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History	greek word borrowed classical latin historia meaning investigation inquiry research account description written account past events writing history historical narrative recorded knowledge past events story narrative.history borrowed latin possibly via old irish old welsh old english stær history narrative story word fe...
History	middle english meaning history story general.restriction meaning branch knowledge deals past events formal record study past events esp.human affairs arose midth century.renaissance older senses word revived greek sense francis bacon used term late th century wrote natural history.historia knowledge objects determined ...
History	modern german french germanic romance languages solidly synthetic highly inflected word still used mean history story.historian sense researcher history attested .european languages substantive history still used mean happened men scholarly study happened latter sense sometimes distinguished capital letter word histori...
History	words benedetto croce history contemporary history.history facilitated formation true discourse past production narrative analysis past events relating human race.modern discipline history dedicated institutional production discourse.all events remembered preserved authentic form constitute historical record.task histo...
History	part historians role skillfully objectively utilize vast amount sources past often found archives.process creating narrative inevitably generates silence historians remember emphasize different events past.the study history sometimes classified part humanities times part social sciences.also seen bridge two broad areas...
History	beginning historians also used sources monuments inscriptions pictures.general sources historical knowledge separated three categories written said physically preserved historians often consult three.writing marker separates history comes before.archaeology especially helpful unearthing buried sites objects contribute ...
History	historical archaeology specific branch archaeology often contrasts conclusions contemporary textual sources.example mark leone excavator interpreter historical annapolis maryland usa sought understand contradiction textual documents idealizing liberty material record demonstrating possession slaves inequalities wealth ...
History	history often studied practical theoretical aim also may studied simple intellectual curiosity.history prehistory history world memory past experience homo sapiens sapiens around world experience preserved largely written records.prehistory historians mean recovery knowledge past area written records exist writing cult...
History	historians west criticized focusing disproportionately western world.british historian e. h. carr wrotethe line demarcation prehistoric historical times crossed people cease live present become consciously interested past future.history begins handing tradition tradition means carrying habits lessons past future.record...
History	firstly refer history produced story development methodology practices example move shortterm biographical narrative towards longterm thematic analysis.secondly refer produced specific body historical writing example medieval historiography means works medieval history written s. thirdly may refer history produced phil...
History	bc generally acclaimed father history.however contemporary thucydides c. bc—c.bc credited first approached history welldeveloped historical method work history peloponnesian war.thucydides unlike herodotus regarded history product choices actions human beings looked cause effect rather result divine intervention though...
History	greek historians also viewed history cyclical events regularly recurring.there historical traditions sophisticated use historical method ancient medieval china.groundwork professional historiography east asia established han dynasty court historian known sima qian – bc author records grand historian shiji.quality writt...
History	around german philosopher historian georg wilhelm friedrich hegel brought philosophy secular approach historical study.in preface book muqaddimah arab historian early sociologist ibn khaldun warned seven mistakes thought historians regularly committed.criticism approached past strange need interpretation.originality ib...
History	historical method also laid groundwork observation role state communication propaganda systematic bias history thus considered father historiography father philosophy history.in west historians developed modern methods historiography th th centuries especially france germany.herbert spencer summarized methodsfrom succe...
History	limited history “what really happened” directed field away science.ranke historical data collected carefully examined objectively put together critical rigor.procedures “are merely prerequisites preliminaries science.heart science searching order regularity data examined formulating generalizations laws them.”as histor...
History	science whatever else science.traditional historian thus scientist history conventionally practiced science.in th century academic historians focused less epic nationalistic narratives often tended glorify nation great men objective complex analyses social intellectual forces.major trend historical methodology th centu...
History	braudel combined history geography bracher history political science fogel history economics gay history psychology trigger history archaeology wehler bloch fischer stone febvre le roy ladurie varying differing ways amalgamated history sociology geography anthropology economics.nevertheless multidisciplinary approaches...
History	french historians associated annales school introduced quantitative history using raw data track lives typical individuals prominent establishment cultural history cf.histoire des mentalités.intellectual historians herbert butterfield ernst nolte george mosse argued significance ideas history.american historians motiva...
History	scholars martin broszat ian kershaw detlev peukert sought examine everyday life like ordinary people thcentury germany especially nazi period.marxist historians eric hobsbawm e. p. thompson rodney hilton georges lefebvre eugene genovese isaac deutscher c. l. r. james timothy mason herbert aptheker arno j. mayer christo...
History	another defence history postmodernist criticism australian historian keith windschuttles book killing history.today historians begin research process archives either physical digital platform.often propose argument use research support it.john h. arnold proposed history argument creates possibility creating change.digi...
History	overall marx engels claimed identified five successive stages development material conditions western europe.marxist historiography orthodoxy soviet union since collapse communism mikhail krom says reduced margins scholarship.potential shortcomings production history many historians believe production history embedded ...
History	historical omissions occur many ways profound effect historical records.information also purposely excluded left accidentally.historians coined multiple terms describe act omitting historical information including “silencing” “selective memory” erasures.gerda lerner twentieth century historian focused much work histori...
History	historians give periods time names order allow organising ideas classificatory generalisations used historians.names given period vary geographical location dates beginning end particular period.centuries decades commonly used periods time represent depends dating system used.periods constructed retrospectively reflect...
History	prehistoric periodisation field history generally leaves prehistory archaeologists entirely different sets tools theories.archaeology usual method periodisation distant prehistoric past rely changes material culture technology stone age bronze age iron age subdivisions also based different styles material remains.prehi...
History	many cases neighbouring cultures writing left history cultures without may used.periodisation however viewed perfect framework one account explaining cultural changes conveniently start stop combinedly periodisation boundaries different trajectories change need studied right get intertwined cultural phenomena.geographi...
History	according jules michelet book histoire de france without geographical basis people makers history seem walking air.weather patterns water supply landscape place affect lives people live there.example explain ancient egyptians developed successful civilization studying geography egypt essential.egyptian civilization bui...
History	meant everyone farm people could perform jobs helped develop civilization.also case climate historians like ellsworth huntington ellen churchill semple cited crucial influence course history.huntington semple argued climate impact racial temperament.regions history africa begins first emergence modern human beings cont...
History	new military history since concerned soldiers generals psychology tactics broader impact warfare society culture.religious history religion main theme secular religious historians centuries continues taught seminaries academe.leading journals include church history catholic historical review history religions.topics ra...
History	social social history sometimes called new social history field includes history ordinary people strategies institutions coping life.golden age major growth field among scholars still well represented history departments.two decades proportion professors history american universities identifying social history rose pro...
History	english historian g. m. trevelyan saw bridging point economic political history reflecting without social history economic history barren political history unintelligible.field often viewed negatively history politics left also defended history people put back in.subfields chief subfields social history includeblack hi...
History	diplomatic diplomatic history focuses relationships nations primarily regarding diplomacy causes wars.recently looks causes peace human rights.typically presents viewpoints foreign office longterm strategic values driving force continuity change history.type political history study conduct international relations state...
History	adds trend reversed allowing social history replace it.economic although economic history well established since late th century recent years academic studies shifted toward economics departments away traditional history departments.business history deals history individual business organizations business methods gover...
History	business history often taught business schools.environmental environmental history new field emerged look history environment especially long run impact human activities upon it.offshoot environmental movement kickstarted rachel carsons silent spring s. world world history study major civilizations last years so.world ...
History	hworld discussion list serves network communication among practitioners world history discussions among scholars announcements syllabi bibliographies book reviews.peoples peoples history type historical work attempts account historical events perspective common people.peoples history history world story mass movements ...
History	gender gender history subfield history gender studies looks past perspective gender.outgrowth gender history womens history stemmed many nonfeminist historians dismissing importance women history.according joan w. scott “gender constitutive element social relationships based perceived differences sexes gender primary w...
History	lgbt history deals first recorded instances samesex love sexuality ancient civilizations involves history lesbian gay bisexual transgender lgbt peoples cultures around world.public public history describes broad range activities undertaken people training discipline history generally working outside specialized academi...
History	historians professional amateur historians discover collect organize present information past events.discover information archaeological evidence written primary sources verbal stories oral histories archival material.lists historians historians grouped order historical period writing necessarily period specialized.chr...
History	goals historical judgements interpretations separate legal judgements need formulated quickly events final.related issue judgement history collective memory.pseudohistory pseudohistory term applied texts purport historical nature depart standard historiographical conventions way undermines conclusions.it closely relate...
History	oxford cambridge scholarship downplayed.professor charles harding firth oxfords regius professor history ridiculed system best suited produce superficial journalists.oxford tutors votes professors fought back defence system saying successfully produced britains outstanding statesmen administrators prelates diplomats mi...
History	tendency st century latter schools increasingly demand scholarly productivity younger tenuretrack faculty.furthermore universities increasingly relied inexpensive parttime adjuncts classroom teaching.nationalism origins national school systems th century teaching history promote national sentiment high priority.united ...
History	many view field perspectives.the teaching history french schools influenced nouvelle histoire disseminated cahiers pédagogiques enseignement journals teachers.also influential institut national de recherche et de documentation pédagogique inrdp.joseph leif inspectorgeneral teacher training said pupils children learn hi...
History	traditionalists protested loudly postmodern innovation threatened leave youth ignorant french patriotism national identity.bias school teaching several countries’ history textbooks tools foster nationalism patriotism give students official narrative national enemies.in many countries history textbooks sponsored nationa...
History	example content represented different different regions country history southern states slavery american civil war treated controversial topics.mcgrawhill education example criticised describing africans brought american plantations workers instead slaves textbook.academic historians often fought politicization textboo...
Information assurance	information assurance includes protection integrity availability authenticity nonrepudiation confidentiality user data.ia encompasses digital protections also physical techniques.protections apply data transit physical electronic forms well data rest .ia best thought superset information security i.e.umbrella term busi...
Information assurance	overview information assurance ia process processing storing transmitting right information right people right time.ia relates business level strategic risk management information related systems rather creation application security controls.ia used benefit business use information risk management trust management resi...
Information assurance	ia interdisciplinary field requiring expertise business accounting user experience fraud examination forensic science management science systems engineering security engineering criminology addition computer science.evolution growth telecommunication networks also comes dependency networks makes communities increasing ...
Information assurance	last main development information assurance implementation distributed systems processing storage data techniques like sans nas well use cloud computing.three main developments information fall line three generations information technologies first used prevent intrusions nd detect intrusion rd survivability.information...
Information assurance	pillars information assurance slowly changed become referred pillars cyber security.administrator important emphasize pillars want order achieve desired result information system balancing aspects service privacy.authentication authentication refers verification validity transmission originator process within informati...
Information assurance	integrity integrity refers protection information unauthorized alteration.goal information integrity ensure data accurate throughout entire lifespan.user authentication critical enabler information integrity.information integrity function number degreesoftrust existing ends information exchange .one way information int...
Information assurance	failure authentication could pose risk information integrity would allow unauthorized party alter content.example hospital inadequate password policies unauthorized user could gain access information systems governing delivery medication patients risk altering treatment course detriment particular patient.availability ...
Information assurance	goal high availability preserve access information.availability information bolstered use backup power spare data channels site capabilities continuous signal.confidentiality confidentiality essence opposite integrity.confidentiality security measure protects able access data done shielding access information.different...
Information assurance	confidentiality often ensured use cryptography steganography data.confidentiality seen within classification information superiority international operations nato information assurance confidentiality united states need follow hipaa healthcare provider security policy information labeling needtoknow regulations ensure ...
Information assurance	nonrepudiation involves reduction data integrity data transit usually use maninthemiddle attack phishing.interactions pillars stated earlier pillars interact independently one another pillars impeding functioning pillars opposite case boost pillars.example increasing availability information works directly goals three ...
Information assurance	vulnerabilities information assets determined order enumerate threats capable exploiting assets.assessment considers probability impact threat exploiting vulnerability asset impact usually measured terms cost assets stakeholders.sum products threats impact probability occurring total risk information asset.with risk as...
Information assurance	countermeasures may include technical tools firewalls antivirus software policies procedures requiring controls regular backups configuration hardening employee training security awareness organizing personnel dedicated computer emergency response team cert computer security incident response team csirt.cost benefit co...
Information assurance	information assurance one methodologies organizations use implement business risk management.use information assurance policies like brick frame work.additionally business risk management also occurs comply federal international laws regarding release security information hipaa information assurance aligned corporates ...
Information assurance	conflicting nature increase security often comes expense speed.said use information assurance business model improves reliable management decision making customer trust business continuity good governance public private sector.standards organizations standards number international national bodies issue standards inform...
Neanderthal	cause extinction remains “highly contested” demographic factors like small population size inbreeding random fluctuations considered likely factors.scholars proposed competitive replacement assimilation modern human genome bred extinction great climatic change disease combination factors.it unclear line neanderthals sp...
Neanderthal	type specimen neanderthal found neander valley presentday germany.much early th century researchers depicted neanderthals primitive unintelligent brutish.although knowledge perception markedly changed since scientific community image unevolved caveman archetype remains prevalent popular culture.neanderthal technology q...
Neanderthal	although probably apex predators still competed cave bears cave lions cave hyaenas large predators.number examples symbolic thought palaeolithic art inconclusively attributed neanderthals namely possible ornaments made bird claws feathers shells collections unusual objects including crystals fossils engravings music pr...
Neanderthal	nonetheless coldspecific adaptations specialised bodyfat storage enlarged nose warm air although nose could caused genetic drift.average neanderthal men stood around cm ft women cm .ft tall similar preindustrial modern humans.braincases neanderthal men women averaged cm cu cm cu respectively within range values modern ...
Neanderthal	nonetheless evidence regional cultures thus regular communication communities.may frequented caves moved caves seasonally.neanderthals lived highstress environment high trauma rates died age .neanderthal genome projects draft report presented evidence interbreeding neanderthals modern humans.possibly occurred – years a...
Neanderthal	neanderthals also appear interbred denisovans different group archaic humans siberia.around – genomes eurasians australomelanesians native americans north africans neanderthal ancestry inhabitants subsaharan africa detectable neanderthal ancestry save possible traces early sapienstoneanderthal gene flow andor recent ba...
Neanderthal	valley spelled neanderthal species spelled neanderthaler german spelling reform .spelling neandertal species occasionally seen english even scientific publications scientific name h. neanderthalensis always spelled th according principle priority.vernacular name species german always neandertaler inhabitant neander val...
Neanderthal	binomial name homo neanderthalensis—extending name neanderthal man individual specimen entire species formally recognising distinct humans—was first proposed irish geologist william king paper read rd british science association .however recommended neanderthals modern humans classified different genera compared neande...
Neanderthal	comprised cranium thigh bones right arm left humerus ulna left ilium hip bone part right shoulder blade pieces ribs.following charles darwins origin species fuhlrott schaaffhausen argued bones represented ancient modern human form schaaffhausen social darwinist believed humans linearly progressed savage civilised concl...
Neanderthal	french palaeontologist marcellin boule authored several publications among first establish palaeontology science detailing specimen reconstructed slouching apelike remotely related modern humans.discovery piltdown man hoax appearing much similar modern humans neanderthals used evidence multiple different unrelated bran...
Neanderthal	ideas neanderthal behaviour intelligence culture discussed humanlike image emerged.american anthropologist carleton coon reconstructed neanderthal modern business suit hat emphasise would less indistinguishable modern humans survived present.william goldings novel inheritors depicts neanderthals much emotional civilise...
Neanderthal	however similar anatomy could also caused adapting similar environment rather interbreeding.neanderthal admixture found present modern populations mapping first neanderthal genome sequence.based specimens vindija cave croatia contained almost archaic dna allowing near complete sequencing genome.however approximately er...
Neanderthal	classification neanderthals hominids genus homo humans generally classified distinct species h. neanderthalensis although sometimes subspecies modern human h. sapiens neanderthalensis.would necessitate classification modern humans h. s. sapiens.a large part controversy stems vagueness term species generally used distin...
Neanderthal	likely resulted interbreeding event subsequent neanderthaldenisovan split introduced another mtdna line.involved either introgression coming unknown archaic human denisovans introgression earlier unidentified modern human wave africa neanderthals.evolution largely thought h. heidelbergensis last common ancestor neander...
Neanderthal	however thousand year ka old bones sima de los huesos could represent early neanderthals closely related group year old aroeira could represent transitional phase.ancestral derived morphs could lived concurrently.also possible gene flow western europe africa middle pleistocene obscuring neanderthal characteristics spec...
Neanderthal	twophase argues single major environmental event—such saale glaciation—caused european h. heidelbergensis rapidly increase body size robustness well undergo lengthening head phase led changes skull anatomy phase .however neanderthal anatomy may driven entirely adapting cold weather.accretion holds neanderthals slowly e...
Neanderthal	years ago says h. rhodesiensis lca split modern human lineage neanderthalh.heidelbergensis lineage.years ago h. antecessor lca different variations model would push date back million years ago.however analysis h. antecessor enamel proteomes suggests h. antecessor related direct ancestor.dna studies yielded various resu...
Neanderthal	assuming mutation rate x− .x− per base pair bp per year neanderthaldenisovan split occurred around either – – thousand years ago respectively.using .x− per generation new generation every years time years ago.using x− nucleotide sites per year years ago.using latter dates split likely already occurred time hominins spr...
Neanderthal	mya.demographics range pre early neanderthals living eemian interglacial years ago poorly known come mostly western european sites.years ago onwards quality fossil record increases dramatically classic neanderthals recorded western central eastern mediterranean europe well southwest central northern asia altai mountain...
Neanderthal	easternmost presence recorded denisova cave siberia °e southeast chinese maba man skull shares several physical attributes neanderthals although may result convergent evolution rather neanderthals extending range pacific ocean.northernmost bound generally accepted °n unambiguous sites known –°n although difficult asses...
Neanderthal	populations may peaked cold extreme intervals marine isotope stages respectively thousand years ago saale glaciation.possible range expanded contracted ice retreated grew respectively avoid permafrost areas residing certain refuge zones glacial maxima.israeli anthropologist israel hershkovitz colleagues suggested thous...
Neanderthal	however agree low population may less th contemporary human populations western europe possibly neanderthals much lower fertility rates.estimates giving total population higher tens thousands contested.consistently low population may explained context boserupian trap populations carrying capacity limited amount food ob...
Neanderthal	high mortality rate probably due highstress environment.however also estimated age pyramids neanderthals contemporary modern humans same.infant mortality estimated high neanderthals northern eurasia.anatomy build neanderthals robust stockier builds modern humans wider barrelshaped rib cages wider pelvises proportionall...
Neanderthal	nearer end period based males females average year cm ft .cm .ft respectively.fossil record shows adult neanderthals varied .cm ft ft height although may grown much taller.
Neanderthal	neanderthal weight samples specimens found average .kg lb males .kg lb females.using kg lb body mass index neanderthal males calculated .–.modern humans correlates overweight.
Neanderthal	indicates robust build.neanderthal lepr gene concerned storing fat body heat production similar woolly mammoth likely adaptation cold climate.the neck vertebrae neanderthals longer thicker modern humans lending stability possibly due different head shape size.although neanderthal thorax ribcage similar size modern huma...
Neanderthal	us gal.neanderthal chest also pronounced expanded fronttoback anteroposteriorly.sacrum pelvis connects spine vertically inclined placed lower relation pelvis causing spine less curved exhibit less lordosis fold somewhat invaginated.modifications spine would enhanced sidetoside mediolateral flexion better supporting wid...
Neanderthal	nonetheless neanderthals temperate climates—such iberia—still retain hyperarctic physique.english anthropologist john stewart colleagues suggested neanderthals instead adapted sprinting evidence neanderthals preferring warmer wooded areas colder mammoth steppe dna analysis indicating higher proportion fasttwitch muscle...
Neanderthal	face neanderthals reduced chin sloping forehead large nose also started somewhat higher face modern humans.neanderthal skull typically elongated less globular modern humans features occipital bun chignon protrusion back skull although within range variation humans it.caused cranial base temporal bones placed higher tow...
Neanderthal	however sinus size important factor breathing cold air actual function unclear may good indicator evolutionary pressures evolve nose.computer reconstruction neanderthal nose predicted soft tissue patterns shows similarities modern arctic peoples potentially meaning noses populations convergently evolved breathing cold ...
Neanderthal	taurodontism thought distinguishing characteristic neanderthals lent mechanical advantage stemmed repetitive use likely simply product genetic drift.bite force neanderthals modern humans thought n lbf n lbf modern human males females respectively.brain neanderthal braincase averages cm males cm females within possible ...
Neanderthal	largest neanderthal brain amud calculated cm .one largest ever recorded hominids.neanderthal human infants measure cm in.the neanderthal skull distinctively elongated diagnostic shape known en bombe smaller parietal lobes smaller cerebellum areas implicated tool use visuospatial integration numeracy creativity higheror...
Neanderthal	brains also show different rates brain growth development.differences slight would visible natural selection may underlie explain differences material record things like social behaviors technological innovation artistic output.hair skin colour lack sunlight likely led proliferation lighter skin neanderthals although l...
Neanderthal	dna three croatian neanderthals shows darker hair skin eye colour modern europeans.in modern humans skin hair colour regulated melanocytestimulating hormone—which increases proportion eumelanin black pigment phaeomelanin red pigment—which encoded mcr gene.known variants modern humans gene cause lossoffunction associate...
Neanderthal	however hypothesised neanderthals matured faster modern humans based growth rates teeth tooth enamel although backed age biomarkers.main differences maturation atlas bone neck well middle thoracic vertebrae fused years later neanderthals modern humans likely caused difference anatomy rather growth rate.generally models...
Neanderthal	neanderthalderived alleles near asb exoc associated evening person narcolepsy daytime napping.pathology neanderthals suffered high rate traumatic injury estimated – specimens showing evidence healed major trauma – severely injured – injured reaching adulthood.one extreme example shanidar shows signs amputation right ar...
Neanderthal	trinkaus concluded neanderthals instead injured way contemporary humans interpersonal violence.study looking neanderthal specimens argued high trauma rates instead caused animal attacks found sample victims bear attacks big cat attacks wolf attacks totalling positive cases .cases hyaena attacks although hyaenas still n...
Neanderthal	known however inhabitants sidrón cave collectively exhibited different birth defects likely due inbreeding recessive disorders.likely due advanced age la chapelleauxsaints signs baastrups disease affecting spine osteoarthritis.shanidar likely died diagnosed ancient case diffuse idiopathic skeletal hyperostosis dish deg...
Neanderthal	neanderthal cueva del sidrón spain shows evidence gastrointestinal enterocytozoon bieneusi infection.leg bones french la ferrassie feature lesions consistent periostitis—inflammation tissue enveloping bone—likely result hypertrophic osteoarthropathy primarily caused chest infection lung cancer.neanderthals lower cavity...
Neanderthal	culture social structure group dynamics neanderthals likely lived sparsely distributed groups contemporary modern humans group size thought averaged individuals similar modern huntergatherers.reliable evidence neanderthal group composition comes cueva del sidrón spain footprints le rozel france former shows adults adol...
Neanderthal	stunting may also resulted harsh winters bouts low food resources.sites showing evidence three individuals may represented nuclear families temporary camping sites special task groups hunting party.bands likely moved certain caves depending season indicated remains seasonal materials certain foods returned locations ge...
Neanderthal	evidence longterm openair settlements known ein qashish site israel moldova ukraine.although neanderthals appear ability inhabit range environments—including plains plateaux—openair neanderthals sites generally interpreted used slaughtering butchering grounds rather living spaces.intergroup relations canadian ethnoarch...
Neanderthal	however dna neanderthal denisova cave russia shows inbreeding coefficient ⁄ parents either halfsiblings common mother double first cousins uncle niece aunt nephew grandfather granddaughter grandmother grandson inhabitants cueva del sidrón show several defects may caused inbreeding recessive disorders.considering neande...

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