperor stress importance latin justinian r. – whose corpus juris civilis written almost entirely latin.
Byzantine Empire	may also last native latinspeaking emperor.the use latin language administration persisted centuries though increasingly replaced greek.scholarly latin rapidly fell disuse among educated classes although language continued least ceremonial part empires culture time.additionally latin remained minority language empire mainly italian peninsula along dalmatian coast balkans specially mountainous areas away coast eventually developing various romance languages like dalmatian romanian.many languages existed multiethnic empire given limited official status provinces various times.notably beginning middle ages syriac become widely used educated classes far eastern provinces.similarly coptic armenian georgian became significant among educated provinces.
Byzantine Empire	later foreign contacts made old church slavic middle persian arabic important empire sphere influence.revival latin studies th century reason th century knowledge latin longer unusual constantinople.widespread use armenian various slavic languages became pronounced border regions empire.aside languages since constantinople prime trading center mediterranean region beyond virtually every known language middle ages spoken empire time even chinese.empire entered final decline empires citizens became culturally homogeneous greek language became integral identity religion.recreation byzantines avid players tavli byzantine greek τάβλη game known english backgammon still popular former byzantine realms still known name tavli greece.
Byzantine Empire	byzantine nobles devoted horsemanship particularly tzykanion known polo.game came sassanid persia early period tzykanisterion stadium playing game built theodosius ii r. – inside great palace constantinople.emperor basil r. – excelled emperor alexander r. – died exhaustion playing emperor alexios komnenos r. – injured playing tatikios john trebizond r. – died fatal injury game.aside constantinople trebizond byzantine cities also featured tzykanisteria notably sparta ephesus athens indication thriving urban aristocracy.game introduced west crusaders developed taste particularly prowestern reign emperor manuel komnenos.
Byzantine Empire	chariot races popular held hippodromes across empire.initially four major factions chariot racing differentiated colour uniform competed colours also worn supporters.blues veneti greens prasini reds russati whites albati although byzantine era teams influence blues greens.emperor justinian supporter blues.women byzantine empire position women byzantine empire essentially represents position women ancient rome transformed introduction christianity certain rights customs lost replaced others allowed remain.there individual byzantine women famed educational accomplishments.
Byzantine Empire	however general view womens education sufficient girl learn domestic duties study lives christian saints memorize psalms learn read could study bible scriptures – although literacy women sometimes discouraged believed could encourage vice.the roman right actual divorce gradually erased introduction christianity replaced legal separation annulation.byzantine empire marriage regarded ideal state woman convent life seen legitimate alternative.within marriage sexual activity regarded means reproduction.women right appear court testimony regarded equal man could contradicted based sex put man.from th century growing ideal gender segregation dictated women wear veils seen public attending church ideal never fully enforced influenced society.laws emperor justinian made legal man divorce wife attending public premises theatres public baths without permission emperor leo vi banned women witnessing business contracts argument caused come contact men.
Byzantine Empire	constantinople upperclass women increasingly expected keep special womens section gynaikonitis th century described unacceptable unmarried daughters meet unrelated men.imperial women ladies appeared public alongside men women men imperial court attended royal banquets separately rise comnenus dynasty th century.eastern roman later byzantine women retained roman womans right inherit manage property signs contracts rights far superior rights married women medieval catholic western europe rights included unmarried women widows married women well.womens legal right handle money made possible rich women engage business however women actively find profession support normally worked domestics domestic fields food textile industry.women could work medical physicians attendants women patients visitors hospitals public baths government support.after introduction christianity women could longer become priestesses became common women found manage nunneries functioned schools girls well asylums poor houses hospitals prisons retirement homes women many byzantine women practised social work lay sisters deaconesses.economy byzantine economy among advanced europe mediterranean many centuries.
Byzantine Empire	europe particular could match byzantine economic strength late middle ages.constantinople operated prime hub trading network various times extended across nearly eurasia north africa particular primary western terminus famous silk road.first half th century sharp contrast decaying west byzantine economy flourishing resilient.the plague justinian arab conquests represented substantial reversal fortunes contributing period stagnation decline.isaurian reforms constantine vs repopulation public works tax measures marked beginning revival continued despite territorial contraction.th century end th byzantine empire projected image luxury travellers impressed wealth accumulated capital.the fourth crusade resulted disruption byzantine manufacturing commercial dominance western europeans eastern mediterranean events amounted economic catastrophe empire.
Byzantine Empire	palaiologoi tried revive economy late byzantine state gain full control either foreign domestic economic forces.gradually constantinople also lost influence modalities trade price mechanisms control outflow precious metals according scholars even minting coins.one economic foundations byzantium trade fostered maritime character empire.textiles must far important item export silks certainly imported egypt appeared also bulgaria west.state strictly controlled internal international trade retained monopoly issuing coinage maintaining durable flexible monetary system adaptable trade needs.the government attempted exercise formal control interest rates set parameters activity guilds corporations special interest.emperor officials intervened times crisis ensure provisioning capital keep price cereals.
Byzantine Empire	finally government often collected part surplus taxation put back circulation redistribution form salaries state officials form investment public works.legacy byzantium often identified absolutism orthodox spirituality orientalism exoticism terms byzantine byzantinism used bywords decadence complex bureaucracy repression.eastern western european authors often perceived byzantium body religious political philosophical ideas contrary west.even thcentury greece focus mainly classical past byzantine tradition associated negative connotations.this traditional approach towards byzantium partially wholly disputed revised modern studies focus positive aspects byzantine culture legacy.averil cameron regards undeniable byzantine contribution formation medieval europe cameron obolensky recognise major role byzantium shaping orthodoxy turn occupies central position history societies culture greece romania bulgaria russia georgia serbia countries.
Byzantine Empire	byzantines also preserved copied classical manuscripts thus regarded transmitters classical knowledge important contributors modern european civilisation precursors renaissance humanism slavicorthodox culture.scholars focused positive aspects byzantine culture legacy french historian charles diehl described byzantine empire sayingbyzantium created brilliant culture may brilliant whole middle ages doubtlessly one existing christian europe xi century.many years constantinople remained sole grand city christian europe ranking second none splendour.byzantium literature art exerted significant impact peoples around it.monuments majestic works art remaining show us whole lustre byzantine culture.
Byzantine Empire	thats byzantium held significant place history middle ages one must admit merited one.as stable longterm state europe middle ages byzantium isolated western europe newly emerging forces east.constantly attack distanced western europe persians arabs seljuk turks time ottomans.different perspective since th century evolution constant reshaping byzantine state directly related respective progress islam.following conquest constantinople ottoman turks sultan mehmed ii took title kaysari rûm ottoman turkish equivalent caesar rome since determined make ottoman empire heir eastern roman empire.see also byzantine armybyzantine empire palaiologos dynastybyzantine philosophybyzantine ritedespotate moreafamily trees byzantine imperial dynastiesindex byzantine empirerelated articleslegacy roman empirelist byzantine emperorslist byzantine inventionslist byzantine revolts civil warslist byzantine warslist roman dynastiessuccession roman empire notes references citations sources primary sources secondary sources reading external links byzantine empire time bbcde imperatoribus romanis.scholarly biographies many byzantine emperors.
Byzantine Empire	byzantine rulers lars brownworth stony brook school audio lectures.nytimes review.centuries roman empire howard wiseman maps romanbyzantine empire throughout lifetime.byzantine christian museumbyzantine studies resources bibliographyfox clinton r. anything byzantine online encyclopedia roman emperorsbyzantine studies homepage dumbarton oaks.includes links numerous electronic texts.byzantium byzantine studies internet.links various online resources.translations byzantine sources imperial centuries c. –.
Byzantine Empire	online sourcebook.de militari.resources medieval history including numerous translated sources byzantine wars.medieval sourcebook byzantium.numerous primary sources byzantine history.bibliography byzantine material culture daily life.hosted university vienna english.constantinople home page.links texts images videos byzantium.byzantium crimea political history art culture.institute byzantine studies austrian academy sciences resources repository papers various aspects byzantine empire
Joseph Joestar	joseph main protagonist series second story arc battle tendency grandson first arcs protagonist jonathan joestar.brought grandmother erina family friend speedwagon developed coarser rebellious attitude gentlemanly grandfather character still noble heart.able use supernatural power hamon like grandfather joseph initially skilled use trains lisa lisa.initially uses pair hamonempowered clackers battle relies mind games rather brute strength fights employing uncanny ability predict opponents actions say.he returns main character stardust crusaders set years later acquired vinelike spiritual power stand hermit purple 隠者の紫（ハーミットパープル） hāmitto pāpuru.like many stands stardust crusaders named tarot card case hermit.
Joseph Joestar	uses stand fight perform predictions using electronic equipment cameras television sets.joseph leads team men confront dio egypt save daughter holly.returns supporting character diamond unbreakable meets illegitimate son josuke higashikata shown physically mentally weaker due old age.alternate universe series eighth part jojolion character named joseph “josefumi” joestar bears resemblance joseph appears flashback character.araki based joseph jonathan visually order continuity unheard kill main character weekly shōnen jump manga time.personality however made contrast predecessor joseph cockier.
Joseph Joestar	critical response josephs characterization actions narratives battle tendency stardust crusaders mostly positive game designer hiroshi matsuyama regarding best shōnen manga hero ever seen.creation development unprecedented kill main character weekly shōnen jump manga author hirohiko araki purposely designed joseph look jojos bizarre adventure part protagonist jonathan.although give new character different personality looking back eight story arcs araki said wish differentiated twos visual designs bit more.referring jonathan rather passive bit uninteresting main character author said joseph proactive adventurer explaining wrote josephs tale character control story progressed.able show friendly rivalry jonathan dio part araki introduced caesar zeppeli present positive friendly rivalry joseph.araki called joseph swindler comparison gentlemanly jonathan constantly looking win engage reckless behavior without hesitation.
Joseph Joestar	create contrast two also author wanted shift physical battles part cerebral fights.wanted joseph shōnen manga hero bends rules fights like protagonist earlier series cool shock b.t.winning cunning logic instead bravery perseverance.araki fleshed characters personality predict actions opponents ahead time.referred joseph musclebound b.t.
Joseph Joestar	achieved adding sylvester stallone b.t.plus added cheerfulness make jolly.araki stated joseph character connects joestar bloodline parts although jonathan die part never even considered killing joseph.araki said lot readers asking bring older characters back.although fan bringing back simply nostalgia hesitate joseph return years later stardust crusaders save daughter completely true character.author thought joseph drop partway due age ended playing ear serialization continued.
Joseph Joestar	gave role navigator introducing readers joestar family dio hamon stands.joseph jojo araki made sure make clear jotaro main character part .partly achieved making drastic changes appearance justified age.reasons josephs stand made support ability allows visual aural psychic projection rather offensive like protagonist would have.navigator guide needs lines gather information across world hermit purple inspired telephone lines network cables vines representative physical lines cables.
Joseph Joestar	stands succession hamon hamon life energy spreads across body breathing araki thought josephs hermit purple vines wrapping around body visual representation well.the tv anime adaptation uses song titled bloody stream sung japanese artist coda.written saori kodama composed toshiyuki omori jun yamamoto billboard said felt horns funky sound song complement story joseph battle pillar men esidisi wamuu kars mesmerizing drawing bizarre world.appearances battle tendency start part joseph grandmother erina move london new york.meanwhile former thug turned oil baron robert e. o. speedwagon invites straizo mexico destroy sleeping pillar man hamon.straizo instead wounds speedwagon uses stone mask near pillar man speedwagons blood become immortal vampire.
Joseph Joestar	straizo goes new york destroy joseph erina believed last people know stone mask.joseph defeats straizo straizo tells pillar man awaken meet soon.intrigued joseph goes mexico saves speedwagon survived awakened pillar man named santana tricks santana turned stone sunlight reflected well.joseph speedwagon travel rome meet caesar zeppeli young man trained hamon continue legacy father grandfather.however group arrives late prevent kars wamuu esidisi awakening.
Joseph Joestar	joseph plays wamuus pride convinces wamuu let live worthy opponent.wamuu esidisi implant poisonfilled rings aorta windpipe respectively giving joseph days get antidotes them.joseph caesar train hamon lisa lisa island coast venice.joseph caesar destroy esidisi.group track kars wamuu switzerland.caesar killed fighting wamuu oneonone able take antidote get joseph dying.
Joseph Joestar	joseph lisa lisa confront kars wamuu super aja lisa lisa bluffing timed explosive destroy stone.joseph kills wamuu battle.kars acquires super aja uses along stone mask become ultimate being.immune sun able use hamon kars desire kill joseph.kars attempts kill joseph hamon joseph instinctively holds super aja causes energy make volcano eruption climax sending joseph kars flying sky large rock.
Joseph Joestar	kars knocked space volcanic debris drifts eternity.unable die kars eventually stops thinking.joseph nursed health lisa lisas assistant suzi q marries.later follows mother migrates united states takes american citizenship.stardust crusaders joseph joestars grandson jotaro kujo arrested refuses leave cell believing possessed evil spirit.
Joseph Joestar	called japan holly josephs daughter jotaros mother joseph arrives associate mohammed avdol.explain jotaros evil spirit actually manifestation fighting spirit called stand reveal possess stands well.joseph explains sudden appearance stands caused nemesis grandfather dio.holly soon becomes gravely ill due stand manifesting slowly killing due reserved personality.little hesitation jotaro joseph avdol kakyoin begin journey egypt kill dio save hollys life.
Joseph Joestar	way joined another reformed assassin named jean pierre polnareff seeks avenge sisters death one dios allies.jotaro joseph kakyoin polnareff ultimately encounter dio escape mansion.chase across cairo follows leading kakyoin confronting dio stand world.though fatally wounded world kakyoin deduces stands ability stop time seconds relays joseph dying.joseph able pass jotaro killed dio extends ability duration seconds josephs blood.
Joseph Joestar	jotaro fights dio alone slowly discovering shares dios timestopping ability.battle ends jotaro defeating dio using ability subsequently killing him.jotaro later revives joseph via blood transfusion dios corpse two destroy dios corpse sunlight.jotaro joseph bid polnareff farewell returning japan holly made full recovery.diamond unbreakable old man nearly senile joseph revealed father part protagonist josuke higashikata.
Joseph Joestar	visits japanese town morioh meets josuke adopts baby girl names shizuka appears invisible times effect stand.tells yukako yamagishi cinderella beauty clinic leads yukako yamagishi dreams cinderella story arc scene included anime.parts main antagonist yoshikage kira killed ambulance joseph jotaro leave morioh former money stolen josuke.stone ocean joseph appear stone ocean araki confirmed still alive bit senile.jojolion joseph joestar appear jojolion set alternate universe alternate version known joseph “josefumi” joestar does.
Joseph Joestar	first appearing chapter josefumi bears several similarities original counterpart similar personality traits references counterpart.josefumi also bears stand similar hermit purple utilizing vines increase range attack opponents.abilities joseph joestar inherited natural capacity energybased hamon martial arts technique.unskilled began training mother uses conductive properties pair clackers objects battle.opposed brute strength joseph highly skilled mind games stage magic techniques uses disarm opponents mentally slip objects live grenades person predict actions.joseph returns stardust crusaders hamon abilities martial arts diminished.
Joseph Joestar	place gains stand ability hermit purple vinelike spiritual power conduct hamon act weapon armor.using cameras television sets joseph record photographs footage people places far away.demonstrates ability destroying expensive polaroid camera japan printed photo dio brando located egypt.despite weakness age still possesses quick thinking intellect opponents.joseph longer uses hamon still possesses hermit purple diamond unbreakable.
Joseph Joestar	reception critical response joseph positive.silverman felt positively strikingly different protagonist joseph part jonathan due formers cockier personality.though writer felt joseph ceasars relationship gradually developed manga writer felt latter annoying character.kotaku described joseph better main character jonathan display intelligence confronting antagonists.similarly joel loynds linc enjoyed distinct personalities jojos bizarre adventure contrast joseph johnathan successor jotaro.
Joseph Joestar	hiroshi matsuyama cyberconnect selected joseph favorite jojos bizarre adventure hero based battle tendecy portrayal felt epitome shonen manga.fandom post harsher stating joseph charisma still cocky narrative due manages convince pillar men let train fight stronger form.writer felt sometimes joseph comical point feels breaking fourth wall.comic book resources made article centered solely joseph pointing multiple appealing traits character make sense taken seriously ability predict others following line surprising actual narrator series states dies battle tendency.death caesar part climax noted forced make jojos characterization develop take mature compromise mission contrast earlier appearances.reviewing stardust crusaders anime news network rebecca silverman enjoyed seeing part joseph team new protagonist jotaro impressed araki able keep dio part completely bring back part .
Joseph Joestar	anime uk news stated joseph avdol share one hilarious fights stardust crusaders based accidentally sexually harass attacked stand user working dio.comic book resources still felt joseph still appealing supporting character retaining intelligence despite age.fandom post also praised josephs still intact characterization despite noticeably aged ever since battle tendency.josephs middleaged persona ranked th best coolest character japan beard ranked sixth another.newtype anime awards joseph voted fourth best male character.
History	referencesevents invention writing systems considered prehistory.history umbrella term comprising past events well memory discovery collection organization presentation interpretation events.historians seek knowledge past using historical sources written documents oral accounts art material artifacts ecological markers.history also academic discipline uses narrative describe examine question analyze past events investigate patterns cause effect.historians often debate narrative best explains event well significance different causes effects.historians also debate nature history end well usefulness give perspective problems present.stories common particular culture supported external sources tales surrounding king arthur usually classified cultural heritage legends.
History	history differs myth supported evidence.however ancient cultural influences helped spawn variant interpretations nature history evolved centuries continue change today.modern study history wideranging includes study specific regions study certain topical thematic elements historical investigation.history often taught part primary secondary education academic study history major discipline university studies.herodotus thcentury bc greek historian often considered father history western tradition although also criticized father lies.along contemporary thucydides helped form foundations modern study past events societies.
History	works continue read today gap culturefocused herodotus militaryfocused thucydides remains point contention approach modern historical writing.east asia state chronicle spring autumn annals reputed date early bc although ndcentury bc texts survived.etymology word history comes ancient greek ἱστορία historía meaning inquiry knowledge inquiry judge.sense aristotle used word history animals.ancestor word ἵστωρ attested early homeric hymns heraclitus athenian ephebes oath boiotic inscriptions legal sense either judge witness similar.

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