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Neanderthal	based hayden also speculated macrobands formed functioned much like lowdensity huntergatherer societies western desert australia.macrobands collectively encompass km sq mi band claiming – km – sq mi maintaining strong alliances mating networks cope leaner times enemies.similarly british anthropologist eiluned pearce cypriot archaeologist theodora moutsiou speculated neanderthals possibly capable forming geographically expansive ethnolinguistic tribes encompassing upwards people based transport obsidian km mi source compared trends seen obsidian transfer distance tribe size modern huntergatherers.however likely due significantly lower population model also reported neanderthals would efficient maintaining longdistance networks contemporary humans.hayden noted apparent cemetery six seven individuals la ferrassie france modern humans typically used evidence corporate group maintained distinct social identity controlled resource trading manufacturing on.
Neanderthal	la ferrassie also located one richest animalmigration routes pleistocene europe.genetic analysis indicates least distinct geographical groups—western europe mediterranean coast east caucasus—with migration among regions.posteemian western european mousterian lithics also broadly grouped distinct macroregions acheuleantradition mousterian southwest micoquien northeast mousterian bifacial tools mbt former two.mbt may actually represent interactions fusion two different cultures.southern neanderthals exhibit regional anatomical differences northern counterparts less protrusive jaw shorter gap behind molars vertically higher jawbone.instead suggest neanderthal communities regularly interacted neighbouring communities within region often beyond.nonetheless long periods time evidence largescale crosscontinental migration.
Neanderthal	early specimens mezmaiskaya cave caucasus denisova cave siberian altai mountains differ genetically found western europe whereas later specimens caves genetic profiles similar western european neanderthal specimens earlier specimens locations suggesting longrange migration population replacement time.similarly artefacts dna chagyrskaya okladnikov caves also altai mountains resemble eastern european neanderthal sites – km – mi away artefacts dna older neanderthals denisova cave suggesting two distinct migration events siberia.neanderthals seem suffered major population decline mis – thousand years ago distribution micoquian tradition could indicate central europe caucasus repopulated communities refuge zone either eastern france hungary fringes micoquian tradition dispersed along rivers prut dniester.there also evidence intergroup conflict skeleton la roche à pierrot france showing healed fracture top skull apparently caused deep blade wound another shanadir cave iraq found rib lesion characteristic projectile weapon injuries.social hierarchy sometimes suggested since hunters challenging big game lived small groups sexual division labour seen modern huntergatherer societies.men women children involved hunting instead men hunting women children foraging.
Neanderthal	however modern huntergatherers higher meat dependency higher division labour.toothwearing patterns neanderthal men women suggest commonly used teeth carrying items men exhibit wearing upper teeth women lower suggesting cultural differences tasks.it controversially proposed neanderthals wore decorative clothing jewellery—such leopard skin raptor feathers—to display elevated status group.hayden postulated small number neanderthal graves found highranking members would receive elaborate burial case modern huntergatherers.trinkaus suggested elderly neanderthals given special burial rites lasting long given high mortality rates.alternatively many neanderthals may received burials graves infiltrated destroyed bears.
Neanderthal	given graves neanderthals aged found—over third known graves—deceased children may received greater care burial age demographics.looking neanderthal skeletons recovered several natural rock shelters trinkaus said although neanderthals recorded bearing several traumarelated injuries none significant trauma legs would debilitate movement.suggested self worth neanderthal culture derived contributing food group debilitating injury would remove selfworth result nearimmediate death individuals could keep group moving cave cave left behind.however examples individuals highly debilitating injuries nursed several years caring vulnerable within community dates even back h. heidelbergensis.especially given high trauma rates possible altruistic strategy ensured survival species long.food hunting gathering neanderthals thought scavengers considered apex predators.
Neanderthal	hypothesised two piles mammoth skulls la cotte de st brelade jersey base gulley evidence mammoth drive hunting causing stampede ledge contested.living forested environment neanderthals likely ambush hunters getting close attacking target—a prime adult—in short burst speed thrusting spear close quarters.younger wounded animals may hunted using traps projectiles pursuit.nonetheless able adapt variety habitats.appear eaten predominantly abundant within immediate surroundings steppedwelling communities generally outside mediterranean subsisting almost entirely meat large game forestdwelling communities consuming wide array plants smaller animals waterside communities gathering aquatic resources.
Neanderthal	contemporary humans contrast seem used complex food extraction strategies generally diverse diet.nonetheless neanderthals still would eaten varied enough diet prevent nutrient deficiencies protein poisoning especially winter presumably ate mostly lean meat.food high contents essential nutrients provided lean meat would vital components diet fatrich brains carbohydraterich abundant underground storage organs including roots tubers like modern inuit stomach contents herbivorous prey items.for meat appear fed predominantly hoofed mammals namely red deer reindeer two abundant game also pleistocene megafauna ibex wild boar aurochs mammoth straighttusked elephant woolly rhinoceros on.evidence directed cave brown bear hunting hibernation well butchering.analysis neanderthal bone collagen vindija cave croatia shows nearly protein needs derived animal meat.
Neanderthal	caves show evidence regular rabbit tortoise consumption.gibraltar sites remains different bird species many grounddwelling common quail corn crake woodlark crested lark.neanderthals also exploited marine resources iberian italian peloponnesian peninsulas waded dived shellfish early years ago cueva bajondillo spain similar fishing record modern humans.vanguard cave gibraltar inhabitants consumed mediterranean monk seal shortbeaked common dolphin common bottlenose dolphin atlantic bluefin tuna sea bream purple sea urchin gruta da figueira brava portugal evidence largescale harvest shellfish crabs fish.evidence freshwater fishing found grotte di castelcivita italy trout chub eel abri du maras france chub european perch payré france kudaro cave russia black sea salmon.edible plant mushroom remains recorded several caves.
Neanderthal	neanderthals cueva del sidrón spain based dental tartar likely meatless diet mushrooms pine nuts moss indicating forest foragers.remnants amud cave israel indicates diet figs palm tree fruits various cereals edible grasses.several bone traumas leg joints could possibly suggest habitual squatting case likely done gathering food.dental tartar grotte de spy belgium indicates inhabitants meatheavy diet including woolly rhinoceros mouflon sheep also regularly consuming mushrooms.neanderthal faecal matter el salt spain dated years ago—the oldest human faecal matter remains recorded—show diet mainly meat significant component plants.
Neanderthal	evidence cooked plant foods—mainly legumes far lesser extent acorns—was discovered kebara cave israel inhabitants possibly gathering plants spring fall hunting seasons except fall although cave probably abandoned late summer early fall.shanidar cave iraq neanderthals collected plants various harvest seasons indicating scheduled returns area harvest certain plants complex foodgathering behaviours meat plants.food preparation neanderthals probably could employ wide range cooking techniques roasting may able heat boil soup stew animal stock.abundance animal bone fragments settlements may indicate making fat stocks boiling bone marrow possibly taken animals already died starvation.methods would substantially increased fat consumption major nutritional requirement communities low carbohydrate high protein intake.
Neanderthal	neanderthal tooth size decreasing trend years ago could indicate increased dependence cooking advent boiling technique would softened food.at cueva del sidrón spain neanderthals likely cooked possibly smoked food well used certain plants—such yarrow camomile—as flavouring although plants may instead used medicinal properties.gorhams cave gibraltar neanderthals may roasting pinecones access pine nuts.at grotte du lazaret france total red deer ibexes aurochs roe deer appear hunted single autumn hunting season strong male female deer herds would group together rut.entire carcasses seem transported cave butchered.large amount food consume spoilage possible neanderthals curing preserving winter set in.years old oldest potential evidence food storage.
Neanderthal	great quantities meat fat could gathered general typical prey items namely mammoths could also indicate food storage capability.shellfish neanderthals needed eat cook manner preserve soon collection shellfish spoils quickly.cueva de los aviones spain remains edible algae eating shellfish associated alga jania rubens could indicate like modern hunter gatherer societies harvested shellfish held watersoaked algae keep alive fresh consumption.competition competition large ice age predators rather high.cave lions likely targeted horses large deer wild cattle leopards primarily reindeer roe deer heavily overlapped neanderthal diet.
Neanderthal	defend kill ferocious predators neanderthals may engaged group display yelling arm waving stone throwing quickly gathered meat abandoned kill.however grotte de spy belgium remains wolves cave lions cave bears—which major predators time—indicate neanderthals hunted competitors extent.neanderthals cave hyaenas may exemplified niche differentiation actively avoided competing other.although mainly targeted groups creatures—deer horses cattle—neanderthals mainly hunted former cave hyaenas latter two.animal remains neanderthal caves indicate preferred hunt prime individuals whereas cave hyaenas hunted weaker younger prey cave hyaena caves higher abundance carnivore remains.nonetheless evidence cave hyaenas stole food leftovers neanderthal campsites scavenged dead neanderthal bodies.
Neanderthal	cannibalism several instances neanderthals practising cannibalism across range.first example came krapina croatia examples found cueva del sidrón zafarraya spain french grotte de moulaguercy les pradelles la quina.five cannibalised neanderthals grottes de goyet belgium evidence upper limbs disarticulated lower limbs defleshed also smashed likely extract bone marrow chest cavity disemboweled jaw dismembered.also evidence butchers used bones retouch tools.processing neanderthal meat grottes de goyet similar processed horse reindeer.
Neanderthal	neanderthals marillaclefranc france show clear signs butchery presence digested teeth indicates bodies abandoned eaten scavengers likely hyaenas.these cannibalistic tendencies explained either ritual defleshing preburial defleshing prevent scavengers foul smell act war simply food.due small number cases higher number cut marks seen cannibalised individuals animals indicating inexperience cannibalism probably common practice may done times extreme food shortages cases recorded human history.art personal adornment neanderthal used ochre clay earth pigment.ochre welldocumented thousand years ago neanderthal sites earliest example dating – thousand years ago maastrichtbelvédère netherlands similar timespan ochre record h. sapiens.hypothesised functioned body paint analyses pigments pech de l’azé france indicates applied soft materials hide human skin.
Neanderthal	however modern hunter gatherers addition body paint also use ochre medicine tanning hides food preservative insect repellent use decorative paint neanderthals speculative.containers apparently used mixing ochre pigments found peștera cioarei romania could indicate modification ochre solely aesthetic purposes.neanderthals collected uniquely shaped objects suggested modified pendants fossil aspa marginata sea snail shell possibly painted red grotta di fumane italy transported km mi site years ago shells dated – thousand years ago perforated umbo belonging rough cockle glycymeris insubrica spondylus gaederopus cueva de los aviones spain former two associated red yellow pigments latter redtoblack mix hematite pyrite king scallop shell traces orange mix goethite hematite cueva antón spain.discoverers latter two claim pigment applied exterior make match naturally vibrant inside colouration.excavated french grotte du renne châtelperronian beads made animal teeth shells ivory found associated neanderthal bones dating uncertain châtelperronian artefacts may actually crafted modern humans simply redeposited neanderthal remains.gibraltarian palaeoanthropologists clive geraldine finlayson suggested neanderthals used various bird parts artistic mediums specifically black feathers.finlaysons colleagues examined sites across eurasia argued raptors corvids species typically consumed human species overrepresented show processing wing bones instead fleshier torso thus evidence feather plucking specifically large flight feathers use personal adornment.
Neanderthal	specifically noted cinereous vulture redbilled chough kestrel lesser kestrel alpine chough rook jackdaw white tailed eagle middle palaeolithic sites.birds claimed present evidence modifications neanderthals golden eagle rock pigeon common raven bearded vulture.earliest claim bird bone jewellery number year old white tailed eagle talons found cache near krapina croatia speculated necklace.similar yearold spanish imperial eagle talon necklace reported cova foradà spain though contentious châtelperronian layer.incisiondecorated raven bones zaskalnaya vi rock shelter ukraine dated – thousand years ago reported.
Neanderthal	notches moreorless equidistant first modified bird bones cannot explained simple butchery argument design intent based direct evidence.discovered socalled mask la rochecotard mostly flat piece flint bone pushed hole midsection—dated thousand years ago—has purported resemble upper half face bone representing eyes.contested whether represents face even counts art.american archaeologist alexander marshack speculated neanderthal grotte de lhortus france wore leopard pelt personal adornment indicate elevated status group based recovered leopard skull phalanges tail vertebrae.abstraction purported engravings reported different european middle eastern lowertomiddle palaeolithic sites flint cortexes sites slabs sites pebbles sites.debated whether made symbolic intent.
Neanderthal	deep scratches floor gorhams cave gibraltar discovered dated older years ago discoverers interpreted neanderthal abstract art.scratches could also produced bear.irish elk phalanx five engraved offset chevrons stacked discovered entrance einhornhöhle cave germany dating years ago.in redpainted dots disks lines hand stencils cave walls spanish la pasiega maltravieso doña trinidad dated older years ago least years prior arrival modern humans western europe.would indicate neanderthal authorship similar iconography recorded western european sites—such les merveilles france cueva del castillo spain—could potentially also neanderthal origins.however dating spanish caves thus attribution neanderthals contested.neanderthals known collected variety unusual objects—such crystals fossils—without real functional purpose indication damage caused use.
Neanderthal	unclear objects simply picked aesthetic qualities symbolic significance applied them.items mainly quartz crystals also minerals cerussite iron pyrite calcite galena.findings feature modifications mammoth tooth incision fossil nummulite shell cross etched tata hungary large slab cupstones hollowed grave la ferrassie france geode peștera cioarei romania coated red ochre.number fossil shells also known french neanderthals sites rhynchonellid taraebratulina combe grenal belemnite beak grottes des canalettes polyp grotte de lhyène sea urchin la gonterieboulouneix rhynchonella feather star belemnite beak contentious châtelperronian layer grotte du renne.music purported neanderthal bone flute fragments made bear long bones reported potočka zijalka slovenia istállóskőibarlang hungary mokriška jama slovenia attributed modern human activities.
Neanderthal	thousand year old divje babe flute slovenia attributed researchers neanderthals canadian musicologist robert fink said original flute either diatonic pentatonic musical scale.however date also overlaps modern human immigration europe means also possible manufactured neanderthals.zoologist cajus diedrich argued flute holes made scavenging hyaena lack cut marks stemming whittling slovenian archaeologist matija turk colleagues countered highly unlikely punctures made teeth cut marks always present bone flutes.technology despite apparent thousand year stagnation neanderthal lithic innovation evidence neanderthal technology sophisticated previously thought.however high frequency potentially debilitating injuries could prevented complex technologies emerging major injury would impeded experts ability effectively teach novice.
Neanderthal	stone tools neanderthals made stone tools associated mousterian industry.mousterian also associated north african h. sapiens early years ago found northern china – thousand years ago.evolved around years ago levallois technique developed directly preceding acheulean industry invented h. erectus .mya.levallois made easier control flake shape size difficulttolearn unintuitive process levallois technique may directly taught generation generation rather via purely observational learning.there distinct regional variants mousterian industry quina la ferrassie subtypes charentian industry southwestern france acheuleantradition mousterian subtypes b along atlantic northwestern european coasts micoquien industry central eastern europe related sibiryachikha variant siberian altai mountains denticulate mousterian industry western europe racloir industry around zagros mountains flake cleaver industry cantabria spain sides pyrenees.
Neanderthal	midth century french archaeologist françois bordes debated american archaeologist lewis binford explain diversity bordes–binford debate bordes arguing represent unique ethnic traditions binford caused varying environments essentially form vs. function.latter sentiment would indicate lower degree inventiveness compared modern humans adapting tools different environments rather creating new technologies.continuous sequence occupation welldocumented grotte du renne france lithic tradition divided levallois–charentian discoid–denticulate .±.–.±.thousand years ago levallois mousterian .±.–.±.thousand years ago châtelperronian .±.–.±.
Neanderthal	thousand years ago.there debate neanderthals longranged weapons.wound neck african wild ass umm el tlel syria likely inflicted heavy levalloispoint javelin bone trauma consistent habitual throwing reported neanderthals.spear tips abri du maras france may fragile used thrusting spears possibly suggesting use darts.organic tools châtelperronian central france northern spain distinct industry mousterian controversially hypothesised represent culture neanderthals borrowing process acculturation toolmaking techniques immigrating modern humans crafting bone tools ornaments.frame makers would transitional culture neanderthal mousterian modern human aurignacian.
Neanderthal	opposing viewpoint châtelperronian manufactured modern humans instead.abrupt transitions similar mousterianchâtelperronian could also simply represent natural innovation like la quina–neronian transition years ago featuring technologies generally associated modern humans bladelets microliths.ambiguous transitional cultures include italian uluzzian industry balkan szeletian industry.before immigration evidence neanderthal bone tools animal rib lissoirs — rubbed hide make supple waterproof — although could also evidence modern humans immigrating earlier expected.two .–.thousand year old deer rib lissoirs reported pechdel’azé nearby abri peyrony france.
Neanderthal	lissoirs made aurochs bison ribs reported abri peyrony one dating years ago four .–.thousand years ago.indicates technology use region long time.since reindeer remains abundant use less abundant bovine ribs may indicate specific preference bovine ribs.potential lissoirs also reported grosse grotte germany made mammoth grottes des canalettes france red deer.the neanderthals coastal sites italy namely grotta del cavallo grotta dei moscerini kalamakia cave greece known crafted scrapers using smooth clam shells possibly hafted wooden handle.
Neanderthal	probably chose clam species durable shell.grotta dei moscerini shells gathered alive seafloor meaning neanderthals wade dive shallow waters collect them.grotta di santa lucia italy campanian volcanic arc neanderthals collected porous volcanic pumice contemporary humans probably used polishing points needles.pumices associated shell tools.at abri du maras france twisted fibres ply innerbarkfibre cord fragment associated neanderthals show produced string cordage unclear widespread technology materials used make animal hair hide sinew plant fibres biodegradable preserve poorly.technology could indicate least basic knowledge weaving knotting would made possible production nets containers packaging baskets carrying devices ties straps harnesses clothes shoes beds bedding mats flooring roofing walls snares would important hafting fishing seafaring.
Neanderthal	dating – thousand years ago cord fragment oldest direct evidence fibre technology although yearold perforated shell beads cueva antón possibly strung together make necklace oldest indirect evidence.british archaeologist rebecca wragg sykes expressed cautious support genuineness find pointed string would weak would limited functions.one possibility thread attaching stringing small objects.the archaeological record shows neanderthals commonly used animal hide birch bark may used make cooking containers although based largely circumstantial evidence neither fossilize well.possible neanderthals kebara cave israel used shells spurthighed tortoise containers.at italian poggetti vecchi site evidence used fire process boxwood branches make digging sticks common implement huntergatherer societies.fire construction many mousterian sites evidence fire extended periods time though unclear capable starting fire simply scavenged naturally occurring wildfires.
Neanderthal	indirect evidence fire starting ability includes pyrite residue couple dozen bifaces late mousterian c. years ago northwestern france could indicate used percussion fire starters collection manganese dioxide late neanderthals lower combustion temperature wood.also capable zoning areas specific activities knapping butchering hearths wood storage.many neanderthal sites lack evidence activity perhaps due natural degradation area tens thousands years bear infiltration abandonment settlement.in number caves evidence hearths detected.neanderthals likely considered air circulation making hearths lack proper ventilation single hearth render cave uninhabitable several minutes.abric romaní rock shelter spain indicates eight evenly spaced hearths lined rock wall likely used stay warm sleeping one person sleeping either side fire.
Neanderthal	cueva de bolomor spain hearths lined wall smoke flowed upwards ceiling led outside cave.grotte du lazaret france smoke probably naturally ventilated winter interior cave temperature greater outside temperature likewise cave likely inhabited winter.in two year old ring structures made broken stalagmite pieces several metres wide discovered large chamber ft entrance within grotte de bruniquel france.one ring .× .ft × ft stalagmite pieces averaging .
Neanderthal	cm .length .× ..ft × .
Neanderthal	ft pieces averaging .cm .in.also piles stalagmite pieces total ft ..
Neanderthal	short tons worth stalagmite pieces.evidence use fire burnt bones also suggest human activity.team neanderthals likely necessary construct structure chambers actual purpose uncertain.building complex structures deep cave unprecedented archaeological record indicates sophisticated lighting construction technology great familiarity subterranean environments.the year old moldova openair site ukraine shows evidence × ft × ft ringshaped dwelling made mammoth bones meant longterm habitation several neanderthals would taken long time build.appears contained hearths cooking areas flint workshop traces woodworking.
Neanderthal	upper palaeolithic modern humans russian plains thought also made housing structures mammoth bones.bark tar neanderthal produced adhesive birch bark tar perhaps using plantbased resins hafting.long believed birch bark tar required complex recipe followed thus showed complex cognitive skills cultural transmission.however study showed made simply burning birch bark smooth vertical surfaces flat inclined rock.clothes neanderthals likely able survive similar range temperatures modern humans sleeping °c °f naked open windspeed .
Neanderthal	kmh .mph – °c – °f naked enclosed space.since ambient temperatures markedly lower this—averaging eemian interglacial .°c .°f july °c °f january dropping low − °c − °f coldest days—danish physicist bent sørensen hypothesised neanderthals required tailored clothing capable preventing airflow skin.
Neanderthal	especially extended periods travelling hunting trip tailored footwear completely enwrapping feet may necessary.nonetheless opposed bone sewingneedles stitching awls assumed use contemporary modern humans known neanderthal tools could used fashion clothes hide scrapers could made items similar blankets ponchos direct evidence could produce fitted clothes.indirect evidence tailoring neanderthals includes ability manufacture string could indicate weaving ability naturallypointed horse metatarsal bone cueva de los aviones spain speculated used awl perforating dyed hides based presence orange pigments.whatever case neanderthals would needed cover body contemporary humans would covered –.since humanneanderthal admixture known occurred middle east modern body louse species descends neanderthal counterparts body lice inhabit clothed individuals possible neanderthals andor humans hotter climates wear clothes neanderthal lice highly specialised.seafaring remains middle palaeolithic stone tools greek islands indicate early seafaring neanderthals ionian sea possibly starting far back – thousand years ago.oldest stone artefacts crete date – thousand years ago cephalonia thousand years ago zakynthos – thousand years ago.
Neanderthal	makers artefacts likely employed simple reed boats made oneday crossings back forth.mediterranean islands remains include sardinia melos alonnisos naxos although naxos may connected land possible crossed strait gibraltar.interpretation correct neanderthals ability engineer boats navigate open waters would speak advanced cognitive technical skills.medicine given dangerous hunting extensive skeletal evidence healing neanderthals appear lived lives frequent traumatic injury recovery.wellhealed fractures many bones indicate setting splints.
Neanderthal	individuals severe head rib traumas would caused massive blood loss indicate manner dressing major wounds bandages made animal skin.byandlarge appear avoided severe infections indicating good longterm treatment wounds.their knowledge medicinal plants comparable contemporary humans.individual cueva del sidrón spain seems medicating dental abscess using poplar—which contains salicylic acid active ingredient aspirin—and also traces antibioticproducing penicillium chrysogenum.may also used yarrow camomile bitter taste—which act deterrent could indicate poison—means likely deliberate act.kebara cave israel plant remains historically used medicinal properties found including common grape vine pistachios persian turpentine tree ervil seeds oak acorns.
Neanderthal	language degree language complexity difficult establish given neanderthals achieved technical cultural complexity interbred humans reasonable assume least fairly articulate comparable modern humans.somewhat complex language—possibly using syntax—was likely necessary survive harsh environment neanderthals needing communicate topics locations hunting gathering toolmaking techniques.foxp gene modern humans associated speech language development.foxp present neanderthals genes modern human variant.neurologically neanderthals expanded brocas area—operating formulation sentences speech comprehension group genes believed affect neural substrate language different methylation patterns neanderthals modern humans.
Neanderthal	could indicate stronger ability modern humans neanderthals express language.in cognitive scientist philip lieberman attempted reconstruct neanderthal vocal tract concluded similar newborn incapable producing nasal sounds due large size mouth thus need descended larynx fit entire tongue inside mouth.claimed anatomically unable produce sounds u ɔ g k thus lacked capacity articulate speech though still able speak level higher nonhuman primates.however lack descended larynx necessarily equate reduced vowel capacity.discovery neanderthal hyoid bone—used speech production humans—in kebara almost identical humans suggests neanderthals capable speech ancestral sima de los huesos hominins humanlike hyoid ear bones could suggest early evolution modern human vocal apparatus.however hyoid definitively provide insight vocal tract anatomy.
Neanderthal	subsequent studies reconstruct neanderthal vocal apparatus comparable modern humans similar vocal repertoire.lieberman hypothesized neanderthals capable syntactical language although nonetheless incapable mastering human dialect.it debated behavioural modernity recent uniquely modern human innovation neanderthals also possessed it.religion funerals claims neanderthals held funerals dead symbolic meaning heavily contested speculative.although neanderthals bury dead least occasionally—which may explain abundance fossil remains— indicative religious belief life death burial could also nonsymbolic motivations great emotion prevent scavenging.the debate neanderthal funerals active since discovery la chapelleauxsaints small artificial hole cave southwestern france controversially postulated buried symbolic fashion.another grave shanidar cave iraq associated pollen several flowers may bloom time deposition—yarrow centaury ragwort grape hyacinth joint pine hollyhock.
Neanderthal	medicinal properties plants led american archaeologist ralph solecki claim man buried leader healer shaman association flowers neanderthals adds whole new dimension knowledge humanness indicating soul .however also possible pollen deposited small rodent mans death.the graves children infants especially associated grave goods artefacts bones.grave newborn la ferrassie france found three flint scrapers infant dederiyeh cave syria found triangular flint placed chest.monthold amud cave israel associated red deer mandible likely purposefully placed given animal remains reduced fragments.teshiktash uzbekistan associated circle ibex horns limestone slab argued supported head.
Neanderthal	child kiikkoba crimea ukraine flint flake purposeful engraving likely requiring great deal skill.nonetheless contentiously constitute evidence symbolic meaning grave goods significance worth unclear.cults argued bones cave bear particularly skull european caves arranged specific order indicating ancient bear cult killed bears ceremoniously arranged bones.would consistent bearrelated rituals modern human arctic huntergatherers alleged peculiarity arrangement could also wellexplained natural causes bias could introduced existence bear cult would conform idea totemism earliest religion leading undue extrapolation evidence.it also thought neanderthals ritually hunted killed cannibalised neanderthals used skull focus ceremony.italian palaeontologist alberto blanc believed skull grotta guattari italy evidence swift blow head—indicative ritual murder—and precise deliberate incising base access brain.
Neanderthal	compared victims headhunters malaysia borneo putting forward evidence skull cult.however thought result cave hyaena predation.although neanderthals known practiced cannibalism unsubstantial evidence suggest ritual defleshing.in gibraltarian palaeoanthropologists stewart geraldine clive finlayson spanish archaeologist francisco guzmán speculated golden eagle iconic value neanderthals exemplified modern human societies reported golden eagle bones conspicuously high rate evidence modification compared bones birds.proposed cult sun bird golden eagle symbol power.interbreeding interbreeding modern humans first neanderthal genome sequence published strongly indicated interbreeding neanderthals early modern humans.
Neanderthal	genomes nonsubsaharan populations contain neanderthal dna.various estimates exist proportion – .–.modern eurasians .–.modern europeans .–.modern east asians.
Neanderthal	preagricultural europeans appear similar percentages modern east asians numbers may decreased former due dilution group people split neanderthal introgression.typically studies reported finding significant levels neanderthal dna subsaharan africans study detected .. genomes five african sample populations likely result eurasians backmigrating interbreeding africans well humantoneanderthal gene flow dispersals homo sapiens preceding larger outofafrica migration.low percentages neanderthal dna present day populations indicate infrequent past interbreeding unless interbreeding common different population modern humans contribute present day gene pool.inherited neanderthal genome modern europeans modern east asians may related viral immunity.approximately neanderthal genome appears survived modern human gene pool.however due small population resulting reduced effectivity natural selection neanderthals accumulated several weakly harmful mutations introduced slowly selected much larger modern human population initial hybridised population may experienced reduction fitness compared contemporary humans.
Neanderthal	measure neanderthals may substantially increased fitness.study focusing archaic genes turkey found associations coeliac disease malaria severity costello syndrome.nonetheless genes may helped modern human europeans adapt environment valmet variant mcr gene may weakly associated red hair may descend neanderthals although contested variant rare neanderthals light skin modern humans become prevalent holocene.genes related immune system appear affected introgression may aided migration oas stat tlr tlr tlr several related immune response.addition neanderthal genes also implicated structure function brain keratin filaments sugar metabolism muscle contraction body fat distribution enamel thickness oocyte meiosis.
Neanderthal	nonetheless large portion surviving introgression appears noncoding junk dna biological functions.due absence neanderthalderived mtdna passed mother child modern populations suggested progeny neanderthal females mated modern human males either rare absent sterile—that say admixture stems progeny neanderthal males modern human females.due lack neanderthalderived ychromosomes modern humans passed father son also suggested hybrids contributed ancestry modern populations predominantly females neanderthal ychromosome compatible h. sapiens became extinct.according linkage disequilibrium mapping last neanderthal gene flow modern human genome occurred – thousand years ago likely – thousand years ago.thought neanderthal genes contributed present day human genome stemmed interbreeding near east rather entirety europe.however interbreeding still occurred without contributing modern genome.approximately year old modern human oase found – point estimate .
Neanderthal	neanderthal dna indicating neanderthal ancestor four six generations earlier hybrid romanian population appear made substantial contribution genomes later europeans.dna neanderthals denisova cave revealed evidence interbreeding years ago interbreeding earlier dispersal h. sapiens may occurred early years ago places levant.earliest h. sapiens remains outside africa occur misliya cave – thousand years ago skhul qafzeh – thousand years ago.qafzeh humans lived approximately time neanderthals nearby tabun cave.neanderthals german hohlensteinstadel deeply divergent mtdna compared recent neanderthals possibly due introgression human mtdna thousand years ago simply genetically isolated.
Neanderthal	whatever case first interbreeding events left trace modern human genomes.detractors interbreeding model argue genetic similarity remnant common ancestor instead interbreeding although unlikely fails explain subsaharan africans neanderthal dna.interbreeding denisovans although ndna confirms neanderthals denisovans closely related modern humans neanderthals modern humans share recent maternallytransmitted mtdna common ancestor possibly due interbreeding denisovans unknown human species.yearold neanderthallike humans sima de los huesos northern spain looking mtdna closely related denisovans neanderthals.several neanderthallike fossils eurasia similar time period often grouped h. heidelbergensis may relict populations earlier humans could interbred denisovans.also used explain approximately year old german neanderthal specimen mtdna diverged neanderthals except sima de los huesos years ago genomic dna indicated divergence less years ago.sequencing genome denisovan denisova cave shown genome derives neanderthals.
Neanderthal	neanderthal dna closely resembled yearold neanderthal bone cave neanderthals vindija cave croatia mezmaiskaya cave caucasus suggesting interbreeding local.for yearold denisova found father denisovan related recent inhabitants region mother neanderthal related recent european neanderthals vindija cave croatia.given denisovan bones known discovery firstgeneration hybrid indicates interbreeding common species neanderthal migration across eurasia likely occurred sometime years ago.extinction transition whatever cause extinction neanderthals replaced modern humans indicated near full replacement middle palaeolithic mousterian stone technology modern human upper palaeolithic aurignacian stone technology across europe middletoupper palaeolithic transition thousand years ago.however postulated iberian neanderthals persisted years ago indicated date range transitional lithic assemblages—châtelperronian uluzzian protoaurignacian early aurignacian.latter two attributed modern humans former two unconfirmed authorship potentially products neanderthalmodern human cohabitation cultural transmission.
Neanderthal	appearance aurignacian south ebro river dated roughly years ago prompted ebro frontier hypothesis states river presented geographic barrier preventing modern human immigration thus prolonging neanderthal persistence.however dating iberian transition debated contested timing –.thousand years ago cueva bajondillo spain.châtelperronian appears northeastern iberia .–.thousand years ago.some neanderthals gibraltar dated much later this—such zafarraya years ago gorhams cave years ago—which may inaccurate based ambiguous artefacts instead direct dating.
Neanderthal	claim neanderthals surviving polar refuge ural mountains loosely supported mousterian stone tools dating – thousand years ago northern siberian byzovaya site time modern humans may yet colonised northern reaches europe however modern human remains known nearby mamontovaya kurya site dating years ago.indirect dating neanderthals remains mezmaiskaya cave reported date years ago direct dating instead yielded .±.thousand years ago line trends exhibited rest europe.the earliest indication upper palaeolithic modern human immigration europe balkan bohunician industry beginning years ago likely deriving levantine emiran industry earliest bones europe date roughly – thousand years ago bulgaria italy britain.wave modern humans replaced neanderthals.however neanderthals h. sapiens much longer contact history.
Neanderthal	dna evidence indicates h. sapiens contact neanderthals admixture early – thousand years ago.reanalysis year old skull fragments greek apidima cave assumed belonged neanderthal concluded belonged modern human neanderthal skull dating years ago cave indicates h. sapiens replaced neanderthals returning years ago.identification refuted study.archaeological evidence suggests neanderthals displaced modern humans near east around years ago – thousand years ago.cause modern humans historically modern human technology viewed vastly superior neanderthals efficient weaponry subsistence strategies neanderthals simply went extinct could compete.the discovery neanderthalmodern human introgression caused resurgence multiregional hypothesis wherein present day genetic makeup humans end result complex genetic contact among several different populations humans dispersed across world.
Neanderthal	model neanderthals recent archaic humans simply assimilated modern human genome – effectively bred extinction.climate change ultimate extinction coincides heinrich event period intense seasonality later heinrich events also associated massive cultural turnovers european human populations collapsed.climate change may depopulated several regions neanderthals like previous cold spikes areas instead repopulated immigrating humans leading neanderthal extinction.it also proposed climate change primary driver low population left vulnerable environmental change even small drop survival fertility rates possibly quickly leading extinction.however neanderthals ancestors survived several glacial periods hundreds thousands years european habitation.also proposed around years ago neanderthal populations may already dwindling factors campanian ignimbrite eruption italy could led final demise produced – °c cooling year acid rain several years.
Neanderthal	disease modern humans may introduced african diseases neanderthals contributing extinction.lack immunity compounded already low population potentially devastating neanderthal population low genetic diversity could also rendered fewer neanderthals naturally immune new diseases differential pathogen resistance hypothesis.however compared modern humans neanderthals similar higher genetic diversity major histocompatibility complex mhc genes associated adaptive immune system casting doubt model.low population inbreeding depression may caused maladaptive birth defects could contributed decline mutational meltdown.in latethcentury new guinea due cannibalistic funerary practices fore people decimated transmissible spongiform encephalopathies specifically kuru highly virulent disease spread ingestion prions found brain tissue.however individuals variant prnp gene naturally immune prions.studying gene led discovery variant widespread among modern humans could indicate widespread cannibalism point human prehistory.
Neanderthal	neanderthals known practised cannibalism extent coexisted modern humans british palaeoanthropologist simon underdown speculated modern humans transmitted kurulike spongiform disease neanderthals variant appears absent neanderthals quickly killed off.popular culture neanderthals portrayed popular culture including appearances literature visual media comedy.caveman archetype often mocks neanderthals depicts primitive hunchbacked knuckledragging clubwielding grunting nonsocial characters driven solely animal instinct.neanderthal also used insult.in literature sometimes depicted brutish monstrous h. g. wells grisly folk elizabeth marshall thomas animal wife sometimes civilised unfamiliar culture william goldings inheritors björn kurténs dance tiger jean m. auels clan cave bear earths children series.see also denisovan – asian archaic humanearly human migrationseuropean early modern humanshomo floresiensis – archaic human flores indonesiahomo luzonensis – archaic human luzon philippineshomo naledi – smallbrained south african archaic humanhuman timeline – hominin events last million years explanatory notes citations general bibliography brown k. fa d. a. finlayson g. finlayson c. .
Neanderthal	small game marine resource exploitation neanderthals evidence gibraltar.trekking shore changing coastlines antiquity coastal settlement.interdisciplinary contributions archaeology.springer.isbn .finlayson c. .
Neanderthal	smart neanderthal bird catching cave art cognitive revolution.oxford university press.isbn .papagianni d. morse m. a. .still us.neanderthals rediscovered modern science rewriting story.
Neanderthal	thames hudson.isbn .reich d. .encounters neanderthals.got ancient dna new science human past.oxford university press.
Neanderthal	isbn .shipman p. .humans dogs drove neanderthals extinction.invaders humans dogs drove neanderthals extinction.harvard university press.isbn .
Neanderthal	jstor j.ctvjfzbs.stringer c. gamble c. .search neanderthals.thames hudson.isbn .sykes rebecca wragg .kindred neanderthal life love death art.
Neanderthal	london uk bloomsbury sigma.isbn .tattersall i. .neanderthals dna creativity.strange case rickety cossack cautionary tales human evolution.st. martins publishing group.
Neanderthal	isbn .external links homo neanderthalensis.smithsonian institution.february .human timeline interactive – smithsonian national museum natural history august .neanderthal dna.international society genetic genealogy.
Neanderthal	archived original june .includes neanderthal mtdna sequencesgenbank records h. s. neanderthalensis maintained national center biotechnology information ncbicause extinction remains “highly contested” demographic factors like small population size inbreeding random fluctuations considered likely factors.scholars proposed competitive replacement assimilation modern human genome bred extinction great climatic change disease combination factors.it unclear line neanderthals split modern humans studies produced various intervals ranging years ago.time divergence neanderthals ancestor h. heidelbergensis also unclear.oldest potential neanderthal bones date years ago classification remains uncertain.neanderthals known numerous fossils especially years ago.
Neanderthal	type specimen neanderthal found neander valley presentday germany.much early th century researchers depicted neanderthals primitive unintelligent brutish.although knowledge perception markedly changed since scientific community image unevolved caveman archetype remains prevalent popular culture.neanderthal technology quite sophisticated.includes mousterian stonetool industry ability create fire build cave hearths make adhesive birch bark tar craft least simple clothes similar blankets ponchos weave go seafaring mediterranean make use medicinal plants well treat severe injuries store food use various cooking techniques roasting boiling smoking.neanderthals made use wide array food mainly hoofed mammals also megafauna plants small mammals birds aquatic marine resources.
Neanderthal	although probably apex predators still competed cave bears cave lions cave hyaenas large predators.number examples symbolic thought palaeolithic art inconclusively attributed neanderthals namely possible ornaments made bird claws feathers shells collections unusual objects including crystals fossils engravings music production indicated divje babe flute spanish cavepaintings contentiously dated years ago.claims religious beliefs made.neanderthals likely capable speech possibly articulate although complexity language known.compared modern humans neanderthals robust build proportionally shorter limbs.researchers often explain features adaptations conserve heat cold climate may also adaptations sprinting warmer forested landscape neanderthals often inhabited.
Neanderthal	nonetheless coldspecific adaptations specialised bodyfat storage enlarged nose warm air although nose could caused genetic drift.average neanderthal men stood around cm ft women cm .ft tall similar preindustrial modern humans.braincases neanderthal men women averaged cm cu cm cu respectively within range values modern humans.neanderthal skull elongated smaller parietal lobes cerebellum morphological traits used assign specimens species.the total population neanderthals remained low proliferating weakly harmful gene variants precluding effective longdistance networks.
Neanderthal	nonetheless evidence regional cultures thus regular communication communities.may frequented caves moved caves seasonally.neanderthals lived highstress environment high trauma rates died age .neanderthal genome projects draft report presented evidence interbreeding neanderthals modern humans.possibly occurred – years ago likely years ago years ago.
Neanderthal	neanderthals also appear interbred denisovans different group archaic humans siberia.around – genomes eurasians australomelanesians native americans north africans neanderthal ancestry inhabitants subsaharan africa detectable neanderthal ancestry save possible traces early sapienstoneanderthal gene flow andor recent backmigration eurasians africa.distinctly neanderthal gene variants survive today.although many gene variants inherited neanderthals may detrimental selected neanderthal introgression appears affected modern human immune systemand also implicated several biological functions structures large portion appears noncoding dna.taxonomy etymology neanderthals named valley neandertal first identified specimen found.
Neanderthal	valley spelled neanderthal species spelled neanderthaler german spelling reform .spelling neandertal species occasionally seen english even scientific publications scientific name h. neanderthalensis always spelled th according principle priority.vernacular name species german always neandertaler inhabitant neander valley whereas neandertal always refers valley.valley named late th century german theologian hymn writer joachim neander often visited area.neanderthal pronounced using standard english pronunciation th fricative θ .neanderthal type specimen known neanderthal cranium neanderthal skull anthropological literature individual reconstructed basis skull occasionally called neanderthal man.
Neanderthal	binomial name homo neanderthalensis—extending name neanderthal man individual specimen entire species formally recognising distinct humans—was first proposed irish geologist william king paper read rd british science association .however recommended neanderthals modern humans classified different genera compared neanderthal braincase chimpanzee argued incapable moral theistic conceptions.research history first neanderthal remains—engis skull—were discovered dutch naturalist philippecharles schmerling grottes dengis belgium thought fossil modern human skull.gibraltar forbes quarry presented gibraltar scientific society secretary lieutenant edmund henry réné flint also thought modern human skull.local schoolteacher johann carl fuhlrott recognised bones kleine feldhofer grotte neander valley—neanderthal holotype specimen—as distinct modern humans gave german anthropologist hermann schaaffhausen study .
Neanderthal	comprised cranium thigh bones right arm left humerus ulna left ilium hip bone part right shoulder blade pieces ribs.following charles darwins origin species fuhlrott schaaffhausen argued bones represented ancient modern human form schaaffhausen social darwinist believed humans linearly progressed savage civilised concluded neanderthals barbarous cavedwellers.fuhlrott schaaffhausen met opposition namely prolific pathologist rudolf virchow argued defining new species based single find.virchow erroneously interpreted neanderthal characteristics evidence senility disease malformation instead archaicness stalled neanderthal research end century.by early th century numerous neanderthal discoveries made establishing h. neanderthalensis legitimate species.influential specimen la chapelleauxsaints old man la chapelleauxsaints france.
Neanderthal	french palaeontologist marcellin boule authored several publications among first establish palaeontology science detailing specimen reconstructed slouching apelike remotely related modern humans.discovery piltdown man hoax appearing much similar modern humans neanderthals used evidence multiple different unrelated branches primitive humans existed supported boules reconstruction h. neanderthalensis far distant relative evolutionary deadend.fuelled popular image neanderthals barbarous slouching clubwielding primitives image reproduced several decades popularised science fiction works quest fire j.h.rosny aîné grisly folk h. g. wells depicted monsters.scottish anthropologist arthur keith reconstructed la chapelleauxsaints immediate precursor modern humans sitting next fire producing tools wearing necklace humanlike posture failed garner much scientific rapport keith later abandoned thesis .by middle century based exposure piltdown man hoax well reexamination la chapelleauxsaints osteoarthritis caused slouching life new discoveries scientific community began rework understanding neanderthals.
Neanderthal	ideas neanderthal behaviour intelligence culture discussed humanlike image emerged.american anthropologist carleton coon reconstructed neanderthal modern business suit hat emphasise would less indistinguishable modern humans survived present.william goldings novel inheritors depicts neanderthals much emotional civilised.however boules image continued influence works s. modernday neanderthal reconstructions often humanlike.hybridisation neanderthals early modern humans suggested early english anthropologist thomas huxley danish ethnographer hans peder steensby coon .early supposed hybrid specimens discovered lagar velho muierii .
Neanderthal	however similar anatomy could also caused adapting similar environment rather interbreeding.neanderthal admixture found present modern populations mapping first neanderthal genome sequence.based specimens vindija cave croatia contained almost archaic dna allowing near complete sequencing genome.however approximately error every letters base pairs based implausibly high mutation rate probably due preservation sample.britishamerican geneticist graham coop hypothesised instead found evidence different archaic human species interbreeding modern humans disproven sequencing highquality neanderthal genome preserved toe bone denisova cave siberia.
Neanderthal	classification neanderthals hominids genus homo humans generally classified distinct species h. neanderthalensis although sometimes subspecies modern human h. sapiens neanderthalensis.would necessitate classification modern humans h. s. sapiens.a large part controversy stems vagueness term species generally used distinguish two genetically isolated populations admixture modern humans neanderthals known occurred.however absence neanderthalderived patrilineal ychromosome matrilineal mitochondrial dna mtdna modern humans along underrepresentation neanderthal x chromosome dna could imply reduced fertility frequent sterility hybrid crosses representing partial biological reproductive barrier groups therefore species distinction.in geneticist svante pääbo described taxonomic wars unresolvable since definition species perfectly describing case.neanderthals thought closely related denisovans modern humans.likewise neanderthals denisovans share recent last common ancestor lca modern humans based nuclear dna ndna.however neanderthals modern humans share recent mitochondrial lca observable studying mtdna.
Neanderthal	likely resulted interbreeding event subsequent neanderthaldenisovan split introduced another mtdna line.involved either introgression coming unknown archaic human denisovans introgression earlier unidentified modern human wave africa neanderthals.evolution largely thought h. heidelbergensis last common ancestor neanderthals denisovans modern humans populations became isolated europe asia africa respectively.taxonomic distinction h. heidelbergensis neanderthals mostly based fossil gap europe thousand years ago marine isotope stage .neanderthals convention fossils date gap.
Neanderthal	however thousand year ka old bones sima de los huesos could represent early neanderthals closely related group year old aroeira could represent transitional phase.ancestral derived morphs could lived concurrently.also possible gene flow western europe africa middle pleistocene obscuring neanderthal characteristics specimens namely ceprano italy sićevo gorge serbia.fossil record much complete years ago onwards specimens period make bulk known neanderthal skeletons.dental remains italian visogliano fontana ranuccio sites indicate neanderthal dental features evolved around – thousand years ago middle pleistocene.there two main hypotheses regarding evolution neanderthals following neanderthalhuman split twophase accretion.
Neanderthal	twophase argues single major environmental event—such saale glaciation—caused european h. heidelbergensis rapidly increase body size robustness well undergo lengthening head phase led changes skull anatomy phase .however neanderthal anatomy may driven entirely adapting cold weather.accretion holds neanderthals slowly evolved time ancestral h. heidelbergensis divided stages earlypreneanderthals mis elster glaciation preneanderthals sensu lato mis – holstein interglacial early neanderthals mis – saale glaciation–eemian classic neanderthals sensu stricto mis – würm glaciation.numerous dates neanderthalhuman split suggested.date around years ago cites h. helmei last common ancestor lca split associated levallois technique making stone tools.date years ago uses h. heidelbergensis lca.
Neanderthal	years ago says h. rhodesiensis lca split modern human lineage neanderthalh.heidelbergensis lineage.years ago h. antecessor lca different variations model would push date back million years ago.however analysis h. antecessor enamel proteomes suggests h. antecessor related direct ancestor.dna studies yielded various results neanderthalhuman divergence time – – – – – – – – thousand years ago dental analysis concluded years ago.neanderthals denisovans closely related modern humans meaning neanderthaldenisovan split occurred split modern humans.
Neanderthal	assuming mutation rate x− .x− per base pair bp per year neanderthaldenisovan split occurred around either – – thousand years ago respectively.using .x− per generation new generation every years time years ago.using x− nucleotide sites per year years ago.using latter dates split likely already occurred time hominins spread across europe unique neanderthal features begun evolving – thousand years ago.splitting neanderthaldenisovans neandersovans migrating africa europe apparently interbred unidentified superarchaic human species already present superarchaics descendants early migration africa around .
Neanderthal	mya.demographics range pre early neanderthals living eemian interglacial years ago poorly known come mostly western european sites.years ago onwards quality fossil record increases dramatically classic neanderthals recorded western central eastern mediterranean europe well southwest central northern asia altai mountains southern siberia.pre early neanderthals hand seem continuously occupied france spain italy although appear moved corearea form temporary settlements eastward although without leaving europe.nonetheless southwestern france highest density sites pre early classic neanderthals.the southernmost find recorded shuqba cave levant reports neanderthals north african jebel irhoud haua fteah reidentified h. sapiens.
Neanderthal	easternmost presence recorded denisova cave siberia °e southeast chinese maba man skull shares several physical attributes neanderthals although may result convergent evolution rather neanderthals extending range pacific ocean.northernmost bound generally accepted °n unambiguous sites known –°n although difficult assess glacial advances destroy human remains palaeoanthropologist trine kellberg nielsen argued lack evidence southern scandinavian occupation least eemian interglacial due former explanation lack research area.middle palaeolithic artefacts found °n russian plains likely attributed modern humans.study claimed presence homo year old californian cerutti mastodon site north america largely considered implausible.it unknown rapidly fluctuating climate last glacial period dansgaard–oeschger events impacted neanderthals warming periods would produce favourable temperatures encourage forest growth deter megafauna whereas frigid periods would produce opposite.however neanderthals may preferred forested landscape.
Neanderthal	populations may peaked cold extreme intervals marine isotope stages respectively thousand years ago saale glaciation.possible range expanded contracted ice retreated grew respectively avoid permafrost areas residing certain refuge zones glacial maxima.israeli anthropologist israel hershkovitz colleagues suggested thousand years old israeli nesher ramla remains feature mix neanderthal ancient h. erectus traits represent one source population recolonised europe following glacial period.population like modern humans neanderthals probably descended small population effective population—the number individuals bear father children—of approximately.however neanderthals maintained low population proliferating weakly harmful genes due reduced effectivity natural selection.various studies using mtdna analysis yield varying effective populations remaining constant steadily increasing years ago declining extinction.
Neanderthal	however agree low population may less th contemporary human populations western europe possibly neanderthals much lower fertility rates.estimates giving total population higher tens thousands contested.consistently low population may explained context boserupian trap populations carrying capacity limited amount food obtain turn limited technology.innovation increases population population low innovation occur rapidly population remain low.consistent apparent year stagnation neanderthal lithic technology.in sample neanderthals based abundance young mature adults comparison age demographics age died reaching .
Neanderthal	high mortality rate probably due highstress environment.however also estimated age pyramids neanderthals contemporary modern humans same.infant mortality estimated high neanderthals northern eurasia.anatomy build neanderthals robust stockier builds modern humans wider barrelshaped rib cages wider pelvises proportionally shorter forearms forelegs.based neanderthal long bones men women average height cm ft ft males cm ft ft females.comparison average height males females upper palaeolithic humans respectively cm ft cm ft although decreases cm .
Neanderthal	nearer end period based males females average year cm ft .cm .ft respectively.fossil record shows adult neanderthals varied .cm ft ft height although may grown much taller.
Neanderthal	neanderthal weight samples specimens found average .kg lb males .kg lb females.using kg lb body mass index neanderthal males calculated .–.modern humans correlates overweight.
Neanderthal	indicates robust build.neanderthal lepr gene concerned storing fat body heat production similar woolly mammoth likely adaptation cold climate.the neck vertebrae neanderthals longer thicker modern humans lending stability possibly due different head shape size.although neanderthal thorax ribcage similar size modern humans longer straighter ribs would equated widened midlower thorax stronger breathing lower thorax indicative larger diaphragm possibly greater lung capacity.lung capacity kebara estimated .l .
Neanderthal	us gal.neanderthal chest also pronounced expanded fronttoback anteroposteriorly.sacrum pelvis connects spine vertically inclined placed lower relation pelvis causing spine less curved exhibit less lordosis fold somewhat invaginated.modifications spine would enhanced sidetoside mediolateral flexion better supporting wider lower thorax.condition may normal homo condition narrower thorax modern humans unique characteristic.body proportions usually cited hyperarctic adaptations cold similar human populations developed cold climates—the neanderthal build similar inuit siberian yupiks among modern humans—and shorter limbs equates higher retention body heat.
Neanderthal	nonetheless neanderthals temperate climates—such iberia—still retain hyperarctic physique.english anthropologist john stewart colleagues suggested neanderthals instead adapted sprinting evidence neanderthals preferring warmer wooded areas colder mammoth steppe dna analysis indicating higher proportion fasttwitch muscle fibres neanderthals modern humans.explained body proportions greater muscle mass adaptations sprinting opposed enduranceoriented modern human physique persistence hunting may effective hot climates hunter run prey point heat exhaustion hyperthermia.longer heel bones reducing ability endurance running shorter limbs would reduced moment arm limbs allowing greater rotational force wrists ankles without extra exertion rotating muscles elbows knees increasing speed muscles contracted causing faster acceleration.american palaeoanthropologist erik trinkaus made note alternate explanation considered less likely.
Neanderthal	face neanderthals reduced chin sloping forehead large nose also started somewhat higher face modern humans.neanderthal skull typically elongated less globular modern humans features occipital bun chignon protrusion back skull although within range variation humans it.caused cranial base temporal bones placed higher towards front skull flatter skullcap.also larger eyes likely adapt lowlight environment.the large neanderthal nose paranasal sinuses generally explained warmed air entered lungs retained moisture nasal radiator hypothesis sinuses generally reduced coldadapted creatures may large nose caused instead genetic drift.also sinuses grossly large comparable size modern humans.
Neanderthal	however sinus size important factor breathing cold air actual function unclear may good indicator evolutionary pressures evolve nose.computer reconstruction neanderthal nose predicted soft tissue patterns shows similarities modern arctic peoples potentially meaning noses populations convergently evolved breathing cold dry air.neanderthals featured protrusion jaw prognathism cited response large bite force evidenced heavy wearing neanderthal front teeth anterior dental loading hypothesis similar wearing trends seen contemporary humans.could also evolved fit larger teeth jaw would better resist wear abrasion increased wear front teeth compared back teeth probably stems repetitive use.neanderthal dental wear patterns similar modern inuit.incisors large shovelshaped compared modern humans unusually high frequency taurodontism condition molars bulkier due enlarged pulp tooth core.
Neanderthal	taurodontism thought distinguishing characteristic neanderthals lent mechanical advantage stemmed repetitive use likely simply product genetic drift.bite force neanderthals modern humans thought n lbf n lbf modern human males females respectively.brain neanderthal braincase averages cm males cm females within possible range modern humans average cm males cm females presentday.modern human specimens thousand years ago average cc .cu disregarding sex modern human brain size suggested decreased since upper palaeolithic.
Neanderthal	largest neanderthal brain amud calculated cm .one largest ever recorded hominids.neanderthal human infants measure cm in.the neanderthal skull distinctively elongated diagnostic shape known en bombe smaller parietal lobes smaller cerebellum areas implicated tool use visuospatial integration numeracy creativity higherorder conceptualization muscle memory possibly language attention working memory social abilities episodic memory.neanderthal brains also larger occipital lobes likely adaptation lower light conditions europe implies internal differences proportionality braininternal regions relative homo sapiens consistent external measurements obtained fossil skulls.brains also larger temporal lobe poles wider orbitofrontal cortex larger olfactory bulbs suggesting potential differences language comprehension associations emotions temporal functions decision making orbitofrontal cortex sense smell olfactory bulbs.
Neanderthal	brains also show different rates brain growth development.differences slight would visible natural selection may underlie explain differences material record things like social behaviors technological innovation artistic output.hair skin colour lack sunlight likely led proliferation lighter skin neanderthals although light skin modern europeans particularly prolific perhaps bronze age.genetically bnc present neanderthals associated light skin colour however second variation bnc also present associated darker skin colour uk biobank.likely neanderthal skin colour varied region region.
Neanderthal	dna three croatian neanderthals shows darker hair skin eye colour modern europeans.in modern humans skin hair colour regulated melanocytestimulating hormone—which increases proportion eumelanin black pigment phaeomelanin red pigment—which encoded mcr gene.known variants modern humans gene cause lossoffunction associated light skin hair colour another unknown variant neanderthals rg variant could associated pale skin red hair.rg variant identified neanderthal monti lessini italy possibly cueva del sidrón spain.however modern humans red probably common hair colour variant present many sequenced neanderthals.metabolism maximum natural lifespan timing adulthood menopause gestation likely similar modern humans.
Neanderthal	however hypothesised neanderthals matured faster modern humans based growth rates teeth tooth enamel although backed age biomarkers.main differences maturation atlas bone neck well middle thoracic vertebrae fused years later neanderthals modern humans likely caused difference anatomy rather growth rate.generally models neanderthal caloric requirements report significantly higher intakes modern humans typically assume neanderthals higher basal metabolic rates bmrs due higher muscle mass faster growth rate greater body heat production cold higher daily physical activity levels pals due greater daily travelling distances foraging.however using high bmr pal american archaeologist bryan hockett estimated pregnant neanderthal would consumed calories per day would necessitated heavy reliance big game meat diet would caused numerous deficiencies nutrient poisonings concluded poorly warranted assumptions make.neanderthals may active dimmer light conditions rather broad daylight lived regions reduced daytime hours hunted large game predators typically hunt night enhance ambush tactics large eyes visual processing neural centres.genetically colour blindness may enhance mesopic vision typically correlated northernlatitude populations neanderthals vindija cave croatia substitutions opsin genes could influenced colour vision.however functional implications substitutions inconclusive.
Neanderthal	neanderthalderived alleles near asb exoc associated evening person narcolepsy daytime napping.pathology neanderthals suffered high rate traumatic injury estimated – specimens showing evidence healed major trauma – severely injured – injured reaching adulthood.one extreme example shanidar shows signs amputation right arm likely due nonunion breaking bone adolescence osteomyelitis bone infection left clavicle abnormal gait vision problems left eye possible hearing loss perhaps swimmers ear.trinkaus estimated succumbed injuries died reaching thus theorised neanderthals employed risky hunting strategy rodeo rider hypothesis.however rates cranial trauma significantly different neanderthals middle palaeolithic modern humans although neanderthals seem higher mortality risk specimens upper palaeolithic modern humans neanderthals died age overall similar injury patterns them.

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