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Charles de Gaulle	met crowds people streets shouted polish long live poland dear noble brave poland.without discussion de gaulle announced france officially recognized new polish western border established .may de gaulles government criticized within france particularly heavyhanded style.written press elections free private stations europe able broadcast french abroad states ortf monopoly television radio.monopoly meant government position directly influence broadcast news.
Charles de Gaulle	many respects gaullist france conservative catholic women highlevel political posts may governments ministers male.many factors contributed general weariness sections public particularly student youth led events may .the mass demonstrations strikes france may severely challenged de gaulles legitimacy.government leaders feared country brink revolution civil war.may de gaulle disappeared without notifying prime minister pompidou anyone else government stunning country.fled badenbaden germany meet general massu head french military discuss possible army intervention protesters.
Charles de Gaulle	de gaulle returned france assured militarys support return de gaulle agreed amnesty coup plotters oas members.in private meeting discussing students workers demands direct participation business government coined phrase la réforme oui la chienlit non politely translated reform yes masqueradechaos no.vernacular scatological pun meaning chieenlit shitinbed no.term common parlance french political commentary used critically ironically referring back de gaulle.but de gaulle offered accept reforms demonstrators sought.considered referendum support moves may pompidou persuaded dissolve parliament government lost majority march elections hold new elections instead.june elections major success gaullists allies shown spectre revolution civil war majority country rallied him.
Charles de Gaulle	party seats de gaulle remained personally unpopular survey conducted immediately crisis showed majority country saw old selfcentered authoritarian conservative antiamerican.later life retirement de gaulle resigned presidency noon april following rejection proposed reform senate local governments nationwide referendum.eightminute televised speech two days referendum de gaulle warned disavowed majority voters would resign office immediately.ultimatum coupled increased de gaulle fatigue among french convinced many opportunity rid yearold general reform package rejected.two months later georges pompidou elected successor.de gaulle retired beloved nineacre country estate la boisserie woodland glade colombeylesdeuxéglises miles southeast paris.
Charles de Gaulle	general often described old age shipwreck continued memoirs dictated secretary notes.visitors de gaulle said finish three books god grants life.renewal first three planned volumes called memoirs hope quickly finished immediately became fastest seller french publishing history.personal life de gaulle married yvonne vendroux april église notredame de calais.three children philippe born élisabeth – married general alain de boissieu anne –.
Charles de Gaulle	anne downs syndrome died pneumonia age .always particular love anne one colombey resident recalled used walk handinhand around property caressing talking quietly things understood.de gaulle older brother xavier – sister marieagnes – two younger brothers jacques – pierre –.particularly close youngest pierre resembled presidential bodyguards often saluted mistake visited famous brother accompanied official visits.one de gaulles grandsons also named charles de gaulle member european parliament last tenure national front.younger charles de gaulles move antigaullist front national widely condemned family members open letters newspaper interviews.like hearing pope converted islam one said.
Charles de Gaulle	another grandson jean de gaulle member french parliament retirement .death november less two weeks th birthday charles de gaulle died suddenly despite enjoying robust health entire life except prostate operation years earlier.watching evening news television playing solitaire around p.m. suddenly pointed head said feel pain right collapsed.wife called doctor local priest time arrived died aneurysm.wife asked allowed inform family news released.
Charles de Gaulle	able contact daughter paris quickly son navy difficult track down.president georges pompidou informed next day announced generals death television hours event.simply said le général de gaulle est mort la france est veuve.general de gaulle dead.france widow.de gaulle made arrangements insisted funeral held colombey presidents ministers attend funeral—only compagnons de la libération.
Charles de Gaulle	despite wishes number foreign dignitaries wanted honor de gaulle pompidou forced arrange separate memorial service notredame cathedral held time actual funeral.funeral november biggest event french history hundreds thousands french people—many carrying blankets picnic baskets—and thousands cars parked roads fields along routes two venues.thousands guests attended event included de gaulles successor georges pompidou american president richard nixon british prime minister edward heath un general secretary u thant soviet statesman nikolai podgorny italian president giuseppe saragat west german chancellor willy brandt queen juliana netherlands.special trains laid bring extra mourners region crowd packed tightly fainted passed overhead toward firstaid stations rear.general conveyed church armoured reconnaissance vehicle carried grave next daughter anne eight young men colombey.
Charles de Gaulle	lowered ground bells churches france tolled starting notre dame spreading there.de gaulle specified tombstone bear simple inscription name years birth death.therefore simply states charles de gaulle –.service president pompidou said de gaulle gave france governing institutions independence place world.andré malraux writer intellectual served minister culture called man day yesterday day tomorrow.de gaulles family turned la boisserie residence foundation.
Charles de Gaulle	currently houses charles de gaulle museum.legacy reputation historians accorded napoleon de gaulle topranking status french leaders th th centuries.according survey carried context tenth anniversary death socialist president françois mitterrand percent respondents said mitterrand best french president ever followed charles de gaulle percent jacques chirac percent.another poll bva four years later showed french people regarded presidency positively.statues honouring de gaulle erected london warsaw moscow bucharest quebec.first algerian president ahmed ben bella said de gaulle military leader brought us hardest blows prior algerian independence saw politicians universal dimension often lacking current leaders.likewise léopold sédar senghor first president senegal said western leaders could boast risked lives grant colony independence.in president mitterrand de gaulles old political rival presided celebrations mark th anniversary birth.
Charles de Gaulle	mitterrand wrote vitriolic critique called permanent coup détat quoted recent opinion poll saying general de gaulle entered pantheon great national heroes ranks ahead napoleon behind charlemagne.influence jeanpierre chevènement leader ceres leftwing souverainist faction socialist party mitterrand except certain economic social policies rallied much gaullism.mids mids developed leftright consensus dubbed gaullomitterrandism behind french status nato i.e.outside integrated military command.relationships political leaders although initially enjoyed good relations us president john f. kennedy admired stance soviet union—particularly berlin wall built—and called great captain western world relationship later cooled.
Charles de Gaulle	kennedys loyal ally cuban missile crisis supported right us claimed defend interests western hemisphere contrast german chancellor konrad adenauer doubted kennedys commitment europe thought crisis could avoided.de gaulle accepted might necessary united states take preemptive military action cuba unlike many european leaders time.de gaulle prominent figure state funerals two american presidents kennedy dwight eisenhower eisenhowers funeral visit u.s. since funeral jfk.de gaulle admired later president nixon.meeting palace versailles general left office nixon declared try put airs aura majesty seemed envelop ... performance—and use word disparagingly—was breathtaking.arriving funeral several months later nixon said greatness knows national boundaries.lt.
Charles de Gaulle	general vernon a. walters military attaché dwight eisenhower later military attaché france noted strong relationship de gaulle eisenhower de gaulles unconditional support eisenhower u incident de gaulles strong support john f. kennedy cuban missile crisis.thus walters intensely curious great contrast de gaulles close relations two united states presidents notable cold war crises de gaulles later decision withdraw france natos military command walters spoke many close military political aides de gaulle.walters conclusion based upon de gaulles comments many aides eisenhower meeting ramboullet castle de gaulle feared later united states presidents eisenhower would eisenhowers special ties europe would risk nuclear war europe.also de gaulle interpreted peaceful resolution cuban missile crisis without fighting take back cuba communism mere miles united states indication united states might fight europes defense miles away following soviet aggression europe would go war following nuclear strike united states itself.de gaulle told eisenhower france seek compete strategic air command army united states believed france needed way strike soviet union.a number commentators critical de gaulle failure prevent massacres algerian independence others take view struggle long savage perhaps inevitable.australian historian brian crozier wrote able part algeria without civil war great though negative achievement probability would beyond capacity leader france possessed.
Charles de Gaulle	april four rebel generals seized power algeria flinch face daunting challenge appeared television generals uniform forbid frenchmen obey rebels orders inflexible display personal authority.de gaulle excellent manipulator media seen shrewd use television persuade around metropolitan france approve new constitution fifth republic.refused yield reasoning opponents said succeeded algeria would longer necessary.afterwards enjoyed massive approval ratings said every frenchman gaullist.that de gaulle necessarily reflect mainstream french public opinion veto suggested decisive majority french people voted favour british membership much conciliatory pompidou called referendum matter .early influence setting parameters eec still seen today notably controversial common agricultural policy.some writers take view pompidou progressive influential leader de gaulle though also gaullist less autocratic interested social reforms.although followed main tenets de gaulles foreign policy keen work towards warmer relations united states.
Charles de Gaulle	banker profession pompidou also widely credited de gaulles prime minister putting place reforms provided impetus economic growth followed.in shortly leaving office de gaulle refused devalue franc grounds national prestige upon taking pompidou reversed decision almost straight away.ironic financial crisis france rely american west german financial aid help shore economy.perry written events illustrated brittleness de gaulles rule.taken surprise indictment rule remote real life interest conditions ordinary french people lived.problems like inadequate housing social services ignored.french greeted news departure relief feeling grown outlived usefulness.
Charles de Gaulle	perhaps clung onto power long perhaps retired still popular.brian crozier said fame de gaulle outstrips achievements chose make repeated gestures petulance defiance weakened west without compensating advantages francerégis debray called de gaulle superlucide pointed virtually predictions fall communism reunification germany resurrection old russia came true death.debray compared napoleon great political myth th century calling de gaulle th century equivalent.sublime seems appears france century ... napoleon left two generations dead battlefield.de gaulle sparing peoples blood even left us stranded alive dazed... delusion perhaps one turns world upside causes events movements divides people supporters adversaries leaves traces form civil penal codes railways factories institutions fifth republic already lasted three times long empire.statesman gets something going followers escapes reality reports statistics become part imagination.
Charles de Gaulle	napoleon de gaulle modified state things modified souls.however debray pointed difference napoleon de gaulle exterminator compared liberator ... former ran whole enterprise ground latter managed save it.measure rebel despot challenger leader glaringly idiotic.simply put adventurer worked family level commanderinchief serving country.... regrettably gaullism bonapartism number features common napoleon de gaulle moral value.... first wanted holy french empire without faith europe french occupation.
Charles de Gaulle	second wanted rescue nation emperors establish free france free europe.while de gaulle many admirers time one hated reviled men modern french history.memorials number monuments built commemorate life charles de gaulle.frances largest airport located roissy outside paris named charles de gaulle airport honour.frances nuclearpowered aircraft carrier also named him.honours awards french grandcroix légion dhonneur – officer – knight – grand master ordre de la libération grandcroix ordre national du mérite – croix de guerre croix de guerre – combatants cross medal war wounded – interallied victory medal france – commemorative war medal france – commemorative war medal france foreign silver cross virtuti militari poland chief commander us legion merit august grand cordon order dragon annam last awarded knight grand cross decorated grand cordon order merit italian republic june knight order royal house chakri thailand october knight royal order seraphim sweden may collar order merit chile october knight order elephant denmark april knight grand cross royal norwegian order st. olav knight grand cross order white rose finland knight grand cross royal order cambodia grand cross order million elephants white parasol laos extraordinary grand cross order boyaca colombia grand cross sharifian order military merit morocco grand collar order liberator general san martín national order merit ecuador grand cordon order military merit brazil national order merit paraguay grand cordon order sun peru grand collar medal order southern cross brazil grand collar order pahlavi iran grand cross military order ayacucho peru grand collar order aztec eagle mexico grand cordon order two rivers iraq collar order liberator venezuela collar national order condor andes bolivia grand cordon order umayyad syria grand cross national order cedar lebanon member order benevolent ruler nepal grand cross order leopold belgium grand cross order saintcharles monaco grand cross order merit federal republic germany collar order alhussein bin ali jordan knight supreme order christ vatican knight grand collar order pius ix vatican grand officer order redeemer greece knight grand cross royal victorian order united kingdom papal lateran cross vatican grand cross order polonia restituta poland commander bavarian order merit medals medal mexican academy military studiesmedal rancagua chilemedal mexicomedal legionnaires quebecmedal city valparaisomedal honour congress peruiraqi medalplaque medal city lima peruroyal medal tunisiamedal city new orleanspakistani medalgreek medalorder american legionmedal college joseph celestine mutis spain works french editions la discorde chez lennemi histoire des troupes du levant written major de gaulle major yvon staff colonel de mierry collaborating preparation final text.le fil de lépée vers larmée de métier la france et son armée trois études rôle historique des places fortes mobilisation economique à létranger comment faire une armée de métier followed memorandum january .mémoires de guerrevolume – lappel – volume ii – lunité – volume iii – le salut – mémoires despoirvolume – le renouveau – discours et messagesvolume – pendant la guerre – volume ii – dans lattente – volume iii – avec le renouveau – volume iv – pour leffort – volume v – vers le terme – english translations enemys house divided la discorde chez lennemi.tr.
Charles de Gaulle	robert eden.university north carolina press chapel hill .the edge sword le fil de lépée.tr.gerard hopkins.faber london criterion books new york army future vers larmée de métier.
Charles de Gaulle	hutchinson londonmelbourne .lippincott new york france army la france et son armée.tr.f.l.dash.
Charles de Gaulle	hutchinson london .ryerson press toronto war memoirs call honour – lappel.tr.jonathan griffin.collins london volumes.
Charles de Gaulle	viking press new york .war memoirs unity – lunité.tr.richard howard narrative joyce murchie hamish erskine documents.weidenfeld nicolson london volumes.simon schuster new york volumes.war memoirs salvation – le salut.
Charles de Gaulle	tr.richard howard narrative joyce murchie hamish erskine documents.weidenfeld nicolson london volumes.simon schuster new york volumes.memoirs hope renewal –.endeavour – le renouveau leffort.
Charles de Gaulle	tr.terence kilmartin.weidenfeld nicolson london .see also foreign policy charles de gaullegaullismgaullist partylist names terms address used charles de gaullelist things named charles de gaulle references reading biographies cogan charles.charles de gaulle brief biography documents.
Charles de Gaulle	.pp.fenby jonathan general charles de gaulle france saved..simon schuster.isbn jackson julian certain idea france life charles de gaulle pp magisterial work de gaulle.lacouture jean de gaulle rebel – english ed.
Charles de Gaulle	pp excerpt text search vol .de gaulle ruler – pp standard scholarly biography.ledwidge bernard .de gaulle.london weidenfeld nicolson.isbn .shennan andrew.
Charles de Gaulle	de gaulle pp.williams charles.last great frenchman life general de gaulle pp.excerpt text search world war ii berthon simon.allies war bitter rivalry among churchill roosevelt de gaulle..
Charles de Gaulle	pp.breuer william b. .unexplained mysteries world war ii ed.. book sales inc. isbn .total pages danan yves maxime république française capitale alger – lharmattan paris .deporte anton w. de gaulles foreign policy – funk arthur layton.charles de gaulle crucial years – online editionkeegan john six armies normandy dday liberation paris .kersaudy francois.churchill de gaulle nd ed pp.la feber walter.
Charles de Gaulle	roosevelt churchill indochina –.american historical review –.jstorpicknett lynn prince clive prior stephen .friendly fire secret war allies ed.. mainstream.isbn .
Charles de Gaulle	total pages pratt julius w. de gaulle united states rift began history teacher pp.– jstorrossi mario.united states military authorities free france – journal military history pp.– jstorweinberg gerhard l. visions victory hopes eight world war ii leaders..
Charles de Gaulle	pp.chapter de gaulle politics berstein serge peter morris.republic de gaulle – cambridge history modern france excerpt text searchcameron david r. hofferbert richard i. continuity change gaullism generals legacy.american journal political science –.issn statistical analysis gaullist voting coalition elections – fulltext abstract jstorcogan charles g. breakup general de gaulles separation power journal contemporary history vol.
Charles de Gaulle	no.jan. pp.– jstordiamond robert a. france de gaulle facts file highly detailed chronology –.ppfurniss edgar j. jr. de gaulle french army.gough hugh horne john eds.
Charles de Gaulle	de gaulle twentiethcentury france..pp.essays expertshauss charles.politics gaullist france coping chaos online editionhoffmann stanley.
Charles de Gaulle	decline renewal france since online editionjackson julian.general de gaulle enemies antigaullism france since transactions royal historical society th ser.vol.pp.– jstormerom gil.
Charles de Gaulle	grand design charles de gaulle end algerian war armed forces society pp – onlinenester william r. de gaulles legacy art power frances fifth republic palgrave macmillan northcutt wayne.historical dictionary french fourth fifth republics – pierce roy de gaulle rpf—a postmortem journal politics vol.no.feb. pp.– jstorrioux jeanpierre godfrey rogers.
Charles de Gaulle	fourth republic – cambridge history modern france shepard todd.invention decolonization algerian war remaking france..pp.williams philip m. martin harrison.de gaulles republic online edition foreign policy bozo frédéric.
Charles de Gaulle	two strategies europe de gaulle united states atlantic alliance gordon philip h. certain idea france french security policy gaullist legacy online editiongrosser alfred.french foreign policy de gaulle greenwood press hoffmann stanley.foreign policy charles de gaulle.diplomats – princeton university press pp.–.
Charles de Gaulle	onlinekolodziej edward a. french international policy de gaulle pompidou politics grandeur online editionkulski w. w. de gaulle world foreign policy fifth french republic online free borrowlogevall fredrik.de gaulle neutralization american involvement vietnam – pacific historical review feb. pp.– jstormahan e. kennedy de gaulle western europe..pp.mangold peter.
Charles de Gaulle	almost impossible ally harold macmillan charles de gaulle..pp.ib tauris london isbn martin garret joseph.general de gaulles cold war challenging american hegemony – berghahn books pagesmoravcsik andrew.
Charles de Gaulle	charles de gaulle europe new revisionism.journal cold war studies pp –.nuenlist christian.globalizing de gaulle international perspectives french foreign policies – newhouse john.de gaulle anglosaxons new york viking press paxton robert o. wahl nicholas eds.de gaulle united states centennial reassessment.
Charles de Gaulle	.pp.white dorothy shipley.black africa de gaulle french empire independence..pp.
Charles de Gaulle	ideas memory cerny philip g. politics grandeur ideological aspects de gaulles foreign policy..pp.clague monique.conceptions leadership charles de gaulle max weber political theory pp.– jstorconverse philip e. et al.
Charles de Gaulle	de gaulle eisenhower public image victorious general statistical analysis public opinion polls us francehazareesingh sudhir.shadow general modern france myth de gaulle online reviewhoffmann stanley.hero history de gaulles war memoirs hoffman decline renewal france since pp – online editionjohnson douglas.political principles general de gaulle international affairs pp.– jstormahoney daniel j. de gaulle statesmanship grandeur modern democracy.
Charles de Gaulle	.pp.intellectual historymahoney daniel j. man character statesmanship charles de gaulle polity pp.– jstormorrisey will.reflections de gaulle political founding modernity.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	.pp.intellectual historypedley alan.mighty sword study writings charles de gaulle pp external links fondation charlesdegaulleworks charles de gaulle internet archiveworks charles de gaulle libraries worldcat catalogmémorial charles de gaullenewspaper clippings charles de gaulle th century press archives zbwroman empire lost strengths allowed exercise effective control western provinces modern historians posit factors including effectiveness numbers army health numbers roman population strength economy competence emperors internal struggles power religious changes period efficiency civil administration.increasing pressure invading barbarians outside roman culture also contributed greatly collapse.climatic changes endemic epidemic disease drove many immediate factors.reasons collapse major subjects historiography ancient world inform much modern discourse state failure.in unmanageable numbers goths nonroman people fleeing huns entered empire.winning two destructive civil wars theodosius died leaving collapsing field army empire still plagued goths divided warring ministers two incapable sons.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	barbarian groups crossed rhine frontiers like goths exterminated expelled subjugated.armed forces western empire became ineffective despite brief recoveries able leaders central rule never effectively consolidated.by position western roman emperor wielded negligible military political financial power effective control scattered western domains could still described roman.barbarian kingdoms established power much area western empire.germanic barbarian king odoacer deposed last emperor western roman empire italy romulus augustulus senate sent imperial insignia eastern roman emperor flavius zeno.while legitimacy lasted centuries longer cultural influence remains today western empire never strength rise again.eastern roman byzantine empire survived although lessened strength remained centuries effective power eastern mediterranean.while loss political unity military control universally acknowledged fall unifying concept events period described late antiquity emphasizes cultural continuities throughout beyond political collapse.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	historical approaches modern syntheses since edward gibbon published first volume history decline fall roman empire decline fall theme around much history roman empire structured.eighteenth century onward historian glen bowersock wrote obsessed fall valued archetype every perceived decline hence symbol fears.the fall unifying concept events time period period described late antiquity emphasizes cultural continuities throughout beyond political collapse.another paradigm period least time henri pirenne scholars described continuity roman culture political legitimacy long .– pirenne postponed demise classical civilization th century.challenged notion germanic barbarians caused western roman empire end refused equate end western roman empire end office emperor italy.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	pointed essential continuity economy roman mediterranean even barbarian invasions suggested muslim conquests represented decisive break antiquity.the recent formulation historical period characterized late antiquity emphasizes transformations ancient medieval worlds within cultural continuity.recent decades archaeologically based argument even extends continuity material culture patterns settlement late eleventh century.observing political reality lost control attendant fragmentation commerce culture language also cultural archaeological continuities process described complex cultural transformation rather fall.result perception late antiquity significantly changed period longer seen era decline crisis epoch metamorphosis mediterranean region.concept late antiquity even presented invalidating idea fall debates nature late antiquity fact political rupture remains undisputed religious cultural view insists seeing process one continuity rather drastic change.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	timespan recent synthesis gives four decisive turns events transformation height empire early middle agesthe antonine plague ended long period demographic economic expansion weakening toppling empire.the crisis third century climatic change renewed pandemic disease internal external political instability led nearcollapse imperial system.reconstitution included new basis currency expanded professional government apparatus emperors distanced people shortly proselytizing exclusive religion anticipated imminent end world.the military political failure west mass migration eurasian steppe overcame dismembered western part internallyweakened empire.eastern empire rebuilt began reconquest west.in lands around mediterranean late antique little ice age plague justinian created one worst environmental cataclysms recorded history.imperial system crumbled next couple generations lost vast territories armies islam new proselytizing exclusive religion also looked forward imminent end time.diminished impoverished byzantine rump state survived amid perpetual strife among followers christianity islam.the loss centralized political control west lessened power east universally agreed theme decline taken cover much wider time span hundred years .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	cassius dio accession emperor commodus ce marked descent kingdom gold one rust iron.since age humanism process fall thought begun constantine great soldier emperors seized power command army commodus even augustus.gibbon also began narrative decline reign commodus number introductory chapters.arnold j. toynbee james burke argue entire imperial era one steady decay institutions founded republican times.theodor mommsen excluded imperial period nobel prizewinning history rome –.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	one convenient marker end used since gibbon key dates fall roman empire west include crisis third century crossing rhine sack rome death julius nepos .underlying causes harper summed new evidence modern discourse interpret disease climate change important drivers political collapse addition traditional discourse political decisions social weakness barbarian pressure.describes roman climatic optimum bce ce lands around mediterranean generally warm wellwatered.made agriculture prosperous army recruitment easy collection taxes straightforward.climate entered transitional period taxes less easy collect bore heavily working population.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	climate worsened late antique little ice age may directly contributed variety factors brought rome down.roman empire built fringes tropics.roads piratefree seas produced abundance trade also unknowingly created interconnected disease ecology unleashed evolution spread pathogens.pandemics contributed massive demographic changes economic crises food shortages crisis third century.massive populations moved empire driven huns may driven climate change eurasian steppe barbarian invasions led ultimately barbarian kingdoms much former territory western empire.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	final blow came late antique little ice age aftermath rome already politically fragmented materially depleted.edward gibbon gave classic outdated incomplete formulation reasons fall happened.gave great weight internal decline crippling empires ability respond attacks outside empire failure military discipline.also felt introduction least abuse christianity influence decline fall roman empire... incredulity miracles cautious estimation actual number christian martyrs immediately attacked continues arouse opposition.ideas fall foundation later discourse modern synthesis results archaeology epidemiology climatic history genetic science using diverse historiographical models.alexander demandt enumerated different theories rome fell.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	ideas produced since.a.h. m. jones pointed earlier scholarly views western relate western empire.weaknesses discussed scholars common halves empire christianity even prevalent east west.religious disputes bitter bureaucracy corrupt extortionate caste system land fell use east west.yet east stood ground fifth century fought back sixth even recovered territory seventh.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	east one apparent advantage geography.less vulnerable strategically west.narrowest sea crossing core territories protected northern barbarians fortifications sea land forces constantinople european frontier mouth rhine danube kilometres greatcircle distance could crossed much less difficulty.devastations barbarians impoverished depopulated western frontier provinces unceasing pressure imposed empire burden defense overstrained administrative machinery economic resources.... playing major part fall west.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	height power crises recoveries height power systematic weaknesses roman empire reached greatest geographical extent trajan r. – ruled prosperous state stretched armenia atlantic ocean.empire large numbers trained supplied disciplined soldiers drawn growing population.comprehensive civil administration based thriving cities effective control public finances.among literate elite empire ideological legitimacy worthwhile form civilization cultural unity based comprehensive familiarity greek roman literature rhetoric.empires power allowed maintain extreme differences wealth status including slavery large scale.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	wideranging trade networks permitted even modest households use goods made professionals far away.the empire strength resilience.financial system allowed raise significant taxes despite endemic corruption supported large regular army logistics training.cursus honorum standardized series military civil posts organised ambitious aristocratic men ensured powerful noblemen opportunity become familiar military civil command administration.lower level within army connecting aristocrats top private soldiers large number centurions wellrewarded literate responsible training discipline administration leadership battle.city governments properties revenues functioned effectively local level membership city councils involved lucrative opportunities independent decisionmaking despite obligations became seen privilege.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	series emperors adopted mature capable successor empire require civil wars regulate imperial succession.requests could submitted directly better emperors answers force law putting imperial power directly touch even humble subjects.cults polytheist religion hugely varied none claimed truth.followers displayed mutual tolerance producing polyphonous religious harmony.religious strife rare suppression bar kokhba revolt devastated judaea ceased major centre jewish unrest.nevertheless remained culture based early subsistence economy ineffective inklings germ theory disease.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	despite aqueducts water supply allow good hygiene.sewage disposed streets open drains scavenging animals.even roman climatic optimum local harvest failures causing famines always possibility.even good times roman women needed average six children order maintain population.good nourishment bodily cleanliness privileges rich advertised firm tread healthy skin color lack dull smell underbathed.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	infant mortality high diarrhoeal diseases major cause death.malaria endemic many areas notably city rome possibly encouraged enthusiasm rich romans water features gardens.climatic worsening plague climate became average somewhat worse inhabited lands around mediterranean.heavy mortality – antonine plague seriously impaired attempts repel germanic invaders legions generally held least speedily reinstated borders empire.crisis third century empire suffered multiple serious crises third century.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	rising sassanid empire inflicted three crushing defeats roman field armies remained potent threat centuries.disasters included repeated civil wars barbarian invasions massmortality plague cyprian onwards.short period empire split gallic empire west – palmyrene empire east – central roman rump state rome abandoned province dacia north danube.rhinedanube frontier also came effective threats larger barbarian groupings developed improved agriculture increased populations.average stature population west suffered serious decline late second century population northwestern europe recover though mediterranean regions did.the empire survived crisis third century directing economy successfully towards defense survival came price centralized bureaucratic state.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	gallienus emperor senatorial aristocracy ceased joining ranks senior military commanders.typical members lacked interest military service showed incompetence command.reunification political division aurelian reunited empire diocletian successors reorganized emphasis military.john lydian writing two centuries later reported diocletians army one point totaled men plus fleets numbers may increased later.limited communications time european eastern frontiers needed attention supreme commanders.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	diocletian tried solve problem reestablishing adoptive succession senior augustus junior caesar emperor half empire system tetrarchy broke within one generation hereditary principle reestablished generally unfortunate results.thereafter civil war became main method establishing new imperial regimes.although constantine great office reunited empire towards end fourth century need division generally accepted.empire existed constant tension need two emperors mutual mistrust.until late fourth century united empire retained sufficient power launch powerful attacks enemies germania sasanian empire.receptio barbarians became widely practised imperial authorities admitted potentially hostile groups empire split allotted lands status duties within imperial system.in way many groups provided unfree workers coloni roman landowners recruits laeti roman army.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	sometimes leaders became officers.normally romans managed process carefully sufficient military force hand ensure compliance.cultural assimilation followed next generation two.growing social divisions new supreme rulers disposed legal fiction early empire seeing emperor first among equals emperors aurelian r. – onwards openly styled dominus et deus lord god titles appropriate masterslave relationship.elaborate court ceremonial developed obsequious flattery became order day.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	diocletian flow direct requests emperor rapidly reduced soon ceased altogether.form direct access replaced emperor received information filtered courtiers.official cruelty supporting extortion corruption may also become commonplace.scale complexity violence government unmatched emperors lost control whole realm insofar control came increasingly wielded anyone paid it.meanwhile richest senatorial families immune taxation engrossed available wealth income also becoming divorced tradition military excellence.one scholar identifies great increase purchasing power gold two half fold later fourth century.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	may index growing economic inequality goldrich elite cashpoor peasantry.within late roman military many recruits even officers barbarian origins.soldiers recorded using possiblybarbarian rituals elevating claimant shields.scholars seen indication weakness.others disagree seeing neither barbarian recruits new rituals causing problem effectiveness loyalty army least army led officers identified roman effectively disciplined trained paid supplied.– abuse power frontier warfare rise christianity constantine great declared official toleration christianity.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	followed ensuing decades official search definition christian orthodoxy.official private action taken heterodox christians.limited action pagans mostly ignored based contempt accompanied christianitys sense triumph constantine.successors generally continued approach christianity became religion ambitious civil official.constantine cities lost revenue local taxes constantius ii r. – endowments property.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	worsened existing difficulty keeping city councils strength services provided cities scamped abandoned.public building projects became fewer.evidence state participation support restoration maintenance temples shrines.restorations funded accomplished privately increasingly limited done.– financial abuse constantiuss habit granting immediate entourage estates persons condemned treason capital crimes.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	practice reduced future though immediate income close emperor gained strong incentive encourage suspicion conspiracies.constantine settled franks lower left bank rhine.communities required line fortifications keep check indicating rome lost almost local control.constantius bandits came dominate areas isauria well within empire.tribes germania also became populous threatening.gaul really recover invasions third century widespread insecurity economic decline perhaps worst armorica.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	decades pirate attacks virtually villas armorica deserted.local use money ceased .repeated attempts economize military expenditure included billeting troops cities could less easily kept military discipline could easily extort civilians.except rare case determined incorruptible general troops proved ineffective action dangerous civilians.frontier troops often given land rather pay.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	farmed direct costs diminished effectiveness pay gave much less stimulus frontier economy.however except provinces along lower rhine agricultural economy generally well.the numbers effectiveness regular soldiers may declined fourth century.payrolls inflated pay could diverted exemptions duty sold soldiers opportunities personal extortion multiplied residence cities effectiveness reduced concentration extortion instead military exercises.however extortion gross corruption occasional ineffectiveness new roman army.consensus whether effectiveness significantly declined .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	ammianus marcellinus professional soldier repeats longstanding observations superiority contemporary roman armies due training discipline individual size strength.despite possible decrease empires ability assemble supply large armies rome maintained aggressive potent stance perceived threats almost end fourth century.julian r. – launched drive official corruption allowed tax demands gaul reduced onethird previous amount government requirements still met.civil legislation julian notable propagan policies.julian lifted ban sacrifices restored reopened temples dismantled privileged tax status revenue concessions christians.gave generous tax remissions cities favored disfavor remained christian.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	– julian ordered toleration varieties christianity banned heretical constantius possibly would able persecute effectively large powerful group christians become.– julian victories germans invaded gaul.launched expensive campaign sasanian persians ended defeat death.succeeded marching sassanid capital ctesiphon suggestion persian agent burned boats supplies show resolve continuing operations.sassanids began attrition warfare burning crops.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	finding cut without supplies enemy territory began land retreat battle samarra mortally wounded.facts death become obscured war words christians pagans followed.principally source fatal spear... thought julian might died hand one side... godsend christian tradition eager apostate emperor accorded desserts.yet rumor solely product religious polemic.roots broader trail disaffection julian left wake.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	julians successor jovian acclaimed demoralized army began brief reign – trapped mesopotamia without supplies.purchase safe passage home concede areas northern mesopotamia including strategically important fortress nisibis.fortress roman since peace nisibis .the brothers valens r. – valentinian r. – energetically tackled threats barbarian attacks western frontiers.also tried alleviate burdens taxation risen continuously previous forty years valens east reduced tax demand half fourth year.christians reconfiscated temple lands julian restored.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	generally tolerant beliefs.valentinian west refused intervene christian controversy.east valens deal christians conform ideas orthodoxy persecution formed part response.tolerated paganism even keeping julians associates trusted positions.confirmed rights privileges pagan priests confirmed right pagans exclusive caretakers temples.the wealth christian church increased dramatically.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	immense resources public private used building churches storage barns grain used charity new hospitals poor support religious life without income.bishops wealthy cities thus able offer patronage long established manner roman aristocrats.ammianus described enriched offerings matrons ride seated carriages wearing clothing chosen care serve banquets lavish entertainments outdo tables kings.move christianity probably significant effects public finances.large temple complexes professional fulltime priests festivals large numbers sacrifices became free food masses also expensive maintain.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	already negatively impacted empires financial struggles third century.numbers clergy monks nuns increased perhaps half size actual army considered drain limited manpower.valentinian died apoplexy shouting envoys germanic leaders.successors west children sons gratian r. – valentinian ii r. –.gratian alien art government temperament training removed altar victory senate house.also rejected pagan title pontifex maximus.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	– invasions civil wars religious discord battle adrianople east faced enormous barbarian influx across danube mostly goths fleeing huns.exploited corrupt officials rather effectively relieved resettled took arms joined goths alans huns.valens asia main field army preparing assault sasanian empire.redirection army logistic support would required time gratians armies distracted germanic invasions across rhine.valens attacked invaders eastern field army perhaps men probably much fewer forces julian led mesopotamia little decade possibly soldiers nominally available danube provinces.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	battle adrianople august valens lost much army life.balkan provinces thus exposed raiding without effective response remaining garrisons easily slaughtered sheep.cities able hold defensive walls barbarians siege equipment therefore cities generally remained intact although countryside suffered.partial recovery balkans internal corruption financial desperation gratian appointed new augustus proven general hispania called theodosius.next four years partially reestablished roman position east.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	campaigns depended effective imperial coordination mutual trust — theodosius controlled eastern empire also agreement diocese illyricum.theodosius unable recruit enough roman troops relying barbarian warbands without roman military discipline loyalty.contrast cimbrian war roman republic controlling smaller area western empire able reconstitute large regular armies citizens greater defeats adrianople.war ended nearextermination invading barbarian supergroups supposed warriors.the final gothic settlement acclaimed relief even official panegyrist admitting goths could expelled exterminated reduced unfree status.instead either recruited imperial forces settled devastated provinces along south bank danube regular garrisons never fully reestablished.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	later accounts widely recent work regarded treaty settlement first time barbarians given home within empire retained political military cohesion.formal treaty recorded details whatever agreement actually made.goths next mentioned roman records different leaders soldiers sort.alaric gothic leader rebelled roman control.goths attacked emperor within year alaric accepted leader theodosiuss gothic troops rebellion over.theodosiuss financial position must difficult since pay expensive campaigning reduced tax base.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	business subduing barbarian warbands also demanded substantial gifts precious metal.least one extra levy provoked desperation rioting emperors statues destroyed.nevertheless represented financially generous emperor though frugal personal life.end theodosius court mediolanum northern italy experiencing period prosperity great landowners took advantage courts need food turning agrarian produce gold repressing misusing poor grew brought in.paulinus deacon notary ambrose bishop milan described men creating court everything sale.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	ambrose preached series sermons aimed wealthy constituents asserting avarice leads breakdown society.for centuries theodosius regarded champion christian orthodoxy decisively stamped paganism.predecessors constantine constantius ii valens semiarians theodosius established trinitarian christianity authorized official orthodox version christology later christian churches edict thessalonica described christians foolish madmen.therefore received christian literary tradition credit final triumph christianity.modern scholars see simplistic interpretation christian writers rather balanced representation history.civil wars theodosius face powerful usurper west magnus maximus declared emperor stripped troops outlying regions roman britain probably replacing federate chieftains warbands invaded gaul.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	troops killed gratian accepted augustus gallic provinces responsible first official executions christian heretics.compensate western court loss gaul hispania britannia theodosius ceded diocese dacia diocese macedonia control.maximus invaded italy forcing valentinian ii flee east accepted nicene christianity.maximus boasted ambrose numbers barbarians forces hordes goths huns alans followed theodosius.maximus negotiated theodosius acceptance augustus west theodosius refused gathered armies counterattacked winning civil war .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	heavy troop losses sides conflict.later welsh legend maximuss defeated troops resettled armorica instead returning britannia armorica controlled bagaudae rather imperial authority.theodosius restored valentinian ii still young man augustus west.also appointed arbogast pagan general frankish origin valentinians commanderinchief guardian.valentinian quarreled public arbogast failed assert authority died either suicide murder age .arbogast theodosius failed come terms arbogast nominated imperial official eugenius r. – emperor west.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	eugenius made modest attempts win pagan support arbogast led large army fight another destructive civil war.defeated killed battle frigidus attended heavy losses especially among gothic federates theodosius.northeastern approaches italy never effectively garrisoned again.theodosius died months later early leaving young sons honorius r. – arcadius r. – emperors.immediate aftermath theodosiuss death magister militum stilicho married theodosiuss niece asserted west guardian honorius commander remains defeated western army.also claimed control arcadius constantinople rufinus magister officiorum spot already established power there.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	henceforward empire control one man much west permanently lost.neither honorius arcadius ever displayed ability either rulers generals lived puppet rulers courts.stilicho tried reunite eastern western courts personal control achieved continued hostility arcadiuss successive supreme ministers.military financial political ineffectiveness process failure ineffectiveness roman military responses stilichos rule afterwards described shocking.little evidence indigenous field forces adequate training discipline pay supply barbarians formed available troops.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	local defence occasionally effective often associated withdrawal central control taxes.many areas barbarians roman authority attacked culturallyroman bagaudae.fifthcentury western emperors brief exceptions individuals incapable ruling effectively even controlling courts.exceptions responsible brief remarkable resurgences roman power.corruption context diversion finance needs army may contributed greatly fall.rich senatorial aristocrats rome became increasingly influential fifth century supported armed strength theory wish pay offer workers army recruits.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	however pass large amounts money christian church.local level early fourth century town councils lost property power often became concentrated hands local despots beyond reach law.– stilicho without authoritative ruler balkan provinces fell rapidly disorder.alaric disappointed hopes promotion magister militum battle frigidus.led gothic tribesmen arms established independent power burning countryside far walls constantinople.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	alarics ambitions longterm roman office never quite acceptable roman imperial courts men could never settle long enough farm one area.showed inclination leave empire face huns fled .meanwhile huns still stirring migrations migrating tribes often attacking roman empire turn.alarics group never destroyed expelled empire acculturated effective roman domination.stilichos attempts unify empire revolts invasions alaric took gothic army stilichos propagandist claudian described pillaging campaign began first east.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	alarics forces made way along coast athens sought force new peace upon romans.march passed thermopylae.stilicho sailed italy roman greece remaining mobile forces posing clear threat rufinus control eastern empire.bulk rufinus forces occupied hunnic incursions asia minor syria leaving thracia undefended.stilichos propagandist claudian reports stilichos attack stemmed plundering pushed alarics forces north epirus.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	burns interpretation alaric men recruited rufinuss eastern regime sent thessaly stave stilichos threat.battle took place.zosimus adds stilichos troops destroyed pillaged let alarics men escape plunder.many stilichos eastern forces wanted go home let go though claudian claims willingly.went constantinople command one gainas goth large gothic following.arrival gainas murdered rufinus appointed magister militum thrace eutropius new supreme minister eunuch consul rome.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	eutropius reportedly controlled arcadius sheep.stilicho obtained troops german frontier continued campaign ineffectively eastern empire successfully opposed alaric men.next year eutropius personally led troops victory huns marauding asia minor.position thus strengthened declared stilicho public enemy established alaric magister militum per illyricum.poem synesius advises emperor display manliness remove skinclad savage probably alaric councils power barbarians roman army.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	know arcadius ever became aware existence advice recorded effect.synesius province suffering widespread ravages poor greedy barbarians also complained peacetime war one almost worse barbarian war arising military indiscipline officers greed.the magister militum diocese africa declared east stopped supply grain rome.italy fed centuries could now.stilicho sent last reserves thousand men retake diocese africa.strengthened position married daughter maria honorius.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	throughout period stilicho generals desperately short recruits supplies them.stilicho charged press service laetus alamannus sarmatian vagrant son veteran person liable serve.reached bottom recruitment pool.though personally corrupt active confiscating assets financial administrative machine producing enough support army.in tribigilds rebellion asia minor allowed gainas accumulate significant army mostly goths become supreme eastern court execute eutropius.felt could dispense alarics services nominally transferred alarics province west.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	administrative change removed alarics roman rank entitlement legal provisioning men leaving army—the significant force ravaged balkans—as problem stilicho.citizens constantinople revolted gainas massacred many people soldiers families could catch.goths least built rafts tried cross strip sea separates asia europe roman navy slaughtered them.beginning gainas head rode pike constantinople another gothic general became consul.meanwhile groups huns started series attacks across danube isaurians marauded far wide anatolia.in stilicho travelled alps raetia scrape troops.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	left rhine defended dread roman retaliation rather adequate forces able take field.early spring alaric probably desperate invaded italy drove honorius westward mediolanum besieging hasta pompeia liguria.stilicho returned soon passes cleared meeting alaric two battles near pollentia verona without decisive results.goths weakened allowed retreat back illyricum western court gave alaric office though comes dalmatia pannonia secunda rather whole illyricum.stilicho probably supposed pact would allow put italian government order recruit fresh troops.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	may also planned alarics help relaunch attempts gain control eastern court.however stilicho distracted fresh invasion northern italy.another group goths fleeing huns led one radagaisus devastated north italy six months stilicho could muster enough forces take field them.stilicho recalled troops britannia depth crisis shown urged roman soldiers allow personal slaves fight beside them.forces including huns alans may end totalled rather less men.radagaisus defeated executed prisoners defeated horde drafted stilichos service.

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