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Gastroenteritis | cholera causes three five million cases disease kills approximately people yearly.developing world children less two years age frequently get six infections year result significant gastroenteritis.less common adults partly due development acquired immunity.in gastroenteritis causes caused .million deaths children majority occurring developing world.death rates reduced significantly approximately . |
Gastroenteritis | million deaths annually year largely due introduction widespread use oral rehydration therapy.us infections causing gastroenteritis second common infection common cold result million cases acute diarrhea approximately ten thousand deaths annually deaths children less five years age.society culture gastroenteritis associated many colloquial names including montezumas revenge delhi belly la turista back door sprint among others.played role many military campaigns believed origin term guts glory.gastroenteritis main reason .million visits physicians year united states million visits france. |
Gastroenteritis | united states gastroenteritis whole believed result costs us billion per year due rotavirus alone resulting estimated costs us billion year.terminology first usage gastroenteritis .time commonly known typhoid fever cholera morbus among others less specifically griping guts surfeit flux colic bowel complaint one number archaic names acute diarrhea.cholera morbus historical term used refer gastroenteritis rather specifically cholera.animals many agents cause gastroenteritis cats dogs humans. |
Gastroenteritis | common organisms campylobacter clostridium difficile clostridium perfringens salmonella.large number toxic plants may also cause symptoms.some agents specific certain species.transmissible gastroenteritis coronavirus tgev occurs pigs resulting vomiting diarrhea dehydration.believed introduced pigs wild birds specific treatment available.transmissible humans. |
Gastroenteritis | see also enterocolitis references notes dolin raphael mandell gerald l. bennett john e. eds..mandell douglas bennetts principles practice infectious diseases th ed.. philadelphia churchill livingstoneelsevier.isbn .external links diarrhoea vomiting caused gastroenteritis diagnosis assessment management children younger years – nice clinical guidelines no. |
Bluetooth | .gastroenteritis.medlineplus.u.s. national library medicine..ghz building personal area networks pans.mainly used alternative wire connections exchange files nearby portable devices connect cell phones music players wireless headphones.widely used mode transmission power limited .milliwatts giving short range metres ft.bluetooth managed bluetooth special interest group sig member companies areas telecommunication computing networking consumer electronics. |
Bluetooth | ieee standardized bluetooth ieee .. longer maintains standard.bluetooth sig oversees development specification manages qualification program protects trademarks.manufacturer must meet bluetooth sig standards market bluetooth device.network patents apply technology licensed individual qualifying devices.bluetooth integrated circuit chips ship approximately million units annually. |
Bluetooth | .billion bluetooth devices shipping annually shipments expected continue increasing year.etymology name bluetooth proposed jim kardach intel one founders bluetooth sig.name inspired conversation sven mattisson related scandinavian history tales frans g. bengtssons long ships historical novel vikings thcentury danish king harald bluetooth.upon discovering picture harald bluetooth rune stone book gwyn joness history vikings jim proposed bluetooth codename shortrange wireless program called bluetooth.according bluetooths official websitebluetooth intended placeholder marketing could come something really cool.later came time select serious name bluetooth replaced either radiowire pan personal area networking. |
Bluetooth | pan front runner exhaustive search discovered already tens thousands hits throughout internet.a full trademark search radiowire couldnt completed time launch making bluetooth choice.name caught fast could changed spread throughout industry becoming synonymous shortrange wireless technology.bluetooth anglicised version scandinavian blåtandblåtann old norse blátǫnn.epithet king harald bluetooth united disparate danish tribes single kingdom kardach chose name imply bluetooth similarly unites communication protocols.logo bluetooth logo bind rune merging younger futhark runes ᚼ hagall ᛒ bjarkan haralds initials.history development shortlink radio technology later named bluetooth initiated nils rydbeck cto ericsson mobile lund sweden. |
Bluetooth | purpose develop wireless headsets according two inventions johan ullman se issued se issued .nils rydbeck tasked tord wingren specifying dutchman jaap haartsen sven mattisson developing.working ericsson lund.principal design development began team workable solution.örjan johansson became project leader propelled technology standardization.in adalio sanchez head ibm thinkpad product rd approached nils rydbeck collaborating integrating mobile phone thinkpad notebook. |
Bluetooth | two assigned engineers ericsson ibm study idea.conclusion power consumption cellphone technology time high allow viable integration notebook still achieve adequate battery life.instead two companies agreed integrate ericssons shortlink technology thinkpad notebook ericsson phone accomplish goal.since neither ibm thinkpad notebooks ericsson phones market share leaders respective markets time adalio sanchez nils rydbeck agreed make shortlink technology open industry standard permit player maximum market access.ericsson contributed shortlink radio technology ibm contributed patents around logical layer. |
Bluetooth | adalio sanchez ibm recruited stephen nachtsheim intel join intel also recruited toshiba nokia.may bluetooth sig launched ibm ericsson founding signatories total five members ericsson intel nokia toshiba ibm.the first consumer bluetooth device launched .handsfree mobile headset earned best show technology award comdex.first bluetooth mobile phone ericsson revised model actually made store shelves .parallel ibm introduced ibm thinkpad october first notebook integrated bluetooth.bluetooths early incorporation consumer electronics products continued vosi technologies costa mesa california usa initially overseen founding members bejan amini tom davidson. |
Bluetooth | vosi technologies created real estate developer ivano stegmenga united states patent communication cellular phone vehicles audio system.time sonyericsson minor market share cellular phone market dominated us nokia motorola.due ongoing negotiations intended licensing agreement motorola beginning late vosi could publicly disclose intention integration initial development enabled devices first smart home internet connected devices.vosi needed means system communicate without wired connection vehicle devices network.bluetooth chosen since wifi yet readily available supported public market.vosi begun develop vosi cello integrated vehicular system internet connected devices one intended tabletop device named vosi symphony networked bluetooth. |
Bluetooth | negotiations motorola vosi introduced disclosed intent integrate bluetooth devices.early legal battle ensued vosi motorola indefinitely suspended release devices.later motorola implemented devices initiated significant propagation bluetooth public market due large market share time.in jaap haartsen nominated european patent office european inventor award.implementation bluetooth operates frequencies .. |
Bluetooth | ghz ..ghz including guard bands mhz wide bottom end .mhz wide top.globally unlicensed unregulated industrial scientific medical ism . |
Bluetooth | ghz shortrange radio frequency band.bluetooth uses radio technology called frequencyhopping spread spectrum.bluetooth divides transmitted data packets transmits packet one designated bluetooth channels.channel bandwidth mhz.usually performs hops per second adaptive frequencyhopping afh enabled. |
Bluetooth | bluetooth low energy uses mhz spacing accommodates channels.originally gaussian frequencyshift keying gfsk modulation modulation scheme available.since introduction bluetooth .edr πdqpsk differential quadrature phaseshift keying dpsk modulation may also used compatible devices.devices functioning gfsk said operating basic rate br mode instantaneous bit rate mbits possible.term enhanced data rate edr used describe πdpsk edr dpsk edr schemes giving mbits respectively.combination br edr modes bluetooth radio technology classified bredr radio.in apple published extension called hdr supports data rates hdr hdr mbits using πdqpsk modulation mhz channels forward error correction fec .bluetooth packetbased protocol masterslave architecture. |
Bluetooth | one master may communicate seven slaves piconet.devices within given piconet use clock provided master base packet exchange.master clock ticks period .μs two clock ticks make slot µs two slots make slot pair µs.simple case singleslot packets master transmits even slots receives odd slots. |
Bluetooth | slave conversely receives even slots transmits odd slots.packets may slots long cases masters transmission begins even slots slaves odd slots.the excludes bluetooth low energy introduced .specification uses spectrum somewhat differently.communication connection master bredr bluetooth device communicate maximum seven devices piconet ad hoc computer network using bluetooth technology though devices reach maximum.devices switch roles agreement slave become master example headset initiating connection phone necessarily begins master—as initiator connection—but may subsequently operate slave.the bluetooth core specification provides connection two piconets form scatternet certain devices simultaneously play master role one piconet slave role another.at given time data transferred master one device except littleused broadcast mode. |
Bluetooth | master chooses slave device address typically switches rapidly one device another roundrobin fashion.since master chooses slave address whereas slave theory supposed listen receive slot master lighter burden slave.master seven slaves possible slave one master possible.specification vague required behavior scatternets.uses bluetooth standard wirereplacement communications protocol primarily designed low power consumption short range based lowcost transceiver microchips device. |
Bluetooth | devices use radio broadcast communications system visual line sight however quasi optical wireless path must viable.range powerclassdependent effective ranges vary practice.see table ranges bluetooth devices class.officially class radios range metre ft class commonly found mobile devices metres ft class primarily industrial use cases metres ft. bluetooth marketing qualifies class range cases – metres – ft class range – metres – ft. actual range achieved given link depend qualities devices ends link well air conditions factors.the effective range varies depending propagation conditions material coverage production sample variations antenna configurations battery conditions.bluetooth applications indoor conditions attenuation walls signal fading due signal reflections make range far lower specified lineofsight ranges bluetooth products.most bluetooth applications batterypowered class devices little difference range whether end link class class device lowerpowered device tends set range limit.cases effective range data link extended class device connecting class transceiver higher sensitivity transmission power typical class device. |
Bluetooth | mostly however class devices similar sensitivity class devices.connecting two class devices high sensitivity high power allow ranges far excess typical depending throughput required application.devices allow open field ranges km beyond two similar devices without exceeding legal emission limits.the bluetooth core specification mandates range less metres ft upper limit actual range.manufacturers implementations tuned provide range needed case.bluetooth profile use bluetooth wireless technology device must able interpret certain bluetooth profiles definitions possible applications specify general behaviors bluetoothenabled devices use communicate bluetooth devices. |
Bluetooth | profiles include settings parameterize control communication start.adherence profiles saves time transmitting parameters anew bidirectional link becomes effective.wide range bluetooth profiles describe many different types applications use cases devices.list applications wireless control communication mobile phone handsfree headset.one earliest applications become popular.wireless control communication mobile phone bluetooth compatible car stereo system sometimes sim card car phone.wireless communication smartphone smart lock unlocking doors.wireless control communication ios android device phones tablets portable wireless speakers.wireless bluetooth headset intercom. |
Bluetooth | idiomatically headset sometimes called bluetooth.wireless streaming audio headphones without communication capabilities.wireless streaming data collected bluetoothenabled fitness devices phone pc.wireless networking pcs confined space little bandwidth required.wireless communication pc input output devices common mouse keyboard printer.transfer files contact details calendar appointments reminders devices obex sharing directories via ftp.replacement previous wired rs serial communications test equipment gps receivers medical equipment bar code scanners traffic control devices.for controls infrared often used.for low bandwidth applications higher usb bandwidth required cablefree connection desired.sending small advertisements bluetoothenabled advertising hoardings discoverable bluetooth devices.wireless bridge two industrial ethernet e.g.profinet networks.seventh eighth generation game consoles nintendos wii sonys playstation use bluetooth respective wireless controllers.dialup internet access personal computers pdas using datacapable mobile phone wireless modem.shortrange transmission health sensor data medical devices mobile phone settop box dedicated telehealth devices.allowing dect phone ring answer calls behalf nearby mobile phone.realtime location systems rtls used track identify location objects real time using nodes tags attached embedded objects tracked readers receive process wireless signals tags determine locations.personal security application mobile phones prevention theft loss items.protected item bluetooth marker e.g.tag constant communication phone.connection broken marker range phone alarm raised. |
Bluetooth | also used man overboard alarm.calgary alberta canadas roads traffic division uses data collected travelers bluetooth devices predict travel times road congestion motorists.wireless transmission audio reliable alternative fm transmitterslive video streaming visual cortical implant device nabeel fattah newcastle university .connection motion controllers pc using vr headsets bluetooth vs wifi ieee .bluetooth wifi wifi brand name products using ieee .standards similar applications setting networks printing transferring files.wifi intended replacement highspeed cabling general local area network access work areas home.category applications sometimes called wireless local area networks wlan. |
Bluetooth | bluetooth intended portable equipment applications.category applications outlined wireless personal area network wpan.bluetooth replacement cabling various personally carried applications setting also works fixed location applications smart energy functionality home thermostats etc..wifi bluetooth extent complementary applications usage.wifi usually access pointcentered asymmetrical clientserver connection traffic routed access point bluetooth usually symmetrical two bluetooth devices.bluetooth serves well simple applications two devices need connect minimal configuration like button press headsets speakers. |
Bluetooth | devices bluetooth exists numerous products telephones speakers tablets media players robotics systems laptops console gaming equipment well high definition headsets modems hearing aids even watches.given variety devices use bluetooth coupled contemporary deprecation headphone jacks apple google companies lack regulation fcc technology prone interference.nonetheless bluetooth useful transferring information two devices near lowbandwidth situations.bluetooth commonly used transfer sound data telephones i.e.bluetooth headset byte data handheld computers transferring files.bluetooth protocols simplify discovery setup services devices. |
Bluetooth | bluetooth devices advertise services provide.makes using services easier security network address permission configuration automated many network types.computer requirements personal computer embedded bluetooth use bluetooth adapter enables pc communicate bluetooth devices.desktop computers recent laptops come builtin bluetooth radio others require external adapter typically form small usb dongle.unlike predecessor irda requires separate adapter device bluetooth lets multiple devices communicate computer single adapter.operating system implementation microsoft platforms windows xp service pack sp releases work natively bluetooth v. v. v.edr. |
Bluetooth | previous versions required users install bluetooth adapters drivers directly supported microsoft.microsofts bluetooth dongles packaged bluetooth computer devices external drivers thus require least windows xp service pack .windows vista rtmsp feature pack wireless windows vista sp work bluetooth v.edr.windows works bluetooth v.edr extended inquiry response eir.the windows xp windows vistawindows bluetooth stacks support following bluetooth profiles natively pan spp dun hid hcrp.windows xp stack replaced third party stack supports profiles newer bluetooth versions. |
Bluetooth | windows vistawindows bluetooth stack supports vendorsupplied additional profiles without requiring microsoft stack replaced.generally recommended install latest vendor driver associated stack able use bluetooth device fullest extent.apple products worked bluetooth since mac os x v. released .linux two popular bluetooth stacks bluez fluoride.bluez stack included linux kernels originally developed qualcomm.fluoride earlier known bluedroid included android os originally developed broadcom.there also affix stack developed nokia.popular updated since .freebsd included bluetooth since v. release implemented netgraph.netbsd included bluetooth since v. release. |
Bluetooth | bluetooth stack ported openbsd well however openbsd later removed unmaintained.dragonfly bsd netbsds bluetooth implementation since ..netgraphbased implementation freebsd also available tree possibly disabled may require work.specifications features specifications formalized bluetooth special interest group sig formally announced may .today membership companies worldwide. |
Bluetooth | established ericsson ibm intel nokia toshiba later joined many companies.all versions bluetooth standards support downward compatibility.lets latest standard cover older versions.the bluetooth core specification working group cswg produces mainly kinds specificationsthe bluetooth core specification release cycle typically years betweencore specification addendum csa release cycle tight times per yearcore specification supplements css released quicklyerrata available user account errata login bluetooth ..b products werent interoperableanonymity wasnt possible preventing certain services using bluetooth environments bluetooth .ratified ieee standard ..–many errors found v.b specifications fixed.added possibility nonencrypted channels.received signal strength indicator rssi.bluetooth . |
Bluetooth | major enhancements includefaster connection discoveryadaptive frequencyhopping spread spectrum afh improves resistance radio frequency interference avoiding use crowded frequencies hopping sequence.higher transmission speeds practice v. kbits.extended synchronous connections esco improve voice quality audio links allowing retransmissions corrupted packets may optionally increase audio latency provide better concurrent data transfer.host controller interface hci operation threewire uart.ratified ieee standard ..–introduced flow control retransmission modes lcap.bluetooth .edr version bluetooth core specification released .main difference introduction enhanced data rate edr faster data transfer.bit rate edr mbits although maximum data transfer rate allowing interpacket time acknowledgements . |
Bluetooth | mbits.edr uses combination gfsk phaseshift keying modulation psk two variants πdqpsk dpsk.edr provide lower power consumption reduced duty cycle.the specification published bluetooth v. edr implies edr optional feature.aside edr v. specification contains minor improvements products may claim compliance bluetooth v. without supporting higher data rate.least one commercial device states bluetooth v. without edr data sheet. |
Bluetooth | bluetooth .edr bluetooth core specification version .edr adopted bluetooth sig july .the headline feature v. secure simple pairing ssp improves pairing experience bluetooth devices increasing use strength security.version .allows various improvements including extended inquiry response eir provides information inquiry procedure allow better filtering devices connection sniff subrating reduces power consumption lowpower mode.bluetooth . |
Bluetooth | hs version .hs bluetooth core specification adopted bluetooth sig april .bluetooth v. hs provides theoretical data transfer speeds mbits though bluetooth link itself.instead bluetooth link used negotiation establishment high data rate traffic carried colocated .link.the main new feature amp alternative macphy addition . |
Bluetooth | highspeed transport.highspeed part specification mandatory hence devices display hs logo actually support bluetooth .highspeed data transfer.bluetooth v. device without hs suffix required support features introduced core specification version .earlier core specification addendum .lcap enhanced modesenhanced retransmission mode ertm implements reliable lcap channel streaming mode sm implements unreliable channel retransmission flow control. |
Bluetooth | introduced core specification addendum .alternative macphyenables use alternative mac phys transporting bluetooth profile data.bluetooth radio still used device discovery initial connection profile configuration.however large quantities data must sent highspeed alternative mac phy .typically associated wifi transports data.means bluetooth uses proven low power connection models system idle faster radio must send large quantities data. |
Bluetooth | amp links require enhanced lcap modes.unicast connectionless datapermits sending service data without establishing explicit lcap channel.intended use applications require low latency user action reconnectiontransmission data.appropriate small amounts data.enhanced power controlupdates power control feature remove open loop power control also clarify ambiguities power control introduced new modulation schemes added edr.enhanced power control removes ambiguities specifying behavior expected.feature also adds closed loop power control meaning rssi filtering start response received. |
Bluetooth | additionally go straight maximum power request introduced.expected deal headset link loss issue typically observed user puts phone pocket opposite side headset.ultrawideband highspeed amp feature bluetooth v. originally intended uwb wimedia alliance body responsible flavor uwb intended bluetooth announced march disbanding ultimately uwb omitted core v. specification.on march wimedia alliance announced entering technology transfer agreements wimedia ultrawideband uwb specifications.wimedia transferred current future specifications including work future highspeed poweroptimized implementations bluetooth special interest group sig wireless usb promoter group usb implementers forum.successful completion technology transfer marketing related administrative items wimedia alliance ceased operations.in october bluetooth special interest group suspended development uwb part alternative macphy bluetooth v. hs solution. |
Bluetooth | small significant number former wimedia members would sign necessary agreements ip transfer.bluetooth sig process evaluating options longer term roadmap.bluetooth .bluetooth sig completed bluetooth core specification version .called bluetooth smart adopted june . |
Bluetooth | includes classic bluetooth bluetooth high speed bluetooth low energy ble protocols.bluetooth high speed based wifi classic bluetooth consists legacy bluetooth protocols.bluetooth low energy previously known wibree subset bluetooth v. entirely new protocol stack rapid buildup simple links.alternative bluetooth standard protocols introduced bluetooth v. v. aimed low power applications powered coin cell.chip designs allow two types implementation dualmode singlemode enhanced past versions.provisional names wibree bluetooth ulp ultra low power abandoned ble name used while. |
Bluetooth | late new logos bluetooth smart ready hosts bluetooth smart sensors introduced generalpublic face ble.compared classic bluetooth bluetooth low energy intended provide considerably reduced power consumption cost maintaining similar communication range.terms lengthening battery life bluetooth devices ble represents significant progression.in singlemode implementation low energy protocol stack implemented.dialog semiconductor stmicroelectronics amiccom csr nordic semiconductor texas instruments released single mode bluetooth low energy solutions.in dualmode implementation bluetooth smart functionality integrated existing classic bluetooth controller.march following semiconductor companies announced availability chips meeting standard qualcommatheros csr broadcom texas instruments.compliant architecture shares classic bluetooths existing radio functionality resulting negligible cost increase compared classic bluetooth.costreduced singlemode chips enable highly integrated compact devices feature lightweight link layer providing ultralow power idle mode operation simple device discovery reliable pointtomultipoint data transfer advanced powersave secure encrypted connections lowest possible cost.general improvements version . |
Bluetooth | include changes necessary facilitate ble modes well generic attribute profile gatt security manager sm services aes encryption.core specification addendum unveiled december contains improvements audio host controller interface high speed .protocol adaptation layer.core specification addendum revision adoption date july .core specification addendum adoption date february .bluetooth .bluetooth sig announced formal adoption bluetooth v. specification december .specification incremental software update bluetooth specification v. hardware update. |
Bluetooth | update incorporates bluetooth core specification addenda csa adds new features improve consumer usability.include increased coexistence support lte bulk data exchange rates—and aid developer innovation allowing devices support multiple roles simultaneously.new features specification include mobile wireless service coexistence signalingtrain nudging generalized interlaced scanninglow duty cycle directed advertisinglcap connection oriented dedicated channels creditbased flow controldual mode topologyle link layer topology.n palaudio architecture updates wide band speechfast data advertising intervallimited discovery timenotice features already available core specification addendum csa release v.. bluetooth .released december introduces features internet things.the major areas improvement arelow energy secure connection data packet length extensionlink layer privacy extended scanner filter policiesinternet protocol support profile ipsp version ready bluetooth smart things support connected homeolder bluetooth hardware may receive .features data packet length extension improved privacy via firmware updates.bluetooth bluetooth sig released bluetooth december . |
Bluetooth | new features mainly focused new internet things technology.sony first announce bluetooth .support xperia xz premium feb mobile world congress .samsung galaxy launched bluetooth support april .september iphone plus iphone x launched bluetooth support well. |
Bluetooth | apple also integrated bluetooth new homepod offering released february .marketing drops point number bluetooth unlike bluetooth .change sake simplifying marketing communicating user benefits effectively making easier signal significant technology updates market.bluetooth provides ble options double speed mbits burst expense range provide four times range expense data rate.increase transmissions could important internet things devices many nodes connect throughout whole house.bluetooth increases capacity connectionless services locationrelevant navigation lowenergy bluetooth connections.the major areas improvement areslot availability mask sam mbits phy lele long rangehigh duty cycle nonconnectable advertisingle advertising extensionsle channel selection algorithm features added csa – integrated v.higher output powerthe following features removed version specificationpark state bluetooth . |
Bluetooth | bluetooth sig presented bluetooth .january .the major areas improvement areangle arrival aoa angle departure aod used locating tracking devicesadvertising channel indexgatt cachingminor enhancements batch hci support debug keys le secure connectionssleep clock accuracy update mechanismadi field scan response datainteraction qos flow specificationblock host channel classification secondary advertisingallow sid appear scan response reportsspecify behavior rules violatedperiodic advertising sync transferfeatures added core specification addendum csa – integrated v.modelsmeshbased model hierarchythe following features removed version specificationunit keys bluetooth .december bluetooth sig published bluetooth core specification version .. new specification adds new featuresenhanced attribute protocol eatt improved version attribute protocol attle power controlle isochronous channelsle audio built top new .features.bt le audio announced january ces bluetooth sig. |
Bluetooth | compared regular bluetooth audio bluetooth low energy audio makes lower battery consumption possible creates standardized way transmitting audio bt le.bluetooth le audio also allows onetomany manytoone broadcasts allowing multiple receivers one source one receiver multiple sources.uses new lc codec.ble audio also add support hearing aids.bluetooth . |
Bluetooth | bluetooth sig published bluetooth core specification version .july .feature enhancements bluetooth .areconnection subratingperiodic advertisement intervalchannel classification enhancementencryption key size control enhancementsthe following features removed version specificationalternate mac phy amp extension technical information architecture software seeking extend compatibility bluetooth devices devices adhere standard use interface called hci host controller interface host device e.g.laptop phone bluetooth device e.g. |
Bluetooth | bluetooth wireless headset.highlevel protocols sdp protocol used find bluetooth devices within communication range also responsible detecting function devices range rfcomm protocol used emulate serial port connections tcs telephony control protocol interact baseband controller lcap logical link control adaptation protocol.lcap protocol responsible segmentation reassembly packets.hardware hardware makes bluetooth device made logically two parts may may physically separate.radio device responsible modulating transmitting signal digital controller.digital controller likely cpu one whose functions run link controller interfaces host device functions may delegated hardware. |
Bluetooth | link controller responsible processing baseband management arq physical layer fec protocols.addition handles transfer functions asynchronous synchronous audio coding e.g.sbc codec data encryption.cpu device responsible attending instructions related bluetooth host device order simplify operation.cpu runs software called link manager function communicating devices lmp protocol.a bluetooth device shortrange wireless device. |
Bluetooth | bluetooth devices fabricated rf cmos integrated circuit rf circuit chips.bluetooth protocol stack bluetooth defined layer protocol architecture consisting core protocols cable replacement protocols telephony control protocols adopted protocols.mandatory protocols bluetooth stacks lmp lcap sdp.addition devices communicate bluetooth almost universally use protocols hci rfcomm.link manager link manager lm system manages establishing connection devices. |
Bluetooth | responsible establishment authentication configuration link.link manager locates managers communicates via management protocol lmp link.perform function service provider lm uses services included link controller lc.the link manager protocol basically consists several pdus protocol data units sent one device another.following list supported servicestransmission reception data.name requestrequest link addresses.establishment connection.authentication.negotiation link mode connection establishment.host controller interface host controller interface provides command interface controller link manager allows access hardware status control registers.this interface provides access layer bluetooth devices. |
Bluetooth | hci layer machine exchanges commands data hci firmware present bluetooth device.one important hci tasks must performed automatic discovery bluetooth devices within coverage radius.logical link control adaptation protocol logical link control adaptation protocol lcap used multiplex multiple logical connections two devices using different higher level protocols.provides segmentation reassembly onair packets.in basic mode lcap provides packets payload configurable kb bytes default mtu bytes minimum mandatory supported mtu.in retransmission flow control modes lcap configured either isochronous data reliable data per channel performing retransmissions crc checks.bluetooth core specification addendum adds two additional lcap modes core specification.modes effectively deprecate original retransmission flow control modesenhanced retransmission mode ertmthis mode improved version original retransmission mode.mode provides reliable lcap channel.streaming mode smthis simple mode retransmission flow control. |
Bluetooth | mode provides unreliable lcap channel.reliability modes optionally andor additionally guaranteed lower layer bluetooth bdredr air interface configuring number retransmissions flush timeout time radio flushes packets.inorder sequencing guaranteed lower layer.only lcap channels configured ertm sm may operated amp logical links.service discovery protocol service discovery protocol sdp allows device discover services offered devices associated parameters.example use mobile phone bluetooth headset phone uses sdp determine bluetooth profiles headset use headset profile hands free profile hfp advanced audio distribution profile adp etc.protocol multiplexer settings needed phone connect headset using them. |
Bluetooth | service identified universally unique identifier uuid official services bluetooth profiles assigned short form uuid bits rather full .radio frequency communications radio frequency communications rfcomm cable replacement protocol used generating virtual serial data stream.rfcomm provides binary data transport emulates eia formerly rs control signals bluetooth baseband layer i.e.serial port emulation.rfcomm provides simple reliable data stream user similar tcp.used directly many telephony related profiles carrier commands well transport layer obex bluetooth.many bluetooth applications use rfcomm widespread support publicly available api operating systems. |
Bluetooth | additionally applications used serial port communicate quickly ported use rfcomm.bluetooth network encapsulation protocol bluetooth network encapsulation protocol bnep used transferring another protocol stacks data via lcap channel.its main purpose transmission ip packets personal area networking profile.bnep performs similar function snap wireless lan.audiovideo control transport protocol audiovideo control transport protocol avctp used remote control profile transfer avc commands lcap channel.music control buttons stereo headset use protocol control music player.audiovideo distribution transport protocol audiovideo distribution transport protocol avdtp used advanced audio distribution adp profile stream music stereo headsets lcap channel intended video distribution profile bluetooth transmission. |
Bluetooth | telephony control protocol telephony control protocol – binary tcs bin bitoriented protocol defines call control signaling establishment voice data calls bluetooth devices.additionally tcs bin defines mobility management procedures handling groups bluetooth tcs devices.tcsbin used cordless telephony profile failed attract implementers.historical interest.adopted protocols adopted protocols defined standardsmaking organizations incorporated bluetooths protocol stack allowing bluetooth code protocols necessary.adopted protocols includepointtopoint protocol pppinternet standard protocol transporting ip datagrams pointtopoint link.tcpipudpfoundation protocols tcpip protocol suiteobject exchange protocol obexsessionlayer protocol exchange objects providing model object operation representationwireless application environmentwireless application protocol waewapwae specifies application framework wireless devices wap open standard provide mobile users access telephony information services. |
Bluetooth | baseband error correction depending packet type individual packets may protected error correction either rate forward error correction fec rate.addition packets crc retransmitted acknowledged automatic repeat request arq.setting connections bluetooth device discoverable mode transmits following information demanddevice namedevice classlist servicestechnical information example device features manufacturer bluetooth specification used clock offsetany device may perform inquiry find devices connect device configured respond inquiries.however device trying connect knows address device always responds direct connection requests transmits information shown list requested.use devices services may require pairing acceptance owner connection initiated device held goes range. |
Bluetooth | devices connected one device time connecting prevents connecting devices appearing inquiries disconnect device.every device unique bit address.however addresses generally shown inquiries.instead friendly bluetooth names used set user.name appears another user scans devices lists paired devices.most cellular phones bluetooth name set manufacturer model phone default.cellular phones laptops show bluetooth names special programs required get additional information remote devices. |
Bluetooth | confusing example could several cellular phones range named see bluejacking.pairing bonding motivation many services offered bluetooth expose private data let connecting party control bluetooth device.security reasons make necessary recognize specific devices thus enable control devices connect given bluetooth device.time useful bluetooth devices able establish connection without user intervention example soon range.to resolve conflict bluetooth uses process called bonding bond generated process called pairing.pairing process triggered either specific request user generate bond example user explicitly requests add bluetooth device triggered automatically connecting service first time identity device required security purposes. |
Bluetooth | two cases referred dedicated bonding general bonding respectively.pairing often involves level user interaction.user interaction confirms identity devices.pairing completes bond forms two devices enabling two devices connect future without repeating pairing process confirm device identities.desired user remove bonding relationship.implementation pairing two devices establish relationship creating shared secret known link key. |
Bluetooth | devices store link key said paired bonded.device wants communicate bonded device cryptographically authenticate identity device ensuring device previously paired with.link key generated authenticated asynchronous connectionless acl link devices may encrypted protect exchanged data eavesdropping.users delete link keys either device removes bond devices—so possible one device stored link key device longer paired with.bluetooth services generally require either encryption authentication require pairing let remote device connect.services object push profile elect explicitly require authentication encryption pairing interfere user experience associated service usecases. |
Bluetooth | pairing mechanisms pairing mechanisms changed significantly introduction secure simple pairing bluetooth v.. following summarizes pairing mechanismslegacy pairing method available bluetooth v. before.device must enter pin code pairing successful devices enter pin code.byte utf string may used pin code however devices may capable entering possible pin codes.limited input devices obvious example class device bluetooth handsfree headset generally inputs.devices usually fixed pin example hardcoded device.numeric input devices mobile phones classic examples devices.allow user enter numeric value digits length.alphanumeric input devices pcs smartphones examples devices. |
Bluetooth | allow user enter full utf text pin code.pairing less capable device user must aware input limitations device mechanism available capable device determine limit available input user may use.secure simple pairing ssp required bluetooth v. although bluetooth v. device may use legacy pairing interoperate v. earlier device.secure simple pairing uses form publickey cryptography types help protect man middle mitm attacks.ssp following authentication mechanismsjust works name implies method works user interaction.however device may prompt user confirm pairing process. |
Bluetooth | method typically used headsets minimal io capabilities secure fixed pin mechanism limited set devices uses legacy pairing.method provides maninthemiddle mitm protection.numeric comparison devices display least one accept binary yesno user input may use numeric comparison.method displays digit numeric code device.user compare numbers ensure identical.comparison succeeds users confirm pairing devices accept input. |
Bluetooth | method provides mitm protection assuming user confirms devices actually performs comparison properly.passkey entry method may used device display device numeric keypad entry keyboard two devices numeric keypad entry.first case display presents digit numeric code user enters code keypad.second case user device enters digit number.cases provide mitm protection.out band oob method uses external means communication nearfield communication nfc exchange information used pairing process.pairing completed using bluetooth radio requires information oob mechanism. |
Bluetooth | provides level mitm protection present oob mechanism.ssp considered simple following reasonsin cases require user generate passkey.for use cases requiring mitm protection user interaction eliminated.for numeric comparison mitm protection achieved simple equality comparison user.using oob nfc enables pairing devices simply get close rather requiring lengthy discovery process.security concerns prior bluetooth v. encryption required turned time.moreover encryption key good approximately .hours using single encryption key longer time allows simple xor attacks retrieve encryption key.turning encryption required several normal operations problematic detect encryption disabled valid reason security attack.bluetooth v. addresses following waysencryption required nonsdp service discovery protocol connectionsa new encryption pause resume feature used normal operations require encryption disabled.enables easy identification normal operation security attacks.the encryption key must refreshed expires.link keys may stored device file system bluetooth chip itself. |
Bluetooth | many bluetooth chip manufacturers let link keys stored device—however device removable means link key moves device.security overview bluetooth implements confidentiality authentication key derivation custom algorithms based safer block cipher.bluetooth key generation generally based bluetooth pin must entered devices.procedure might modified one devices fixed pin e.g.headsets similar devices restricted user interface. |
Bluetooth | pairing initialization key master key generated using e algorithm.the e stream cipher used encrypting packets granting confidentiality based shared cryptographic secret namely previously generated link key master key.keys used subsequent encryption data sent via air interface rely bluetooth pin entered one devices.an overview bluetooth vulnerabilities exploits published andreas becker.in september national institute standards technology nist published guide bluetooth security reference organizations.describes bluetooth security capabilities secure bluetooth technologies effectively.bluetooth benefits susceptible denialofservice attacks eavesdropping maninthemiddle attacks message modification resource misappropriation.users organizations must evaluate acceptable level risk incorporate security lifecycle bluetooth devices. |
Bluetooth | help mitigate risks included nist document security checklists guidelines recommendations creating maintaining secure bluetooth piconets headsets smart card readers.bluetooth v. – finalized consumer devices first appearing – makes significant changes bluetooths security including pairing.see pairing mechanisms section changes.bluejacking bluejacking sending either picture message one user unsuspecting user bluetooth wireless technology.common applications include short messages e.g.youve bluejacked bluejacking involve removal alteration data device. |
Bluetooth | bluejacking also involve taking control mobile device wirelessly phoning premium rate line owned bluejacker.security advances alleviated issue.history security concerns – jakobsson wetzel bell laboratories discovered flaws bluetooth pairing protocol also pointed vulnerabilities encryption scheme.ben adam laurie a.l.digital ltd. discovered serious flaws poor implementations bluetooth security may lead disclosure personal data. |
Bluetooth | subsequent experiment martin herfurt trifinite.group able fieldtrial cebit fairgrounds showing importance problem world.new attack called bluebug used experiment.first purported virus using bluetooth spread among mobile phones appeared symbian os.the virus first described kaspersky lab requires users confirm installation unknown software propagate.virus written proofofconcept group virus writers known sent antivirus groups.thus regarded potential real security threat bluetooth technology symbian os since virus never spread outside system. |
Bluetooth | august worldrecordsetting experiment see also bluetooth sniping showed range class bluetooth radios could extended .km .mi directional antennas signal amplifiers.this poses potential security threat enables attackers access vulnerable bluetooth devices distance beyond expectation.attacker must also able receive information victim set connection.attack made bluetooth device unless attacker knows bluetooth address channels transmit although deduced within minutes device use. |
Bluetooth | january mobile malware worm known lasco surfaced.worm began targeting mobile phones using symbian os series platform using bluetooth enabled devices replicate spread devices.worm selfinstalling begins mobile user approves transfer file velasco.sis another device.installed worm begins looking bluetooth enabled devices infect.additionally worm infects .sis files device allowing replication another device use removable media secure digital compactflash etc.. worm render mobile device unstable.in april cambridge university security researchers published results actual implementation passive attacks pinbased pairing commercial bluetooth devices. |
Bluetooth | confirmed attacks practicably fast bluetooth symmetric key establishment method vulnerable.rectify vulnerability designed implementation showed stronger asymmetric key establishment feasible certain classes devices mobile phones.in june yaniv shaked avishai wool published paper describing passive active methods obtaining pin bluetooth link.passive attack allows suitably equipped attacker eavesdrop communications spoof attacker present time initial pairing.active method makes use specially constructed message must inserted specific point protocol make master slave repeat pairing process.first method used crack pin. |
Bluetooth | attacks major weakness requires user devices attack reenter pin attack device prompts to.also active attack probably requires custom hardware since commercially available bluetooth devices capable timing necessary.in august police cambridgeshire england issued warnings thieves using bluetooth enabled phones track devices left cars.police advising users ensure mobile networking connections deactivated laptops devices left way.april researchers secure network fsecure published report warns large number devices left visible state issued statistics spread various bluetooth services ease spread eventual bluetooth worm.in october luxemburgish hack.lu security conference kevin finistere thierry zoller demonstrated released remote root shell via bluetooth mac os x v.. v.. also demonstrated first bluetooth pin linkkeys cracker based research wool shaked.april security researchers armis discovered multiple exploits bluetooth software various platforms including microsoft windows linux apple ios google android. |
Bluetooth | vulnerabilities collectively called blueborne.exploits allow attacker connect devices systems without authentication give virtually full control device.armis contacted google microsoft apple samsung linux developers allowing patch software coordinated announcement vulnerabilities september .july lior neumann eli biham researchers technion – israel institute technology identified security vulnerability latest bluetooth pairing procedures secure simple pairing le secure connections.also october karim lounis network security researcher queens university identified security vulnerability called cdv connection dumping vulnerability various bluetooth devices allows attacker tear existing bluetooth connection cause deauthentication disconnection involved devices.researcher demonstrated attack various devices different categories different manufacturers. |
Bluetooth | august security researchers singapore university technology design helmholtz center information security university oxford discovered vulnerability called knob key negotiation bluetooth key negotiation would brute force negotiated encryption keys decrypt eavesdropped ciphertext inject valid encrypted messages realtime.health concerns bluetooth uses radio frequency spectrum .ghz .ghz range nonionizing radiation similar bandwidth one used wireless mobile phones.specific harm demonstrated even though wireless transmission included iarc possible carcinogen list. |
Bluetooth | maximum power output bluetooth radio mw class .mw class mw class devices.even maximum power output class lower level lowestpowered mobile phones.umts wcdma output mw gsm outputs mw gsm outputs mw.award programs bluetooth innovation world cup marketing initiative bluetooth special interest group sig international competition encouraged development innovations applications leveraging bluetooth technology sports fitness health care products. |
Ecosystem-based management | competition aimed stimulate new markets.the bluetooth innovation world cup morphed bluetooth breakthrough awards .bluetooth sig subsequently launched imagine blue award bluetooth world.breakthrough awards bluetooth program highlights innovative products applications available today prototypes coming soon studentled projects making.see also notes references external links official websitespecifications bluetooth sigapplied studies terrestrial marine environments challenges attributed both.marine realm highly challenging quantify due highly migratory species well rapidly changing environmental anthropogenic factors alter habitat rather quickly.able manage fisheries efficiently effectively become increasingly pertinent understand biological aspects species studied also environmental variables experiencing.population abundance structure life history traits competition species stock local food web tidal fluctuations salinity patterns anthropogenic influences among variables must taken account fully understand implementation ecosystembased management approach.interest ecosystembased management marine realm developed recently response increasing recognition declining state fisheries ocean ecosystems. |
Ecosystem-based management | however due lack clear definition diversity involved environment implementation lagging.terrestrial ecosystembased management often referred ecosystem management came conflicts endangered species protection particularly northern spotted owl land conservation water grazing timber rights western united states s. history systemic origins ecosystembased management rooted ecosystem management policy applied great lakes north america late s. legislation created great lakes basin great lakes water quality agreement based claim park island purpose show strict protection area best method preservation.type management system however idea began long evolved testing challenging common ecosystem management practices.before complete synthesis management systems historical development traced back s. time scientific communities studied ecology realized current approaches management national parks provide effective protection species within.ecological society americas committee study plant animal communities recognized us national parks needed protect ecosystems contained within park order create inclusive fully functioning sanctuary prepared handle natural fluctuations ecology.also committee explained importance interagency cooperation improved public education well challenged idea proper park management would improve nature.ideas became foundation modern ecosystembased management.as understanding manage ecosystems shifted new tenets management system produced. |
Ecosystem-based management | biologists george wright ben thompson accounted size boundary limitations parks contributed restructuring park lines drawn.explained large mammals example could supported within restricted zones national park order protect animals ecosystems new approach would needed.scientists followed suit none successful establishing welldefined ecosystembased management approach.in importance ecosystembased management resurfaced ecology two biologists john frank craighead.craigheads found grizzly bears yellowstone national park could sustain population allowed live within park boundaries.reinforced idea broader definition defines ecosystem needed created suggesting based biotic requirements largest mammal present.the idea ecosystembased management began catch projects throughout american national parks reflected idea protecting ecosystem entirety based legal ecological restrictions previously used. |
Ecosystem-based management | jim agee darryll johnson published booklength report managing ecosystems explaining theoretical framework management.fully embrace ecosystembased management still calling ecologically defined boundaries stated importance clearly stated management goals interagency cooperation monitoring management results leadership national policy levels.importantly demanded recognition human influence.argued scientists must keep mind complex social context work always moving towards socially desirable conditions.need understand social aspects scientific management fundamental step ecological management ecosystembased management.although continues become recognized debate ecosystembased management continues. |
Ecosystem-based management | grumbine believes approach evolved fully incorporated management practices effective forms yet seen.articulates current ecological climate calls holistic approach ecological management.part due rapid decline biodiversity constant state flux societal political views nature.conflicts public interest understanding natural world created social political climates require interagency cooperation stands backbone ecosystembased management.implementation ecosystembased management applied large diverse areas encompassing array interactions species ecosystem components humans often perceived complex process difficult implement. |
Ecosystem-based management | slocombe b also noted addition uncertainty common predictions difficult.however light significant ecosystem degradation need holistic approach combines environmental knowledge coordination governing agencies initiate sustain enforce habitat species protection include public education involvement.result ecosystembased management likely increasingly used future form environmental management.suggestions implementing ecosystembased management process may involve follows goals objectives defining clear concise goals ecosystembased management one important steps effective ecosystembased management implementation.goals must move beyond sciencebased sciencedefined objectives include social cultural economic environmental importance. |
Ecosystem-based management | equal importance make sure community stakeholders involved throughout entire process.slocombe also stated single endall goal cannot solution instead combination goals relationships focus.as discussed slocombe goals broadly applicable measurable readily observable ideally collectively supported order achievable.idea provide direction thinking action try minimize managing ecosystems static state.goals also flexible enough incorporate measure uncertainty able evolve conditions knowledge change.may involve focusing specific threatening processes habitat loss introduced invasive species occurring within ecosystem. |
Ecosystem-based management | overall goals integrative include structure organization processes management area.correct ecosystembased management based goals substantive explain aims importance protecting area procedural explain substantive goals met.as described tallis et al.steps ecosystembased management may includescopingthis step involves acquisition data knowledge various sources order provide thorough understanding critical ecosystem components.sources may include literature informal sources aboriginal residents resource users andor environmental experts.data may also gained statistical analyses simulation models conceptual models.defining indicatorsecological indicators useful tracking monitoring ecosystems status provide feedback management progress stressed slocombe a. examples may include population size species levels toxin present body water. |
Ecosystem-based management | social indicators may also used number types jobs within environmental sector livelihood specific social groups indigenous peoples.setting thresholdstallis et al.suggest setting thresholds indicator setting targets would represent desired level health ecosystem.examples may include species composition within ecosystem state habitat conditions based local observations stakeholder interviews.thresholds used help guide management particularly species looking conservation status criteria established either state federal agencies using models minimum viable population size.risk analysisa range threats disturbances natural human often affect indicators.risk defined sensitivity indicator ecological disturbance. |
Ecosystem-based management | several models used assess risk population viability analysis.monitoringevaluating effectiveness implemented management strategies important determining management actions affecting ecosystem indicators.evaluation final step involves monitoring assessing data see well management strategies chosen performing relative initial objectives stated.use simulation models multistakeholder groups help assess management.it important note many steps implementing ecosystembased management limited governance place region data available assessing ecosystem status reflecting changes occurring time frame operate.challenges ecosystems differ greatly express varying degrees vulnerability difficult apply functional framework universally applied.outlined steps components ecosystembased management part applied multiple situations suggestions improving guiding challenges involved managing complex issues.greater amount influences impacts interactions account problems obstacles criticism often arise within ecosystembased management. |
Ecosystem-based management | also need data spatially temporally help management make sound decisions sustainability stock studied.the first commonly defined challenge need meaningful appropriate management units.slocombe b noted units must broad contain value people outside protected area.example aberley suggests use bioregions management units allow peoples involvement region come through.define management units inclusive regions rather exclusive ecological zones would prevent limitations created narrow restricting political economic policy created units.slocombe b suggests better management units flexible build existing units biggest challenge creating truly effect units managers compare against.another issue creation administrative bodies. |
Ecosystem-based management | operate essence ecosystembased management working together towards mutually agreed upon goals.gaps administration research competing objectives priorities management agencies governments due overlapping jurisdictions obscure goals sustainability ecosystem integrity biodiversity often result fragmented weak management.addition tallis stated limited knowledge ecosystem components function time constraints often limit objectives addressed shortterm.the challenging issue facing ecosystembased management exists little knowledge system effectiveness.slocombe b stated limited resources available implement system hard find support use.slocombe said criticism ecosystembased management include reliance analogy comparisons broadly applied frameworks overlap duplication methods ecosystem management environmental management integrated ecosystem assessment vagueness concepts application tendency ignore historical evolutionary individual factors may heavily influence ecosystem functioning.tallis stated ecosystembased management seen critical planning management framework conserving restoring ecosystems though still widely implemented.ecosystem approach addresses many relationships across spatial biological organizational scales goaldriven approach restoring sustaining ecosystems functions. |
Ecosystem-based management | addition ecosystembased management involves community influence well planning management local regional national government bodies management agencies.must collaboration order develop desired future ecosystem conditions particularly ecosystems undergone radical degradation change.slocombe b said move forward ecosystembased management approached adaptive management allowing flexibility inclusiveness deal constant environmental societal political change.marine systems ecosystembased management marine environments begun move away traditional strategies focus conservation single species single sectors favor integrated approach considers key activities particularly anthropogenic affect marine environments.management must take account life history fish studied association surrounding environment place food web prefers reside water column affected human pressures. |
Ecosystem-based management | objective ensure sustainable ecosystems thus protecting resources services provide future generations.in recent years increasing recognition anthropogenic disruption marine ecosystems resulting climate change overfishing nutrient chemical pollution land runoff coastal development bycatch habitat destruction.effect human activity marine ecosystems become important issue many benefits provided humans marine ecosystems declining.services include provision food fuel mineral resources pharmaceuticals well opportunities recreation trade research education.guerry identified urgent need improve management declining ecosystems particularly coastal areas ensure sustainability.human communities depend marine ecosystems important resources without holistic management ecosystems likely collapse.olsson et al. |
Ecosystem-based management | suggest degradation marine ecosystems largely result poor governance new approaches management required.pew oceans commission united states commission ocean policy indicated importance moving current piecemeal management integrated ecosystembased approach.stock assessment stock assessment critically important aspect fisheries management highly complex logistically difficult expensive process thus contentious issue particularly competing parties disagree findings assessment.accurate stock assessments require knowledge reproductive morphological patterns ageatstage progressions movement ecology.bottom top members ecosystem affected organisms within ecosystem proper management wildlife requires knowledge organisms trophic level effects organisms within food web. |
Ecosystem-based management | topdown bottomup controls represent one method numbers wild populations plants animals limited.topdown controls seen decline north sea puffins result overexploitation sand eels important prey item explosion sea urchins subsequent decline kelp beds due nearextirpation sea otters.otters hunted nearly extinction sea urchins feed kelp boomed resulting neardisappearance kelp beds.bottomup controls best illustrated autotrophic primary producers plants phytoplankton represent lowest trophic level ecosystem limited impacting organisms higher trophic levels.bycatch red snapper species enormous economic importance gulf mexico. |
Ecosystem-based management | management species complicated large impact bycatch associated shrimping industry.rates red snapper mortality explained fishery landings instead associated large numbers juvenile red snapper caught bycatch fine mesh used trawlers.key elements connections core ecosystembased management acknowledging interdependency connections including linkages marine ecosystems human societies economies institutional systems well among various species within ecosystem among ocean places linked movement species materials ocean currents.particular importance factors react involve other.caribbean spiny lobster managed based classic population model fishery species works quite well. |
Ecosystem-based management | however species grow halt growth need molt shell thus instead continuous growth cycle pause growth invest energy new shell.complicate matters slows process gets older invest energy reproduction thus deviating von bertalanffy model growth applied it.information gather ecosystem interconnected factors affect capable better managing system.cumulative impacts ecosystembased management focuses individual actions affect ecosystem services flow coupled socioecological systems integrated fashion rather considering impacts piecemeal manner.loss biodiversity marine ecosystems example cumulative effects different sectors impact ecosystem compounding way. |
Ecosystem-based management | overfishing coastal development filling dredging mining human activities contribute loss biodiversity therefore degradation ecosystem.work needed prior carrying research understand total effects species also environment.must carried every year well species changing life history traits relationship environment humans continually modifying environment.interactions sectors way deal cumulative effects human influences marine ecosystems various contributing sectors set common goals protection management ecosystems.policies may affect single sector others may affect multiple sectors. |
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