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Security token	disconnected tokens disconnected tokens neither physical logical connection client computer.typically require special input device instead use builtin screen display generated authentication data user enters manually via keyboard keypad.disconnected tokens common type security token used usually combination password twofactor authentication online identification.connected tokens connected tokens tokens must physically connected computer user authenticating.tokens category automatically transmit authentication information client computer physical connection made eliminating need user manually enter authentication information.
Security token	however order use connected token appropriate input device must installed.common types physical tokens smart cards usb tokens require smart card reader usb port respectively.increasingly fido tokens supported open specification group fido alliance become popular consumers mainstream browser support beginning supported popular websites social media sites.older pc card tokens made work primarily laptops.type ii pc cards preferred token half thick type iii.the audio jack port relatively practical method establish connection mobile devices iphone ipad android accessories.well known device called square credit card reader ios android devices.some use special purpose interface e.g.
Security token	crypto ignition key deployed united states national security agency.tokens also used photo id card.cell phones pdas also serve security tokens proper programming.smart cards many connected tokens use smart card technology.smart cards cheap around ten cents contain proven security mechanisms used financial institutions like cash cards.
Security token	however computational performance smart cards often rather limited extreme low power consumption ultrathin formfactor requirements.smartcardbased usb tokens contain smart card chip inside provide functionality usb tokens smart cards.enable broad range security solutions provide abilities security traditional smart card without requiring unique input device.computer operating systems point view token usbconnected smart card reader one nonremovable smart card present.contactless tokens unlike connected tokens contactless tokens form logical connection client computer require physical connection.absence need physical contact makes convenient connected disconnected tokens.
Security token	result contactless tokens popular choice keyless entry systems electronic payment solutions mobil speedpass uses rfid transmit authentication info keychain token.however various security concerns raised rfid tokens researchers johns hopkins university rsa laboratories discovered rfid tags could easily cracked cloned.another downside contactless tokens relatively short battery lives usually – years low compared usb tokens may last years.tokens however allow batteries changed thus reducing costs.bluetooth tokens bluetooth low energy protocols serve long lasting battery lifecycle wireless transmission.the transmission inherent bluetooth identity data lowest quality supporting authentication.a bidirectional connection transactional data interchange serves sophisticated authentication procedures.however automatic transmission power control antagonizes attempts radial distance estimates.escape available apart standardised bluetooth power control algorithm provide calibration minimally required transmission power.bluetooth tokens often combined usb token thus working connected disconnected state.
Security token	bluetooth authentication works closer feet meters.bluetooth link properly operable token may inserted usb input device function.another combination smart card store locally larger amounts identity data process information well.another contactless ble token combines secure storage tokenized release fingerprint credentials.in usb mode operation signoff requires care token mechanically coupled usb plug.advantage bluetooth mode operation option combining signoff distance metrics.respective products preparation following concepts electronic leash.
Security token	nfc tokens nearfield communication nfc tokens combined bluetooth token may operate several modes thus working connected disconnected state.nfc authentication works closer foot .meters.nfc protocol bridges short distances reader bluetooth connection serves data provision token enable authentication.also bluetooth link connected token may serve locally stored authentication information coarse positioning nfc reader relieves exact positioning connector.
Security token	single signon software tokens types single signon sso solutions like enterprise single signon use token store software allows seamless authentication password filling.passwords stored token users need remember passwords therefore select secure passwords secure passwords assigned.usually tokens store cryptographic hash password token compromised password still protected.programmable tokens programmable tokens marketed dropin replacement mobile applications google authenticator miniotp.used mobile app replacement well parallel backup.
Security token	vulnerabilities loss theft simplest vulnerability password container theft loss device.chances happening happening unawares reduced physical security measures locks electronic leash body sensor alarm.stolen tokens made useless using two factor authentication.commonly order authenticate personal identification number pin must entered along information provided token time output token.attacking system allows users authenticate via untrusted network internet vulnerable maninthemiddle attacks.
Security token	type attack fraudster acts gobetween user legitimate system soliciting token output legitimate user supplying authentication system themselves.since token value mathematically correct authentication succeeds fraudster granted access.citibank made headline news hardwaretokenequipped business users became victims large ukrainianbased maninthemiddle phishing attack.breach codes prosecco research team inria parisrocquencourt developed efficient method extracting secret key several pkcs cryptographic devices including securid .findings documented inria technical report rr id hal published crypto .
Security token	digital signature trusted regular handwritten signature digital signature must made private key known person authorized make signature.tokens allow secure onboard generation storage private keys enable secure digital signatures also used user authentication private key also serves proof user’s identity.for tokens identify user tokens must kind number unique.approaches fully qualify digital signatures according national laws.tokens onboard keyboard another user interface cannot used signing scenarios confirming bank transaction based bank account number funds transferred to.see also authenticationhardware security moduleidentity managementinitiative open authenticationmobile signaturemultifactor authenticationmutual authenticationonetime padsingle signonsoftware tokenauthenticator references general references external links oath initiative open authentication
Frontend and backend	client–server model client usually considered frontend server usually considered backend even presentation work actually done server itself.introduction software architecture may many layers hardware end user.front abstraction simplifying underlying component providing userfriendly interface back usually handles data storage business logic.in telecommunication front considered device service back infrastructure supports provision service.a rule thumb clientside frontend component manipulated user.serverside backend code usually resides server often far removed physically user.software definitions content management systems terms frontend backend may refer enduser facing views cms administrative views respectively.in speech synthesis frontend refers part synthesis system converts input text symbolic phonetic representation backend converts symbolic phonetic representation actual sounds.for major computer subsystems graphical file manager frontend computers file system shell interfaces operating system.
Frontend and backend	frontend faces user backend launches programs operating system response.in compilers frontend translates computer programming source code intermediate representation backend works intermediate representation produce code computer output language.backend usually optimizes produce code runs faster.frontendbackend distinction separate parser section deals source code backend generates code optimizes.designs gcc offer choices multiple frontends parsing different source languages backends generating code different target processors.using commandline interface cli requires acquisition special terminology memorization commands graphical user interface gui acts frontend desktop environment instead.web development example another way understand difference two understand knowledge required frontend vs. backend software developer.
Frontend and backend	list focuses web development example.version control tools git mercurial subversionfile transfer tools protocols ftp rsync frontend focused markup web languages html css javascript ancillary libraries commonly used languages sass jqueryasynchronous request handling ajaxsinglepage applications frameworks like react angular vue.jsweb performance largest contentful paint time interactive fps animations interactions memory usage etc.responsive web designcrossbrowser compatibility issues workaroundsendtoend testing headless browserbuild automation transform bundle javascript files reduce images size... tools like webpack gulp.jssearch engine optimizationaccessibility concernsbasic usage image editing tools gimp photoshopuser interface backend focused scripting languages like php python ruby perl node.js compiled languages like c java goautomated testing frameworks language usedapplication data accessapplication business logicdatabase administrationscalabilityhigh availabilitysecurity concerns authentication authorizationsoftware architecturedata transformationbackup methods softwarenote positions despite possibly working one product distinct set skills.api frontend communicates backend api.case web mobile frontends api often based http requestresponse.api sometimes designed using backend frontend bff pattern serves responses ease processing frontend side.
File hosting service	hardware definitions network computing frontend refer hardware optimizes protects network traffic.called application frontend hardware placed networks outwardfacing frontend boundary.network traffic passes frontend hardware entering network.in processor design frontend design would initial description behavior circuit hardware description language verilog backend design would process mapping behavior physical transistors die.see also referencesallows users upload files could accessed internet user name password authentication provided.typically services allow http access sometimes ftp access.related services contentdisplaying hosting services i.e.video image virtual storage remote backup.uses personal file storage personal file storage services aimed private individuals offering sort network storage personal backup file access file distribution.
File hosting service	users upload files share publicly keep passwordprotected.documentsharing services allow users share collaborate document files.services originally targeted files pdfs word processor documents spreadsheets.however many remote file storage services aimed allowing users share synchronize types files across devices use.file sync sharing services file syncing sharing services file hosting services allow users create special folders computers mobile devices service synchronizes appears folder regardless computer used view it.files placed folder also typically accessible website mobile apps easily shared users viewing collaboration.such services become popular via consumer products dropbox google drive.
File hosting service	content caching content providers potentially encounter bandwidth congestion issues may use services specialized distributing cached static content.case companies major internet presence.storage charges online file storage services offer space pergigabyte basis sometimes include bandwidth cost component well.usually charged monthly yearly.companies offer service free relying advertising revenue.
File hosting service	hosting services place limit much space users account consume.services require software download makes files available computers software installed others allow users retrieve files web browser.increased inbox space offered webmail services many users started using webmail service online drive.sites offer free unlimited file storage limit file size.sites offer additional online storage capacity exchange new customer referrals.
File hosting service	oneclick hosting oneclick hosting sometimes referred cyberlocker generally describes web services allow internet users easily upload one files hard drives remote location onto oneclick hosts server free charge.most services simply return url given people fetch file later.many cases urls predictable allowing potential misuse service.sites drastically increased popularity subsequently many smaller less efficient sites failed.although oneclick hosting used many purposes type file sharing degree come compete pp filesharing services.the sites make money advertising charging premium services increased downloading capacity removing wait restrictions site may prolonging long uploaded files remain site.premium services include facilities like unlimited downloading waiting maximum download speed etc.
File hosting service	many sites implement captcha prevent automated downloading.several programs aid downloading files oneclick hosts examples jdownloader freerapid mipony tucan manager cryptload.use copyright infringement file hosting services may used means distribute share files without consent copyright owner.cases one individual uploads file file hosting service others download.legal assessments diverse.for example case swissgerman file hosting service rapidshare us governments congressional international antipiracy caucus declared site notorious illegal site claiming site overwhelmingly used global exchange illegal movies music copyrighted works.
File hosting service	legal case atari europe s.a.s.u.v. rapidshare ag germany düsseldorf higher regional court examined claims related alleged infringing activity reached conclusion appeal people utilize rapidshare legal use cases assume otherwise equivalent inviting general suspicion shared hosting services users justified.court also observed site removes copyrighted material asked provide search facilities illegal material noted previous cases siding rapidshare analysis court concluded plaintiffs proposals strictly preventing sharing copyrighted material – submitted examples antipiracy measures rapidshare might adopted – found unreasonable pointless.by contrast january united states department justice seized shut file hosting site megaupload.com commenced criminal cases owners others.indictment concluded megaupload differed online file storage businesses suggesting number design features operating model evidence showing criminal intent venture.examples cited included reliance upon advertising revenue activities showing business funded heavily promoted downloads storage defendants communications helping users sought infringing material defendants communications discussing evasion infringement issues.
File hosting service	case yet heard.year later megaupload.com relaunched mega.in file hosting site putlocker noted motion picture association america major piracy threat alfred perry paramount pictures listed putlocker one top rogue cyberlocker services alongside wupload fileserve depositfiles mediafire.security emergence cloud storage services prompted much discussion security.security relates cloud storage broken access integrity security deals question confidentiality availability user able continue accessing data else access change itwhether user able continue accessing data depends large number factors ranging location quality internet connection physical integrity providers data center financial stability storage provider.the question access potentially change data ranges physical access controls place providers data center technical steps taken access control encryption etc.many cloud storage services state either encrypt data uploaded stored.encryption generally regarded best practice cloud storage encryption implemented important.consumergrade public file hosting synchronization services popular business use create concern corporate information exported devices cloud services controlled organization.some cloud storage providers offer granular acls application keys.
File hosting service	one important permission appendonly distinct simple read write readwrite permissions existing data immutable.appendonly support especially important mitigate risk data loss backup policies event computer backedup becomes infected ransomware capable deleting encrypting victims backups.data encryption secret key encryption sometimes referred zero knowledge meaning user encryption key needed decrypt data.since data encrypted using secret key identical files encrypted different keys different.truly zero knowledge file hosting service must able store users passwords see data even physical access servers.
File hosting service	reason secret key encryption considered highest level access security cloud storage.form encryption rapidly gaining popularity companies mega previously megaupload spideroak entirely zero knowledge file storage sharing.since secret key encryption results unique files makes data deduplication impossible therefore may use storage space.convergent encryption derives key file content means identical file encrypted different computers result identical encrypted files.enables cloud storage provider deduplicate data blocks meaning one instance unique file document photo music movie file actually stored cloud servers made accessible uploaders.third party gained access encrypted files could thus easily determine user uploaded particular file simply encrypting comparing outputs.some point theoretical possibility organizations riaa mpaa government could obtain warrant us law enforcement access cloud storage providers servers gain access encrypted files belonging user.demonstrating court applying convergent encryption methodology unencrypted copyrighted file produces encrypted file possessed user would appear make strong case user guilty possessing file question thus providing evidence copyright infringement user.there however easily accessible public record tried court may argument could made similar opinion expressed attorney rick g. sanders aaron sanders pllc regards itunes match honeypot discussion warrant search cloud storage providers servers would hard obtain without independent evidence establishing probable cause copyright infringement.
Copy-on-write	legal restraint would obviously apply secret police oppressive government could potentially gain access encrypted files various forms hacking cybercrime.ownership security see also comparison file hosting servicescomparison file synchronization softwarecomparison online backup servicescomparison online music lockersfile sharinglist backup softwareshared disk access referencesresource duplicated modified necessary create new resource resource shared copy original.modifications must still create copy hence technique copy operation deferred first write.sharing resources way possible significantly reduce resource consumption unmodified copies adding small overhead resourcemodifying operations.virtual memory management copyonwrite finds main use sharing virtual memory operating system processes implementation fork system call.typically process modify memory immediately executes new process replacing address space entirely.
Copy-on-write	thus would wasteful copy processs memory fork instead copyonwrite technique used.copyonwrite implemented efficiently using page table marking certain pages memory readonly keeping count number references page.data written pages kernel intercepts write attempt allocates new physical page initialized copyonwrite data although allocation skipped one reference.kernel updates page table new writable page decrements number references performs write.new allocation ensures change memory one process visible anothers.the copyonwrite technique extended support efficient memory allocation page physical memory filled zeros.memory allocated pages returned refer page zeros marked copyonwrite.
Copy-on-write	way physical memory allocated process data written allowing processes reserve virtual memory physical memory use memory sparsely risk running virtual address space.combined algorithm similar demand paging.copyonwrite pages also used linux kernels kernel samepage merging feature.loading libraries application also use copyonwrite technique.dynamic linker maps libraries private like follows.writing action libraries trigger cow virtual memory management.software cow also used library application system code.in multithreaded systems cow implemented without use traditional locking instead use compareandswap increment decrement internal reference counter.
Copy-on-write	since original resource never altered safely copied multiple threads reference count increased without need performanceexpensive locking mutexes.reference counter turns definition thread holding reference resource safely deallocated memory without use performanceexpensive locking mechanisms.benefit copy resource resulting performance gain traditional deepcopying therefore valid single multithreaded systems.examples string class provided c standard library specifically designed allow copyonwrite implementations initial c standard newer c standardin php programming language types except references implemented copyonwrite.example strings arrays passed reference modified duplicated nonzero reference counts.
Copy-on-write	allows act value types without performance problems copying assignment making immutable.in qt framework many types copyonwrite implicitly shared qts terms.qt uses atomic compareandswap operations increment decrement internal reference counter.since copies cheap qt types often safely used multiple threads without need locking mechanisms mutexes.benefits cow thus valid single multithreaded systems.computer storage cow may also used underlying mechanism snapshots provided logical volume management file systems btrfs zfs database servers microsoft sql server.
Copy-on-write	typically snapshots store modified data stored close main array weak form incremental backup cannot substitute full backup.systems also use cow technique avoid fuzzy backups otherwise incurred file set files backed changes backup.when implementing snapshots two techniquesredirectonwrite row original storage never modified.write request made redirected away original data new storage area.copyonwrite cow write request made data copied new storage area original data modified.despite names copyonwrite usually refers first technique.cow two data writes compared rows one difficult implement efficiently thus used infrequently.see also allocateonflushbtrfsdemand pagingdirty cow – computer security vulnerability linux operating system kernelflyweight patternmemory managementpersistent data structurerefssnapshot computer storagevirtual memorywear leveling references
Google Account	also often used single sign third party services.usage google account required gmail google hangouts google meet blogger.google products require account including google search youtube google books google finance google maps.however account needed uploading videos youtube making edits google maps.after google account created owner may selectively enable disable various google applications.youtube blogger maintain separate accounts users registered services google acquisition.however effective april youtube users required link separate google account wish continue log service.google account users may create publicly accessible google profile configure presentation google products google users.
Google Account	google profile linked users profiles various socialnetworking imagehosting sites well user blogs.thirdparty service providers may implement service authentication google account holders via google account mechanism.security creating google account users asked provide recovery email address allow reset password forgotten account hacked.countries united states united kingdom india google may also require onetime use mobile phone number send account validation code sms text messaging voice message creating new account.google also offers step verification option—for additional security hacking—that requests validation code time user logs google account.code either generated application google authenticator similar apps received google sms text message voice message email another account.trusted devices marked skip step logon authentication.
Google Account	feature switched software cannot provide validation code e.g.imap pop clients must use unique character alphanumeric password generated google instead users normal password.users seek even higher level security protection including users whose accounts could attractive targets hackers celebrities politicians journalists political activists wealthy individuals optin googles advanced protection program.program requires user purchase two uf usb keys — data storage identity verification.uf keys used provide twostep verification login.one backup purposes case first lost.
Google Account	advanced protection program includes security measures protect users account restrictions applications user grant access account thorough identity verification process regaining access account password forgotten.on june new security feature introduced protect users statesponsored attacks.whenever google analysis indicate government attempted compromise account notice displayed reads warning believe statesponsored attackers may trying compromise account computer.account blocking google may block account various reasons unusual activity entering age old enough google account.reactivation possible using webforms providing proof identity valid photo id credit card payment us.. methods sending fax uploading requested document may require human interaction may take days couple weeks accomplished.activity tracking tool called activity launched supersedes google search history google web history — enables users see delete data tracked google google account.
Shadow IT	tool shows websites visited using chrome logged devices used apps used google products interacted etc.information laid timelinelike layout.users choose entirely disable tracking remove certain activities dont want tracked.google applications see also apple idfacebook platform authenticationmicrosoft accountopenid references external links official websiteorigins information systems large organizations source frustration users.in order bypass perceived limitations solutions provided centralized department departments may build independent resources suit specific urgent requirements.isnt uncommon resourceful departments hire engineers purchase even develop software without knowledge buyin supervision centralized department.implications organizations prevalence shadow systems results heavily fragmented application landscape consistency security governability sacrificed achieve necessary level business agility whether purpose innovation mere survival.benefits main benefit shadow increased reactivity.host department direct power shadow resources opposed central ones.
Shadow IT	also alignment departments timeconsuming sometimes impossible task avoided.shadow systems important source innovation shadow systems may become prototypes future central solutions.incumbent management dealing legacy infrastructure data management challenges cannot easily provision data service either unaware advantages cannot acquire budget successful implementation.background neither department ever deliver business requirements low enough cost relative true daas department.deficiencies lead business implement solutions may perceived cost less execute albeit whilst introducing risks formal project could avoid.for example rise powerful desktop cpus business subject matter experts use shadow systems extract manipulate complex datasets without request work department.challenge recognize activity improve technical control environment guide business selecting enterpriseclass data analysis tools.a barrier adopting daas legacy bulk provisioning read element crud model create read update delete.leads neglecting need write back original dataset complex achieve.
Shadow IT	need shadow users store changed data separately i.e.siloeing results loss organisational data integrity.placing barriers shadow equivalent improving organizational security.a study confirms employees feel need work around security measure protocol work efficiently.send documents home email address continue work home even aware probably allowed.drawbacks besides security risks implications shadow arewasted time shadow adds hidden costs organizations consisting largely nonit workers finance marketing hr etc.spend significant amount time discussing rechecking validity certain data setting managing systems software without experience.inconsistent business logic ‘shadow it’ spreadsheet application encapsulates definitions calculations likely time inconsistencies arise accumulation small differences one version another one group another spreadsheets often copied modified.
Shadow IT	addition many errors occur either lack understanding concepts incorrect use spreadsheet frequently go undetected due lack rigorous testing version control.inconsistent approach even definitions formulas correct methodology analysis distorted arrangement flow linked spreadsheets process wrong.wasted investment shadow applications sometimes prevent full return investment roi investments systems designed perform functions replaced shadow it.often seen data warehousing dw business informatics bi projects initiated good intentions broader consistent usage dw bi organization never really starts off.also caused management failure anticipate deployment licensing system capacity costs attempting deliver dw bi solutions.adopting internal cost model forces potential new users dwbi system choose cheaper shadow alternatives also plays part preventing successful enterprise implementation.inefficiencies shadow barrier innovation blocking establishment efficient work processes.additional performance bottlenecks new single points failure may introduced shadow systems layer top existing systems.
Shadow IT	data might exported shared system spreadsheet perform critical tasks analysis.higher risk data loss leaks shadow data backup procedures may provided audited.personnel contractors shadow operations may put normal education procedures vetting processes.originators shadow systems may leave organization often leaving proprietary data leaving behind complicated systems remainder staff cannot manage.barrier enhancement shadow act brake adoption new technology.artifacts e.g.spreadsheets deployed fill critical needs must replaced carefully.
Shadow IT	lacking adequate documentation controls standards process slow errorprone.organizational dysfunction shadow creates dysfunctional environment leading animosity nonit related groups within organization.improper motivations behind shadow efforts seeking jobsecurity i.e.bob person data happen leaves data hoarding selfpromotion favor trading etc.lead significant management issues.compliance issues shadow increases likelihood uncontrolled data flows making difficult comply sarbanesoxley act us many compliancecentric initiatives basel ii international standards banking glba grammleachbliley act cobit control objectives information related technology fisma federal information security management act dfars defense federal acquisition regulation supplement gaap generally accepted accounting principles hipaa health insurance portability accountability act ifrs international financial reporting standards itil information technology infrastructure library pci dss payment card industry data security standard gdpr general data protection regulation ccpa california consumer privacy act nydfs new york department financial services prevalence shadow notoriously hard measure.within organization amount shadow activity definition unknown especially since departments often hide shadow activities preventive measure ensure ongoing operations.
Shadow IT	even figures known organizations typically don’t volunteer these.notable exception boeing company published experience report describing alarming numbers shadow applications various departments introduced work around limitations official information system.according gartner percent enterprise expenditures organizations managed outside central departments budget.a french survey managers revealed examples shadow excel macro software cloud solutions erp bi systems websites hardware voip shadow support shadow project byod .examples examples unofficial data flows include usb flash drives portable data storage devices instant messaging software gmail online email services google docs online document sharing skype online voip software—and less straightforward products selfdeveloped access databases selfdeveloped excel spreadsheets macros.security risks arise data applications move outside protected systems networks physical location security domains.another form shadow comes way applications connected using oauth user authorizes access thirdparty application via sanctioned application.example user use facebook credentials log spotify another thirdparty application via corporate cloud app google g suite microsoft office .
Digital signature	access thirdparty app may excessive access sanctioned app thereby introducing unintended risk.references external links discussion tech republic industrys first cloud adoption risk reportvalid digital signature prerequisites satisfied gives recipient strong reason believe message created known sender authenticity message altered transit integrity.digital signatures standard element cryptographic protocol suites commonly used software distribution financial transactions contract management software cases important detect forgery tampering.digital signatures often used implement electronic signatures includes electronic data carries intent signature electronic signatures use digital signatures.electronic signatures legal significance countries including canada south africa united states algeria turkey india brazil indonesia mexico saudi arabia uruguay switzerland chile countries european union.digital signatures employ asymmetric cryptography.many instances provide layer validation security messages sent nonsecure channel properly implemented digital signature gives receiver reason believe message sent claimed sender.digital signatures equivalent traditional handwritten signatures many respects properly implemented digital signatures difficult forge handwritten type.digital signature schemes sense used cryptographically based must implemented properly effective.
Digital signature	also provide nonrepudiation meaning signer cannot successfully claim sign message also claiming private key remains secret.nonrepudiation schemes offer timestamp digital signature even private key exposed signature valid.digitally signed messages may anything representable bitstring examples include electronic mail contracts message sent via cryptographic protocol.definition digital signature scheme typically consists three algorithmsa key generation algorithm selects private key uniformly random set possible private keys.algorithm outputs private key corresponding public key.a signing algorithm given message private key produces signature.a signature verifying algorithm given message public key signature either accepts rejects messages claim authenticity.two main properties required.
Digital signature	first authenticity signature generated fixed message fixed private key verified using corresponding public key.secondly computationally infeasible generate valid signature party without knowing partys private key.a digital signature authentication mechanism enables creator message attach code acts signature.the digital signature algorithm dsa developed national institute standards technology one many examples signing algorithm.in following discussion n refers unary number.formally digital signature scheme triple probabilistic polynomial time algorithms g v satisfyingg keygenerator generates public key pk corresponding private key sk input n n security parameter.s signing returns tag inputs private key sk string x.v verifying outputs accepted rejected inputs public key pk string x tag t.for correctness v must satisfypr pk sk ← gn v pk x ssk x accepted .a digital signature scheme secure every nonuniform probabilistic polynomial time adversary apr pk sk ← gn x ← assk · pk n x ∉ q vpk x accepted neglnwhere assk · denotes access oracle ssk · q denotes set queries made knows public key pk security parameter n x ∉ q denotes adversary may directly query string x s. history whitfield diffie martin hellman first described notion digital signature scheme although conjectured schemes existed based functions trapdoor oneway permutations.soon afterwards ronald rivest adi shamir len adleman invented rsa algorithm could used produce primitive digital signatures although proofofconcept – plain rsa signatures secure.first widely marketed software package offer digital signature lotus notes .released used rsa algorithm.other digital signature schemes soon developed rsa earliest lamport signatures merkle signatures also known merkle trees simply hash trees rabin signatures.in shafi goldwasser silvio micali ronald rivest became first rigorously define security requirements digital signature schemes.
Digital signature	described hierarchy attack models signature schemes also presented gmr signature scheme first could proved prevent even existential forgery chosen message attack currently accepted security definition signature schemes.first scheme built trapdoor functions rather family function much weaker required property oneway permutation presented moni naor moti yung.method one digital signature scheme many based rsa.create signature keys generate rsa key pair containing modulus n product two random secret distinct large primes along integers e e ≡ mod φn φ eulers totient function.signers public key consists n e signers secret key contains d.to sign message signer computes signature σ σ ≡ md mod n. verify receiver checks σe ≡ mod n.several early signature schemes similar type involve use trapdoor permutation rsa function case rabin signature scheme computing square modulo composite n. trapdoor permutation family family permutations specified parameter easy compute forward direction difficult compute reverse direction without already knowing private key trapdoor.
Digital signature	trapdoor permutations used digital signature schemes computing reverse direction secret key required signing computing forward direction used verify signatures.used directly type signature scheme vulnerable keyonly existential forgery attack.create forgery attacker picks random signature σ uses verification procedure determine message corresponding signature.practice however type signature used directly rather message signed first hashed produce short digest padded larger width comparable n signed reverse trapdoor function.forgery attack produces padded hash function output corresponds σ message leads value lead attack.random oracle model hashthensign idealized version practice hash padding combined close n possible outputs form signature existentially unforgeable even chosenplaintext attack.there several reasons sign hash message digest instead whole document.for efficiencythe signature much shorter thus save time since hashing generally much faster signing practice.for compatibilitymessages typically bit strings signature schemes operate domains case rsa numbers modulo composite number n. hash function used convert arbitrary input proper format.for integritywithout hash function text signed may split separated blocks small enough signature scheme act directly.
Digital signature	however receiver signed blocks able recognize blocks present appropriate order.notions security foundational paper goldwasser micali rivest lay hierarchy attack models digital signaturesin keyonly attack attacker given public verification key.in known message attack attacker given valid signatures variety messages known attacker chosen attacker.in adaptive chosen message attack attacker first learns signatures arbitrary messages attackers choice.they also describe hierarchy attack resultsa total break results recovery signing key.a universal forgery attack results ability forge signatures message.a selective forgery attack results signature message adversarys choice.an existential forgery merely results valid messagesignature pair already known adversary.the strongest notion security therefore security existential forgery adaptive chosen message attack.applications organizations move away paper documents ink signatures authenticity stamps digital signatures provide added assurances evidence provenance identity status electronic document well acknowledging informed consent approval signatory.united states government printing office gpo publishes electronic versions budget public private laws congressional bills digital signatures.universities including penn state university chicago stanford publishing electronic student transcripts digital signatures.below common reasons applying digital signature communications authentication although messages may often include information entity sending message information may accurate.
Digital signature	digital signatures used authenticate identity source messages.ownership digital signature secret key bound specific user valid signature shows message sent user.importance high confidence sender authenticity especially obvious financial context.example suppose banks branch office sends instructions central office requesting change balance account.central office convinced message truly sent authorized source acting request could grave mistake.
Digital signature	integrity many scenarios sender receiver message may need confidence message altered transmission.although encryption hides contents message may possible change encrypted message without understanding it.encryption algorithms called nonmalleable prevent others not.however message digitally signed change message signature invalidates signature.furthermore efficient way modify message signature produce new message valid signature still considered computationally infeasible cryptographic hash functions see collision resistance.
Digital signature	nonrepudiation nonrepudiation specifically nonrepudiation origin important aspect digital signatures.property entity signed information cannot later time deny signed it.similarly access public key enable fraudulent party fake valid signature.note authentication nonrepudiation etc.properties rely secret key revoked prior usage.public revocation keypair required ability else leaked secret keys would continue implicate claimed owner keypair.
Digital signature	checking revocation status requires online check e.g.checking certificate revocation list via online certificate status protocol.roughly analogous vendor receives creditcards first checking online creditcard issuer find given card reported lost stolen.course stolen key pairs theft often discovered secret keys use e.g.sign bogus certificate espionage purpose.
Digital signature	additional security precautions putting private key smart card public key private key cryptosystems depend entirely keeping private key secret.private key stored users computer protected local password two disadvantagesthe user sign documents particular computerthe security private key depends entirely security computera secure alternative store private key smart card.many smart cards designed tamperresistant although designs broken notably ross anderson students.typical digital signature implementation hash calculated document sent smart card whose cpu signs hash using stored private key user returns signed hash.typically user must activate smart card entering personal identification number pin code thus providing twofactor authentication.
Digital signature	arranged private key never leaves smart card although always implemented.smart card stolen thief still need pin code generate digital signature.reduces security scheme pin system although still requires attacker possess card.mitigating factor private keys generated stored smart cards usually regarded difficult copy assumed exist exactly one copy.thus loss smart card may detected owner corresponding certificate immediately revoked.
Digital signature	private keys protected software may easier copy compromises far difficult detect.using smart card readers separate keyboard entering pin code activate smart card commonly requires numeric keypad.card readers numeric keypad.safer using card reader integrated pc entering pin using computers keyboard.readers numeric keypad meant circumvent eavesdropping threat computer might running keystroke logger potentially compromising pin code.
Digital signature	specialized card readers also less vulnerable tampering software hardware often eal certified.smart card designs smart card design active field smart card schemes intended avoid particular problems despite security proofs far.using digital signatures trusted applications one main differences digital signature written signature user see sign.user application presents hash code signed digital signing algorithm using private key.attacker gains control users pc possibly replace user application foreign substitute effect replacing users communications attacker.
Digital signature	could allow malicious application trick user signing document displaying users original onscreen presenting attackers documents signing application.to protect scenario authentication system set users application word processor email client etc.signing application.general idea provide means user application signing application verify others integrity.example signing application may require requests come digitally signed binaries.using network attached hardware security module one main differences cloud based digital signature service locally provided one risk.
Digital signature	many risk averse companies including governments financial medical institutions payment processors require secure standards like fips level fips certification ensure signature validated secure.wysiwys technically speaking digital signature applies string bits whereas humans applications believe sign semantic interpretation bits.order semantically interpreted bit string must transformed form meaningful humans applications done combination hardware software based processes computer system.problem semantic interpretation bits change function processes used transform bits semantic content.relatively easy change interpretation digital document implementing changes computer system document processed.
Digital signature	semantic perspective creates uncertainty exactly signed.wysiwys see sign means semantic interpretation signed message cannot changed.particular also means message cannot contain hidden information signer unaware revealed signature applied.wysiwys requirement validity digital signatures requirement difficult guarantee increasing complexity modern computer systems.term wysiwys coined peter landrock torben pedersen describe principles delivering secure legally binding digital signatures paneuropean projects.
Digital signature	digital signatures versus ink paper signatures ink signature could replicated one document another copying image manually digitally credible signature copies resist scrutiny significant manual technical skill produce ink signature copies resist professional scrutiny difficult.digital signatures cryptographically bind electronic identity electronic document digital signature cannot copied another document.paper contracts sometimes ink signature block last page previous pages may replaced signature applied.digital signatures applied entire document digital signature last page indicate tampering data pages altered also achieved signing ink numbering pages contract.digital signature algorithms rsadsaecdsaeddsarsa shaecdsa shaelgamal signature scheme predecessor dsa variants schnorr signature pointcheval–stern signature algorithmrabin signature algorithmpairingbased schemes blsntrusign example digital signature scheme based hard lattice problemsundeniable signaturesaggregate signatureru – signature scheme supports aggregation given n signatures n messages n users possible aggregate signatures single signature whose size constant number users.single signature convince verifier n users indeed sign n original messages.
Digital signature	scheme mihir bellare gregory neven may used bitcoin.signatures efficient protocols – signature schemes facilitate efficient cryptographic protocols zeroknowledge proofs secure computation.current state use – legal practical digital signature schemes share following goals regardless cryptographic theory legal provisionquality algorithms publickey algorithms known insecure practical attacks discovered.quality implementations implementation good algorithm protocol mistakes work.users software must carry signature protocol properly.the private key must remain private private key becomes known party party produce perfect digital signatures anything.the public key owner must verifiable public key associated bob actually came bob.commonly done using public key infrastructure pki public key↔user association attested operator pki called certificate authority.open pkis anyone request attestation universally embodied cryptographically protected public key certificate possibility mistaken attestation nontrivial.commercial pki operators suffered several publicly known problems.
Digital signature	mistakes could lead falsely signed thus wrongly attributed documents.closed pki systems expensive less easily subverted way.only conditions met digital signature actually evidence sent message therefore assent contents.legal enactment cannot change reality existing engineering possibilities though reflected actuality.legislatures importuned businesses expecting profit operating pki technological avantgarde advocating new solutions old problems enacted statutes andor regulations many jurisdictions authorizing endorsing encouraging permitting digital signatures providing limiting legal effect.first appears utah united states followed closely states massachusetts california.countries also passed statutes issued regulations area well un active model law project time.
Digital signature	enactments proposed enactments vary place place typically embodied expectations variance optimistically pessimistically state underlying cryptographic engineering net effect confusing potential users specifiers nearly cryptographically knowledgeable.adoption technical standards digital signatures lagged behind much legislation delaying less unified engineering position interoperability algorithm choice key lengths engineering attempting provide.industry standards industries established common interoperability standards use digital signatures members industry regulators.include automotive network exchange automobile industry safebiopharma association healthcare industry.using separate key pairs signing encryption several countries digital signature status somewhat like traditional pen paper signature eu digital signature directive eu followon legislation.generally provisions mean anything digitally signed legally binds signer document terms therein.
Digital signature	reason often thought best use separate key pairs encrypting signing.using encryption key pair person engage encrypted conversation e.g.regarding real estate transaction encryption legally sign every message sends.parties come agreement sign contract signing keys legally bound terms specific document.signing document sent encrypted link.
Digital signature	signing key lost compromised revoked mitigate future transactions.encryption key lost backup key escrow utilized continue viewing encrypted content.signing keys never backed escrowed unless backup destination securely encrypted.see also cfr x.advanced electronic signatureblind signaturedetached signaturedigital certificatedigital signature estoniaelectronic lab notebookelectronic signatureelectronic signatures lawesign indiagnu privacy guardpublic key infrastructurepublic key fingerprintserverbased signaturesprobabilistic signature scheme notes references goldreich oded foundations cryptography basic tools cambridge cambridge university press isbn goldreich oded foundations cryptography ii basic applications .publ.
Digital signature	ed.cambridge u.a.cambridge univ.press isbn pass rafael course cryptography pdf retrieved december reading j. katz y. lindell introduction modern cryptography chapman hallcrc press lorna brazell electronic signatures identities law regulation nd edn london sweet maxwell dennis campbell editor ecommerce law digital signatures oceana publications .m.h. schellenkens electronic signatures authentication technology legal perspective tmc asser press .jeremiah s. buckley john p. kromer margo h. k. tank r. david whitaker law electronic signatures rd edition west publishing .digital evidence electronic signature law review free open source
Application Defined Network	adn technology allows simple physical architecture fewer devices less device configuration integration reduced network administration lower tax resources.adn solutions simplify businesses need securely deploy multiple applications across enterprise footprint partner networks regardless application resides.adn platforms provide policybased applicationspecific delivery corporate data centers cloud services andor thirdparty networks securely costeffectively.adn solutions integrate gg wireless backup services enable second internet connection automatically instantly connectivity lost primary access connection.adn design provides applicationtoapplication aa based model evolves enterprise networks beyond sitetosite ss private model.
Application Defined Network	adn fundamentals adn solutions address need enable multiple different applications guest wifi hotspot strictly securing regulated applications payment network.traditionally sitetosite networks multiple applications introduces significant security policy conflicts.technologies guest wifi mobile payment andor cloud services open traditional private network outside security threats create significant complexity security policies network administration.adns customized specific security features address specific application needs enhanced performance reliability features traffic management application prioritization failover backup connection services.complexity breeds vulnerability.application defined networks adns significantly reduce complexity resulting costs multiple device investment management configuration integration problem isolation resolution.
Application Defined Network	adns typically enabled secure appliance distributed enterprise locations integrate cloud network connect applications corporate data centers cloud services payment gateways partner networks.adns eliminate potential route conflicts security cascade across applications problem cascade caused one application misbehaving affecting applications network.route conflicts – traditional sitetosite networks facilitate multiple applications single connections ex.vpns mpls vpns ethernet require complex security rules partition applications one another.simple errors device configurations create routing problems breach strict security compliancebased applications pcidss hipaa certifications.ability completely segment applications discrete adn removes complexity managing multiple security partitions across many locations.security cascade – traditional sitetosite networks subject security bleed network segment open internet gets breached.
Application Defined Network	advanced persistent threats apts becoming frequent effective damaging.damage occurring threat roots inside breached segment stealthily probes entry points network segments.several security breaches result security cascade vulnerability network segments exploited.adns eliminate ability security breach cascade network segments applications compartmentalizing applications secure isolated networks.problem cascade – traditional sitetosite network specific problem individual applications configuration results abnormal behaviors problem ends affecting applications network.essentially one application misbehaving results applications affected entire network compromised.
Application Defined Network	isolating root problem becomes extremely difficult timeconsuming network chaos completely down.application defined network problems isolated specific applications network allowing simpler fault isolation resolution.adns logically defined virtual networks extend application enabler application gateways.adn solutions combine ability define specific lan segments actual adn.provides ability extend adn lan specific interface application enabler pos system server etc.. assigned zone lock specific lan port specific use.example serial port would assigned payment adnlan segment devices use specific lan port unauthorized device plugged zone work.
Application Defined Network	provides physical logical security protections unauthorized use port.the adn facilitates connection specific lan port public broadband connection independently public ip addressing.adn authenticated inside cloud transported destination application gateway.provides endtoend application enabler application gateway network independently defined physically logically.application gateway reside within corporate office data centers cloud service providers partner networks virtually anywhere.aa applicationtoapplication aa networks remove sitetosite ss limitations defining network architecture application level.
Application Defined Network	aa networks open enterprise network able securely connect application matter resides.aa networks free enterprise network burdensome controls restricted hub spoke traffic patterns facilitating anytoany traffic pattern based specific needs application itself.companies longer overspend purchasing application licenses building application within data centers incur associated capital network resource costs.aa networking allows companies implement innovation efficiently deploy multiple applications using cloud services address needs improved customer value operational efficiencies product differentiation.security adn network simplifies security establishing discrete independent networks require complex security rules partition traffic types.
UpdateStar	adns reduce risk human error maintaining complex access control lists acls across many sites create security vulnerabilities.example adn public internet access breached outside party ability breach bleed adns payment adn eliminated.adn standard security features include firewall intrusion detection logging wireless scanning content filtering access control list multifactor authentication advanced encryption standard aes encryption compartmentalization.additional custom security features also easily deployed https filtering security event management siem bestofbreed security application hosted virtual servers within cloud.referencesmillion software programs.implementing social computing aspect update database maintained users.updatestar uses advertising refinance free service shares ad revenue software authors via share program.software searched downloaded updated.addition updatestar freeware client easily installed inform users available updates individual software setup.allows downloading installing uninstalling programs within client acts enhancement addremove programs control panel applet programs features windows vista above.the software search engine http built top updatestar’s user generated software program database.
UpdateStar	via ad revenue sharing program share updatestar allows developers use updatestar website download mirror participate ad revenue created program’s webpages.updatestar reviewed computerworld softpedia pc advisor ct among others.history updatestar founded michael ganss frank alperstaedt olaf kehrer based berlin.software search engine website however launch july .company funded founders.the current version site released july .included new software search capabilities results based user submitted information programs new professional services business section updatestar freeware client section.updatestar freeware grown popularity users users july .
UpdateStar	updatestar released march introduced enhanced recognition algorithm registry cleaner removes remnants uninstalled software.updates appear almost daily basis software setup programs typical pc making nearly impossible pc user keep up.program available freeware well commercial premium edition additional security advice program cleaner system maintenance more.updatestar provides user information software updates available software computer.includes major releases provided updatestar freeware edition well minor version upgrades patches included premium edition.many updates published security reasons newly included features.
UpdateStar	either way software updates considered important even critical case updates made available publishers security reasons.updatestar premium additionally offers security advice allowing identification important software updates.updatestar premium includes tool clean windows registry superfluous faulty software entries often result incompletely uninstalled software.two million users profit updatestar service per month december receive updates pcs software.updatestar provides users program update information .million installations daily.updatestar released version oct introducing improved version recognition improved windows support new language support korean lithuanian improved translations russian hungarian romanian.attempts download software updatestar site lead malware attacks.revenue model updatestar uses software search engine website share ad revenue software authors.
UpdateStar	professional services include software market research analytics well targeted marketing services connect software vendors.allows updatestar provide update information service free user community.share ad sharing program updatestar website tracks created ad revenues program pages.share program creates ppc based revenue streams.users click ads program’s download page updatestar web advertiser charged advertising fee split updatestar software vendor vendor participates share partner.updatestar website’s user traffic comes targeted alerts newly available updates used software offering information downloads.
UpdateStar	traffic multiplies number updates users.way share software vendor partners participate repeatedly revenue created content software long participate.online backup february updatestar began commercial online backup service called updatestar online backup.users updatestar online backup select files folders desktop application periodically backed remote data center.program employs differential backup algorithm minimize amount data needs backed subsequent runs.updatestar offers plans unlimited storage home business desktop computers limited storage gb gb gb server computers.
TurnKey Linux Virtual Appliance Library	program runs windows xp windows vista windows desktop edition windows server windows server server edition.see also usergenerated contentpackage manager references external links official websiteupdatestar online backupkillerstartups updatestarsoftpedia latest updates software pcturnkey appliances deployed virtual machine range hypervisors supported cloud computing services amazon web services installed physical computers.features project maintains around virtual appliances freely licensed daily automatic security updates backup capabilities.they packaged formats different virtualization platforms two builds installing onto physical media nonvirtualized hard disk usb hybrid iso onto amazon elastic compute cloud.virtual appliances distributed virtual machine types asopen virtualization format ova v. default vm format.supports virtualbox vmware products e.g.workstation player fusion vsphereesx.also includes openvmtools vmware.vmdk vm turnkey linux download mirrors packaged zip containing vmdk vhdd well vmx legacy vmware vm config file.
TurnKey Linux Virtual Appliance Library	runs kvmqemuopenstackcontainer somewhat generic container format specifically packaged proxmox tar.gz formerly opennode too.builds downloaded direct within proxmoxs webui formerly via opennodes interface.tar.gz archive also known work vanilla openvz lxc minimal tweaking.xendockerinstallable live cdusb hybrid iso image burned either cd usb used install bare metal i.e.nonvirtualized physical machine virtual machines including vmware xen xenserver virtualbox kvm.image also run live nonpersistent demo mode.amazon machine image provisioned ondemand amazon elastic compute cloud via either turnkey linux hub amazon marketplace.preintegrated server applications include lamp wordpress joomla drupal redmine mysql mediawiki domain controller file server ruby rails phpbb many others.
TurnKey Linux Virtual Appliance Library	history founded engineers israeli startup project conceived mid communityoriented open source project would focus helping users piece together turnkey solutions open source components largest linux distributions.according one turnkey linuxs cofounders project part inspired desire provide open source alternatives proprietary virtual appliance vendors would aligned user interests could engage community.the project launched september three prototype appliances drupal joomla lamp based ubuntu .. build.following months usability improved dozen additional appliances released including ruby rails mediawiki django.in october project released appliances based ubuntu .. including new additions virtual appliance library.release included support amazon elastic compute cloud new virtual machine image format ovf support.turnkey linux listed winner bossies infoworld one top open source products year.in september turnkey linux backup migration tklbam announced.. november additions tklbam announced including integration webmin discussed future feature original unveiling tklbam.turnkey linux nominated sourceforge february project month.in august version .released library increased include appliances.
TurnKey Linux Virtual Appliance Library	release also marked move away ubuntu underlying operating system debian .a.k.a.squeeze.move cited various reasons particularly security.early june saw significant change tack version .update release built new tkldev open build infrastructure.
TurnKey Linux Virtual Appliance Library	release also included first x builds.later month turnkey linux custom application code moved github also included tracker appliances bug reports.promised mid july turnkey linux released image building appliance tkldev well additional separate github account house appliance specific code used tkldev build appliances.november saw release v. based debian .a.k.a.wheezy.september saw long overdue release v. based debian .
TurnKey Linux Virtual Appliance Library	a.k.a.jessie followed april maintenance release v. .based debian .. design turnkeys virtual appliances start life stripped debian bootstrap versions previous v. based ubuntu.added turnkey core includes common features projects virtual appliances includingdilive live installer derived debianinstaller.a configuration console developed python project allow users perform basic configuration tasks example networking configuration rebootsan automatic mechanism installs security patches daily basis.web administration interface based webmin includes selection generic addon control configuration modules.web browser based shelltklbam turnkey linux backup migration custom tkl backupmigration applicationservice uses duplicity backend.default tklbam uses amazon storage also configured use storage medium supported duplicity.
TurnKey Linux Virtual Appliance Library	version .tklbam available nontkl linux os.the turnkey core footprint approximately mb available separate download.application software installed top core typically increases size virtual appliance approximately mb.downloading installing appliance package hard drive intended developers administrators would gain easy method setting dedicated server.new software appliances customised appliances developed forking appropriate appliance build code github built using tkldev.additionally appliances also customized extended using tklpatch simple appliance modification mechanism.turnkey linux run virtual machine virtualbox vmware although former described provided documentation.
Encryption	screenshots see also virtual appliancesoftware appliancelive cdbitnami references external links project websitethe turnkey linux hubissue tracker bugs feature requestsdevelopment wikiturnkey linux virtual appliance library distrowatchprocess converts original representation information known plaintext alternative form known ciphertext.ideally authorized parties decipher ciphertext back plaintext access original information.encryption prevent interference denies intelligible content wouldbe interceptor.technical reasons encryption scheme usually uses pseudorandom encryption key generated algorithm.possible decrypt message without possessing key welldesigned encryption scheme considerable computational resources skills required.
Encryption	authorized recipient easily decrypt message key provided originator recipients unauthorized users.historically various forms encryption used aid cryptography.early encryption techniques often used military messaging.since new techniques emerged become commonplace areas modern computing.modern encryption schemes use concepts publickey symmetrickey.
Encryption	modern encryption techniques ensure security modern computers inefficient cracking encryption.history ancient one earliest forms encryption symbol replacement first found tomb khnumhotep ii lived bc egypt.symbol replacement encryption “nonstandard” means symbols require cipher key understand.type early encryption used throughout ancient greece rome military purposes.one famous military encryption developments caesar cipher system letter normal text shifted fixed number positions alphabet get encoded letter.
Encryption	message encoded type encryption could decoded fixed number caesar cipher.around ad arab mathematician alkindi developed technique frequency analysis – attempt systematically crack caesar ciphers.technique looked frequency letters encrypted message determine appropriate shift.technique rendered ineffective creation polyalphabetic cipher leone alberti incorporated different sets languages.order frequency analysis useful person trying decrypt message would need know language sender chose.th–th century around thomas jefferson theorised cipher encode decode messages order provide secure way military correspondence.
Encryption	cipher known today wheel cipher jefferson disk although never actually built theorized spool could jumble english message characters.message could decrypted plugging jumbled message receiver identical cipher.a similar device jefferson disk developed independently us army major joseph mauborne.device used u.s. military communications .in world war ii axis powers used advanced version called enigma machine.enigma machine complex unlike jefferson wheel day jumble letters switched completely new combination.days combination known axis many thought way break code would try combinations within hours.
Encryption	allies used computing power severely limit number reasonable combinations needed check every day leading breaking enigma machine.modern today encryption used transfer communication internet security commerce.computing power continues increase computer encryption constantly evolving prevent attacks.encryption cryptography context cryptography encryption serves mechanism ensure confidentiality.since data may visible internet sensitive information passwords personal communication may exposed potential interceptors.
Encryption	process encrypting decrypting messages involves keys.two main types keys cryptographic systems symmetrickey publickey also known asymmetrickey.many complex cryptographic algorithms often use simple modular arithmetic implementations.types symmetric key symmetrickey schemes encryption decryption keys same.communicating parties must key order achieve secure communication.german enigma machine utilized new symmetrickey day encoding decoding messages.
Encryption	public key publickey encryption schemes encryption key published anyone use encrypt messages.however receiving party access decryption key enables messages read.publickey encryption first described secret document beforehand encryption schemes symmetrickey also called privatekey.although published subsequently work diffie hellman published journal large readership value methodology explicitly described.method became known diffiehellman key exchange.rsa rivest–shamir–adleman another notable publickey cryptosystem.
Encryption	created still used today applications involving digital signatures.using number theory rsa algorithm selects two prime numbers help generate encryption decryption keys.a publicly available publickey encryption application called pretty good privacy pgp written phil zimmermann distributed free charge source code.pgp purchased symantec regularly updated.uses encryption long used militaries governments facilitate secret communication.commonly used protecting information within many kinds civilian systems.
Encryption	example computer security institute reported companies surveyed utilized encryption data transit utilized encryption data storage.encryption used protect data rest information stored computers storage devices e.g.usb flash drives.recent years numerous reports confidential data customers personal records exposed loss theft laptops backup drives encrypting files rest helps protect physical security measures fail.digital rights management systems prevent unauthorized use reproduction copyrighted material protect software reverse engineering see also copy protection another somewhat different example using encryption data rest.encryption also used protect data transit example data transferred via networks e.g.
Encryption	internet ecommerce mobile telephones wireless microphones wireless intercom systems bluetooth devices bank automatic teller machines.numerous reports data transit intercepted recent years.data also encrypted transmitted across networks order protect eavesdropping network traffic unauthorized users.data erasure conventional methods permanently deleting data storage device involve overwriting devices whole content zeros ones patterns – process take significant amount time depending capacity type storage medium.cryptography offers way making erasure almost instantaneous.
Encryption	method called cryptoshredding.example implementation method found ios devices cryptographic key kept dedicated effaceable storage.key stored device setup offer full privacy security protection unauthorized person gains physical access device.limitations encryption used st century protect digital data information systems.computing power increased years encryption technology become advanced secure.
Encryption	however advancement technology also exposed potential limitation todays encryption methods.the length encryption key indicator strength encryption method.example original encryption key des data encryption standard bits meaning combination possibilities.todays computing power bit key longer secure vulnerable hacking brute force attack.today standard modern encryption keys bit rsa system.decrypting bit encryption key nearly impossible light number possible combinations.
Encryption	however quantum computing threatening change secure nature.quantum computing utilizes properties quantum mechanics order process large amounts data simultaneously.quantum computing found achieve computing speeds thousands times faster todays supercomputers.computing power presents challenge todays encryption technology.example rsa encryption utilizes multiplication large prime numbers create semiprime number public key.decoding key without private key requires semiprime number factored take long time modern computers.
Encryption	would take supercomputer anywhere weeks months factor key.however quantum computing use quantum algorithms factor semiprime number amount time takes normal computers generate it.would make data protected current publickey encryption vulnerable quantum computing attacks.encryption techniques like elliptic curve cryptography symmetric key encryption also vulnerable quantum computing.while quantum computing could threat encryption security future quantum computing currently stands still limited.quantum computing currently commercially available cannot handle large amounts code exists computational devices computers.

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