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Fall of the Western Roman Empire	stilicho continued negotiations alaric flavius aetius son one stilichos major supporters sent hostage alaric .in stilicho heard new invaders rebels appeared northern provinces.insisted making peace alaric probably basis alaric would prepare move either eastern court rebels gaul.senate deeply resented peace alaric.in alaric marched noricum demanded large payment expensive efforts stilichos interests.senate inspired courage rather wisdom predecessors preferred war.one senator famously declaimed non est ista pax sed pactio servitutis peace pact servitude.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	stilicho paid alaric four thousand pounds gold nevertheless.stilicho sent sarus gothic general alps face usurper constantine iii.sarus lost campaign barely escaped leave baggage bandits infested alpine passes.the empress maria daughter stilicho died early sister aemilia materna thermantia married honorius.east arcadius died may replaced son theodosius ii.stilicho seems planned march constantinople install regime loyal himself.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	may also intended give alaric senior official position send rebels gaul.could away ticinum head small detachment bloody coup détat supporters took place honoriuss court.led stilichos creature one olympius.– end effective regular field armies starvation italy sack rome stilichos fall alarics reaction stilicho news coup bononia probably waiting alaric.army barbarian troops including guard huns many goths sarus discussed attacking forces coup stilicho prevented heard emperor harmed.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	saruss gothic troops massacred hun contingent sleep stilicho withdrew quarreling remains army ravenna.ordered former soldiers admitted cities families billeted.stilicho forced flee church sanctuary promised life killed.alaric declared enemy emperor.conspiracy massacred families federate troops presumed supporters stilicho although probably rebelled troops defected en masse alaric.conspirators seem let main army disintegrate policy except hunting anyone regarded supporters stilicho.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	italy left without effective indigenous defence forces thereafter.heraclianus coconspirator olympius became governor diocese africa.consequently controlled source italys grain supplied food interests honoriuss regime.as declared enemy emperor alaric denied legitimacy needed collect taxes hold cities without large garrisons could afford detach.offered move men time pannonia exchange modest sum money modest title comes.refused olympiuss clique still regarded supporter stilicho.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	moved italy probably using route supplies arranged stilicho bypassing imperial court ravenna protected widespread marshland port menaced city rome itself.equivalent determined response catastrophic battle cannae bce entire roman population even slaves mobilized resist enemy.alarics military operations centred port rome romes grain supply pass.alarics first siege rome caused dreadful famine within walls.ended payment though large less one richest senators could produced.superrich aristocrats made little contribution pagan temples stripped ornaments make total.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	promises freedom alaric also recruited many slaves rome.alaric withdrew tuscany recruited slaves.ataulf goth nominally roman service brotherinlaw alaric marched italy join alaric.took casualties small force hunnic mercenaries led olympius.sarus enemy ataulf ataulfs arrival went back imperial service.alaric besieges rome olympius fell intrigue ears cut beaten death.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	alaric tried negotiate honorius demands even moderate frontier land food inflated messenger honorius responded insults reported verbatim alaric.broke negotiations standoff continued.honoriuss court made overtures usurper constantine iii gaul arranged bring hunnic forces italy alaric ravaged italy outside fortified cities could garrison romans refused open battle inadequate forces.late year alaric sent bishops express readiness leave italy honorius would grant people supply grain.honorius sensing weakness flatly refused.alaric moved rome captured galla placidia sister honorius.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	senate rome despite loathing alaric desperate enough give almost anything wanted.food offer tried give imperial legitimacy senates acquiescence elevated priscus attalus puppet emperor marched ravenna.honorius planning flee constantinople reinforcing army soldiers east disembarked ravenna.garrisoned walls honorius held on.constantines principal court supporter executed constantine abandoned plans march honoriuss defence.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	attalus failed establish control diocese africa grain arrived rome famine became even frightful.jerome reports cannibalism within walls.attalus brought alaric real advantage failing also come useful agreement honorius attalus offered mutilation humiliation exile.indeed attaluss claim marker threat honorius alaric dethroned months.in alaric took rome starvation sacked three days.invited remaining barbarian slaves join many did.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	relatively little destruction.christian holy places alarics men even refrained wanton violence jerome tells story virgin escorted church invaders given mother beating later died.city rome seat richest senatorial noble families centre cultural patronage.pagans sacred origin empire christians seat heir saint peter.time position held pope innocent authoritative bishop west.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	rome fallen enemy since battle allia eight centuries before.refugees spread news stories throughout empire meaning fall debated religious fervour.christians pagans wrote embittered tracts blaming paganism christianity respectively loss romes supernatural protection attacking stilichos earthly failures.christian responses anticipated imminence last judgment.augustine hippo book city god ultimately rejected pagan christian idea religion worldly benefits.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	instead developed doctrine city god heaven undamaged mundane disasters true objective christians.practically honorius briefly persuaded set aside laws forbidding pagans military officers one generidus could reestablish roman control dalmatia.generidus unusual effectiveness.techniques remarkable period included training troops disciplining giving appropriate supplies even use money.penal laws reinstated later august meaning overall trend repression paganism continued.procopius mentions story honorius hearing news rome perished shocked.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	emperor thought news reference favorite chicken named roma.hearing rome fallen breathed sigh reliefat time say emperor honorius ravenna received message one eunuchs evidently keeper poultry roma perished.cried said yet eaten hands large cockerel roma name eunuch comprehending words said city roma perished hands alaric emperor sigh relief answered quickly thought fowl roma perished.great say folly emperor possessed.goths move italy alaric moved south intending sail africa.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	ships wrecked storm shortly died fever.successor athaulf still regarded usurper given occasional shortterm grants supplies moved north turmoil gaul.region prospect food.supergroup barbarians called visigoths modern works may developing sense identity.– gallic provinces barbarians usurpers loss britannia partial loss hispania gaul crossing rhine brought unmanageable numbers germanic alan barbarians perhaps warriors people gaul.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	may trying get away huns time advanced occupy great hungarian plain.next years barbarian tribes wandered search food employment roman forces fought name honorius number competing claimants imperial throne.the remaining troops britannia elevated succession imperial usurpers.last constantine iii raised army remaining troops britannia invaded gaul defeated forces loyal honorius led sarus.constantines power reached peak controlled gaul beyond joint consul honorius magister militum gerontius defeated last roman force try hold borders hispania.led relatives honorius constantine executed them.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	gerontius went hispania may settled sueves asding vandals.gerontius fell master elevated one maximus puppet emperor.defeated constantine besieging arelate honoriuss general constantius arrived italy army possibly composed mainly hun mercenaries.gerontiuss troops deserted committed suicide.constantius continued siege defeating relieving army.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	constantine surrendered promise life would spared executed.in roman civitates britannia rebelled constantine evicted officials.asked help honorius replied look defence.british may regarded roman several generations british armies may times fought gaul central roman government known appointed officials britannia thereafter.supply coinage diocese britannia ceases honorius.in jovinus rebelled took constantines remaining troops rhine.relied support burgundians alans offered supplies land.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	jovinus also recruited sarus.athaulf destroyed regime name honorius afterwards jovinus sarus executed.burgundians settled left bank rhine.athaulf operated south gaul sometimes shortterm supplies romans.usurpers defeated large barbarian groups remained unsubdued gaul hispania.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	imperial government quick restore rhine frontier.invading tribes moved hispania end visigoths left italy beginning settled around narbo.heraclianus still command diocese africa.last member clique overthrown stilicho retain power.led invasion italy lost subordinate constantius.fled back africa murdered constantiuss agents.in january roman naval forces blockaded athaulf narbo married galla placidia.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	choir wedding included attalus puppet emperor without revenues soldiers.athaulf famously declared abandoned intention set gothic empire irredeemable barbarity followers instead sought restore roman empire.handed attalus honoriuss regime mutilation humiliation exile.also abandoned attaluss supporters.one paulinus pellaeus recorded goths considered merciful allowed household leave destitute alive without raped.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	athaulf moved gaul barcelona infant son galla placidia buried assassinated one household retainers possibly former follower sarus.ultimate successor wallia agreement romans people plunder hispania food.settlement barbarians within empire wallia reached agreement constantius sent galla placidia back honorius received provisions six hundred thousand modii wheat.wallias goths campaigned hispania constantiuss behalf exterminating siling vandals baetica reducing alans point survivors sought protection king asding vandals.retrenchment formed another barbarian supergroup moment reduced numbers effectively cowed.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	agreement constantius wallias goths accepted land farm aquitania.constantius also reinstituted annual council southern gallic provinces meet arelate.although constantius rebuilt western field army extent replacing half units vanished wars since regraded barbarians garrison troops removed frontier.notitia dignitatum gives list units western field army circa .give strengths units a. h. m. jones used notitia estimate total strength field armies west gaul “about” italy “nearly” britain spain – diocese illyricum – diocese africa .constantius married princess galla placidia despite protests .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	couple soon two children honoria valentinian iii.constantius elevated position augustus .earned hostility eastern court agreed elevation.nevertheless constantius achieved unassailable position western court imperial family able commanderinchief partially restored army.this settlement represented real success empire poem rutilius namatianus celebrates voyage back gaul confidence restoration prosperity.marked huge losses territory revenue rutilius travelled ship past ruined bridges countryside tuscany west river loire become effective northern boundary roman gaul.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	east gaul franks controlled large areas effective line roman control ran north cologne lost ripuarian franks boulogne.italian areas compelled support goths taxes remitted several years.even southern gaul hispania large barbarian groups remained thousands warriors nonroman military social systems.occasionally acknowledged degree roman political control without local application roman leadership military power individual subgroups pursued interests.– renewed dissension death constantius partial loss diocese africa constantius died seven months augustus.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	careful make sure successor waiting children far young take place.honorius unable control court death constantius initiated ten years instability.initially galla placidia sought honoriuss favour hope son might ultimately inherit.court interests managed defeat fled children eastern court .honorius died shortly thirtyninth birthday .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	months intrigue patrician castinus installed joannes western emperor eastern roman government proclaimed child valentinian iii instead mother galla placidia acting regent minority.joannes troops own.sent aetius raise help huns.eastern army landed italy captured joannes cut hand abused public killed senior officials.aetius returned three days joannes death head substantial hunnic army made powerful general italy.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	fighting placidia aetius came agreement huns paid sent home aetius received position magister militum.galla placidia augusta mother emperor guardian could maintain dominant position court women ancient rome exercise military power could become general.tried years avoid reliance single dominant military figure maintaining balance power three senior officers aetius magister militum gaul count boniface governor diocese africa flavius felix magister militum praesentalis italy.meanwhile empire deteriorated seriously.apart losses diocese africa hispania slipping central control hands local rulers suevic bandits.gaul rhine frontier collapsed visigoths aquitaine may launched attacks narbo arelate franks increasingly powerful although disunited major power northeast.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	armorica controlled bagaudae local leaders authority empire.aetius least campaigned vigorously mostly victoriously defeating aggressive visigoths franks fresh germanic invaders bagaudae armorica rebellion noricum.first time romes history triumvirate mutually distrustful rulers proved unstable.felix tried recall boniface africa.boniface refused overcame felixs invading force.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	boniface probably recruited vandal troops among others.in vandals alans united able ferocious longlived king genseric moved entire people tarifa near gibraltar divided groups nominally people perhaps warriors total crossed hispania mauretania without opposition.spent year moving slowly numidia defeating boniface.returned italy aetius recently felix executed.boniface promoted magister militum earned enmity aetius may absent gaul time.two met battle ravenna left aetiuss forces defeated boniface mortally wounded.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	aetius temporarily retired estates attempt murder raised another hunnic army probably conceding parts pannonia returned italy overcoming rivals.never threatened become augustus thus maintained support eastern court valentinians cousin theodosius ii reigned .– ascendancy aetius loss carthage aetius campaigned vigorously somewhat stabilizing situation gaul hispania.relied heavily forces huns.ferocity celebrated centuries later nibelungenlied huns slaughtered many burgundiones middle rhine reestablishing survivors roman allies first kingdom burgundians.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	may returned sort roman authority trier.eastern troops reinforced carthage temporarily halting vandals agreed limit numidia leave fertile parts north africa peace.aetius concentrated limited military resources defeat visigoths diplomacy restored degree order hispania.however general litorius badly defeated visigoths toulouse new suevic king rechiar began vigorous assaults remained roman hispania.one point rechiar even allied bagaudae.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	romans imperial control reasons rebellion may indicated remarks roman captive attila happy lot giving lively account vices declining empire long victim cruel absurdity roman princes unable protect subjects public enemy unwilling trust arms defence intolerable weight taxes rendered still oppressive intricate arbitrary modes collection obscurity numerous contradictory laws tedious expensive forms judicial proceedings partial administration justice universal corruption increased influence rich aggravated misfortunes poor.vegetiuss advice reforming effective army may dated early though date also suggested.identified many deficiencies military especially mentioning soldiers longer properly equippedfrom foundation city till reign emperor gratian foot wore cuirasses helmets.negligence sloth degrees introduced total relaxation discipline soldiers began think armor heavy seldom put on.first requested leave emperor lay aside cuirass afterwards helmet.consequence troops engagements goths often overwhelmed showers arrows.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	necessity obliging infantry resume cuirasses helmets discovered notwithstanding repeated defeats brought destruction many great cities.troops defenseless exposed weapons enemy disposed fly fight.expected footarcher without cuirass helmet cannot hold bow shield ensigns whose bodies naked cannot time carry shield colors foot soldier finds weight cuirass even helmet intolerable.seldom exercised rarely puts on.a religious polemic time complains bitterly oppression extortion suffered richest romans.many wished flee bagaudae even foulsmelling barbarians.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	although men differ customs language taken refuge unaccustomed may say nauseous odor bodies clothing barbarians yet prefer strange life find injustice rife among romans.find men passing everywhere goths bagaudae whatever barbarians established power anywhere ... call men rebels utterly abandoned forced crime.causes made bagaudae save unjust acts wicked decisions magistrates proscription extortion turned public exactions increase private fortunes made tax indictions opportunity plundergildas thcentury monk author de excidio et conquestu britanniae wrote sooner ravages enemy checked island britain deluged extraordinary plenty things greater known grew every kind luxury licentiousness.nevertheless effective imperial protection barbarian ravages eagerly sought.time authorities britannia asked aetius help aetius consul third time groans britons.little thus barbarians drive us sea sea throws us back barbarians thus two modes death await us either slain drowned.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	romans however could assist them...the visigoths passed another waymark journey full independence made foreign policy sending princesses make rather unsuccessful marriage alliances rechiar sueves huneric son vandal king genseric.in vandals moved eastward temporarily abandoning numidia.captured carthage established vandal kingdom independent state powerful navy.brought immediate financial crisis western empire.diocese africa prosperous normally required troops keep secure contributed large tax revenues exported wheat feed rome many areas.roman troops assembled sicily planned counterattack never happened.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	huns attacked eastern empire troops sent genseric hastily recalled sicily garrisons side persia exhausted military force collected europe formidable arms numbers generals understood science command soldiers duty obedience.armies eastern empire vanquished three successive engagements ... hellespont thermopylae suburbs constantinople attila ravaged without resistance without mercy provinces thrace macedonia attilas invasions east stopped theodosian walls heavily fortified eastern end mediterranean significant barbarian invasions across sea rich southerly areas anatolia levant egypt.despite internal external threats religious discord west provinces remained prosperous contributors tax revenue despite ravages attilas armies extortions peace treaties tax revenue generally continued adequate essential state functions eastern empire.genseric settled vandals landowners.able negotiate favourable peace terms western court.kept latest gains eldest son huneric honoured betrothal valentinian iiis daughter eudocia.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	carried legitimacy conjoined valentinianic theodosian dynasties.hunerics gothic wife suspected trying poison fatherinlaw genseric sent home without nose ears gothic alliance came early end.romans regained numidia rome received grain supply africa.the losses income diocese africa equivalent costs nearly infantry cavalry.imperial regime increase taxes.despite admitting peasantry could pay sufficient army could raised imperial regime protected interests landowners displaced africa allowed wealthy individuals avoid taxes.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	– attacks empire attila hun huns united attila.subjects included huns outnumbered several times groups predominantly germanic peoples.power rested partly continued ability reward favoured followers precious metals continued attack eastern empire extracted vast sums money many concessions.attila may needed excuse turn west received one form plea help honoria emperors sister forced marriage resented.attila claimed honoria wife half western empires territory dowry.faced refusal invaded gaul huge army.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	bloody battle catalaunian plains invasion stopped combined forces barbarians within western empire.coordinated aetius supported troops could muster.next year attila invaded italy proceeded march upon rome.outbreak disease army lack supplies reports eastern roman troops attacking noncombatant population pannonia possibly pope leo plea peace induced halt campaign.attila unexpectedly died year later empire crumbled followers fought power.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	life severinus noricum gives glimpses general insecurity ultimate retreat romans upper danube aftermath attilas death.romans without adequate forces barbarians inflicted haphazard extortion murder kidnap plunder romans other.long roman dominion lasted soldiers maintained many towns public expense guard boundary wall.custom ceased squadrons soldiers boundary wall blotted together.troop batavis however held out.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	soldiers troop gone italy fetch final pay comrades one knew barbarians slain way.in aetius personally stabbed death valentinian.valentinian thought slain master found slain protector fell helpless victim first conspiracy hatched throne.valentinian murdered dead generals supporters year later.rich senatorial aristocrat petronius maximus encouraged murders seized throne.broke engagement princess eudocia huneric heir vandal throne.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	amounted declaration war vandals.petronius time send avitus ask help visigoths gaul vandal fleet arrived italy.petronius unable muster effective defence tried flee city torn pieces mob paraded bits around pole.vandals entered rome plundered two weeks.despite shortage money defence state considerable private wealth accumulated since previous sack .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	vandals sailed away large amounts treasure also princess eudocia.became wife one vandal king mother another hilderic.the vandals conquered sicily.fleet became constant danger roman sea trade coasts islands western mediterranean.– failure avitus losses gaul rise ricimer avitus visigothic court burdigala declared emperor.moved rome visigothic support.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	gained acceptance majorian ricimer commanders remaining army italy.first time barbarian kingdom played key role imperial succession.avituss soninlaw sidonius apollinaris wrote propaganda present visigothic king theoderic ii reasonable man roman regime could business.theoderics payoff included precious metal stripping remaining public ornaments italy unsupervised campaign hispania.defeated sueves executing brotherinlaw rechiar also plundered roman cities.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	burgundians expanded kingdom rhône valley vandals took remains diocese africa.visigothic army heavily engaged hispania effective threat italy.ricimer destroyed pirate fleet sixty vandal ships.majorian ricimer marched avitus defeated near placentia.forced become bishop placentia died possibly murdered weeks later.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	– resurgence majorian attempt recover africa control ricimer majorian ricimer control italy.ricimer son suevic king mother daughter gothic one could aspire imperial throne.months allowing negotiation new emperor constantinople defeat alamannic invaders italy one subordinates majorian acclaimed augustus.majorian described gibbon great heroic character.rebuilt army navy italy vigour set recovering remaining gallic provinces recognized elevation.defeated visigoths battle arelate reducing federate status obliging give claims hispania moved subdue burgundians galloromans around lugdunum granted tax concessions whose senior officials appointed ranks suevi bagaudae hispania.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	marcellinus magister militum dalmatia pagan general wellequipped army acknowledged emperor recovered sicily vandals.aegidius also acknowledged majorian took effective charge northern gaul.aegidius may also used title king franks.abuses tax collection reformed city councils strengthened.actions necessary rebuild strength empire disadvantageous richest aristocrats.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	majorian prepared fleet carthago nova essential reconquest diocese africa.the fleet burned traitors majorian made peace vandals returned italy.ricimer met arrested executed five days later.marcellinus dalmatia aegidius around soissons northern gaul rejected ricimer puppets maintained version roman rule areas.ricimer later ceded narbo hinterland visigoths exchange help aegidius made impossible roman armies march italy hispania.ricimer effective ruler italy little else several years.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	pious italian aristocrat libius severus reigned.record anything significant even tried achieve never acknowledged east whose help ricimer needed died conveniently .– anthemius emperor army east two years without western emperor eastern court nominated anthemius successful general strong claim eastern throne.arrived italy army supported marcellinus fleet.anthemius married daughter alypia ricimer proclaimed augustus .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	vast expense eastern empire assembled enormous force help west retake diocese africa.marcellinus rapidly drove vandals sardinia sicily land invasion evicted tripolitania.commander chief main force defeated vandal fleet near sicily landed cape bon.genseric offered surrender could fiveday truce prepare process.used respite prepare fullscale attack preceded fireships destroyed roman fleet killed many soldiers.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	vandals confirmed possession diocese africa.soon retook sardinia sicily.marcellinus murdered possibly orders ricimer.praetorian prefect gaul arvandus tried persuade new king visigoths rebel grounds roman power gaul finished anyway king refused.anthemius still command army italy.additionally northern gaul british army led one riothamus operated imperial interests.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	anthemius sent son anthemiolus alps army.anthemiolus request visigoths return southern gaul roman control.would allowed empire land access hispania again.visigoths refused defeated forces riothamus anthemius burgundians took almost remaining imperial territory southern gaul.ricimer quarreled anthemius besieged rome surrendered july months starvation.anthemius captured executed ricimers orders burgundian prince gundobad.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	august ricimer died pulmonary haemorrhage.olybrius new emperor named gundobad patrician shortly died himself.– final emperors puppets warlords death olybrius interregnum march gundobad proclaimed glycerius emperor.may made attempt intervene gaul unsuccessful.julius nepos nephew successor general marcellinus arrived rome soldiers authority eastern emperor leo i. time gundobad left contest burgundian throne gaul.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	glycerius gave without fight retiring become bishop salona dalmatia.julius nepos ruled italy dalmatia ravenna appointed orestes former secretary attila magister militum.in orestes promised land italy various germanic mercenaries heruli scirian torcilingi exchange support.drove julius nepos ravenna proclaimed son flavius momyllus romulus augustus romulus augustulus emperor october .surname augustus given diminutive form augustulus rivals still minor.romulus never recognized outside italy legitimate ruler.in orestes refused honour promises land mercenaries revolted leadership odoacer.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	orestes fled city pavia august citys bishop gave sanctuary.orestes soon forced flee pavia odoacers army broke city walls ravaged city.odoacers army chased orestes piacenza captured executed august .on september odoacer forced romulus augustulus father orestes proclaimed romes emperor abdicate.anonymus valesianus wrote odoacer taking pity youth years old spared romulus life granted annual pension solidi sending live relatives campania.odoacer installed ruler italy sent imperial insignia constantinople.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	last emperor rump states convention western roman empire deemed ended september odoacer deposed romulus augustulus proclaimed ruler italy.convention subject many qualifications.roman constitutional theory empire still simply united one emperor implying abandonment territorial claims.areas convulsions dying empire made organized selfdefence legitimate rump states continued form roman rule .julius nepos still claimed emperor west controlled dalmatia murder .
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	syagrius son aegidius ruled domain soissons murder .indigenous inhabitants mauretania developed kingdoms independent vandals strong roman traits.sought imperial recognition reconquests justinian later put effective resistance muslim conquest maghreb.civitates britannia continued look defence honorius authorized maintained literacy latin identifiably roman traits time although sank level material development inferior even preroman iron age ancestors.odoacer began negotiate east roman byzantine emperor zeno busy dealing unrest east.zeno eventually granted odoacer status patrician accepted viceroy italy.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	zeno however insisted odoacer pay homage julius nepos emperor western empire.odoacer never returned territory real power issue coins name julius nepos throughout italy.murder julius nepos glycerius may among conspirators prompted odoacer invade dalmatia annexing kingdom italy.eastern emperor authorized troublesome goth theoderic later known great take italy.several indecisive campaigns theoderic odoacer agreed rule jointly.
Fall of the Western Roman Empire	celebrated agreement banquet reconciliation theoderics men murdered odoacers theoderic personally cut odoacer half.the mostly powerless still influential western roman senate continued exist city rome rule ostrogothic kingdom later byzantine empire least another century disappearing unknown date early th century.legacy roman empire political unity enforced use military power also combined elaborated civilization mediterranean basin beyond.included manufacture trade architecture widespread secular literacy written law international language science literature.western barbarians lost much higher cultural practices redevelopment middle ages polities aware roman achievement formed basis later development europe.observing cultural archaeological continuities beyond period lost political control process described complex cultural transformation rather fall.see also succession roman empirecomparative studies roman han empiresdecline byzantine empire fall eastern roman empirehistoriography fall roman empirelast romanslate roman armylist roman civil wars revolts notes references bibliography external links
Greeks	population .it made two partsthe smaller ciudad de osma city osma west river ucero flows southwards river duero andthe larger el burgo de osma borough osma sometimes called el burgo east river ucero cathedral town province.osma derives celtoroman uxama burgo cognate english word borough.history burgo de osma wellknown cultural heritage includes burgo de osma cathedral university santa catalina castle plaza mayor hospital de san agustín baroque architecture holy week parade.see also uxama argaela referencesalso form significant diaspora greek communities established around world.greek colonies communities historically established shores mediterranean sea black sea greek people always centered aegean ionian seas greek language spoken since bronze age.early th century greeks distributed greek peninsula western coast asia minor black sea coast cappadocia central anatolia egypt balkans cyprus constantinople.many regions coincided large extent borders byzantine empire late th century eastern mediterranean areas ancient greek colonization.cultural centers greeks included athens thessalonica alexandria smyrna constantinople various periods.in recent times ethnic greeks live within borders modern greek state cyprus.greek genocide population exchange greece turkey nearly ended three millenniaold greek presence asia minor.
Greeks	longstanding greek populations found southern italy caucasus southern russia ukraine greek diaspora communities number countries.today greeks officially registered members greek orthodox church.throughout history greeks greatly influenced contributed culture visual arts exploration theatre literature philosophy politics architecture music mathematics medicine science technology commerce cuisine sports.history greeks speak greek language forms unique branch within indoeuropean family languages hellenic.part group classical ethnicities described anthony d. smith archetypal diaspora people.origins protogreeks probably arrived area called greece southern tip balkan peninsula end rd millennium bc bce.
Greeks	sequence migrations greek mainland nd millennium bc reconstructed basis ancient greek dialects presented centuries later therefore subject uncertainties.least two migrations first ionians achaeans resulted mycenaean greece th century bc second dorian invasion around th century bc displacing arcadocypriot dialects descended mycenaean period.migrations occur incisive periods mycenaean transition late bronze age doric bronze age collapse.mycenaean c. bc mycenaean greeks borrowed minoan civilization syllabic writing system linear developed syllabic script known linear b providing first oldest written evidence greek.mycenaeans quickly penetrated aegean sea th century bc reached rhodes crete cyprus shores asia minor.around bc dorians another greekspeaking people followed epirus.
Greeks	older historical research often proposed dorian invasion caused collapse mycenaean civilization narrative abandoned contemporary research.likely one factors contributed mycenaean palatial collapse linked raids groups known historiography sea peoples sailed eastern mediterranean around bc.dorian invasion followed poorly attested period migrations appropriately called greek dark ages bc landscape archaic classical greece discernible.the greeks classical antiquity idealized mycenaean ancestors mycenaean period glorious era heroes closeness gods material wealth.homeric epics i.e.iliad odyssey especially generally accepted part greek past time euhemerism scholars began question homers historicity.
Greeks	part mycenaean heritage survived names gods goddesses mycenaean greece e.g.zeus poseidon hades became major figures olympian pantheon later antiquity.classical ethnogenesis greek nation linked development panhellenism th century bc.according scholars foundational event olympic games bc idea common hellenism among greek tribes first translated shared cultural experience hellenism primarily matter common culture.works homer i.e.
Greeks	iliad odyssey hesiod i.e.theogony written th century bc becoming basis national religion ethos history mythology.oracle apollo delphi established period.the classical period greek civilization covers time spanning early th century bc death alexander great bc authors prefer split period classical end grecopersian wars end peloponnesian war fourth century death alexander.named set standards greek civilization would judged later eras.classical period also described golden age greek civilization art philosophy architecture literature would instrumental formation development western culture.while greeks classical era understood belong common hellenic genos first loyalty city saw nothing incongruous warring often brutally greek citystates.
Greeks	peloponnesian war large scale civil war two powerful greek citystates athens sparta allies left greatly weakened.most feuding greek citystates scholars opinions united force banner philips alexander greats panhellenic ideals though others might generally opt rather explanation macedonian conquest sake conquest least conquest sake riches glory power view ideal useful propaganda directed towards citystates.in case alexanders toppling achaemenid empire victories battles granicus issus gaugamela advance far modernday pakistan tajikistan provided important outlet greek culture via creation colonies trade routes along way.alexandrian empire survive creators death intact cultural implications spread hellenism across much middle east asia prove long lived greek became lingua franca position retained even roman times.many greeks settled hellenistic cities like alexandria antioch seleucia.hellenistic hellenistic civilization next period greek civilization beginnings usually placed alexanders death.hellenistic age called saw partial hellenization many nongreek cultures extending way india bactria maintained greek cultures governments centuries.
Greeks	end often placed around conquest egypt rome bc although indogreek kingdoms lasted decades.this age saw greeks move towards larger cities reduction importance citystate.larger cities parts still larger kingdoms diadochi.greeks however remained aware past chiefly study works homer classical authors.important factor maintaining greek identity contact barbarian nongreek peoples deepened new cosmopolitan environment multiethnic hellenistic kingdoms.led strong desire among greeks organize transmission hellenic paideia next generation.
Greeks	greek science technology mathematics generally considered reached peak hellenistic period.in indogreek grecobactrian kingdoms grecobuddhism spreading greek missionaries would play important role propagating china.east greeks alexandria eschate became known chinese people dayuan.roman empire bc bc entire greek world conquered rome almost worlds greek speakers lived citizens subjects roman empire.despite military superiority romans admired became heavily influenced achievements greek culture hence horaces famous statement graecia capta ferum victorem cepit greece although captured took wild conqueror captive.centuries following roman conquest greek world greek roman cultures merged single grecoroman culture.in religious sphere period profound change.
Greeks	spiritual revolution took place saw waning old greek religion whose decline beginning rd century bc continued introduction new religious movements east.cults deities like isis mithra introduced greek world.greekspeaking communities hellenized east instrumental spread early christianity nd rd centuries christianitys early leaders writers notably saint paul generally greekspeaking though none greece proper.however greece tendency cling paganism one influential centers early christianity fact ancient greek religious practices remained vogue end th century areas southeastern peloponnese remaining pagan well midbyzantine th century ad.region tsakonia remained pagan ninth century inhabitants referred hellenes sense pagan christianized greek brethren mainstream byzantine society.while ethnic distinctions still existed roman empire became secondary religious considerations renewed empire used christianity tool support cohesion promote robust roman national identity.
Greeks	early centuries common era greeks selfidentified romans greek ῥωμαῖοι rhōmaîoi.time name hellenes denoted pagans revived ethnonym th century.middle ages middle ages byzantine greeks selfidentified rhōmaîoi ῥωμαῖοι romans meaning citizens roman empire term greek language become synonymous christian greeks.latinizing term graikoí γραικοί greeks also used though use less common nonexistent official byzantine political correspondence prior fourth crusade .eastern roman empire today conventionally named byzantine empire name used time became increasingly influenced greek culture th century emperor heraclius r. – ad decided make greek empires official language.
Greeks	although catholic church recognized eastern empires claim roman legacy several centuries pope leo iii crowned charlemagne king franks roman emperor december act eventually led formation holy roman empire latin west started favour franks began refer eastern roman empire largely empire greeks imperium graecorum.latin term ancient hellenes could used neutrally use westerners th century onwards order challenge byzantine claims ancient roman heritage rendered derogatory exonym byzantines barely used mostly contexts relating west texts relating council florence present western viewpoint.additionally among germanic slavic peoples rhōmaîoi called greeks.three schools thought regarding byzantine roman identity contemporary byzantine scholarship first considers romanity mode selfidentification subjects multiethnic empire least th century average subject identified roman perennialist approach views romanity medieval expression continuously existing greek nation third view considers eastern roman identity premodern national identity.byzantine greeks essential values drawn christianity homeric tradition ancient greece.a distinct greek identity reemerged th century educated circles became forceful fall constantinople crusaders fourth crusade .
Greeks	empire nicaea small circle elite used term hellene term selfidentification.example letter pope gregory ix nicaean emperor john iii doukas vatatzes r. – claimed received gift royalty constantine great put emphasis hellenic descent exalting wisdom greek people.byzantines recaptured constantinople however rhomaioi became dominant term selfdescription traces hellene έλληνας writings george gemistos plethon abandoned christianity whose writings culminated secular tendency interest classical past.however combination orthodox christianity specifically greek identity shaped greeks notion empires twilight years.twilight years byzantine empire prominent byzantine personalities proposed referring byzantine emperor emperor hellenes.
Greeks	largely rhetorical expressions hellenic identity confined within intellectual circles continued byzantine intellectuals participated italian renaissance.the interest classical greek heritage complemented renewed emphasis greek orthodox identity reinforced late medieval ottoman greeks links fellow orthodox christians russian empire.strengthened following fall empire trebizond second russoturkish war – hundreds thousands pontic greeks fled migrated pontic alps armenian highlands southern russia russian south caucasus see also greeks russia greeks armenia greeks georgia caucasian greeks.these byzantine greeks largely responsible preservation literature classical era.byzantine grammarians principally responsible carrying person writing ancient greek grammatical literary studies west th century giving italian renaissance major boost.aristotelian philosophical tradition nearly unbroken greek world almost two thousand years fall constantinople .to slavic world byzantine greeks contributed dissemination literacy christianity.notable example later work two byzantine greek brothers monks saints cyril methodius port city thessalonica capital theme thessalonica credited today formalizing first slavic alphabet.
Greeks	ottoman empire following fall constantinople may many greeks sought better employment education opportunities leaving west particularly italy central europe germany russia.greeks greatly credited european cultural revolution later called renaissance.greekinhabited territory greeks came play leading role ottoman empire due part fact central hub empire politically culturally socially based western thrace greek macedonia northern greece course centred mainly greekpopulated former byzantine capital constantinople.direct consequence situation greekspeakers came play hugely important role ottoman trading diplomatic establishment well church.added first half ottoman period men greek origin made significant proportion ottoman army navy state bureaucracy levied adolescents along especially albanians serbs ottoman service devshirme.
Greeks	many ottomans greek albanian serb origin therefore found within ottoman forces governed provinces ottoman egypt ottomans occupied yemen algeria frequently provincial governors.for remained ottoman empires millet system religion defining characteristic national groups milletler exonym greeks rumlar name rhomaioi applied ottomans members orthodox church regardless language ethnic origin.greek speakers ethnic group actually call romioi opposed named others least educated considered ethnicity genos hellenic.however many greeks escaped secondclass status christians inherent ottoman millet system according muslims explicitly awarded senior status preferential treatment.greeks either emigrated particularly fellow orthodox christian protector russian empire simply converted islam often superficially whilst remaining cryptochristian.notable examples largescale conversion turkish islam among today defined greek muslims—excluding convert matter course recruited devshirme—were found crete cretan turks greek macedonia example among vallahades western macedonia among pontic greeks pontic alps armenian highlands.
Greeks	several ottoman sultans princes also part greek origin mothers either greek concubines princesses byzantine noble families one famous example sultan selim grim r. – whose mother gülbahar hatun pontic greek.the roots greek success ottoman empire traced greek tradition education commerce exemplified phanariotes.wealth extensive merchant class provided material basis intellectual revival prominent feature greek life half century leading outbreak greek war independence .coincidentally eve three important centres greek learning situated chios smyrna aivali three major centres greek commerce.greek success also favoured greek domination leadership eastern orthodox church.modern movement greek enlightenment greek expression age enlightenment contributed promotion education culture printing among greeks also case independence ottomans restoration term hellene.
Greeks	adamantios korais probably important intellectual movement advocated use term hellene έλληνας graikos γραικός place romiós seen negatively him.the relationship ethnic greek identity greek orthodox religion continued creation modern greek nationstate .according second article first greek constitution greek defined native christian resident kingdom greece clause removed .century later treaty lausanne signed greece turkey two countries agreed use religion determinant ethnic identity purposes population exchange although greeks displaced million total .million already driven time agreement signed.greek genocide particular harsh removal pontian greeks southern shore area black sea contemporaneous following failed greek asia minor campaign part process turkification ottoman empire placement economy trade largely greek hands ethnic turkish control.
Greeks	identity terms used define greekness varied throughout history never limited completely identified membership greek state.herodotus gave famous account defined greek hellenic ethnic identity day enumerating shared descent ὅμαιμον – homaimon bloodshared language ὁμόγλωσσον – homoglōsson speaking languageshared sanctuaries sacrifices θεῶν ἱδρύματά τε κοινὰ καὶ θυσίαι – theōn hidrumata te koina kai thusiaishared customs ἤθεα ὁμότροπα – ēthea homotropa customs like fashion.by western standards term greeks traditionally referred native speakers greek language whether mycenaean byzantine modern greek.byzantine greeks selfidentified romaioi romans graikoi greeks christianoi christians since political heirs imperial rome descendants classical greek forebears followers apostles midtolate byzantine period th–th century growing number byzantine greek intellectuals deemed hellenes although greekspeakers hellene still meant pagan.eve fall constantinople last emperor urged soldiers remember descendants greeks romans.before establishment modern greek nationstate link ancient modern greeks emphasized scholars greek enlightenment especially rigas feraios.political constitution addresses nation people descendant greeks.
Greeks	modern greek state created greeks liberated part historic homelands peloponnese ottoman empire.large greek diaspora merchant class instrumental transmitting ideas western romantic nationalism philhellenism together conception hellenism formulated last centuries byzantine empire formed basis diafotismos current conception hellenism.the greeks today nation meaning ethnos defined possessing greek culture greek mother tongue citizenship race religion subjects particular state.ancient medieval times lesser extent today greek term genos also indicates common ancestry.names greeks greekspeakers used different names refer collectively.term achaeans ἀχαιοί one collective names greeks homers iliad odyssey homeric longhaired achaeans would part mycenaean civilization dominated greece c. bc bc.
Greeks	common names danaans δαναοί argives ἀργεῖοι panhellenes πανέλληνες hellenes ἕλληνες appear iliad terms used synonymously denote common greek identity.historical period herodotus identified achaeans northern peloponnese descendants earlier homeric achaeans.homer refers hellenes relatively small tribe settled thessalic phthia warriors command achilleus.parian chronicle says phthia homeland hellenes name given previously called greeks γραικοί.greek mythology hellen patriarch hellenes ruled around phthia son pyrrha deucalion survivors great deluge.greek philosopher aristotle names ancient hellas area epirus dodona achelous river location great deluge deucalion land occupied selloi greeks later came known hellenes.
Greeks	homeric tradition selloi priests dodonian zeus.in hesiodic catalogue women graecus presented son zeus pandora ii sister hellen patriarch hellenes.according parian chronicle deucalion became king phthia graikoi γραικοί named hellenes.aristotle notes meteorologica hellenes related graikoi.continuity obvious link modern ancient greeks language documented tradition least th century bc present day albeit break greek dark ages written records absent th th cent.bc though cypriot syllabary use period.
Greeks	scholars compare continuity tradition chinese alone.since inception hellenism primarily matter common culture national continuity greek world lot certain demographic.yet hellenism also embodied ancestral dimension aspects athenian literature developed influenced ideas descent based autochthony.later years eastern roman empire areas ionia constantinople experienced hellenic revival language philosophy literature classical models thought scholarship.revival provided powerful impetus sense cultural affinity ancient greece classical heritage.
Greeks	throughout history greeks retained language alphabet certain values cultural traditions customs sense religious cultural difference exclusion word barbarian used thcentury historian anna komnene describe nongreek speakers sense greek identity common sense ethnicity despite undeniable sociopolitical changes past two millennia.recent anthropological studies ancient modern greek osteological samples analyzed demonstrating biogenetic affinity continuity shared groups.also direct genetic link ancient greeks modern greeks.demographics today greeks majority ethnic group hellenic republic constitute countrys population republic cyprus make islands population excluding turkish settlers occupied part country.greek populations traditionally exhibited high rates growth large percentage greek population growth since greeces foundation attributed annexation new territories well influx .
Greeks	million greek refugees population exchange greece turkey.population greece urban concentrated city athens.greeks cyprus similar history emigration usually englishspeaking world islands colonization british empire.waves emigration followed turkish invasion cyprus population decreased mid result emigration war losses temporary decline fertility.ethnic cleansing third greek population island also increase number greek cypriots leaving especially middle east contributed decrease population tapered s. today twothirds greek population cyprus urban.there sizeable greek minority approximately people albania.greek minority turkey numbered upwards people exchange dwindled thousand constantinople pogrom state sponsored violence discrimination.
Greeks	effectively ended though entirely threethousandyearold presence hellenism asia minor.smaller greek minorities rest balkan countries levant black sea states remnants old greek diaspora preth century.diaspora total number greeks living outside greece cyprus today contentious issue.census figures available show around million greeks outside greece cyprus.estimates provided sae world council hellenes abroad put figure around million worldwide.
Greeks	according george prevelakis sorbonne university number closer million.integration intermarriage loss greek language influence selfidentification omogeneia.important centres new greek diaspora today london new york melbourne toronto.hellenic parliament introduced law enables diaspora greeks greece vote elections greek state.law later repealed early .
Greeks	ancient ancient times trading colonizing activities greek tribes city states spread greek culture religion language around mediterranean black sea basins especially sicily southern italy also known magna grecia spain south france black sea coasts.alexander greats empire successor states greek hellenizing ruling classes established middle east india egypt.hellenistic period characterized new wave greek colonization established greek cities kingdoms asia africa.roman empire easier movement people spread greeks across empire eastern territories greek became lingua franca rather latin.modernday griko community southern italy numbering may represent living remnant ancient greek populations italy.
Greeks	modern greek war independence greeks diaspora important establishing fledgling state raising funds awareness abroad.greek merchant families already contacts countries disturbances many set home around mediterranean notably marseilles france livorno italy alexandria egypt russia odessa saint petersburg britain london liverpool traded typically textiles grain.businesses frequently comprised extended family brought schools teaching greek greek orthodox church.as markets changed became established families grew operations become shippers financed local greek community notably aid ralli vagliano brothers.economic success diaspora expanded across levant north africa india usa.in th century many greeks left traditional homelands economic reasons resulting large migrations greece cyprus united states great britain australia canada germany south africa especially second world war – greek civil war – turkish invasion cyprus .while official figures remain scarce polls anecdotal evidence point renewed greek emigration result greek financial crisis.according data published federal statistical office germany greeks emigrated germany significant increase previous year.
Greeks	comparison greeks emigrated germany .culture greek culture evolved thousands years beginning mycenaean civilization continuing classical era hellenistic period roman byzantine periods profoundly affected christianity turn influenced shaped.ottoman greeks endure several centuries adversity culminated genocide th century.diafotismos credited revitalizing greek culture giving birth synthesis ancient medieval elements characterize today.language greeks speak greek language independent branch indoeuropean languages closest relations possibly armenian see graecoarmenian indoiranian languages see graecoaryan.
Greeks	longest documented history living language greek literature continuous history years.oldest inscriptions greek linear b script dated far back bc.following greek dark ages written records absent greek alphabet appears th–th century bc.greek alphabet derived phoenician alphabet turn became parent alphabet latin cyrillic several alphabets.earliest greek literary works homeric epics variously dated th th century bc.
Greeks	notable scientific mathematical works include euclids elements ptolemys almagest others.new testament originally written koine greek.greek demonstrates several linguistic features shared balkan languages albanian bulgarian eastern romance languages see balkan sprachbund absorbed many foreign words primarily western european turkish origin.movements philhellenism diafotismos th century emphasized modern greeks ancient heritage foreign influences excluded official use via creation katharevousa somewhat artificial form greek purged foreign influence words official language greek state.however hellenic parliament voted make spoken dimotiki official language making katharevousa obsolete.modern greek addition standard modern greek dimotiki wide variety dialects varying levels mutual intelligibility including cypriot pontic cappadocian griko tsakonian surviving representative ancient doric greek.yevanic language romaniotes survives small communities greece new york israel.
Greeks	addition greek many greek citizens greece diaspora bilingual languages english arvanitikaalbanian aromanian meglenoromanian macedonian slavic russian turkish.religion greeks christians belonging greek orthodox church.first centuries jesus christ new testament originally written koine greek remains liturgical language greek orthodox church early christians church fathers greekspeaking.small groups ethnic greeks adhering christian denominations like greek catholics greek evangelicals pentecostals groups adhering religions including romaniot sephardic jews greek muslims.greeks members hellenic polytheistic reconstructionism congregations.greekspeaking muslims live mainly outside greece contemporary era.
Greeks	christian muslim greekspeaking communities lebanon syria pontus region turkey large community indeterminate size spared population exchange religious affiliation.arts greek art long varied history.greeks contributed visual literary performing arts.west classical greek art influential shaping roman later modern western artistic heritage.following renaissance europe humanist aesthetic high technical standards greek art inspired generations european artists.
Greeks	well th century classical tradition derived greece played important role art western world.east alexander greats conquests initiated several centuries exchange greek central asian indian cultures resulting indogreek grecobuddhist art whose influence reached far japan.byzantine greek art grew hellenistic classical art adapted pagan motifs service christianity provided stimulus art many nations.influences traced venice west kazakhstan east.turn greek art influenced eastern civilizations i.e.egypt persia etc.
Greeks	various periods history.notable modern greek artists include major renaissance painter dominikos theotokopoulos el greco nikolaos gyzis nikiphoros lytras konstantinos volanakis theodoros vryzakis georgios jakobides thalia florakaravia yannis tsarouchis nikos engonopoulos périclès pantazis theophilos kostas andreou jannis kounellis sculptors leonidas drosis georgios bonanos yannoulis chalepas athanasios apartis konstantinos dimitriadis joannis avramidis conductor dimitri mitropoulos soprano maria callas composers mikis theodorakis nikos skalkottas nikolaos mantzaros spyridon samaras manolis kalomiris iannis xenakis manos hatzidakis manos loïzos yanni vangelis masters rebetiko markos vamvakaris vassilis tsitsanis singers giorgos dalaras haris alexiou sotiria bellou nana mouskouri vicky leandros demis roussos.poets andreas kalvos athanasios christopoulos kostis palamas writer hymn liberty dionysios solomos angelos sikelianos kostas karyotakis maria polydouri yannis ritsos kostas varnalis nikos kavvadias andreas embirikos kiki dimoula.constantine p. cavafy nobel laureates giorgos seferis odysseas elytis among important poets th century.novel also represented alexandros papadiamantis emmanuel rhoides ion dragoumis nikos kazantzakis penelope delta stratis myrivilis vassilis vassilikos petros markaris notable playwrights include cretan renaissance poets georgios chortatzis vincenzos cornaros gregorios xenopoulos iakovos kambanellis.notable cinema theatre actors include marika kotopouli melina mercouri ellie lambeti academy award winner katina paxinou alexis minotis dimitris horn thanasis veggos manos katrakis irene papas.alekos sakellarios karolos koun vasilis georgiadis kostas gavras michael cacoyannis giannis dalianidis nikos koundouros theo angelopoulos among important directors.among significant modernera architects stamatios kleanthis lysandros kaftanzoglou anastasios metaxas panagis kalkos anastasios orlandos naturalized greek ernst ziller dimitris pikionis urban planners stamatis voulgaris george candilis.
Greeks	science greeks classical hellenistic eras made seminal contributions science philosophy laying foundations several western scientific traditions astronomy geography historiography mathematics medicine philosophy political science.scholarly tradition greek academies maintained roman times several academic institutions constantinople antioch alexandria centers greek learning byzantine science essentially continuation classical science.greeks long tradition valuing investing paideia education.paideia one highest societal values greek hellenistic world first european institution described university founded th century constantinople operated various incarnations citys fall ottomans .university constantinople christian europes first secular institution higher learning since theological subjects taught considering original meaning world university corporation students worlds first university well.as greece eighth highest percentage tertiary enrollment world percentages female students higher male greeks diaspora equally active field education.
Greeks	hundreds thousands greek students attend western universities every year faculty lists leading western universities contain striking number greek names.notable greek scientists modern times include physician georgios papanicolaou pioneer cytopathology inventor pap test mathematician constantin carathéodory acclaimed contributor real complex analysis calculus variations archaeologists manolis andronikos unearthed tomb philip ii valerios stais recognised antikythera mechanism spyridon marinatos specialised mycenaean sites ioannis svoronos chemists leonidas zervas bergmannzervas synthesis zgroup discovery fame k. c. nicolaou first total synthesis taxol panayotis katsoyannis first chemical synthesis insulin computer scientists michael dertouzos nicholas negroponte known early work world wide web john argyris cocreator fem joseph sifakis turing award christos papadimitriou knuth prize mihalis yannakakis knuth prize physicistmathematician demetrios christodoulou renowned work minkowski spacetime physicists achilles papapetrou known solutions general relativity dimitri nanopoulos extensive work particle physics cosmology john iliopoulos dirac prize work charm quark astronomer eugenios antoniadis biologist fotis kafatos contributor cdna cloning technology botanist theodoros orphanides economist xenophon zolotas held various senior posts international organisations imf indologist dimitrios galanos linguist yiannis psycharis promoter demotic greek historians constantine paparrigopoulos founder modern greek historiography helene glykatzi ahrweiler excelled byzantine studies political scientists nicos poulantzas leading structural marxist cornelius castoriadis philosopher history ontologist social critic economist psychoanalyst.significant engineers automobile designers include nikolas tombazis alec issigonis andreas zapatinas.symbols widely used symbol flag greece features nine equal horizontal stripes blue alternating white representing nine syllables greek national motto eleftheria thanatos freedom death motto greek war independence.blue square upper hoistside corner bears white cross represents greek orthodoxy.greek flag widely used greek cypriots although cyprus officially adopted neutral flag ease ethnic tensions turkish cypriot minority see flag cyprus.the pre first flag greece features greek cross crux immissa quadrata blue background widely used alternative official flag often flown together.
Greeks	national emblem greece features blue escutcheon white cross surrounded two laurel branches.common design involves current flag greece pre flag greece crossed flagpoles national emblem placed front.another highly recognizable popular greek symbol doubleheaded eagle imperial emblem last dynasty eastern roman empire common symbol asia minor later eastern europe.part modern greek flag coatofarms although officially insignia greek army flag church greece.incorporated greek coat arms .politics classical athens considered birthplace democracy.
Greeks	term appeared th century bc denote political systems existing greek citystates notably athens mean rule people contrast aristocracy ἀριστοκρατία aristokratía meaning rule excellent elite oligarchy.theoretically definitions opposition practice distinction blurred historically.led cleisthenes athenians established generally held first democracy – bc took gradually form direct democracy.democratic form government declined hellenistic roman eras revived interest western europe early modern period.the european enlightenment democratic liberal nationalistic ideas french revolution crucial factor outbreak greek war independence establishment modern greek state.notable modern greek politicians include ioannis kapodistrias founder first hellenic republic reformist charilaos trikoupis eleftherios venizelos marked shape modern greece social democrats georgios papandreou alexandros papanastasiou konstantinos karamanlis founder third hellenic republic socialist andreas papandreou.surnames personal names greek surnames began appear th th century first among ruling families eventually supplanting ancient tradition using fathers name disambiguator.

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