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Bangkok	national newspapers combined daily circulation two million .include massoriented thai rath khao sod daily news first currently prints million copies per day well less sensational matichon krungthep thurakij.bangkok post nation two national english language dailies.foreign publications including asian wall street journal financial times straits times yomiuri shimbun also operations bangkok.large majority thailands magazines published capital include news magazines well lifestyle entertainment gossip fashionrelated publications.bangkok also hub thailands broadcast television.
Bangkok	six national terrestrial channels channels modernine nbt thai pbs headquarters main studios capital.exception local news segments broadcast nbt programming done bangkok repeated throughout provinces.however centralised model weakening rise cable television many local providers.numerous cable satellite channels based bangkok.truevisions major subscription television provider bangkok thailand also carries international programming.
Bangkok	bangkok home thailands fm radio stations stations .broadcast media reform stipulated constitution progressing slowly although many community radio stations emerged city.likewise bangkok dominated thai film industry since inception.although film settings normally feature locations throughout country city home major film studios.bangkok dozens cinemas multiplexes city hosts two major film festivals annually bangkok international film festival world film festival bangkok.art traditional thai art long developed within religious royal contexts continues sponsored various government agencies bangkok including department fine arts office traditional arts.
Bangkok	support foundation chitralada palace sponsors traditional folk handicrafts.various communities throughout city still practice traditional crafts including production khon masks alms bowls classical musical instruments.national gallery hosts permanent collection traditional modern art temporary contemporary exhibits.bangkoks contemporary art scene slowly grown relative obscurity public sphere past two decades.private galleries gradually emerged provide exposure new artists including patravadi theatre h gallery.
Bangkok	centrally located bangkok art culture centre opened following fifteenyear lobbying campaign largest public exhibition space city.also many art galleries museums including privately owned museum contemporary art.the citys performing arts scene features traditional theatre dance well westernstyle plays.khon traditional dances regularly performed national theatre salachalermkrung royal theatre thailand cultural centre newer multipurpose venue also hosts musicals orchestras events.numerous venues regularly feature variety performances throughout city.sport national trend association football muay thai dominate bangkoks spectator sport scene.
Bangkok	muangthong united bangkok united bg pathum united port police tero major thai league clubs based bangkok metropolitan region rajadamnern lumpini stadiums main kickboxing venues.while sepak takraw seen played open spaces throughout city football modern sports norm.western sports introduced reign king chulalongkorn originally available privileged status still associated certain sports.golf popular among upwardly mobile several courses bangkok.horse racing highly popular midth century still takes place royal bangkok sports club.there many public sporting facilities located throughout bangkok.two main centres national stadium complex dates newer hua mak sports complex built asian games.
Bangkok	bangkok also hosted games city.city host inaugural southeast asian games summer universiade fifa futsal world cup.transport although bangkoks canals historically served major mode transport long since surpassed importance land traffic.charoen krung road first built western techniques completed .since road network vastly expanded accommodate sprawling city.
Bangkok	complex elevated expressway network helps bring traffic city centre bangkoks rapid growth put large strain infrastructure traffic jams plagued city since s. although rail transport introduced trams served city bangkoks first rapid transit system began operation.older public transport systems include extensive bus network boat services still operate chao phraya two canals.taxis appear form cars motorcycles tuktuk auto rickshaws.bangkok connected rest country national highway rail networks well domestic flights citys two international airports.centuriesold maritime transport goods still conducted khlong toei port.the bma largely responsible overseeing construction maintenance road network transport systems public works department traffic transportation department.however many separate government agencies also charge individual systems much transportrelated policy planning funding contributed national government.
Bangkok	roads roadbased transport primary mode travel bangkok.due citys organic development streets follow organized grid structure.fortyeight major roads link different areas city branching smaller streets lanes soi serve local neighbourhoods.eleven bridges chao phraya link two sides city several expressway motorway routes bring traffic city centre link nearby provinces.bangkoks rapid growth resulted sharp increases vehicle ownership traffic demand since continued—in inuse vehicles bangkok .percent private cars .
Bangkok	percent motorcycles.increases face limited carrying capacity caused severe traffic congestion evident early s. extent problem thai traffic police unit officers trained basic midwifery order assist deliveries reach hospital time.bangkoks limited road surface area percent compared – percent western cities often cited major cause traffic jams factors including high vehicle ownership rate relative income level inadequate public transport systems lack transportation demand management also play role.efforts alleviate problem included construction intersection bypasses extensive system elevated highways well creation several new rapid transit systems.citys overall traffic conditions however remain poor.traffic main source air pollution bangkok reached serious levels s. efforts improve air quality improving fuel quality enforcing emission standards among others visibly ameliorated problem s. atmospheric particulate matter levels dropped micrograms per cubic metre .
Bangkok	however increasing vehicle numbers lack continued pollutioncontrol efforts threatens reversal past success.january–february weather conditions caused bouts haze cover city particulate matter .micrometres pm.rising unhealthy levels several days end.although bma created thirty signed bicycle routes along several roads totalling kilometres mi cycling still largely impractical especially city centre.bicycle lanes share pavement pedestrians.
Bangkok	poor surface maintenance encroachment hawkers street vendors hostile environment cyclists pedestrians make cycling walking unpopular methods getting around bangkok.buses taxis bangkok extensive bus network providing local transit services within greater bangkok area.bangkok mass transit authority bmta operates monopoly bus services substantial concessions granted private operators.buses minibus vans song thaeo operate total routes throughout region.separate bus rapid transit system owned bma operation since .
Bangkok	known simply brt system currently consists single line running business district sathon ratchaphruek western side city.transport co. ltd. bmtas longdistance counterpart services provinces operating bangkok.taxis ubiquitous bangkok popular form transport.august cars motorcycles tuktuk motorized tricycles cumulatively registered use taxis.meters required car taxis since tuktuk fares usually negotiated.motorcycle taxis operate regulated ranks either fixed negotiable fares usually employed relatively short journeys.despite popularity taxis gained bad reputation often refusing passengers requested route drivers convenience.
Bangkok	motorcycle taxis previously unregulated subject extortion organized crime gangs.since registration required motorcycle taxi ranks drivers wear distinctive numbered vests designating district registration allowed accept passengers.rail systems bangkok location hua lamphong railway station main terminus national rail network operated state railway thailand srt.addition longdistance services srt also operates daily commuter trains running outskirts city rush hour.bangkok served three rapid transit systems bts skytrain mrt elevated airport rail link.although proposals development rapid transit bangkok made since bts finally began operation.the bts consists two lines sukhumvit silom stations along .
Bangkok	kilometres .mi.mrt opened use july currently consists two lines blue line purple line.airport rail link opened august connects city centre suvarnabhumi airport east.eight stations span distance kilometres mi.although initial passenger numbers low service area limited inner city opening purple line serves nonthaburi area systems become indispensable many commuters.
Bangkok	bts reported average daily trips mrt passenger trips per day.as september construction work ongoing extend citywide transit systems reach including construction light red gradeseparated commuter rail line.entire mass rapid transit master plan bangkok metropolitan region consists eight main lines four feeder lines totaling kilometres mi completed .addition rapid transit heavy rail lines proposals several monorail systems.water transport although much diminished past prominence waterbased transport still plays important role bangkok immediate upstream downstream provinces.several water buses serve commuters daily.
Bangkok	chao phraya express boat serves thirtyfour stops along river carrying average passengers per day smaller khlong saen saep boat service serves twentyseven stops saen saep canal daily passengers.longtail boats operate fifteen regular routes chao phraya passenger ferries thirtytwo river crossings served average daily passengers .bangkok port popularly known location khlong toei port thailands main international port opening superseded deepsea laem chabang port .primarily cargo port though inland location limits access ships deadweight tonnes less.port handled tonnes tons cargo first eight months fiscal year percent total countrys international ports.airports bangkok one asias busiest air transport hubs.
Bangkok	two commercial airports serve city older mueang international airport newer suvarnabhumi airport.suvarnabhumi replaced mueang bangkoks main airport opening served passengers making worlds th busiest airport passenger volume.volume exceeded designed capacity million passengers.mueang reopened domestic flights resumed international service focusing lowcost carriers october .suvarnabhumi undergoing expansion increase capacity million passengers million .
Bangkok	health education education bangkok long centre modern education thailand.first schools country established later th century schools city.city home countrys five oldest universities chulalongkorn thammasat kasetsart mahidol silpakorn founded .city since continued dominance especially higher education majority countrys universities public private located bangkok metropolitan region.chulalongkorn mahidol thai universities appear top qs world university rankings.
Bangkok	king mongkuts university technology thonburi also located bangkok thai university top – times higher education world university rankings.over past decades general trend pursuing university degree prompted founding new universities meet needs thai students.bangkok became place immigrants provincial thais go job opportunities also chance receive university degree.ramkhamhaeng university emerged thailands first open university highest enrolment country.demand higher education led founding many universities colleges public private.many universities established major provinces greater bangkok region remains home greater majority institutions citys tertiary education scene remains overpopulated nonbangkokians.
Bangkok	situation limited higher education either.percent yearolds school migrated bangkok secondary education.due lack secondary schools provinces perceived higher standards education capital.although discrepancy since largely abated tens thousands students still compete places bangkoks leading schools.education long prime factor centralization bangkok play vital role governments efforts decentralize country.
Bangkok	healthcare much thailands medical resources disproportionately concentrated capital.bangkok .percent countrys doctors physiciantopopulation ratio compared median among provinces.city home public hospitals five university hospitals well private hospitals registered clinics.bma operates nine public hospitals medical service department health department provides primary care sixtyeight community health centres.
Bangkok	thailands universal healthcare system implemented public hospitals health centres well participating private providers.researchoriented medical school affiliates siriraj king chulalongkorn memorial ramathibodi hospitals among largest country act tertiary care centres receiving referrals distant parts country.lately especially private sector much growth medical tourism hospitals bumrungrad bangkok hospital among others providing services specifically catering foreigners.estimated medical tourists visited thailand making bangkok popular global destination medical tourism.crime safety bangkok relatively moderate crime rate compared urban counterparts around world.traffic accidents major hazard natural disasters rare.
Bangkok	intermittent episodes political unrest occasional terrorist attacks resulted losses life.although crime threat bangkok relatively low nonconfrontational crimes opportunity pickpocketing pursesnatching credit card fraud occur frequency.bangkoks growth since followed increasing crime rates partly driven urbanisation migration unemployment poverty.late bangkoks crime rates four times rest country.police long preoccupied street crimes ranging housebreaking assault murder.saw emergence vehicle theft organized crime particularly foreign gangs.
Bangkok	drug trafficking especially ya ba methamphetamine pills also chronic.according police statistics common complaint received metropolitan police bureau housebreaking cases.followed cases motorcycle thefts cases assault cases embezzlement.serious offences included murders gang robberies robberies kidnapping arson cases.offences state far common included drugrelated cases cases involving prostitution related gambling.thailand crime victim survey conducted office justice affairs ministry justice found .
Bangkok	percent surveyed households reported member victim crime ..percent crimes property .percent crimes life body .percent informationrelated crimes.political demonstrations protests common bangkok.
Bangkok	historic uprisings infamously known deaths military suppression.events since peaceful series major protests since often turned violent.demonstrations march–may ended crackdown killed including armed unarmed protesters security forces civilians journalists.terrorist incidents also occurred bangkok notably bombing erawan shrine killed also series bombings – new years eve.traffic accidents major hazard bangkok.accidents city resulting injuries deaths well .
Bangkok	million baht damages.however rate fatal accidents much lower rest thailand.accidents bangkok amounted .percent entire country .percent fatalities occurred city.
Bangkok	another serious public health hazard comes bangkoks stray dogs.strays estimated roam citys streets dog bites among common injuries treated emergency departments citys hospitals.rabies prevalent among dog population treatment bites pose heavy public burden.calls move capital bangkok faced multiple problems—including congestion especially subsidence flooding—which raised issue moving nations capital elsewhere.idea new world war ii prime minister plaek phibunsongkhram planned unsuccessfully relocate capital phetchabun.
Bangkok	thaksin shinawatra administration assigned office national economic social development council nesdc formulate plan move capital nakhon nayok province.floods revived idea moving government functions bangkok.military government assigned nesdc study possibility moving government offices bangkok chachoengsao province east.international relations citys formal international relations managed international affairs division bma.missions include partnering major cities sister city agreements participation membership international organizations pursuing cooperative activities many foreign diplomatic missions based city.
Bangkok	international participation bangkok member several international organizations regional city government networks including asian network major cities japanled asianpacific city summit c cities climate leadership group escapsponsored regional network local authorities management human settlements asia pacific citynet japans council local authorities international relations world association major metropolises local governments sustainability among others.with location heart mainland southeast asia one asias hubs transportation bangkok home many international regional organizations.among others bangkok seat secretariat un economic social commission asia pacific escap well asiapacific regional offices food agricultural organization fao international civil aviation organization icao international labour organization ilo international organization migration iom international telecommunication union itu un high commission refugees unhcr un childrens fund unicef.sister cities bangkok made sister city andor friendship agreements thirtysix cities nineteen countries .see also outline bangkokworlds largest cities notes references bibliography baker chris phongpaichit pasuk .history thailand.
Bangkok	cambridge university press.isbn .hamilton annette .wonderful terrible everyday life bangkok.bridge gary vatson sophie eds.. companion city.blackwell publishing.
Bangkok	pp.–.isbn .naudin thierry ed..state asian cities pdf.
Bangkok	united nations human settlements programme.isbn .archived original pdf january .retrieved september .office national economic social development board nesdb august .gross regional provincial product chain volume measures – edition.
Bangkok	office national economic social development board.archived original zippdf february .retrieved september .thavisin nathanon semson pongsak padhanarath kriengpol eds..key bangkok.
Bangkok	bangkok international affairs division bangkok metropolitan administration.isbn .archived original october .traffic transportation department .สถิติจราจร ปี traffic statistics pdf.traffic transportation department bangkok metropolitan administration.
Bangkok	archived original pdf september .retrieved september .reading cornwelsmith philip .bangkok city senses book review.bangkok river books.
Bangkok	isbn .retrieved february .ünaldi serhat may .working towards monarchy politics space downtown bangkok hardcover ed.. university hawaii press.isbn .retrieved may .van beek steve .
Bangkok	news bangkok –.bangkok ปิยวีร์ รื่นจินดา.isbn .retrieved november .external links bangkok metropolitan administration official websitebangkoktourist.com – official travel guide bma culture sports tourism departmenttourism authority thailand bangkok
Sundarbans	degree typically studied information assurance.curriculum structure master science information assurance one three years master degree depending program may even start twoyear preparation classes covers various areas computer science internet security computer security cyber security.topics study may includebusiness continuity planningcobitcountermeasure computerdisaster recoveryfactor analysis information riskfair information practiceforensic scienceinformation securityiso isoiec risk managementlongterm supportmanagement sciencemission assurancepci dssregulatory compliancerisk assessmentrisk itrisk factor computingrisk managementsecurity controlssecurity engineeringsystems engineeringthreatvulnerability institutions msia degree programs institutions united states master science information assurance degree program includecapitol technology universitydakota state universityflorida institute technologygeorgia institute technologyiowa state universityjohns hopkins universitynortheastern universitynorwich universityoklahoma state universityregis universityrobert morris universityst.cloud state universityuniversity alabama huntsvillewestern governors universitywilmington university new castle delaware see also list masters degreescommittee national security systemsisacanational information assurance training education centerstandards organizations standards referencesspans area hooghly river indias state west bengal baleswar river bangladeshs division khulna.comprises closed open mangrove forests land used agricultural purpose mudflats barren land intersected multiple tidal streams channels.four protected areas sundarbans enlisted unesco world heritage sites viz.sundarbans national park sundarbans west sundarbans south sundarbans east wildlife sanctuaries.despite protections indian sundarbans considered endangered assessment iucn red list ecosystems framework.the sundarbans mangrove forest covers area km sq mi forests bangladeshs khulna division extend km sq mi west bengal extend km sq mi across south parganas north parganas districts.abundant tree species sundri heritiera fomes gewa excoecaria agallocha.
Sundarbans	forests provide habitat fauna wildlife including bird fish mammal reptile eight amphibian species.despite total ban killing capture wildlife fish invertebrates appears consistent pattern depleted biodiversity loss species th century ecological quality forest declining.despite preservation commitments governments sundarbans threat natural humanmade causes.landfall cyclone sidr damaged around sundarbans.forest also suffering increased salinity due rising sea levels due climate change reduced freshwater supply.may cyclone aila devastated sundarbans massive casualties.
Sundarbans	least people affected cyclone.proposed coalfired rampal power station situated km .mi north sundarbans rampal upazila bagerhat district khulna bangladesh anticipated damage unique mangrove forest according report unesco.climate change expected continue negatively effect natural systems human populations region resulting ecosystem degradation climate migration.experts examining region recommend focus mangrove restoration management advocating adaptation human populations processes like managed retreat investments resilient infrastructure.
Sundarbans	etymology bengali সুন্দরবন romanized sundôrbôn means beautiful forest.may derived word sundari sundri local name mangrove species heritiera fomes.alternatively proposed name corruption samudraban shomudrobôn sea forest chandrabandhe name tribe.history history area traced back – ad.ruin city built chand sadagar found baghmara forest block.
Sundarbans	mughal period mughal emperors leased forests sundarbans nearby residents.many criminals took refuge sundarbans advancing armies emperor akbar.many known attacked tigers.many buildings built later fell hands portuguese pirates salt smugglers dacoits th th centuries.evidence fact traced ruins netidhopani places scattered sundarbans.
Sundarbans	legal status forests underwent series changes including distinction first mangrove forest world brought scientific management.area mapped first persian surveyor general early following soon proprietary rights obtained mughal emperor alamgir ii british east india company .systematic management forest tract started establishment forest department province bengal british india.management entirely designed extract whatever treasures available labour lower management mostly staffed locals british expertise adaptation experience mangrove forests.the first forest management division jurisdiction sundarbans established .large portion mangrove forests declared reserved forests forest act act viii .
Sundarbans	remaining portions forests declared reserve forest following year forest far administered civil administration district placed control forest department.forest division basic forest management administration unit created headquarters khulna bangladesh.first management plan written period –.in described tract waste country never surveyed census extended.stretched kilometres mi mouth hooghly river mouth meghna river bordered inland three settled districts parganas khulna bakerganj.total area including water estimated square kilometres sq mi.
Sundarbans	waterlogged jungle tigers wild beasts abounded.attempts reclamation successful.geography sundarban forest lies vast delta bay bengal formed super confluence hooghly padma distributaries ganges brahmaputra meghna rivers across southern bangladesh.seasonally flooded sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie inland mangrove forests coastal fringe.forest covers km sq mi km sq mi bangladesh.
Sundarbans	indian part sundarbans estimated km sq mi km sq mi occupied water bodies forms river canals creeks width varying metres several kilometres.the sundarbans intersected complex network tidal waterways mudflats small islands salttolerant mangrove forests.interconnected network waterways makes almost every corner forest accessible boat.area known bengal tiger panthera tigris well numerous fauna including species birds spotted deer crocodiles snakes.fertile soils delta subject intensive human use centuries ecoregion mostly converted intensive agriculture enclaves forest remaining.remaining forests taken together sundarbans mangroves important habitat endangered tiger.
Sundarbans	additionally mangroves species present sundarban area serve crucial function protective barrier millions inhabitants around khulna mongla floods result cyclones.also protects tsunami soil erosions coastal population.physiography mangrovedominated ganges delta – sundarbans – complex ecosystem comprising one three largest single tracts mangrove forests world.larger part situated bangladesh smaller portion lies india.indian part forest estimated percent bangladeshi part percent.
Sundarbans	south forest meets bay bengal east bordered baleswar river north sharp interface intensively cultivated land.natural drainage upstream areas main river channels everywhere impeded extensive embankments polders.sundarbans originally measured years ago square kilometres sq mi.dwindled onethird original size.total land area today square kilometres sq mi including exposed sandbars total area square kilometres sq mi remaining water area square kilometres sq mi encompasses rivers small streams canals.
Sundarbans	rivers sundarbans meeting places salt water freshwater.thus region transition freshwater rivers originating ganges saline water bay bengal.the sundarbans along bay bengal evolved millennia natural deposition upstream sediments accompanied intertidal segregation.physiography dominated deltaic formations include innumerable drainage lines associated surface subaqueous levees splays tidal flats.also marginal marshes mean tide level tidal sandbars islands networks tidal channels subaqueous distal bars protodelta clays silt sediments.sundarbans floor varies .
Sundarbans	.metres ..ft sea level.biotic factors play significant role physical coastal evolution wildlife variety habitats developed include beaches estuaries permanent semipermanent swamps tidal flats tidal creeks coastal dunes back dunes levees.mangrove vegetation assists formation new landmass intertidal vegetation plays significant role swamp morphology.
Sundarbans	activities mangrove fauna intertidal mudflats develop micromorphological features trap hold sediments create substratum mangrove seeds.morphology evolution eolian dunes controlled abundance xerophytic halophytic plants.creepers grasses sedges stabilise sand dunes uncompacted sediments.sunderbans mudflats banerjee found estuary deltaic islands low velocity river tidal current occurs.flats exposed low tides submerged high tides thus changed morphologically even one tidal cycle.
Sundarbans	tides large approximately one third land disappears reappears every day.interior parts mudflats serve perfect home mangroves.ecoregions sundarbans features two ecoregions — sundarbans freshwater swamp forests im sundarbans mangroves im.sundarbans freshwater swamp forests sundarbans freshwater swamp forests tropical moist broadleaf forest ecoregion bangladesh.represents brackish swamp forests lie behind sundarbans mangroves salinity pronounced.
Sundarbans	freshwater ecoregion area water slightly brackish becomes quite fresh rainy season freshwater plumes ganges brahmaputra rivers push intruding salt water bring deposit silt.it covers square kilometres sq mi vast gangesbrahmaputra delta extending northern part khulna district finishing mouth bay bengal scattered portions extending indias west bengal state.sundarbans freshwater swamp forests lie upland lower gangetic plains moist deciduous forests brackishwater sundarbans mangroves bordering bay bengal.a victim largescale clearing settlement support one densest human populations asia ecoregion great threat extinction.hundreds years habitation exploitation exacted heavy toll ecoregions habitat biodiversity.two protected areas – narendrapur km ata danga baor km cover mere km ecoregion.habitat loss ecoregion extensive remaining habitat fragmented difficult ascertain composition original vegetation ecoregion.
Sundarbans	according champion seth freshwater swamp forests characterised heritiera minor xylocarpus molluccensis bruguiera conjugata sonneratia apetala avicennia officinalis sonneratia caseolaris pandanus tectorius hibiscus tiliaceus nipa fruticans along fringing banks.sundarbans mangroves sundarbans mangroves ecoregion coast forms seaward fringe delta worlds largest mangrove ecosystem square kilometres sq mi area covered.dominant mangrove species heritiera fomes locally known sundri sundari.mangrove forests home great variety plants.thick canopy undergrowth mostly seedlings mangrove trees.
Sundarbans	besides sundari tree species forest include avicennia xylocarpus mekongensis xylocarpus granatum sonneratia apetala bruguiera gymnorhiza ceriops decandra aegiceras corniculatum rhizophora mucronata nypa fruticans palms.twentysix fifty broad mangrove species found world grow well sundarbans.commonly identifiable vegetation types dense sundarbans mangrove forests salt water mixed forest mangrove scrub brackish water mixed forest littoral forest wet forest wet alluvial grass forests.bangladesh mangrove vegetation sundarbans differs greatly nondeltaic coastal mangrove forests upland forests associations.unlike former rhizophoraceae minor importance.ecological succession ecological succession generally defined successive occupation site different plant communities.
Sundarbans	accreting mudflats outer community along sequence represents pioneer community gradually replaced next community representing seral stages finally climax community typical climatic zone.robert scott troup suggested succession began newly accreted land created fresh deposits eroded soil.pioneer vegetation newly accreted sites sonneratia followed avicennia nypa.ground elevated result soil deposition trees make appearance.prevalent though one late species appear excoecaria.
Sundarbans	level land rises accretion land occasionally flooded tides heritiera fomes begins appear.flora total genera plant species recorded david prain .mangroves parts world characterised members rhizophoraceae avicenneaceae combretaceae mangroves bangladesh dominated malvaceae euphorbiaceae.the sundarbans flora characterised abundance sundari heritiera fomes gewa excoecaria agallocha goran ceriops decandra keora sonneratia apetala occur prominently throughout area.characteristic tree forest sundari heritiera littoralis name forest probably derived.yields hard wood used building houses making boats furniture things.
Sundarbans	new forest accretions often conspicuously dominated keora sonneratia apetala tidal forests.indicator species newly accreted mudbanks important species wildlife especially spotted deer axis axis.abundance dhundul passur xylocarpus granatum kankra bruguiera gymnorhiza though distribution discontinuous.among palms poresia coaractata myriostachya wightiana golpata nypa fruticans among grasses spear grass imperata cylindrica khagra phragmites karka well distributed.the varieties forests exist sundarbans include mangrove scrub littoral forest saltwater mixed forest brackish water mixed forest swamp forest.besides forest extensive areas brackish water freshwater marshes intertidal mudflats sandflats sand dunes typical dune vegetation open grassland sandy soils raised areas supporting variety terrestrial shrubs trees.
Sundarbans	since prains report considerable changes status various mangrove species taxonomic revision mangrove flora.however little exploration botanical nature sundarbans made keep changes.differences vegetation explained terms freshwater low salinity influences northeast variations drainage siltation.sundarbans classified moist tropical forest demonstrating whole mosaic seres comprising primary colonisation new accretions mature beach forests.historically vegetation types recognised broad correlation varying degrees water salinity freshwater flushing physiography.
Sundarbans	fauna sundarbans provides unique ecosystem rich wildlife habitat.according tiger census bangladesh tiger census india sundarbans tigers bangladesh india.earlier estimates based counting unique pugmarks much higher.recent counts used camera traps improved methodology yields accurate results.tiger attacks frequent sundarbans people killed year.most importantly mangroves transition marine freshwater terrestrial systems provide critical habitat numerous species small fish crabs shrimps crustaceans adapt feed shelter reproduce among tangled mass roots known pneumatophores grow upward anaerobic mud get supply oxygen.
Sundarbans	study revealed indian part sundarbans supports diverse biological resources including least species commercially important fish species birds species mammals reptiles amphibian species although new ones discovered.represents significant proportion species present bangladesh i.e.reptiles birds mammals includes many species extinct elsewhere country.two amphibians reptiles aves five mammals endangered.sundarbans important wintering area migrant water birds area suitable watching studying avifauna.the management wildlife restricted firstly protection fauna poaching secondly designation areas wildlife sanctuaries extraction forest produce allowed wildlife face disturbances.
Sundarbans	although fauna bangladesh diminished recent times sundarbans spared decline mangrove forest retains several good wildlife habitats associated fauna.tiger dolphin target species planning wildlife management tourism development.high profile vulnerable mammals living two contrasting environments statuses management strong indicators general condition management wildlife.species protected legislation notably bangladesh wildlife preservation order p.o..
Sundarbans	mammals sundarbans important habitat bengal tiger panthera tigris.forest also provides habitat small wild cats jungle cat felis chaus fishing cat prionailurus viverrinus leopard cat p. bengalensis.several predators dwell labyrinth channels branches roots poke air.mangrove ecoregion harbors indopacific regions largest terrestrial predator bengal tiger.unlike habitats tigers live swim among mangrove islands hunt scarce prey chital deer axis axis indian muntjacs muntiacus muntjak wild boar sus scrofa rhesus macaque macaca mulatta.estimated bengal tigers spotted deer area.
Sundarbans	tigers regularly attack kill humans venture forest human deaths ranging per year.avifauna forest also rich bird life species including endemic brownwinged kingfishers pelargopsis amauroptera globally threatened lesser adjutants leptoptilos javanicus masked finfoots heliopais personata birds prey ospreys pandion haliaetus whitebellied sea eagles haliaeetus leucogaster greyheaded fish eagles ichthyophaga ichthyaetus.popular birds found region open billed storks blackheaded ibis water hens coots pheasanttailed jacanas pariah kites brahminy kites marsh harriers swamp partridges red junglefowls spotted doves common mynahs jungle crows jungle babblers cotton teals herring gulls caspian terns gray herons brahminy ducks spotbilled pelicans great egrets night herons common snipes wood sandpipers green pigeons roseringed parakeets paradise flycatchers cormorants whitebellied sea eagles seagulls common kingfishers peregrine falcons woodpeckers eurasian whimbrels blacktailed godwits little stints eastern knots curlews golden plovers pintails whiteeyed pochards lesser whistling ducks.aquafauna sundarbans national park home olive ridley turtle hawksbill turtle green turtle sea snake dogfaced water snake saltwater crocodile south asian river dolphin king cobra russells viper house gecko monitor lizard pythons common krait checkered keelback rat snake river terrapin indian flapshell turtle lissemys punctata indian peacock softshell turtle trionyx hurum asian water monitor varanus salvator indian python.fish amphibians sundarbans include sawfish butter fish electric ray common carp silver carp barb river eels starfish king crab fiddler crab hermit crab prawn shrimps skipper frogs common toads tree frogs.one particularly interesting fish mudskipper gobioid climbs water mudflats even climbs trees.
Sundarbans	endangered extinct species forest inventories reveal decline standing volume two main commercial mangrove species – sundari heritiera spp.gewa excoecaria agallocha — respectively .despite total ban killing capture wildlife fish invertebrates appears consistent pattern depleted biodiversity loss species notably least six mammals one important reptile th century ecological quality original mangrove forest declining.the endangered species live within sundarbans extinct species used include bengal tiger estuarine crocodile northern river terrapin batagur baska olive ridley sea turtle gangetic dolphin ground turtles hawksbill sea turtles king crabs horse shoe.species hog deer axis porcinus water buffalos bubalus bubalis barasingha swamp deer cervus duvauceli javan rhinoceros rhinoceros sondaicus indian rhinoceros rhinoceros unicornis mugger crocodile crocodylus palustris started become extinct sundarbans towards middle th century extensive poaching hunting british locals.threatened mammal species capped langur semnopithecus pileatus smoothcoated otter lutrogale perspicillata asian smallclawed otter aonyx cinerea large indian civet viverra zibetha.
Sundarbans	climate change impact physical development processes along coast influenced multitude factors comprising wave motions micro macrotidal cycles long shore currents typical coastal tract.shore currents vary greatly along monsoon.also affected cyclonic action.erosion accretion forces maintains varying levels yet properly measured physiographic change whilst mangrove vegetation provides remarkable stability entire system.monsoon season almost bengal delta submerged much half year.
Sundarbans	sediment lower delta plain primarily advected inland monsoonal coastal setup cyclonic events.one greatest challenges people living ganges delta may face coming years threat rising sea levels caused mostly subsidence region partly climate change.in many bangladeshs mangrove wetlands freshwater reaching mangroves considerably reduced diversion freshwater upstream area neighbouring india use farakka barrage bordering rajshahi bangladesh.also bengal basin slowly tilting towards east neotectonic movement forcing greater freshwater input bangladesh sundarbans.result salinity bangladesh sundarbans much lower indian side.study noted evidence environmental degradation himalayas greenhouse induced rise sea level aggravated floods bangladesh however report unesco case studies climate change world heritage stated anthropogenic centimetre rise sea level likely end st century according intergovernmental panel climate change combined forms anthropogenic stress sundarbans could lead destruction percent sundarbans mangroves.
Sundarbans	already lohachara island new moore islandsouth talpatti island disappeared sea ghoramara island half submerged.in study conducted zoological society london zsl found sunderban coast retreating metres ft year.agricultural activities destroyed around hectares acres mangroves within three decades –.shrimp cultivation destroyed another hectares acres.researches school oceanographic studies jadavpur university estimated annual rise sea level millimetres ..doubled .
Sundarbans	millimetres .recorded .rising sea levels also submerged around hectares acres forest areas.coupled around .°c .
Sundarbans	°f rise surface water temperatures increased levels salinity posed problem survival indigenous flora fauna.sundari trees exceptionally sensitive salinity threatened extinction.loss mangrove forest result loss protective biological shield cyclones tsunamis.may put surrounding coastal communities high risk.moreover submergence land mass rendered families homeless around people immediately threatened same.causing flight human capital mainland decade –.a ethnographic study conducted team researchers heiderberg university germany found crisis brewing sunderbans.
Sundarbans	study contended poor planning part india bangladesh governments coupled natural ecological changes forcing flight human capital region hazards natural hazards according report created unesco landfall cyclone sidr damaged around sundarbans .man made hazards august memorandum understanding signed bangladesh power development board bpdb indias stateowned national thermal power corporation ntpc designated implement coalfired rampal power station .proposed project area acres land situated kilometres .mi north sundarbans.project violates environmental impact assessment guidelines coalbased thermal power plants.
Sundarbans	environmental activists contend proposed location rampal station would violate provisions ramsar convention.government bangladesh rejected allegations coalbased power plant would adversely affect worlds largest mangrove forest.on december oiltanker named southern star vii carrying litres imp gal us gal furnace oil sunk sela river sundarbans hit cargo vessel.oil spread km sq mi area clash december.slick spread second river network canals sundarbans blackened shoreline.event threatening trees plankton vast populations small fishes dolphins.
Sundarbans	event occurred protected sundarbans mangrove area home rare irrawaddy ganges dolphins.december litres imp gal us gal oil area cleaned local residents bangladesh navy government bangladesh.reports indicated event killed wildlife.december dead irrawaddy dolphin seen floating harintanatembulbunia channel sela river.economy sundarbans plays important role economy southwestern region bangladesh well national economy.
Sundarbans	single largest source forest produce country.forest provides raw materials woodbased industries.addition traditional forest produce like timber fuelwood pulpwood etc.largescale harvest nonwood forest products thatching materials honey beeswax fish crustacean mollusc resources forest takes place regularly.vegetated tidal lands sundarbans function essential habitat produces nutrients purifies water.
Sundarbans	forest also traps nutrient sediment acts storm barrier shore stabiliser energy storage unit.last least sunderbans provides aesthetic attraction local foreign tourists.water houseboat sundarbans also recent attraction among tourists.the forest immense protective productive functions.constituting total reserved forest estate bangladesh contributes total forest revenue accounts timber fuel wood output country.number industries e.g.
Sundarbans	newsprint mill match factory hardboard boat building furniture making based raw materials obtained sundarbans ecosystem.nontimber forest products plantations help generate considerable employment income opportunities least half million poor coastal people.provides natural protection life properties coastal population cycloneprone bangladesh.agriculture part sundarbans shielded tidal inflow leaves one finds villages agriculture.monsoon season low lying agricultural lands waterlogged summer crop kharif crop therefore mainly deepwater rice floating rice.
Sundarbans	dry winter season land normally uncropped used cattle grazing.however lands near villages irrigated ponds filled monsoon vegetable crops rabi crops grown here.habitation sundarbans population million much mostly free permanent human habitation.despite human habitations century economic exploitation forest well late sundarbans retained forest closure according overseas development administration oda united kingdom .administration sundarbans area one densely populated areas world population increasing.
Sundarbans	result half ecoregions mangrove forests cut supply fuelwood natural resources.despite intense largescale exploitation still one largest contiguous areas mangroves world.another threat comes deforestation water diversion rivers inland causes far silt brought estuary clogging waterways.the directorate forest responsible administration management sundarban national park west bengal.principal chief conservator forests pccf wildlife biodiversity exofficio chief wildlife warden west bengal senior executive officer looking administration park.chief conservator forests south director sundarban biosphere reserve administrative head park local level assisted deputy field director assistant field director.
Sundarbans	park area divided two ranges overseen range forest officers.range subdivided beats.park also floating watch stations camps protect property poachers.the park receives financial aid state government well ministry environment forests various plan nonplan budgets.additional funding received project tiger central government.grant us received preparatory assistance promotion india bangladesh world heritage fund.a new khulna forest circle created bangladesh back preserve forest chief conservators forests posted since.
Sundarbans	direct administrative head division divisional forest officer based khulna number professional subprofessional support staff logistic supports implementation necessary management administrative activities.basic unit management compartment.compartments four forest ranges clearly demarcated mainly natural features rivers canals creeks.protected areas bangladesh part forest lies two forest divisions four administrative ranges viz chandpai khulna district sarankhola khulna burigoalini satkhira district sixteen forest stations.divided fiftyfive compartments nine blocks.
Sundarbans	three wildlife sanctuaries established bangladesh wildlife preservation order p.o..west bengal part forest lies district south north parganas.protected areas cover sundarbans mangroves including sundarbans national park sajnakhali wildlife sanctuary west bengal sundarbans east sundarbans south sundarbans west wildlife sanctuaries bangladesh.in may local authorities bangladesh killed tiger poachers shootout sunderbans mangrove area currently tigers dwell.sundarban national park sundarban national park national park tiger reserve biosphere reserve west bengal india.part sundarbans ganges delta adjacent sundarbans reserve forest bangladesh.
Sundarbans	delta densely covered mangrove forests one largest reserves bengal tiger.also home variety bird reptile invertebrate species including saltwater crocodile.present sundarbans national park declared core area sundarbans tiger reserve wildlife sanctuary .may declared national park.sundarbans west wildlife sanctuary sundarbans west wildlife sanctuary unesco world heritage site bangladesh.
Sundarbans	region supports mangroves including sparse stands gewa excoecaria agallocha dense stands goran ceriops tagal discontinuous patches hantal palm phoenix paludosa drier ground river banks levees.fauna sanctuary diverse species mammals species birds species reptiles.greatest bengal tiger estimated remain bangladesh sundarbans.large mammals wild boar chital horin spotted deer indian otter macaque monkey.five species marine turtles frequent coastal zone two endangered reptiles present – estuarine crocodile indian python.
Sundarbans	sundarbans east wildlife sanctuary sundarbans east wildlife sanctuary extends area hectares acres bangladesh.sundari trees heritiera fomes dominate flora interspersed gewa excoecaria agallocha passur xylocarpus mekongensis kankra bruguiera gymnorhiza occurring areas subject frequent flooding.understory shingra cynometra ramiflora soils drier amur aglaia cucullata wetter areas goran ceriops decandra saline places.nypa palm nypa fruticans widespread along drainage lines.sundarbans south wildlife sanctuary sundarbans south wildlife sanctuary extends area hectares acres bangladesh.
Sundarbans	evidently greatest seasonal variation salinity levels possibly represents area relatively longer duration moderate salinity gewa excoecaria agallocha dominant woody species.often mixed sundri able displace circumstances artificially opened canopies sundri regenerate effectively.also frequently associated dense understory goran ceriops tagal sometimes passur.sajnakhali wildlife sanctuary sajnakhali wildlife sanctuary squarekilometre sq mi area northern part sundarbans delta south parganas district west bengal india.mainly mangrove scrub forest swamp.
Sundarbans	set sanctuary .home rich population different species wildlife water fowl heron pelican spotted deer rhesus macaques wild boar tigers water monitor lizards fishing cats otters olive ridley turtles crocodiles batagur terrapins migratory birds.popular culture sundarbans celebrated numerous bengali folk songs dances often centred around folk heroes gods goddesses specific sunderbans like bonbibi dakshin rai lower gangetic delta like manasa chand sadagar.bengali folk epic manasamangal mentions netidhopani passages set sundarbans heroine behulas quest bring husband lakhindar back life.the area provides setting several novels emilio salgari e.g.mystery black jungle.
Sundarbans	sundarbaney arjan sardar novel shibshankar mitra padma nadir majhi novel manik bandopadhyay based rigors lives villagers fishermen living sunderbans region woven bengali psyche great extent.part plot salman rushdies booker prize winning novel midnights children set sundarbans.forest adopted setting kunal basus short story japanese wife subsequent film adaptation.plot internationally acclaimed novelist amitav ghoshs novel hungry tide set sundarbans.plot centres headstrong american cetologist arrives study rare species river dolphin enlisting local fisherman translator aid her.
Sundarbans	book also mentions two accounts bonbibi story dukheys redemption.manik bandopadhyays padma nadir majhi made movie goutam ghose.the sunderbans subject detailed wellresearched scholarly work bonbibi forest goddess venerated hindus relation islanders tigers conservation perceived inhabitants sundarbans well numerous nonfiction books including maneating tigers sundarbans sy montegomery young audience shortlisted dorothy canfield fisher childrens book award.country emily eden discusses travels sunderbans.numerous documentary movies made sunderbans including imax production shining bright bengal tiger.acclaimed bbc tv series ganges documents lives villagers especially honey collectors sundarbans.
Sundarbans	see also sundarbans tiger projectindian council forestry research educationsangu wildlife sanctuaryenvironmental impact development sundarbans references sources green m.j.b.centre w.c.m.parks i.c.o.n.areas p. .iucn directory south asian protected areas.
Vivek Murthy	iucnthe world conservation union.isbn .external links sundarbans travel guide wikivoyageunesco world heritage centre sundarbansunesco sundarban biosphere reserve informationworld heritage site sundarbansunited nations environment programme world conservation monitoring centre protected areas programme sundarbansthe sundarban bangladesh rich biodiversity worlds largest mangrove ecosystemgreenpeace sinking sundarbans – climate voicestiger conservation project bangladeshi sundarbansresearch water management control sunderbans west bengal indiafinfishes sundarbansnasa images set setmurthy first surgeon general indian descent first term surgeon general youngest active duty flag officer federal uniformed service.murthy cochaired presidentelect joe bidens covid advisory board november january alongside former food drug administration commissioner david a. kessler yale public health professor marcella nunezsmith.december biden announced murthy would return role u.s. surgeon general.united states senate confirmed murthy role march vote –.early life education murthy born huddersfield yorkshire immigrants karnataka india.grandson late h c narayana murthy former director mysore sugar company son floridabased h n lakshminarasimha murthy myetraie murthy.
Vivek Murthy	family crossed atlantic newfoundland father worked district medical officer.three years old family relocated miami parents established medical practice.murthy raised completed early education miami graduating valedictorian miami palmetto senior high school .attended college harvard university graduated magna cum laude bachelor arts biochemical sciences.murthy earned md yale school medicine mba yale school management received paul daisy soros fellowships new americans.during time yale murthy helped start healers art – fourweek long elective medical students discuss critical topics means serve healer cope losing patient prevent physician burnout.course – available yale ucsf time – offered medical schools across united states.
Vivek Murthy	career undergraduate years harvard freshman murthy cofounded visions worldwide led eight years.nonprofit organization focused hivaids education u.s. india.cofounded swasthya community health partnership train women community health workers educators rural india.medical career murthy completed internal medicine residency brigham womens hospital harvard medical school.attending physician brigham womens hospital murthy cared thousands patients assisting education hundreds undergraduates medical students residents.in murthy founded served president doctors america group physicians medical students supporting high quality affordable care all.in murthy appointed barack obama serve presidential advisory council prevention health promotion integrative public health within department health human services.
Vivek Murthy	group advises national prevention council developing strategies partnerships advance nations health prevention.murthy worked cochair obamas health care advisory committee reelection campaign.murthy also cofounder chairman trialnetworks cloudbased clinical trial optimization system pharmaceutical biotechnology trials improves quality efficiency clinical trials bring new drugs market faster safely.founded company epernicus originally collaborative networking web platform scientists boost research productivity.surgeon general united states november murthy nominated president obama post united states surgeon general.nomination met resistance senate democrats republicans national rifle association regarding previous comments murthy made declaring gun violence threat public health.murthys nomination received broad support medical public health organizations u.s. received endorsements two former surgeons general david satcher regina benjamin.
Vivek Murthy	another former surgeon general richard carmona opposed appointment based murthys age.on december murthys appointment surgeon general approved – senate vote.from beginning tenure murthy spoke importance creating culture prevention america one grounded physical activity nutrition emotional wellbeing.part effort issued step surgeon generals call action promote walking walkable communities.oneyear anniversary call action led twoweek publicprivate partnership fitbit called step challenge engaged people increase physical activity industry recordsetting billion steps.also partnered elmo top chef inform country vaccines healthy eating respectively.murthys surgeon general report ecigarette use among youths emphasized vulnerability young people products recommended ecigarettes incorporated existing smokefree policies prevent youth accessing ecigarettes.
Vivek Murthy	report drew heated response proponents ecigarettes including r street public policy groups.murthy also led united states several major health crises – including ebola zika viruses flint michigan water crisis currently ongoing opioid epidemic.murthy released first ever surgeon generals report alcohol drugs health – revealed approximately million americans suffer form substance abuse disorder.furthermore murthy issued historic letter .million fellow healthcare professionals requesting pledge reform prescription opiate drugs perception struggling addiction.letter murthy argues addiction chronic illness moral failing.
Vivek Murthy	additionally murthy worked effects climate change countrys health.interview stated end century looking increase tens thousands illnesses death episodes climate change.murthy also spoken conversion therapy stating conversion therapy sound medical practice... need work together build greater understanding acceptance throughout society.on april murthy relieved duties th surgeon general president donald trump.deputy surgeon general rear admiral sylvia trentadams named acting surgeon general.parting address murthy stated grandson poor farmer india asked president look health entire nation humbling unique american story.
Vivek Murthy	always grateful country welcoming immigrant family nearly years ago giving opportunity serve.on december politico reported murthy nominated presidentelect joe biden return role surgeon general.nomination sent senate january confirmed march vote –.surgeon general murthy leads force public health officers mission delivering exceptional care medically underserved populations within united states abroad.public engagement since murthy appeared various television radio shows talking problem loneliness written numerous articles subject.murthy states shocked often encountered people suffering severe loneliness medical career argued loneliness america become prevalent enough count epidemic.
Vivek Murthy	murthy sees loneliness root cause plays substantial role many social problems.april published book society ordinary people individuals reduce loneliness others entitled together healing power human connection sometimes lonely world.subsequent career murthy spoke democratic national convention.on september murthy joined advisory council bidenharris transition team planning presidential transition joe biden.november murthy announced one three cochairs thenpresidentelect bidens coronavirus advisory board alongside former fda commissioner david a. kessler yale public health professor marcella nunezsmith.days later murthy named candidate united states secretary health human services biden administration.before senate confirmation murthy disclosed total .

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