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History of France | incessant screaming public galleries always favour montagnards suggested paris girondins really case.petitions circulated indicting condemning girondins.barère member committee public safety suggested end division harming republic girondin leaders lay offices voluntarily.decree adopted day convention much tumultuous debate expelling leading girondins convention.late night indeed dozens girondins resigned left convention.in course holy roman empire kings portugal naples grandduke tuscany declared war france. |
History of France | counterrevolution subdued july –april summer french departments one way another opposed central paris government many cases girondins fled paris june led revolts.brittanys countryside people rejecting civil constitution clergy taken guerrilla warfare known chouannerie.generally french opposition paris evolved plain struggle power country montagnards around robespierre marat dominating paris.in june–july bordeaux marseilles brittany caen rest normandy gathered armies march paris revolution.july lyon guillotined deposed montagnard head city council.barère member committee public safety august incited convention tougher measures vendée war paris since march well peace vendée remains… well exterminate rebellious people. |
History of France | august convention troops besieged lyon.in august–september militants urged convention quell counterrevolution.delegation commune paris city council suggested form revolutionary armies arrest hoarders conspirators.bertrand barère member committee public safety—the de facto executive government—ever since april among others september reacted favorably saying lets make terror order day september national convention passed law suspects decree ordering arrest declared opponents current form government suspected enemies freedom.decree one causes death sentences end july reason historians label ½ months reign terror.on september vendée rebels defeated republican convention army.october barère repeated plea subdue vendée refuge fanaticism priests raised altars…. |
History of France | october convention troops captured lyon reinstated montagnard government there.criteria bringing someone revolutionary tribunal created march always vast vague.august political disagreement seemed enough summoned tribunal appeal tribunal verdict impossible.late august army general guillotined accusation choosing timid strategies battlefield.midoctober widowed former queen marie antoinette trial long list charges teaching husband louis capet art dissimulation incest son guillotined.october former girondins convention members left paris june convicted death executed charge verbally supporting preparation insurrection caen fellowgirondins.on october blue republican army near cholet defeated white vendéan insubordinate army surviving vendée residents counting tens thousands fled river loire north brittany. |
History of France | conventions representative mission nantes commissioned october pacify region simply drowning prisoners river loire february drowned least .november revolts normandy bordeaux lyon overcome december also toulon.two representatives mission sent punish lyon november april executed people guillotine firingsquad.vendéan army since october roaming brittany december ran republican troops saw rebels perish meaning end threatening army.historians claim defeat convention republic armies massacred vendéan civilians obliterate vendéan people others contest claim. |
History of France | historians consider civil war lasted toll lives.deathsentencing politicians february–july maximilien robespierre since july member committee public prosperity february speech convention identified jacques hébert faction internal enemies working toward triumph tyranny.dubious trial hébert allies guillotined march.april instigation robespierre danton associated politicians executed.week later politicians. |
History of France | hushed convention deputies henceforth disagreed robespierre hardly dared speak out.law enacted june prairial ii streamlined criminal procedures revolutionary tribunal saw sufficient proof someone enemy people counsel defence would allowed.frequency guillotine executions paris rose average three day average day.meanwhile frances external wars going well victories austrian british troops may june opening belgium french conquest.however cooperation within committee public safety since april de facto executive government started break down.june three colleagues robespierre committee called dictator face — robespierre baffled left meeting. |
History of France | encouraged convention members also defy robespierre.july long vague speech robespierre met thunderous applause usual hostility deputies yelled robespierre courage say deputies deemed necessary killed next robespierre refused do.in convention session july robespierre allies hardly managed say word constantly interrupted row critics tallien billaudvarenne vadier barère acting president thuriot.finally even robespierres voice failed faltered last attempt beg permission speak.decree adopted arrest robespierre saintjust couthon.july others beheaded. |
History of France | july parisians guillotined.subsequently law prairial june repealed girondins expelled convention june dead yet reinstated convention deputies.disregarding working classes august –october july civilians henceforth ignored republican calendar returned traditional sevenday weeks.government law february set steps return freedom religion reconciliation since refractory catholic priests religious signs outside churches private homes crosses clerical garb bell ringing remained prohibited.peoples enthusiasm attending church grew unexpected levels government backed october like required priests swear oaths republic.in cold winter – french army demanding bread getting scarce paris wood keep houses warm echo october march versailles april germinal iii mostly female crowd marched convention calling bread. |
History of France | convention member sympathized told women return home.may crowd men women invaded convention even killed deputy halls failed make convention take notice needs lower classes.instead convention banned women political assemblies deputies solidarized insurrection sentenced death allegiance parliament street fighting longer tolerated.late france conquered presentday belgium.january subdued dutch republic full consent cooperation influential dutch patriottenbeweging patriots movement resulting batavian republic satellite puppet state france.in april france concluded peace agreement prussia later year peace agreed spain.fighting catholicism royalism october –november october republic reorganised replacing onechamber parliament national convention bicameral system first chamber called council initiating laws second council elders reviewing approving passed laws. |
History of France | year onethird chambers renewed.executive power lay five directors — hence name directory form government — fiveyear mandate year one replaced.the early directors much understand nation governing especially innate inability see catholicism anything else counterrevolutionary royalist.local administrators better sense peoples priorities one wrote minister interior give back crosses church bells sundays everyone cry vive la républiquefrench armies advanced germany austria italy.france conquered rhineland belgium much italy unsuccessfully attacked wales.parliamentary elections spring resulted considerable gains royalists.frightened republican directors staged coup détat september coup fructidor v remove two supposedly proroyalist directors prominent royalists councils.the new corrected government still strongly convinced catholicism royalism equally dangerous republic started fresh campaign promote republican calendar officially introduced tenday week tried hallow tenth day décadi substitute christian sunday. |
History of France | citizens opposed even mocked decrees also local government officials refused enforce laws.france still waging wars egypt switzerland rome ireland belgium u.s.a. badenwürttemberg.french armies abroad experienced setbacks newly chosen director sieyes considered new overhaul necessary directorys form government opinion needed stronger executive.together successful general napoleon bonaparte returned france sieyes began preparing another coup détat took place – november – brumaire viii replacing five directors three consuls napoleon sieyes roger ducos.napoleonic france – war first coalition – directoire replaced national convention.five directors ruled france. |
History of France | great britain still war france plan made take egypt ottoman empire british ally.napoleons idea directoire agreed plan order send popular general away mainland.napoleon defeated ottoman forces battle pyramids july sent hundreds scientists linguists thoroughly explore modern ancient egypt.weeks later british fleet admiral horatio nelson unexpectedly destroyed french fleet battle nile – august .napoleon planned move syria defeated siege acre returned france without army surrendered.the directoire threatened second coalition –. |
History of France | royalists allies still dreamed restoring monarchy power prussian austrian crowns accept territorial losses previous war.russian army expelled french italy battles cassano austrian army defeated french switzerland stockach zurich.napoleon seized power coup established consulate .austrian army defeated battle marengo battle hohenlinden .while sea french success boulogne nelsons royal navy destroyed anchored danish norwegian fleet battle copenhagen scandinavian kingdoms british blockade france.second coalition beaten peace settled two distinct treaties treaty lunéville treaty amiens. |
History of France | brief interlude peace ensued – napoleon sold french louisiana united states indefensible.in napoleon concluded concordat pope pius vii opened peaceful relations church state france.policies revolution reversed except church get lands back.bishops clergy receive state salaries government would pay building maintenance churches.napoleon reorganized higher learning dividing institut national four later five academies.in napoleon titled emperor senate thus founding first french empire.napoleons rule constitutional although autocratic much advanced traditional european monarchies time. |
History of France | proclamation french empire met third coalition.french army renamed la grande armée napoleon used propaganda nationalism control french population.french army achieved resounding victory ulm – october entire austrian army captured.a francospanish fleet defeated trafalgar october plans invade britain made impossible.despite naval defeat ground war would napoleon inflicted austrian russian empires one greatest defeats austerlitz also known battle three emperors december destroying third coalition.peace settled treaty pressburg austrian empire lost title holy roman emperor confederation rhine created napoleon former austrian territories. |
History of France | coalitions formed napoleon prussia joined britain russia thus forming fourth coalition.although coalition joined allies french empire also alone since complex network allies subject states.largely outnumbered french army crushed prussian army jenaauerstedt napoleon captured berlin went far eastern prussia.russian empire defeated battle friedland june .peace dictated treaties tilsit russia join continental system prussia handed half territories france. |
History of France | duchy warsaw formed territorial losses polish troops entered grande armée significant numbers.in order ruin british economy napoleon set continental system tried prevent merchants across europe trading british.large amount smuggling frustrated napoleon harm economy enemies.freed obligation east napoleon went back west french empire still war britain.two countries remained neutral war sweden portugal napoleon looked toward latter.treaty fontainebleau francospanish alliance portugal sealed spain eyed portuguese territories.french armies entered spain order attack portugal seized spanish fortresses took kingdom surprise. |
History of France | joseph bonaparte napoleons brother made king spain charles iv abdicated.this occupation iberian peninsula fueled local nationalism soon spanish portuguese fought french using guerilla tactics defeating french forces battle bailén june july .britain sent shortlived ground support force portugal french forces evacuated portugal defined convention sintra following allied victory vimeiro august .france controlled catalonia navarre could definitely expelled iberian peninsula spanish armies attacked spanish not.another french attack launched spain led napoleon described avalanche fire steel.however french empire longer regarded invincible european powers.austria formed war fifth coalition order break french empire. |
History of France | austrian empire defeated french aspernessling yet beaten wagram polish allies defeated austrian empire raszyn april .although decisive previous austrian defeats peace treaty october stripped austria large amount territories reducing even more.in war broke russia engaging napoleon disastrous french invasion russia .napoleon assembled largest army europe ever seen including troops subject states invade russia left continental system gathering army polish frontier.following exhausting march bloody inconclusive battle borodino near moscow grande armée entered captured moscow find burning part russian scorched earth tactics.although still battles napoleonic army left russia late annihilated russian winter exhaustion scorched earth warfare. |
History of France | spanish front french troops defeated vitoria june battle pyrenees july–august .since spanish guerrillas seemed uncontrollable french troops eventually evacuated spain.since france defeated two fronts states conquered controlled napoleon saw good opportunity strike back.sixth coalition formed british leadership.german states confederation rhine switched sides finally opposing napoleon.napoleon largely defeated battle nations outside leipzig october forces heavily outnumbered allied coalition armies overwhelmed much larger armies six days campaign february although six days campaign often considered tactical masterpiece allies suffered much higher casualties. |
History of France | napoleon abdicated april exiled elba.the conservative congress vienna reversed political changes occurred wars.napoleon suddenly returned seized control france raised army marched enemies hundred days.ended final defeat battle waterloo exile st. helena remote island south atlantic ocean.the monarchy subsequently restored louis xviii younger brother louis xvi became king exiles returned.however many revolutionary napoleonic reforms kept place.napoleons impact france napoleon centralized power paris provinces governed allpowerful prefects selected. |
History of France | powerful royal intendants ancien régime longterm impact unifying nation minimizing regional differences shifting decisions paris.religion major issue revolution napoleon resolved outstanding problems.thereby moved clergy large numbers devout catholics hostility government support him.catholic system reestablished concordat signed pope pius vii church life returned normal church lands restored jesuits allowed back bitter fights government church ended.protestant jews atheists tolerated.the french taxation system collapsed s. government seized sold church lands lands exiles aristocrats.napoleon instituted modern efficient tax system guaranteed steady flow revenues made longterm financing possible.napoleon kept system conscription created every young man served army could rapidly expanded even based core careerists talented officers. |
History of France | revolution aristocracy formed officer corps.promotion merit achievement—every private carried marshals baton said.the modern era french education began s. revolution abolished traditional universities.napoleon sought replace new institutions école polytechnique focused technology.elementary schools received little attention.napoleonic code permanent importance napoleonic code created eminent jurists napoleons supervision. |
History of France | praised gallic clarity spread rapidly throughout europe world general marked end feudalism liberation serfs took effect.code recognized principles civil liberty equality law secular character state.discarded old right primogeniture eldest son inherited required inheritances divided equally among children.court system standardized judges appointed national government paris.long th century – century fall napoleon politically unstableevery head state spent part life exile. |
History of France | every regime target assassination attempts frequency put spanish russian politics shade.even peaceful times governments changed every months.less peaceful times political deaths imprisonments deportations literally incalculable.france longer dominant power played major role european economics culture diplomacy military affairs.bourbons restored left weak record one branch overthrown branch napoleons nephew elected president.made emperor napoleon iii overthrown defeated captured prussians war humiliated france made new nation germany dominant continent. |
History of France | third republic established possibility return monarchy remained s. french built empire especially africa indochina.economy strong good railway system.arrival rothschild banking family france guaranteed role paris alongside london major center international finance.permanent changes french society french revolution napoleonic eras brought series major changes france bourbon restoration reverse.first france became highly centralized decisions made paris. |
History of France | political geography completely reorganized made uniform.france divided departments endured st century.department identical administrative structure tightly controlled prefect appointed paris.complex multiple overlapping legal jurisdictions old regime abolished one standardized legal code administered judges appointed paris supported police national control.education centralized grand master university france controlling every element entire educational system paris. |
History of France | newly technical universities opened paris day critical role training elite.conservatism bitterly split old aristocracy returned new elites arose .old aristocracy eager regain land felt loyalty new regime.new elite — noblesse dempire — ridiculed group outdated remnant discredited regime led nation disaster.groups shared fear social disorder level distrust well cultural differences great monarchy inconsistent policies political cooperation possible.the old aristocracy returned recovered much land owned directly.however completely lost old seigneurial rights rest farmland peasants longer control. |
History of France | old aristocracy dallied ideas enlightenment rationalism.aristocracy much conservative much supportive catholic church.best jobs meritocracy new policy aristocrats compete directly growing business professional class.anticlerical sentiment became much stronger ever based certain elements middle class indeed peasantry well.in france europe sum total wealth concentrated.richest percent families owned percent wealth . |
History of France | share fell percent remained st century.share top one percent population grew percent percent fell steadily percent present.the families controlled much nations wealth .based policy shareholders bank france allowed attend annual meeting cast votes.nation million people allowed vote richest onefourth two votes.the great masses french people peasants countryside impoverished workers cities.gained new rights new sense possibilities. |
History of France | although relieved many old burdens controls taxes peasantry still highly traditional social economic behavior.many eagerly took mortgages buy much land possible children debt important factor calculations.working class cities small element freed many restrictions imposed medieval guilds.however france slow industrialize sense large factories using modern machinery much work remained drudgery without machinery technology help.provided good basis smallscale expensive luxury crafts attracted international upscale market. |
History of France | france still localized especially terms language emerging french nationalism showed national pride army foreign affairs.religion catholic church lost lands buildings revolution sold came control local governments.bishop still ruled diocese aligned new department boundaries could communicate pope government paris.bishops priests nuns religious people paid salaries state.old religious rites ceremonies retained government maintained religious buildings. |
History of France | church allowed operate seminaries extent local schools well although became central political issue th century.bishops much less powerful political voice.however catholic church reinvented put new emphasis personal religiosity gave hold psychology faithful.france remained basically catholic.census counted million people .million listed catholics protestants jews freethinkers. |
History of France | revolution failed destroy catholic church napoleons concordat restored status.return bourbons brought back many rich nobles landowners supported church seeing bastion conservatism monarchism.however monasteries vast land holdings political power gone much land sold urban entrepreneurs lacked historic connections land peasants.few new priests trained – period many left church.result number parish clergy plunged many elderly.entire regions especially around paris left priests. |
History of France | hand traditional regions held fast faith led local nobles historic families.the comeback slow larger cities industrial areas.systematic missionary work new emphasis liturgy devotions virgin mary plus support napoleon iii comeback.priests representing much younger dynamic force villages towns thick network schools charities lay organizations.conservative catholics held control national government – often played secondary political roles fight assault republicans liberals socialists seculars.economy french economic history since lateth century revolution tied three major events trends napoleonic era competition britain neighbors regards industrialization total wars lateth early th centuries. |
History of France | quantitative analysis output data shows french per capita growth rates slightly smaller britain.however british population tripled size france grew third—so overall british economy grew much faster.ups downs french per capita economic growth –– irregular sometimes fast growth– fast growth– slowing down– stagnation– fast growthfor – era growth rates similar advanced countries — europe plus united states canada — show terms per capita growth france average.however population growth slow far growth rate total size economy france next last place ahead italy.countries averaged . |
History of France | per year total output france averaged ..the average size industrial undertakings smaller france advanced countries machinery generally less date productivity lower costs higher.domestic system handicraft production long persisted big modern factories long exceptional.large lumps ancien régime economy survived….on whole qualitative lag british french economy…persisted whole period consideration later similar lag developed france countries—belgium germany united states.france succeed catching britain overtaken several rivals.bourbon restoration – period time called bourbon restoration marked conflicts reactionary ultraroyalists wanted restore pre system absolute monarchy liberals wanted strengthen constitutional monarchy. |
History of France | louis xviii younger brother louis xvi reigned .becoming king louis issued constitution known charter preserved many liberties french revolution provided parliament composed elected chamber deputies chamber peers nominated king.evaluation two decades war revolution restoration brought peace quiet general prosperity.frenchmen whole well governed prosperous contented year period one historian even describes restoration era one happiest periods frances history.france recovered strain disorganization wars killings horrors two decades disruption.peace throughout period. |
History of France | paid large war indemnity winners managed finance without distress occupation soldiers left peacefully.population increased million prosperity strong depression caused bad harvests.national credit strong significant increase public wealth national budget showed surplus every year.private sector banking grew dramatically making paris world center finance along london.rothschild family worldfamous french branch led james mayer de rothschild –. |
History of France | communication system improved roads upgraded canals lengthened steamboat traffic became common.industrialization delayed comparison britain belgium.railway system yet make appearance.industry heavily protected tariffs little demand entrepreneurship innovation.culture flourished new romantic impulses.oratory highly regarded debates high standard. |
History of France | châteaubriand madame de staël – enjoyed europewide reputations innovations romantic literature.made important contributions political sociology sociology literature.history flourished françois guizot benjamin constant madame de staël drew lessons past guide future.paintings eugène delacroix set standards romantic art.music theater science philosophy flourished. |
History of France | higher learning flourished sorbonne.major new institutions gave france world leadership numerous advanced fields typified école nationale des chartes historiography école centrale des arts et manufactures innovative engineering école des beauxarts fine arts reestablished .overall bourbon governments handling foreign affairs successful.france kept low profile europe forgot animosities.louis charles little interest foreign affairs france played minor roles.army helped restore spanish monarch . |
History of France | helped powers deal greece turkey.king charles x ultra reactionary mistakenly thought foreign glory would cover domestic frustration made allout effort conquer algiers .sent massive force soldiers horses carried warships merchant ships.expedition dramatic military success three weeks.invasion paid million francs captured treasury. |
History of France | episode launched second french colonial empire provide desperately needed political support king home.charles x repeatedly exacerbated internal tensions tried neutralize enemies repressive measures.depended heavily upon inept chief minister polignac.repression failed quick sudden revolution forced charles exile third time.july monarchy – protest absolute monarchy air. |
History of France | elections deputies may gone badly king charles x. response tried repression aggravated crisis suppressed deputies gagged journalists students university many working men paris poured streets erected barricades three glorious days french les trois glorieuses – july .charles x deposed replaced king louisphilippe july revolution.traditionally regarded rising bourgeoisie absolute monarchy bourbons.participants july revolution included marquis de lafayette.working behind scenes behalf bourgeois propertied interests louis adolphe thiers.louisphilippes july monarchy – dominated haute bourgeoisie high bourgeoisie bankers financiers industrialists merchants.during reign july monarchy romantic era starting bloom. |
History of France | driven romantic era atmosphere protest revolt around france.november lyon second largest city france silk workers revolted took town hall protest recent salary reductions working conditions.one first instances workers revolt entire world.because constant threats throne july monarchy began rule stronger stronger hand.soon political meetings outlawed.however banquets still legal nationwide campaign republican banquets demanding democracy. |
History of France | climaxing banquet scheduled february paris government banned it.response citizens classes poured onto streets paris revolt july monarchy.demands made abdication citizen king louisphilippe establishment representative democracy france.king abdicated french second republic proclaimed.alphonse marie louis de lamartine leader moderate republicans france became minister foreign affairs effect premier new provisional government. |
History of France | reality lamartine virtual head government .second republic – frustration among laboring classes arose constituent assembly address concerns workers.strikes worker demonstrations became common workers gave vent frustrations.demonstrations reached climax may workers secret societies broke armed uprising antilabor antidemocratic policies pursued constituent assembly provisional government.fearful total breakdown law order provisional government invited general louis eugene cavaignac back algeria june put workers armed revolt. |
History of France | june december general cavaignac became head executive provisional government.on december louis napoleon bonaparte elected president landslide.support came wide section french public.various classes french society voted louis napoleon different often contradictory reasons.louis napoleon encouraged contradiction things people.one major promises peasantry groups would new taxes.the new national constituent assembly heavily composed royalist sympathizers legitimist bourbon wing orleanist citizen king louis philippe wing. |
History of France | ambiguity surrounding louis napoleons political positions agenda president much doubt.prime minister selected odilon barrot unobjectionable middleroad parliamentarian led loyal opposition louis philippe.appointees represented various royalist factions.the pope forced rome part revolutions louis napoleon sent man expeditionary force troops papal state general nicolas charles victor oudinot restore him.late april defeated pushed back rome giuseppe garibaldis volunteer corps recovered recaptured rome.in june demonstrations government broke suppressed.leaders including prominent politicians arrested. |
History of France | government banned several democratic socialist newspapers france editors arrested.karl marx risk august moved london.the government sought ways balance budget reduce debts.toward end hippolyte passy appointed finance minister.legislative assembly met beginning october passy proposed income tax help balance finances france.bourgeoisie would pay tax protested. |
History of France | furor income tax caused resignation barrot prime minister new wine tax also caused protests.the elections resulted conservative body.passed falloux laws putting education hands catholic clergy.opened era cooperation church state lasted jules ferry laws reversed course .falloux laws provided universal primary schooling france expanded opportunities secondary schooling.practice curricula similar catholic state schools. |
History of France | catholic schools especially useful schooling girls long neglected.although new electoral law passed respected principle universal male suffrage stricter residential requirement new law actually effect disenfranchising voters.second empire – president rejected constitution made emperor napoleon iii.known working modernize french economy rebuilding paris expanding overseas empire engaging numerous wars.effort build empire mexico fiasco. |
History of France | autocratic first opened political system somewhat s. lost allies recklessly declared war much powerful prussia captured deposed.as opened louis napoleon allowed constitution seek reelection president france.proclaimed emperor french almost dictatorial powers.made completion good railway system high priority.consolidated three dozen small incomplete lines six major companies using paris hub.paris grew dramatically terms population industry finance commercial activity tourism. |
History of France | napoleon working georgeseugène haussmann spent lavishly rebuild city worldclass showpiece.financial soundness six companies solidified government guarantees.although france started late excellent railway system supported well good roads canals ports.despite promises peaceful reign emperor could resist temptations glory foreign affairs.visionary mysterious secretive poor staff kept running afoul domestic supporters.end incompetent diplomat. |
History of France | napoleon successes strengthened french control algeria established bases africa began takeover indochina opened trade china.facilitated french company building suez canal britain could stop.europe however napoleon failed again.crimean war – produced gains.napoleon long admirer italy wanted see unified although might create rival power. |
History of France | plotted cavour italian kingdom piedmont expel austria set italian confederation four new states headed pope.events ran control.austria quickly defeated instead four new states popular uprising united italy piedmont.pope held onto rome napoleon sent troops protect him.reward county nice included city nice rugged alpine territory north east duchy savoy. |
History of France | angered catholics pope lost domains.napoleon reversed angered anticlerical liberals home erstwhile italian allies protected pope rome.the british grew annoyed napoleons humanitarian intervention syria –.napoleon lowered tariffs helped long run short run angered owners large estates textile iron industrialists leading worried workers organize.matters grew worse napoleon nearly blundered war united states takeover mexico – total disaster.puppet emperor put mexican throne overthrown executed. |
History of France | finally end went war germans late stop german unification.napoleon alienated everyone failing obtain alliance austria italy france allies bitterly divided home.disastrously defeated battlefield losing alsace lorraine.historian a. j. p. taylor blunt ruined france great power.foreign wars second empire joined crimean war saw france britain opposed russian empire decisively defeated sevastopol – inkerman . |
History of France | france joined second opium war british side china missionarys murder used pretext take interests southwest asia treaty tientsin.when france negotiating netherlands purchasing luxembourg prussian kingdom threatened french government war.luxembourg crisis came shock french diplomats agreement prussian french governments luxembourg.napoleon iii suffered stronger stronger criticism republicans like jules favre position seemed fragile passage time.the country interfered korea taking missionaries murders pretext.french finally withdrew war little gain wars booty.next year french expedition japan formed help tokugawa shogunate modernize army. |
History of France | however tokugawa defeated boshin war battle toba–fushimi large imperial armies.francoprussian war – rising tensions possible candidacy prince leopold von hohenzollernsigmaringen throne spain caused rise scale animosity france germany.prince leopold part prussian royal family.asked spanish cortes accept vacant throne spain.such event france could possibly accept.relations france germany deteriorated finally francoprussian war – broke out. |
History of France | german nationalism united german states exception austria napoleon iii.french empire defeated decisively metz sedan.napoleon iii surrendered french troops german troops sedan – september .two days later september léon gambetta proclaimed new republic france.later paris encircled german troops gambetta fled paris became virtual dictator war effort carried rural provinces.metz remained siege october french troops finally surrendered. |
History of France | surrounded paris forced surrender january .treaty frankfurt allowed newly formed german empire annex provinces alsace lorraine.modernisation railways – seemingly timeless world french peasantry swiftly changed .french peasants poor locked old traditions railroads republican schools universal male military conscription modernized rural france.centralized government paris goal creating unified nationstate required students taught standardized french. |
History of France | process new national identity forged.railways became national medium modernization traditionalistic regions leading advocate approach poetpolitician alphonse de lamartine.army colonel hoped railways might improve lot populations two three centuries behind fellows eliminate savage instincts born isolation misery.consequently france built centralized system radiated paris plus south lines cut east west.design intended achieve political cultural goals rather maximize efficiency.consolidation six companies controlled monopolies regions subject close control government terms fares finances even minute technical details.the central government department ponts et chaussées bridges roads brought british engineers handled much construction work provided engineering expertise planning land acquisition construction permanent infrastructure track bed bridges tunnels. |
History of France | also subsidized militarily necessary lines along german border.private operating companies provided management hired labor laid tracks built operated stations.purchased maintained rolling stock— locomotives operation averaged passengers year tons freight.much equipment imported britain therefore stimulate machinery makers.although starting whole system politically expedient delayed completion forced even reliance temporary experts brought britain.financing also problem. |
History of France | solution narrow base funding rothschilds closed circles paris bourse france develop kind national stock exchange flourished london new york.system help modernize parts rural france reached help create local industrial centers.critics émile zola complained never overcame corruption political system rather contributed it.the railways probably helped industrial revolution france facilitating national market raw materials wines cheeses imported manufactured products.yet goals set french railway system moralistic political military rather economic.result freight trains shorter less heavily loaded rapidly industrializing nations britain belgium germany. |
History of France | infrastructure needs rural france better roads canals neglected expense railways seems likely net negative effects areas served trains.third republic belle epoque – third republic paris commune following defeat france francoprussian war – german chancellor otto von bismarck proposed harsh terms peace – including german occupation provinces alsace lorraine.new french national assembly elected consider german terms peace.elected february new national assembly composed deputies.sitting bordeaux french national assembly established third republic.however members new assembly monarchists. |
History of France | léon gambetta one nonmonarchist republicans elected new national assembly paris.february adolphe thiers elected chief executive new republic.revolutionary unrest paris centre thiers government located versailles.in late early workers paris rose premature unsuccessful smallscale uprisings.national guard within paris become increasingly restive defiant police army chief staff even national guard commanders.thiers immediately recognized revolutionary situation march sent regular army units take control artillery belonged national guard paris. |
History of France | soldiers regular army units fraternized rebels revolt escalated.the barricades went .paris commune born.hôtel de ville town hall became center attention people revolt time hôtel de ville became seat revolutionary government.cities france followed example paris commune lyon marseille toulouse.communes outside paris promptly crushed thiers government.an election march paris produced government based working class. |
History of France | louis auguste blanqui prison majority delegates followers called blanquists.minority comprised anarchists followers pierre joseph proudhon – anarchists proudhonists supporters limited government wanted revolution follow ad hoc course little planning.analysis arrests records indicate typical communard opposed military clerics rural aristocrats.saw bourgeoisie enemy.after two months french army moved retake paris pitched battles fought workingclass neighbourhoods.hundreds executed front communards wall thousands others marched versailles trials. |
History of France | number killed la semaine sanglante bloody week – may perhaps many later executed imprisoned exiled new caledonia thousands escaped exile.government approval actions national referendum favor opposed.political battles republican government next confront counterrevolutionaries rejected legacy revolution.legitimists embodied person henri count chambord grandson charles x orleanist royalists rejected republicanism saw extension modernity atheism breaking frances traditions.conflict became increasingly sharp thiers censured national assembly sufficiently conservative resigned make way marshal patrice macmahon new president. |
History of France | amidst rumors rightwing intrigue andor coups bonapartists bourbons national assembly set drawing new constitution would acceptable parties.the new constitution provided universal male suffrage called bicameral legislature consisting senate chamber deputies.initial republic effect led proroyalists republicans radicals bonapartists scrambled power.first election new constitution — held early — resulted republican victory republicans elected opposed monarchists.however monarchists elected new chamber deputies bonapartists.the possibility coup détat everpresent factor.léon gambetta chose moderate armand dufaure premier failed form government. |
History of France | macmahon next chose conservative jules simon.failed setting stage may crisis led resignation macmahon.restoration king seemed likely royalists agreed henri comte de chambord grandson charles x. insisted impossible demand ruined royalist cause.turn never came orleanist faction rallied republic behind adolphe thiers.new president republic jules grevy. |
History of France | january georges boulanger became minister war.georges clemanceau instrumental obtaining appointment boulanger.start boulanger era another time threats coup.the legitimist bourbon faction mostly left politics one segment founded laction française dreyfus affair became influential movement throughout particular among conservative catholic intellectuals.solidarism radical party liberalism individualistic laissezfaire britain united states france liberalism based instead solidaristic conception society following theme french revolution liberté égalité fraternité liberty equality fraternity.third republic especially solidarité solidarism guiding concept liberal social policy whose chief champions prime ministers leon bourgeois – pierre waldeckrousseau –the period saw power mostly hands moderate republicans radicals avoided state ownership industry middle class political base. |
History of France | main policies governmental intervention financed progressive income tax provide social safety net.opposed church schools.expanded educational opportunities promoted consumers producers cooperatives.terms foreign policy supported league nations compulsory arbitration controlled disarmament economic sanctions keep peace.the french welfare state expanded tried followed bismarcks policies starting relief poor.foreign policy french foreign policy showed dramatic transformation humiliated power friends much empire centerpiece european alliance system flourishing empire second size great britain. |
History of France | although religion hotly contested matter domestic politics catholic church made missionary work church building specialty colonies.frenchman ignored foreign policy issues low priority politics.french foreign policy based fear germany—whose larger size fastgrowing economy could matched—combined revanchism demanded return alsace lorraine.time midst scramble africa french british interest africa came conflict.dangerous episode fashoda incident french troops tried claim area southern sudan british force purporting acting interests khedive egypt arrived.heavy pressure french withdrew securing angloegyptian control area. |
History of France | status quo recognised agreement two states acknowledging british control egypt france became dominant power morocco france suffered humiliating defeat overall.the suez canal initially built french became joint britishfrench project saw vital maintaining influence empires asia.ongoing civil disturbances egypt prompted britain intervene extending hand france.frances leading expansionist jules ferry office government allowed britain take effective control egypt.france colonies asia looked alliances found japan possible ally.visit france iwakura tomomi asked french assistance reforming japan.french military missions sent japan – – last one much later – help modernize japanese army. |
History of France | conflicts chinese emperor french republic indochina climaxed sinofrench war –.admiral courbet destroyed chinese fleet anchored foochow.treaty ending war put france protectorate northern central vietnam divided tonkin annam.in effort isolate germany france went great pains woo russia great britain first means francorussian alliance entente cordiale great britain finally anglorussian entente became triple entente.alliance britain russia germany austria eventually led russia britain enter world war frances allies.dreyfus affair distrust germany faith army native french antisemitism combined make dreyfus affair unjust trial condemnation jewish military officer treason political scandal utmost gravity. |
History of France | decade nation divided dreyfusards antidreyfusards farright catholic agitators inflamed situation even proofs dreyfuss innocence came light.writer émile zola published impassioned editorial injustice jaccuse… condemned government libel.dreyfus finally pardoned .upshot weakening conservative element politics.moderates deeply divided dreyfus affair allowed radicals hold power world war i. period crises like threatened boulangist coup détat showed fragility republic. |
History of France | religion – throughout lifetime third republic battles status catholic church.french clergy bishops closely associated monarchists many hierarchy noble families.republicans based anticlerical middle class saw churchs alliance monarchists political threat republicanism threat modern spirit progress.republicans detested church political class affiliations church represented outmoded traditions superstition monarchism.republicans strengthened protestant jewish support. |
History of France | numerous laws passed weaken catholic church.priests excluded administrative committees hospitals boards charity.new measures directed religious congregations.came substitution lay women nuns many hospitals.napoleons concordat continued operation government cut salaries priests disliked.the school laws republican jules ferry set national system public schools taught strict puritanical morality religion. |
History of France | privately funded catholic schools tolerated.civil marriage became compulsory divorce introduced chaplains removed army.when leo xiii became pope tried calm churchstate relations.told french bishops act hostile manner state.issued encyclical advising french catholics rally republic defend church participating republican politics.attempt improving relationship failed.deeprooted suspicions remained sides inflamed dreyfus affair. |
History of France | catholics part antidreyfusard.assumptionists published antisemitic antirepublican articles journal la croix.infuriated republican politicians eager take revenge.often worked alliance masonic lodges.waldeckrousseau ministry – combes ministry – fought vatican appointment bishops. |
History of France | chaplains removed naval military hospitals – soldiers ordered frequent catholic clubs .combes prime minister determined thoroughly defeat catholicism.closed parochial schools france.parliament reject authorisation religious orders.meant fifty four orders dissolved members immediately left france many spain.in concordat abrogated church state separated. |
History of France | church property confiscated.public worship given associations catholic laymen controlled access churches.practice masses rituals continued.church badly hurt lost half priests.long run however gained autonomy—for state longer voice choosing bishops gallicanism dead. |
History of France | conservative catholics regained control parliament reversed penalties imposed church gave bishops back control church lands buildings.new pope eager assist changes diplomatic relations restored vatican.however longterm secularization french society continued people attended ceremonies major events birth marriage funerals.belle époque end th beginning th century belle époque peace prosperity cultural innovations monet bernhardt debussy popular amusements — cabaret cancan cinema new art forms impressionism art nouveau.in exposition universelle showed newly modernised paris world could look atop new eiffel tower.meant last decades tower never removed became frances iconic landmark.france nevertheless nation divided internally notions ideology religion class regionalisms money. |
History of France | international front france came repeatedly brink war imperial powers fashoda incident great britain east africa.colonial empire second colonial empire constituted overseas colonies protectorates mandate territories came french rule th century onward.distinction generally made first colonial empire existed time lost second colonial empire began conquest algiers .second colonial empire came end loss later wars vietnam algeria relatively peaceful decolonizations elsewhere .france lost wars britain stripped away nearly colonies .france rebuilt new empire mostly concentrating chiefly africa well indochina south pacific. |
History of France | republicans first hostile empire became supportive germany started build colonial empire.developed new empire took roles trade france especially supplying raw materials purchasing manufactured items well lending prestige motherland spreading french civilization language catholic religion.also provided manpower world wars.it became moral mission lift world french standards bringing christianity french culture.leading proponent colonialism jules ferry declared higher races right lower races duty civilize inferior races.full citizenship rights — assimilation — offered. |
History of France | reality french settlers given full rights natives given limited rights.apart algeria settlers permanently settled colonies.even algeria piednoir french settlers always remained small minority.at apex one largest empires history.including metropolitan france total amount land french sovereignty reached km sq mi population million people .world war ii free french used overseas colonies bases fought liberate france. |
History of France | effort restore worldpower status humiliation defeat occupation france eager maintain overseas empire end second world war.however anticolonial movements successfully challenged european authority.french constitution october fourth republic established french union endured .newer remnants colonial empire integrated france overseas departments territories within french republic.total pre colonial area . |
History of France | million people living .last vestiges empire held little interest french.… except traumatic decolonization algeria however remarkable longlasting effects france giving empire entailed.– population trends population held steady .million . |
History of France | million .sense population small especially regard rapid growth powerful germany common theme early twentieth century.natalist policies proposed implemented s.france experienced baby boom reversed longterm record low birth rates.addition steady immigration especially former french colonies north africa.population grew million million million . |
History of France | farming population declined sharply workforce .france second highest birthrate europe behind ireland.world war france expect war came august entire nation rallied enthusiastically two years.specialized sending infantry forward stopped german artillery trenches barbed wire machine guns horrific casualty rates.despite loss major industrial districts france produced enormous output munitions armed french american armies. |
History of France | infantry verge mutiny widespread sense american turn storm german lines.rallied defeated greatest german offensive came spring rolled collapsing invaders.november brought surge pride unity unrestrained demand revenge.preoccupied internal problems france paid little attention foreign policy – period although extend military service three years two strong socialist objections .rapidly escalating balkan crisis caught france unaware played small role coming world war i. serbian crisis triggered complex set military alliances european states causing continent including france drawn war within short weeks.austriahungary declared war serbia late july triggering russian mobilization. |
History of France | august germany france ordered mobilization.germany much better prepared militarily countries involved including france.german empire ally austria declared war russia.france allied russia ready commit war german empire.august germany declared war france sent armies neutral belgium. |
History of France | britain entered war august started sending troops august.italy although tied germany remained neutral joined allies .germanys schlieffen plan quickly defeat french.captured brussels belgium august soon captured large portion northern france.original plan continue southwest attack paris west.early september within kilometres mi paris french government relocated bordeaux. |
History of France | allies finally stopped advance northeast paris marne river – september .the war became stalemate – famous western front fought largely france characterized little movement despite extremely large violent battles often new destructive military technology.western front small improvised trenches first months rapidly grew deeper complex gradually becoming vast areas interlocking defensive works.land war quickly became dominated muddy bloody stalemate trench warfare form war opposing armies static lines defense.war movement quickly turned war position.neither side advanced much sides suffered hundreds thousands casualties. |
History of France | german allied armies produced essentially matched pair trench lines swiss border south north sea coast belgium.meanwhile large swaths northeastern france came brutal control german occupiers.trench warfare prevailed western front september march .famous battles france include battle verdun spanning months february december battle somme july november five separate conflicts called battle ypres .after socialist leader jean jaurès pacifist assassinated start war french socialist movement abandoned antimilitarist positions joined national war effort.prime minister rene viviani called unity—for union sacrée sacred unionwhich wartime truce right left factions fighting bitterly.france dissenters. |
History of France | however warweariness major factor even reaching army.soldiers reluctant attack mutiny factor soldiers said best wait arrival millions americans.soldiers protesting futility frontal assaults face german machine guns also degraded conditions front lines home especially infrequent leaves poor food use african asian colonials home front concerns welfare wives children.after defeating russia germany could concentrate western front planned allout assault spring rapidly growing american army played role.march germany launched offensive may reached marne close paris.however second battle marne july august allied line held. |
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