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History of the United States	espacestemps.net.postfrancophonie external links french official websitein french organisation internationale de la francophonie curliein french english maviefrancaise.org social network francophiles francophones learning french features articles interviews.lassemblée des francophones fonctionnaires des organisations internationales affoi assembly french speaking international civil servants.numerous indigenous cultures formed many saw transformations th century away densely populated lifestyles towards reorganized polities elsewhere.arrival christopher columbus started european colonization americas.colonies formed united states first nation whose distant origins fully recorded.thirteen british colonies contained .million people established along atlantic coast east appalachian mountains.
History of the United States	defeating france british government imposed series taxes including stamp act rejecting colonists constitutional argument new taxes needed approval.resistance taxes especially boston tea party led parliament issuing punitive laws designed end selfgovernment.armed conflict began massachusetts .in philadelphia second continental congress declared independence colonies united states.led general george washington revolutionary war.peace treaty established borders new nation.
History of the United States	articles confederation established central government ineffectual providing stability could collect taxes executive officer.convention wrote new constitution adopted bill rights added guarantee inalienable rights.washington first president alexander hamilton chief adviser strong central government created.purchase louisiana territory france doubled size united states.encouraged notion manifest destiny united states expanded pacific coast.nation large terms area population million.
History of the United States	population grew rapidly economic growth even greater.compared european powers nations military strength relatively limited peacetime .westward expansion driven quest inexpensive land yeoman farmers slave owners.expansion slavery increasingly controversial fueled political constitutional battles resolved compromises.slavery abolished states north mason–dixon line south continued institution mostly production cotton.
History of the United States	abraham lincoln elected president platform halting expansion slavery.seven southern slave states rebelled created foundation confederacy.attack federal fort started civil war.defeat confederates led abolition slavery.reconstruction era following war legal voting rights extended freed slaves.
History of the United States	national government emerged much stronger gained explicit duty protect individual rights.however white southerners regained power south often paramilitary suppression voting passed jim crow laws maintain white supremacy well new disenfranchising state constitutions prevented african americans many poor whites voting.the united states became worlds leading industrial power turn th century due outburst entrepreneurship industrialization arrival millions immigrant workers farmers.national railroad network completed largescale mines factories established.mass dissatisfaction corruption inefficiency traditional politics stimulated progressive movement leading reforms including federal income tax direct election senators granting citizenship many indigenous people alcohol prohibition womens suffrage.initially neutral world war united states declared war germany funded allied victory following year.
History of the United States	prosperous roaring twenties wall street crash marked onset decadelong worldwide great depression.president franklin d. roosevelt implemented new deal programs including relief unemployed support farmers social security minimum wage.new deal defined modern american liberalism.following japanese attack pearl harbor united states entered world war ii financed allied war effort helped defeat nazi germany fascist italy european theater.involvement culminated using newly invented nuclear weapons hiroshima nagasaki defeat imperial japan pacific war.the united states soviet union emerged rival superpowers aftermath world war ii.
History of the United States	cold war two countries confronted indirectly arms race space race propaganda campaigns localized wars communist expansion.large part due strength civil rights movement another wave social reforms enacted enforced constitutional rights voting freedom movement african americans racial minorities.cold war ended dissolution soviet union leaving united states worlds sole superpower.foreign policy cold war focused modern conflicts middle east especially response september attacks rise islamic state.early st century united states experienced great recession later covid pandemic negative effect local economy.
History of the United States	prehistory definitively known native americans first settled americas presentday united states.prevailing theory proposes people eurasia followed game across beringia land bridge connected siberia presentday alaska ice age spread southward throughout americas.migration may begun early years ago continued years ago land bridge became submerged rising sea level caused melting glaciers.early inhabitants called paleoindians soon diversified hundreds culturally distinct nations tribes.this precolumbian era incorporates periods history americas appearance european influences american continents spanning original settlement upper paleolithic period european colonization early modern period.term technically refers era christopher columbus voyage practice term usually includes history american indigenous cultures conquered significantly influenced europeans even happened decades centuries columbuss initial landing.
History of the United States	paleoindians bce humans relatively wellestablished throughout north america.originally paleoindian hunted ice age megafauna like mammoths began go extinct people turned instead bison food source.time went foraging berries seeds became important alternative hunting.paleoindians central mexico first americas farm starting plant corn beans squash around bce.eventually knowledge began spread northward.
History of the United States	bce corn grown valleys arizona new mexico followed primitive irrigation systems early villages hohokam.one earlier cultures presentday united states clovis culture primarily identified use fluted spear points called clovis point.bce culture ranged much north america also appeared south america.artifacts culture first excavated near clovis new mexico.folsom culture similar marked use folsom point.a later migration identified linguists anthropologists archeologists occurred around bce.included nadenespeaking peoples reached pacific northwest bce.
History of the United States	migrated along pacific coast interior constructed large multifamily dwellings villages used seasonally summer hunt fish winter gather food supplies.another group oshara tradition people lived bce ce part archaic southwest.mound builders pueblos adena began constructing large earthwork mounds around bce.earliest known people mound builders however mounds united states predate culture.watson brake mound complex louisiana dates bce nearby poverty point built poverty point culture earthwork complex dates bce.
History of the United States	mounds likely served religious purpose.the adenans absorbed hopewell tradition powerful people traded tools goods across wide territory.continued adena tradition moundbuilding remnants several thousand still existence across core former territory southern ohio.hopewell pioneered trading system called hopewell exchange system greatest extent ran presentday southeast canadian side lake ontario.ce hopewellians disappeared absorbed larger mississippian culture.the mississippians broad group tribes.important city cahokia near modernday st. louis missouri.
History of the United States	peak th century city estimated population larger population london time.entire city centered around mound stood feet tall.cahokia like many cities villages time depended hunting foraging trading agriculture developed class system slaves human sacrifice influenced societies south like mayans.in southwest anasazi began constructing stone adobe pueblos around bce.apartmentlike structures often built cliff faces seen cliff palace mesa verde.grew size cities pueblo bonito along chaco river new mexico consisting rooms.
History of the United States	northwest northeast indigenous peoples pacific northwest likely affluent native americans.many distinct cultural political nations developed shared certain beliefs traditions practices centrality salmon resource spiritual symbol.permanent villages began develop region early bce communities celebrated giftgiving feast potlatch.gatherings usually organized commemorate special events raising totem pole celebration new chief.in presentday upstate new york iroquois formed confederacy tribal nations midth century consisting oneida mohawk onondaga cayuga seneca.system affiliation kind federation different strong centralized european monarchies.
History of the United States	tribe seats group sachem chiefs.suggested culture contributed political thinking development united states government.iroquois powerful waging war many neighboring tribes later europeans.territory expanded smaller tribes forced west including osage kaw ponca omaha peoples.native hawaiians polynesians began settle hawaiian islands st th centuries.
History of the United States	around ce tahitian explorers found began settling area well.marked rise hawaiian civilization would largely separated rest world arrival british years later.europeans british explorer james cook arrived hawaiian islands within five years contact european military technology would help kamehameha conquer people eventually unify islands first time establishing hawaiian kingdom.norse exploration earliest recorded european mention america historical treatise medieval chronicler adam bremen circa referred vinland.also extensively referred thcentury norse vinland sagas relate events occurred around .
History of the United States	whilst strongest archaeological evidence existence norse settlements america located canada notably lanse aux meadows dated circa significant scholarly debate whether norse explorers also made landfall new england eastcoast areas.president calvin coolidge declared norse explorer called leif erikson c. – c. first european discover america.european colonization period exploration sponsored major european nations first successful english settlement established .europeans brought horses cattle hogs americas turn took back maize turkeys tomatoes potatoes tobacco beans squash europe.many explorers early settlers died exposed new diseases americas.
History of the United States	however effects new eurasian diseases carried colonists especially smallpox measles much worse native americans immunity them.suffered epidemics died large numbers usually largescale european settlement began.societies disrupted hollowed scale deaths.first settlements spanish contact spanish explorers first europeans reach presentday united states christopher columbuss expeditions beginning established possessions caribbean including modernday u.s. territories puerto rico partly u.s. virgin islands.juan ponce de león landed florida .
History of the United States	spanish expeditions quickly reached appalachian mountains mississippi river grand canyon great plains.in hernando de soto extensively explored southeast year later francisco coronado explored arizona central kansas search gold.escaped horses coronados party spread great plains plains indians mastered horsemanship within generations.small spanish settlements eventually grew become important cities san antonio albuquerque tucson los angeles san francisco.dutch midatlantic dutch west india company sent explorer henry hudson search northwest passage asia .new netherland established company capitalize north american fur trade.
History of the United States	growth slow first due mismanagement dutch native american conflicts.dutch purchased island manhattan native americans reported price us land named new amsterdam became capital new netherland.town rapidly expanded mid became important trading center port.despite calvinists building reformed church america dutch tolerant religions cultures traded iroquois north.the colony served barrier british expansion new england result series wars fought.colony taken britain capital renamed new york city.
History of the United States	new netherland left enduring legacy american cultural political life religious tolerance sensible trade urban areas rural traditionalism countryside typified story rip van winkle.notable americans dutch descent include martin van buren theodore roosevelt franklin d. roosevelt eleanor roosevelt frelinghuysens.swedish settlement early years swedish empire swedish dutch german stockholders formed new sweden company trade furs tobacco north america.companys first expedition led peter minuit governor new netherland left dispute dutch government landed delaware bay march .settlers founded fort christina site modernday wilmington delaware made treaties indigenous groups land ownership sides delaware river.over following seventeen years expeditions brought settlers swedish empire also included contemporary finland estonia portions latvia norway russia poland germany new sweden.
History of the United States	colony established permanent settlements along many farms extending modernday maryland pennsylvania new jersey.incorporated new netherland dutch invasion neighboring new netherland colony second northern war.french spanish conflict giovanni da verrazzano landed north carolina first european sail new york harbor narragansett bay.decade later jacques cartier sailed search northwest passage instead discovered saint lawrence river laid foundation french colonization americas new france.collapse first quebec colony french huguenots settled fort caroline near presentday jacksonville florida.
History of the United States	spanish forces led pedro menéndez destroyed settlement established first european settlement would become united states — st. augustine.after french mostly remained quebec acadia farreaching trade relationships native americans throughout great lakes midwest spread influence.french colonists small villages along mississippi illinois rivers lived farming communities served grain source gulf coast settlements.french established plantations louisiana along settling new orleans mobile biloxi.british colonies english drawn francis drakes raids spanish treasure ships leaving new world settled strip land along east coast s. first british colony north america established roanoke walter raleigh failed.would twenty years another attempt.the early british colonies established private groups seeking profit marked starvation disease native american attacks.
History of the United States	many immigrants people seeking religious freedom escaping political oppression peasants displaced industrial revolution simply seeking adventure opportunity.in areas native americans taught colonists plant harvest native crops.others attacked settlers.virgin forests provided ample supply building material firewood.natural inlets harbors lined coast providing easy ports essential trade europe.settlements remained close coast due well native american resistance appalachian mountains found interior.
History of the United States	first settlement jamestown first successful english colony jamestown established virginia company james river virginia.colonists preoccupied search gold illequipped life new world.captain john smith held fledgling jamestown together first year colony descended anarchy nearly failed returned england two years later.john rolfe began experimenting tobacco west indies first shipment arrived london.became virginias chief source revenue within decade.in years disease indian attacks including powhatan attack king james revoked virginia companys charter made virginia royal colony.
History of the United States	new england new england initially settled primarily puritans fleeing religious persecution.pilgrims sailed virginia mayflower knocked course storm landed plymouth agreed social contract rules mayflower compact.like jamestown plymouth suffered disease starvation local wampanoag indians taught colonists farm maize.plymouth followed puritans massachusetts bay colony .maintained charter selfgovernment separate england elected founder john winthrop governor early years.roger williams opposed winthrops treatment native americans religious intolerance established colony providence plantations later rhode island basis freedom religion.
History of the United States	colonists established settlements connecticut river valley coasts presentday new hampshire maine.native american attacks continued significant occurring pequot war king philips war.new england became center commerce industry due poor mountainous soil making agriculture difficult.rivers harnessed power grain mills sawmills numerous harbors facilitated trade.tightknit villages developed around industrial centers boston became one americas important ports.middle colonies middle colonies new york new jersey delaware established former dutch new netherland characterized large degree ethnic religious diversity.
History of the United States	time iroquois new york strengthened years fur trading europeans formed powerful iroquois confederacy.the last colony region pennsylvania established william penn home religious dissenters including quakers methodists amish.capital colony philadelphia became dominant commercial center short years busy docks brick houses.quakers populated city german immigrants began flood pennsylvanian hills forests scotsirish pushed far western frontier.southern colonies extremely rural southern colonies contrasted greatly north.outside virginia first british colony south new england maryland established catholic .
History of the United States	economy two colonies built entirely yeoman farmers planters.planters established tidewater region virginia establishing massive plantations slave labor smallscale farmers made way political office.in province carolina established charleston became regions great trading port.virginias economy based tobacco carolina much diversified exporting rice indigo lumber well.colony split two creating north south carolina.georgia colony – last thirteen colonies – established james oglethorpe border spanish florida reform colony former prisoners poor.
History of the United States	religion religiosity expanded greatly first great awakening religious revival led preachers jonathan edwards george whitefield.american evangelicals affected awakening added new emphasis divine outpourings holy spirit conversions implanted new believers intense love god.revivals encapsulated hallmarks carried newly created evangelicalism early republic setting stage second great awakening late s. early stages evangelicals south methodists baptists preached religious freedom abolition slavery converted many slaves recognized preachers.government american colonies slightly different governmental structure.typically colony ruled governor appointed london controlled executive administration relied upon locally elected legislature vote taxes make laws.
History of the United States	th century american colonies growing rapidly result low death rates along ample supplies land food.colonies richer parts britain attracted steady flow immigrants especially teenagers arrived indentured servants.servitude slavery half european immigrants colonial america arrived indentured servants.could afford cost journey america form unfree labor provided means immigrate.typically people would sign contract agreeing set term labor usually four seven years return would receive transport america piece land end servitude.
History of the United States	cases ships captains received rewards delivery poor migrants extravagant promises kidnapping common.virginia company massachusetts bay company also used indentured servant labor.the first african slaves brought virginia twelve years founding jamestown.initially regarded indentured servants could buy freedom institution slavery began harden involuntary servitude became lifelong demand labor tobacco rice plantations grew s. slavery became identified brown skin color time seen black race children slave women born slaves partus sequitur ventrem.african slaves comprised fifth american population.the question independence britain arise long colonies needed british military support french spanish powers.threats gone .
History of the United States	however london continued regard american colonies existing benefit mother country policy known mercantilism.colonial america defined severe labor shortage used forms unfree labor slavery indentured servitude.british colonies also marked policy avoiding strict enforcement parliamentary laws known salutary neglect.permitted development american spirit distinct european founders.road independence upperclass emerged south carolina virginia wealth based large plantations operated slave labor.unique class system operated upstate new york dutch tenant farmers rented land wealthy dutch proprietors van rensselaer family.
History of the United States	colonies egalitarian pennsylvania representative.midth century pennsylvania basically middleclass colony limited respect small upperclass.writer pennsylvania journal wrotethe people province generally middling sort present pretty much upon level.chiefly industrious farmers artificers men trade enjoy fond freedom meanest among thinks right civility greatest.political integration autonomy french indian war – part larger seven years war watershed event political development colonies.
History of the United States	influence french native americans main rivals british crown colonies canada significantly reduced territory thirteen colonies expanded new france canada louisiana.war effort also resulted greater political integration colonies reflected albany congress symbolized benjamin franklins call colonies join die.franklin man many inventions – one concept united states america emerged would realized decade later.taxation without representation following britains acquisition french territory north america king george iii issued royal proclamation goal organizing new north american empire protecting native americans colonial expansion western lands beyond appalachian mountains.following years strains developed relations colonists crown.
History of the United States	british parliament passed stamp act imposing tax colonies without going colonial legislatures.issue drawn parliament right tax americans represented crying taxation without representation colonists refused pay taxes tensions escalated late early s.the boston tea party direct action activists town boston protest new tax tea.parliament quickly responded next year intolerable acts stripping massachusetts historic right selfgovernment putting military rule sparked outrage resistance thirteen colonies.patriot leaders every colony convened first continental congress coordinate resistance intolerable acts.congress called boycott british trade published list rights grievances petitioned king rectify grievances.
History of the United States	appeal crown effect though second continental congress convened organize defense colonies british army.common people became insurgents british even though unfamiliar ideological rationales offered.held strongly sense rights felt british deliberately violating – rights stressed local autonomy fair dealing government consent.highly sensitive issue tyranny saw manifested arrival boston british army punish bostonians.heightened sense violated rights leading rage demands revenge faith god side.revolution independence american revolutionary war began lexington concord massachusetts april british tried seize ammunition supplies arrest patriot leaders.in terms political values americans largely united concept called republicanism rejected aristocracy emphasized civic duty fear corruption.
History of the United States	founding fathers according one team historians republicanism represented particular form government.way life core ideology uncompromising commitment liberty total rejection aristocracy.the thirteen colonies began rebellion british rule proclaimed independence united states america.american revolutionary war – americans captured british invasion army saratoga secured northeast encouraged french make military alliance united states.france brought spain netherlands thus balancing military naval forces side britain allies.george washington general george washington proved excellent organizer administrator worked successfully congress state governors selecting mentoring senior officers supporting training troops maintaining idealistic republican army.
History of the United States	biggest challenge logistics neither congress states funding provide adequately equipment munitions clothing paychecks even food supply soldiers.as battlefield tactician washington often outmaneuvered british counterparts.strategist however better idea win war did.british sent four invasion armies.washingtons strategy forced first army boston responsible surrender second third armies saratoga yorktown .limited british control new york city places keeping patriot control great majority population.
History of the United States	loyalists britain loyalists british counted upon heavily comprised population suffered weak organization.war ended final british army sailed new york city november taking loyalist leadership them.washington unexpectedly instead seizing power retired farm virginia.political scientist seymour martin lipset observes united states first major colony successfully revolt colonial rule.sense first new nation.
History of the United States	declaration independence july second continental congress meeting philadelphia declared independence colonies adopting resolution richard henry lee statedthat united colonies right ought free independent states absolved allegiance british crown political connection state great britain ought totally dissolved measures immediately taken procuring assistance foreign powers confederation formed bind colonies closely together.on july adopted declaration independence date celebrated nations birthday.congress shortly thereafter officially changed nations name united states america united colonies america.the new nation founded enlightenment ideals liberalism thomas jefferson called unalienable rights life liberty pursuit happiness.dedicated strongly republican principles emphasized people sovereign hereditary kings demanded civic duty feared corruption rejected aristocracy.early years republic confederation constitution national government able settle issue western regions young united states ceded states congress became territories.migration settlers northwest soon became states.
History of the United States	nationalists worried new nation fragile withstand international war even internal revolts shays rebellion massachusetts.nationalists – war veterans – organized every state convinced congress call philadelphia convention .delegates every state wrote new constitution created much powerful efficient central government one strong president powers taxation.new government reflected prevailing republican ideals guarantees individual liberty constraining power government system separation powers.the congress given authority ban international slave trade years .compromise gave south congressional apportionment proportion free population allowing include threefifths number slaves states total population.provision increased political power southern representatives congress especially slavery extended deep south removal native americans transportation slaves extensive domestic trade.to assuage antifederalists feared toopowerful national government nation adopted united states bill rights .
History of the United States	comprising first ten amendments constitution guaranteed individual liberties freedom speech religious practice jury trials stated citizens states reserved rights specified.president george washington george washington – renowned hero american revolutionary war commanderinchief continental army president constitutional convention – became first president united states new constitution .national capital moved new york philadelphia finally settled washington dc .the major accomplishments washington administration creating strong national government recognized without question americans.government following vigorous leadership treasury secretary alexander hamilton assumed debts states debt holders received federal bonds created bank united states stabilize financial system set uniform system tariffs taxes imports taxes pay debt provide financial infrastructure.support programs hamilton created new political party – first world based voters – federalist party.
History of the United States	twoparty system thomas jefferson james madison formed opposition republican party usually called democraticrepublican party political scientists.hamilton washington presented country jay treaty reestablished good relations britain.jeffersonians vehemently protested voters aligned behind one party thus setting first party system.federalists promoted business financial commercial interests wanted trade britain.republicans accused federalists plans establish monarchy turn rich ruling class making united states pawn british.
History of the United States	treaty passed politics became intensely heated.challenges federal government serious challenges new federal government included northwest indian war ongoing cherokee–american wars whiskey rebellion western settlers protested federal tax liquor.washington called state militia personally led army settlers insurgents melted away power national government firmly established.washington refused serve two terms – setting precedent – famous farewell address extolled benefits federal government importance ethics morality warning foreign alliances formation political parties.john adams federalist defeated jefferson election.war loomed france federalists used opportunity try silence republicans alien sedition acts build large army hamilton head prepare french invasion.however federalists became divided adams sent successful peace mission france ended quasiwar .
History of the United States	increasing demand slave labor first two decades revolutionary war dramatic changes status slavery among states increase number freed blacks.inspired revolutionary ideals equality men influenced lesser economic reliance slavery northern states abolished slavery.states upper south made manumission easier resulting increase proportion free blacks upper south percentage total nonwhite population less one percent percent .date total .percent blacks united states free.date demand slaves rise deep souths expanding cotton cultivation number manumissions declined sharply internal u.s. slave trade became important source wealth many planters traders.in congress severed u.s.s involvement atlantic slave trade.
History of the United States	louisiana jeffersonian republicanism thomas jefferson defeated adams presidency election.jeffersons major achievement president louisiana purchase provided u.s. settlers vast potential expansion west mississippi river.jefferson scientist supported expeditions explore map new domain notably lewis clark expedition.jefferson believed deeply republicanism argued based independent yeoman farmer planter distrusted cities factories banks.also distrusted federal government judges tried weaken judiciary.however met match john marshall federalist virginia.although constitution specified supreme court functions vague marshall chief justice – defined especially power overturn acts congress states violated constitution first enunciated marbury v. madison.
History of the United States	war americans increasingly angry british violation american ships neutral rights hurt france impressment seizure american sailors needed royal navy fight napoleon british support hostile indians attacking american settlers midwest goal creating probritish indian barrier state block american expansion westward.may also desired annex part british north america although still heavily debated.despite strong opposition northeast especially federalists want disrupt trade britain congress declared war june .the war frustrating sides.sides tried invade repulsed.american high command remained incompetent last year.
History of the United States	american militia proved ineffective soldiers reluctant leave home efforts invade canada repeatedly failed.british blockade ruined american commerce bankrupted treasury angered new englanders smuggled supplies britain.americans general william henry harrison finally gained naval control lake erie defeated indians tecumseh canada andrew jackson ended indian threat southeast.indian threat expansion midwest permanently ended.british invaded occupied much maine.the british raided burned washington repelled baltimore – star spangled banner written celebrate american success.
History of the United States	upstate new york major british invasion new york state turned back battle plattsburgh.finally early andrew jackson decisively defeated major british invasion battle new orleans making famous war hero.with napoleon apparently gone causes war evaporated sides agreed peace left prewar boundaries intact.americans claimed victory february news came almost simultaneously jacksons victory new orleans peace treaty left prewar boundaries place.americans swelled pride success second war independence naysayers antiwar federalist party put shame party never recovered.helped lead emerging american identity cemented national pride state pride.britain never achieved war goal granting indians barrier state block american settlement allowed settlers pour midwest without fear major threat.
History of the United States	war also destroyed americas negative perception standing army proved useful many areas british opposed illequipped poorlytrained militias early months war war department officials instead decided place regular troops nations main defense.second great awakening second great awakening protestant revival movement affected entire nation early th century led rapid church growth.movement began around gained momentum membership rose rapidly among baptist methodist congregations whose preachers led movement.past peak s.it enrolled millions new members existing evangelical denominations led formation new denominations.many converts believed awakening heralded new millennial age.
History of the United States	second great awakening stimulated establishment many reform movements – including abolitionism temperance designed remove evils society anticipated second coming jesus christ.era good feelings strong opponents war federalists held hartford convention hinted disunion.national euphoria victory new orleans ruined prestige federalists longer played significant role political party.president madison republicans realized foolish let bank united states close absence greatly hindered financing war.assistance foreign bankers chartered second bank united states .the republicans also imposed tariffs designed protect infant industries created britain blockading u.s. collapse federalists party adoption many federalist principles republicans systematic policy president james monroe two terms – downplay partisanship nation entered era good feelings far less partisanship closed first party system.the monroe doctrine expressed proclaimed united states opinion european powers longer colonize interfere americas.
History of the United States	defining moment foreign policy united states.monroe doctrine adopted response american british fears russian french expansion western hemisphere.in president andrew jackson th president united states ran second term slogan jackson bank renew charter second bank united states america ending bank .jackson convinced central banking used elite take advantage average american instead implemented state banks popularly known pet banks.westward expansion indian removal congress passed indian removal act authorized president negotiate treaties exchanged native american tribal lands eastern states lands west mississippi river.goal primarily remove native americans including five civilized tribes american southeast occupied land settlers wanted.jacksonian democrats demanded forcible removal native populations refused acknowledge state laws reservations west.
History of the United States	whigs religious leaders opposed move inhumane.thousands deaths resulted relocations seen cherokee trail tears.trail tears resulted approximately – relocated cherokee perishing along way.many seminole indians florida refused move west fought army years seminole wars.second party system first party system federalists republicans withered away stage set emergence new party system based well organized local parties appealed votes almost adult white men.
History of the United States	former jeffersonian democraticrepublican party split factions.split choice successor president james monroe party faction supported many old jeffersonian principles led andrew jackson martin van buren became democratic party.norton explains transformation jacksonians believed peoples finally prevailed.lavishly financed coalition state parties political leaders newspaper editors popular movement elected president.democrats became nations first wellorganized national party tight party organization became hallmark nineteenthcentury american politics.opposing factions led henry clay helped form whig party.
History of the United States	democratic party small decisive advantage whigs whigs fell apart issue slavery.behind platforms issued state national parties stood widely shared political outlook characterized democratsthe democrats represented wide range views shared fundamental commitment jeffersonian concept agrarian society.viewed central government enemy individual liberty.corrupt bargain strengthened suspicion washington politics.… jacksonians feared concentration economic political power.believed government intervention economy benefited specialinterest groups created corporate monopolies favored rich.
History of the United States	sought restore independence individual common man i.e.artisan ordinary farmer ending federal support banks corporations restricting use paper currency distrusted.definition proper role government tended negative jacksons political power largely expressed negative acts.exercised veto previous presidents combined.jackson supporters also opposed reform movement.
History of the United States	reformers eager turn programs legislation called active government.democrats tended oppose programs like educational reform establishment public education system.believed instance public schools restricted individual liberty interfering parental responsibility undermined freedom religion replacing church schools.jackson share reformers humanitarian concerns.sympathy american indians initiating removal cherokees along trail tears.the great majority antislavery activists abraham lincoln mr. walters rejected garrisons theology held slavery unfortunate social evil sin.
History of the United States	westward expansion manifest destiny american colonies new nation grew rapidly population area pioneers pushed frontier settlement west.process finally ended around – last major farmlands ranch lands settled.native american tribes places resisted militarily overwhelmed settlers army relocated reservations west.highly influential frontier thesis wisconsin historian frederick jackson turner argues frontier shaped national character boldness violence innovation individualism democracy.recent historians emphasized multicultural nature frontier.enormous popular attention media focuses wild west second half th century.
History of the United States	defined hine faragher frontier history tells story creation defense communities use land development markets formation states.explain tale conquest also one survival persistence merging peoples cultures gave birth continuing life america.the first settlers west spanish new mexico became u.s. citizens .hispanics california californios overwhelmed gold rush miners.california grew explosively.san francisco become economic hub entire pacific coast diverse population quarter million.from early oregon trail many offshoots used settlers.
History of the United States	ers california gold rush ranchers farmers entrepreneurs families headed california oregon points far west.wagontrains took five six months foot trip took days rail.manifest destiny belief american settlers destined expand across continent.concept born sense mission redeem old world high example … generated potentialities new earth building new heaven.manifest destiny rejected modernizers especially whigs like henry clay abraham lincoln wanted build cities factories – farms.democrats strongly favored expansion key election .
History of the United States	bitter debate congress republic texas annexed leading war mexico considered texas part mexico due large numbers mexican settlers.the mexican–american war – broke whigs opposed war democrats supporting war.u.s. army using regulars large numbers volunteers defeated mexican armies invaded several points captured mexico city decisively.treaty guadalupe hidalgo ended war .many democrats wanted annex mexico idea rejected southerners argued incorporating millions mexican people mainly mixed race would undermine united states exclusively white republic.instead u.s. took texas lightly settled northern parts california new mexico.hispanic residents given full citizenship mexican indians became american indians.
History of the United States	simultaneously gold discovered california attracting men northern california matter months california gold rush.peaceful compromise britain gave u.s. ownership oregon country renamed oregon territory.the demand guano prized agricultural fertilizer led united states pass guano islands act enabled citizens united states take possession name united states unclaimed islands containing guano deposits.act united states annexed nearly islands pacific ocean caribbean sea.islands recognized territories united states.sectional conflict civil war divisions north south central issue expansion slavery pitting antislavery elements north proslavery elements dominated south.
History of the United States	small number active northerners abolitionists declared ownership slaves sin terms protestant theology demanded immediate abolition.much larger numbers north expansion slavery seeking put path extinction america would committed free land lowcost farms owned cultivated family free labor free speech opposed censorship abolitionist material south.southern white democrats insisted slavery economic social cultural benefit whites even slaves denounced antislavery spokesmen abolitionists.justifications slavery included economics history religion legality social good even humanitarianism arguments.defenders slavery argued sudden end slave economy would profound killing economic impact south reliance slave labor foundation economy.also argued slaves freed would widespread unemployment chaos.religious activists split slavery methodists baptists dividing northern southern denominations.
History of the United States	north methodists congregationalists quakers included many abolitionists especially among women activists.catholic episcopal lutheran denominations largely ignored slavery issue.compromise popular sovereignty issue slavery new territories seemingly settled compromise brokered whig henry clay democrat stephen douglas compromise included admission california free state exchange federal restrictions slavery placed utah new mexico.point contention fugitive slave act increased federal enforcement required even free states cooperate turning fugitive slaves owners.abolitionists pounced act attack slavery bestselling antislavery novel uncle toms cabin harriet beecher stowe.the compromise repealed kansas–nebraska act promoted senator douglas name popular sovereignty democracy.
History of the United States	permitted voters decide legality slavery territory allowed douglas adopt neutrality issue slavery.antislavery forces rose anger alarm forming new republican party.pro anti contingents rushed kansas vote slavery resulting miniature civil war called bleeding kansas.late young republican party dominated nearly northern states thus electoral college.insisted slavery would never allowed expand thus would slowly die out.
History of the United States	plantation economy southern slaverybased societies become wealthy based cotton agricultural commodity production particularly profited internal slave trade.northern cities boston new york regional industries tied economically slavery banking shipping manufacturing including textile mills.four million slaves south nearly eight times many nationwide .plantations highly profitable due heavy european demand raw cotton.profits invested new lands purchasing slaves largely drawn declining tobacco regions.for nations first years slaveholder served president united states period slaveholding presidents reelected second terms.
History of the United States	addition southern states benefited increased apportionment congress due partial counting slaves populations.slave rebellions slave rebellions gabriel prosser denmark vesey nat turner famously john brown caused fear white south imposed stricter oversight slaves reduced rights free blacks.fugitive slave act required states cooperate slave owners attempting recover escaped slaves outraged northerners.formerly escaped slave reached nonslave state presumed attained sanctuary freedom missouri compromise.supreme courts decision dred scott v. sandford ruled missouri compromise unconstitutional angry republicans said decision threatened make slavery national institution.
History of the United States	president abraham lincoln secession abraham lincoln election seven southern states seceded union set new nation confederate states america confederacy february .attacked fort sumter u.s. army fort south carolina thus igniting war.lincoln called troops suppress confederacy april four states seceded joined confederacy.northernmost slave states secede became known border states delaware maryland kentucky missouri.during war northwestern portion virginia seceded confederacy.became new union state west virginia.
History of the United States	west virginia usually associated border states.civil war civil war began april confederate forces attacked u.s. military installation fort sumter south carolina.response lincoln called states send troops recapture forts protect capital preserve union view still existed intact despite actions seceding states.two armies first major clash first battle bull run proved sides war would much longer bloodier originally anticipated.in western theater union relatively successful major battles perryville shiloh along union gunboat dominance navigable rivers producing strategic union victories destroying major confederate operations.warfare eastern theater began poorly union.u.s. general george b. mcclellan failed capture confederate capital richmond virginia peninsula campaign retreated attacks confederate general robert e. lee.
History of the United States	meanwhile sides concentrated – raising training new armies.main action union success controlling border states confederates largely driven border states.the autumn confederate retreat battle antietam led lincolns warning would issue emancipation proclamation january states return.making slavery central war goal energized republicans north well enemies antiwar copperhead democrats ended chance british french intervention.lees smaller army battles late spring pushed hard ignored union threat west.lee invaded pennsylvania search supplies cause warweariness north.perhaps turning point war lees army badly beaten july battle gettysburg barely made back virginia.in july union forces general ulysses s. grant gained control mississippi river battle vicksburg thereby splitting confederacy.
History of the United States	union general william tecumseh sherman marched south chattanooga capture atlanta decisive victory ended war jitters among republicans north helped lincoln win reelection.on homefront industrial expansion north expanded dramatically using extensive railroad service moving industrial workers munitions factories.foreign trade increased united states providing food cotton britain britain sending manufactured products thousands volunteers union army plus confederates.british operated blockade runners bringing food luxury items munitions confederacy bringing tobacco cotton.union blockade increasingly shut confederate ports late blockade runners usually captured could make handful runs.the last two years war bloody sides sherman marching almost unopposed southern states burning cities destroying plantations ruining railroads bridges avoiding civilian casualties.sherman demonstrated south unable resist union invasion.
History of the United States	much confederate heartland destroyed could longer provide desperately needed supplies armies.spring grant launched war attrition pursued lee final appomattox campaign resulted lee surrendering april .the american civil war worlds earliest industrial war.railroads telegraph steamships massproduced weapons employed extensively.mobilization civilian factories mines shipyards banks transportation food supplies foreshadowed impact industrialization world war i. remains deadliest war american history resulting deaths soldiers undetermined number civilian casualties.ten percent northern males – years old percent southern white males aged – died.
History of the United States	legacy includes ending slavery united states restoring union strengthening role federal government.according historian allan nevins civil war major longterm impact united states terms developing leadership potential moving entire nation beyond adolescent stagethe fighting attendant demands upon industry finance medicine law also helped train host leaders next years made influence powerfully felt social economic cultural fronts.broke barriers parochialism ended distrust largescale effort hardened matured whole people emotionally.adolescent land s…rose blows battle adult estate.nation postappomattox generation though sadly hurt especially south war losses deeply scarred psychologically especially north war hatreds greeds last power resolution selftrust manhood.emancipation emancipation proclamation executive order issued president abraham lincoln january .
History of the United States	single stroke changed legal status recognized u.s. government million slaves designated areas confederacy slave free.practical effect soon slave escaped control confederate government running away advances federal troops slave became legally actually free.the owners never compensated.plantation owners realizing emancipation would destroy economic system sometimes moved slaves far possible reach union army.june union army controlled confederacy liberated designated slaves.large numbers moved camps run freedmens bureau given food shelter medical care arrangements employment made.the severe dislocations war reconstruction large negative impact black population large amount sickness death.
History of the United States	reconstruction reconstruction lasted lincolns emancipation proclamation january compromise .the major issues faced lincoln status exslaves freedmen loyalty civil rights exrebels status exconfederate states powers federal government needed prevent future civil war question whether congress president would make major decisions.the severe threats starvation displacement unemployed freedmen met first major federal relief agency freedmens bureau operated army.three reconstruction amendments passed expand civil rights black americans thirteenth amendment outlawed slavery fourteenth amendment guaranteed equal rights citizenship blacks fifteenth amendment prevented race used disenfranchise men.radical reconstruction exconfederates remained control southern states two years changed radical republicans gained control congress elections.president andrew johnson sought easy terms reunions exrebels virtually powerless face radical republican congress impeached senates attempt remove office failed one vote.congress enfranchised black men temporarily stripped many exconfederate leaders right hold office.new republican governments came power based coalition freedmen made carpetbaggers new arrivals north scalawags native white southerners.
History of the United States	backed u.s. army.opponents said corrupt violated rights whites.kkk rise jim crow state state lost power conservativedemocratic coalition gained control entire south .response radical reconstruction ku klux klan kkk emerged whitesupremacist organization opposed black civil rights republican rule.president ulysses grants vigorous enforcement ku klux klan act shut klan disbanded.paramilitary groups white league red shirts emerged worked openly use intimidation violence suppress black voting regain white political power states across south s. one historian described military arm democratic party.reconstruction ended disputed election.
History of the United States	compromise gave republican candidate rutherford b. hayes white house exchange removing remaining federal troops south.federal government withdrew troops south southern democrats took control every southern state.from southern states effectively disfranchised black voters many poor whites making voter registration difficult poll taxes literacy tests arbitrary devices.passed segregation laws imposed secondclass status blacks system known jim crow lasted civil rights movement.growth industrialization frontier railroad latter half nineteenth century marked rapid development settlement far west first wagon trains riverboats aided completion transcontinental railroad.large numbers european immigrants especially germany scandinavia took lowcost free farms prairie states.
History of the United States	mining silver copper opened mountain west.indian wars united states army fought frequent smallscale wars native americans settlers encroached traditional lands.gradually u.s. purchased native american tribal lands extinguished claims forcing tribes onto subsidized reservations.according u.s. bureau census indian wars government united states number.cost lives white men women children including killed individual combats lives indians.
History of the United States	actual number killed wounded indians must much higher given… fifty percent additional would safe estimate.gilded age gilded age term mark twain used describe period late th century dramatic expansion american wealth prosperity underscored mass corruption government.reforms age included civil service act mandated competitive examination applicants government jobs.important legislation included interstate commerce act ended railroads discrimination small shippers sherman antitrust act outlawed monopolies business.twain believed age corrupted elements land speculators scandalous politics unethical business practices.since days charles a. beard matthew josephson historians argued united states effectively plutocratic least part gilded age progressive era.
History of the United States	financiers industrialists j.p. morgan john d. rockefeller began amass vast fortunes many u.s. observers concerned nation losing pioneering egalitarian spirit.by american industrial production per capita income exceeded world nations.response heavy debts decreasing farm prices wheat cotton farmers joined populist party.unprecedented wave immigration europe served provide labor american industry create diverse communities previously undeveloped areas.peak years immigration million people migrated united states.most unskilled workers quickly found jobs mines mills factories.many immigrants craftsmen especially britain germany bringing human skills others farmers especially germany scandinavia purchased inexpensive land prairies railroads sent agents europe.
History of the United States	poverty growing inequality dangerous working conditions along socialist anarchist ideas diffusing european immigrants led rise labor movement often included violent strikes.unions strikes skilled workers banded together control crafts raise wages forming labor unions industrial areas northeast.factory workers joined unions labor movement.samuel gompers led american federation labor – coordinating multiple unions.industrial growth rapid led john d. rockefeller oil andrew carnegie steel became leaders philanthropy gospel wealth giving away fortunes create modern system hospitals universities libraries foundations.the panic broke severe nationwide depression impacting farmers workers businessmen saw prices wages profits fall.
History of the United States	many railroads went bankrupt.resultant political reaction fell democratic party whose leader president grover cleveland shouldered much blame.labor unrest involved numerous strikes notably violent pullman strike shut federal troops clevelands orders.populist party gained strength among cotton wheat farmers well coal miners overtaken even popular free silver movement demanded using silver enlarge money supply leading inflation silverites promised would end depression.the financial railroad business communities fought back hard arguing gold standard would save economy.intense election nations history conservative republican william mckinley defeated silverite william jennings bryan ran democratic populist silver republican tickets.
History of the United States	bryan swept south west mckinley ran landslides among middle class industrial workers cities among upscale farmers midwest.prosperity returned mckinley gold standard enacted tariff raised.u.s. strongest economy globe.apart two short recessions overall economy remained prosperous growing .republicans citing mckinleys policies took credit.imperialism united states emerged world economic military power .
History of the United States	main episode spanish–american war began spain refused american demands reform oppressive policies cuba.splendid little war one official called involved series quick american victories land sea.treaty paris peace conference united states acquired philippines puerto rico guam.cuba became independent country close american tutelage.although war widely popular peace terms proved controversial.william jennings bryan led democratic party opposition control philippines denounced imperialism unbecoming american democracy.
History of the United States	president william mckinley defended acquisition riding high nation returned prosperity felt triumphant war.mckinley easily defeated bryan rematch presidential election.after defeating insurrection filipino nationalists united states achieved little philippines except education something way public health.also built roads bridges wells infrastructural development lost much early vigor failure railroads.however americans lost interest empire turned international attention caribbean especially building panama canal.canal opened increased trade japan rest far east.
History of the United States	key innovation open door policy whereby imperial powers given equal access chinese business one allowed take control china.discontent reform progressive era dissatisfaction part growing middle class corruption inefficiency politics usual failure deal increasingly important urban industrial problems led dynamic progressive movement starting s. every major city state national level well education medicine industry progressives called modernization reform decrepit institutions elimination corruption politics introduction efficiency criterion change.leading politicians parties notably theodore roosevelt charles evans hughes robert la follette republican side william jennings bryan woodrow wilson democratic side took cause progressive reform.women became especially involved demands woman suffrage prohibition better schools.prominent leader jane addams chicago created settlement houses.muckraking journalists upton sinclair lincoln steffens jacob riis exposed corruption business government along rampant innercity poverty.progressives implemented antitrust laws regulated industries meatpacking drugs railroads.
History of the United States	four new constitutional amendments – sixteenth nineteenth – resulted progressive activism bringing federal income tax direct election senators prohibition woman suffrage.the period also saw major transformation banking system creation federal reserve system arrival cooperative banking us founding first credit union .progressive movement lasted active period –.womens suffrage womens suffrage movement began june national convention liberty party.presidential candidate gerrit smith argued established womens suffrage party plank.one month later cousin elizabeth cady stanton joined lucretia mott women organize seneca falls convention featuring declaration sentiments demanding equal rights women right vote.many activists became politically aware abolitionist movement.
History of the United States	womens rights campaign firstwave feminism led stanton lucy stone susan b. anthony among many others.stone paulina wright davis organized prominent influential national womens rights convention .the movement reorganized civil war gaining experienced campaigners many worked prohibition womens christian temperance union.end th century western states granted women full voting rights though women made significant legal victories gaining rights areas property child custody.around feminist movement began reawaken putting emphasis demands equality arguing corruption american politics demanded purification women men could job.protests became increasingly common suffragette alice paul led parades capital major cities.paul split large national american woman suffrage association nawsa favored moderate approach supported democratic party woodrow wilson led carrie chapman catt formed militant national womans party.
History of the United States	suffragists arrested silent sentinels pickets white house first time tactic used taken political prisoners.the old antisuffragist argument men could fight war therefore men deserve right vote refuted enthusiastic participation tens thousands american women home front world war i. across world grateful nations gave women right vote.furthermore western states already given women right vote state national elections representatives states including first woman jeannette rankin montana demonstrated woman suffrage success.main resistance came south white leaders worried threat black women voting.congress passed nineteenth amendment women could vote .nawsa became league women voters national womans party began lobbying full equality equal rights amendment would pass congress second wave womens movement .politicians responded new electorate emphasizing issues special interest women especially prohibition child health world peace.
History of the United States	main surge women voting came bigcity machines realized needed support women elect al smith catholic new york city.meanwhile protestants mobilized women support prohibition vote republican herbert hoover.war prosperity depression world war world war raged europe president woodrow wilson took full control foreign policy declaring neutrality warning germany resumption unrestricted submarine warfare american ships supplying goods allied nations would mean war.germany decided take risk try win cutting supplies britain sinking ships rms lusitania.u.s. declared war april mainly threat zimmermann telegram.american money food munitions arrived europe quickly troops drafted trained.
History of the United States	summer american soldiers general john j. pershings american expeditionary forces arrived rate day germany unable replace losses.dissent war suppressed sedition act espionage act .german language leftist pacifist publications suppressed imprisoned speaking war.political prisoners later released u.s president warren g. harding.the result allied victory november .president wilson demanded germany depose kaiser accept terms famed fourteen points speech.
History of the United States	wilson dominated paris peace conference germany treated harshly allies treaty versailles wilson put hopes new league nations.wilson refused compromise senate republicans issue congressional power declare war senate rejected treaty league.roaring twenties u.s. grew steadily stature economic military world power.united states senate ratify treaty versailles imposed allies defeated central powers instead united states chose pursue unilateralism.aftershock russias october revolution resulted real fears communism united states leading red scare deportation aliens considered subversive.while public health facilities grew rapidly progressive era hospitals medical schools modernized nation lost approximately lives spanish flu pandemic.in manufacture sale import export alcohol prohibited eighteenth amendment prohibition.
History of the United States	result cities illegal alcohol became big business largely controlled racketeers.second ku klux klan grew rapidly – collapsed.immigration laws passed strictly limit number new entries.called roaring twenties due great economic prosperity period.jazz became popular among younger generation thus decade also called jazz age.the great depression – new deal – decisive moments american political economic social history reshaped nation.
History of the United States	great depression new deal nation enjoyed widespread prosperity albeit weakness agriculture.financial bubble fueled inflated stock market later led stock market crash october .along many economic factors triggered worldwide depression known great depression.time united states experienced deflation prices fell unemployment soared farm prices fell half manufacturing output plunged onethird.in democratic presidential nominee franklin d. roosevelt promised new deal american people coining enduring label domestic policies.result series permanent reform programs including relief unemployed assistance elderly jobs young men social security unemployment insurance public housing bankruptcy insurance farm subsidies regulation financial securities.state governments added new programs well introduced sales tax pay them.
History of the United States	ideologically revolution established modern liberalism united states kept democrats power washington almost continuously three decades thanks new deal coalition ethnic whites blacks bluecollar workers labor unions white southerners.provided relief longterm unemployed numerous programs works progress administration wpa young men civilian conservation corps.large scale spending projects designed provide private sector construction jobs rebuild infrastructure purview public works administration.the second new deal turn left – building labor unions wagner act.unions became powerful element merging new deal coalition reelection roosevelt mobilizing union members bluecollar workers relief recipients big city machines ethnic religious groups especially catholics jews white south along blacks north could vote.roosevelt seriously weakened second term failed effort pack supreme court center conservative resistance programs.most relief programs dropped conservatives regained power congress conservative coalition.
History of the United States	special importance social security program begun .economy basically recovered sharp short recession – longterm unemployment however remained problem solved wartime spending.in effort denounce past u.s. interventionism subdue subsequent fears latin americans roosevelt announced march inaugural address field world policy would dedicate nation policy good neighbor neighbor resolutely respects respects rights others neighbor respects obligations respects sanctity agreements world neighbors.to create friendly relationship united states central well south american countries roosevelt sought stray asserting military force region.position affirmed cordell hull roosevelts secretary state conference american states montevideo december .world war ii depression years united states remained focused domestic concerns democracy declined across world many countries fell control dictators.imperial japan asserted dominance east asia pacific.
History of the United States	nazi germany fascist italy militarized threatened conquests britain france attempted appeasement avert another war europe.u.s. legislation neutrality acts sought avoid foreign conflicts however policy clashed increasing antinazi feelings following german invasion poland september started world war ii.at first roosevelt positioned u.s. arsenal democracy pledging fullscale financial munitions support allies lendlease agreements – military personnel.japan tried neutralize americas power pacific attacking pearl harbor instead catalyzed american support enter war.the main contributions u.s. allied war effort comprised money industrial output food petroleum technological innovation especially – military personnel.much focus u.s. government maximizing national economic output causing dramatic increase gdp export vast quantities supplies allies american forces overseas end unemployment rise civilian consumption even gdp went war effort.tens millions workers moved lowproductivity occupations highefficiency jobs improving productivity better technology management.students retired people housewives unemployed moved active labor force.
History of the United States	economic mobilization managed war production board wartime production boom led full employment wiping vestige great depression.labor shortages encouraged industry look new sources workers finding new roles women blacks.most durable goods became unavailable meat clothing gasoline tightly rationed.industrial areas housing short supply people doubled lived cramped quarters.prices wages controlled americans saved high portion incomes led renewed growth war instead return depression.americans home front tolerated extra work patriotism increased pay confidence duration life would return normal soon war won.the allies – united states britain soviet union countries – saw germany main threat gave highest priority europe.

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