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History of Australia	defence expenditure increased £ million £.million accounted third commonwealth budget.economy population breaking federation drought heralded period strong economic growth.economy grew per cent fourteen years outbreak first world war pastoralism construction manufacturing government services leading way.rural industries still major employer accounting quarter jobs manufacturing fast catching up.
History of Australia	employment grew per cent period employment manufacturing increased almost per cent.the australian population also grew strongly driven fall infant mortality increasing adult life expectancy revival statesubsidised immigration.population increased four million five million .migrants arrived white almost britain.first world war australia war – united kingdom declared war germany august declaration automatically involved britains colonies dominions.outbreak war came middle federal election campaign labor leader andrew fisher promised defend britain last man last shilling.
History of Australia	major parties offered britain australian troops.defence act precluded sending conscripts overseas new volunteer force australian imperial force aif raised meet commitment.public enthusiasm war high initial quota aif quickly filled.troops left egypt november one escort ships hmas sydney sinking german cruiser emden along way.meanwhile september separate australian expeditionary force captured german new guinea.after arriving egypt aif incorporated australian new zealand army corps anzac british general william birdwood.anzacs formed part mediterranean expeditionary force task opening dardanelles allied battleships threatening constantinople capital ottoman empire entered war side central powers.the anzacs along french british indian troops landed gallipoli peninsula april .
History of Australia	australian new zealand position anzac cove vulnerable attack troops suffered heavy losses establishing narrow beachhead.become clear expeditionary force would unable achieve objectives face determined turkish resistance anzacs evacuated december followed british french early january.the australians suffered deaths campaign.australian war correspondents variously emphasised bravery fighting qualities australians errors british commanders.australian servicemen commemorating april date soon became australian national holiday known anzac day centring themes nationhood brotherhood sacrifice.in five infantry divisions aif sent western front.july fromelles diversionary attack battle somme aif suffered casualties hours costly single encounter australian military history.
History of Australia	elsewhere somme australians killed wounded seven weeks attacks german positions.spring germans retreated hindenburg line pursuing australian troops engaged first battle bullecourt second battle bullecourt suffering casualties.summer autumn australian troops also sustained heavy losses british offensive around ypres.overall almost australian troops killed .in november five australian divisions united australian corps may australian general john monash took command.australian corps heavily involved halting german spring offensive allied counteroffensive august year.
History of Australia	constituting one tenth british dominion soldiers western front australian corps responsible per cent territory reconquered prisoners captured field guns taken counter offensive.in middle east australian light horse brigades prominent halting ottoman german threat suez canal romani august .participated allied advance sinai palestine.included light horse mounted charge beersheba october helped win third battle gaza.pressed palestine syria advance led ottoman surrender october.by time war ended november australians served overseas.casualties included dead wounded—the highest casualty rate allied force.
History of Australia	australian troops also higher rates unauthorised absence crime imprisonment allied forces.home front australians publicly opposed war volunteers aif outstripped capacity enlist train them.also surge female participation voluntary organisations red cross patriotic groups one woman one recruit league.antigerman leagues formed germans enemy aliens sent internment camps war.in october fisher labor government introduced war precautions act gave power make regulations securing public safety defence commonwealth.billy hughes replaced fisher prime minister october regulations act increasingly used censor publications penalise public speech suppress organisations government considered detrimental war effort.business uncertainty enlistment young male workers disruption shipping export markets led decline economic output.
History of Australia	economy contracted per cent course hostilities.inflation rose first two years war real wages fell.soon becoming prime minister hughes abandoned promised referendum give commonwealth power control prices although government later used wartime powers regulate prices basic goods.lower wages perceptions profiteering businesses led wave strikes miners waterside workers shearers.enlistments also declined falling month peak month .hughes returned trip england western front july narrowly cabinet vote hold referendum conscription overseas service.
History of Australia	september new south wales labor party expelled hughes account issue.following narrow defeat october conscription referendum state branches labor party began expelling prominent proconscriptionists.november hughes supporters left parliamentary party january formed new nationalist government former opposition.nationalists comfortably may elections hughes continued prime minister.political industrial unrest intensified .august october major strike new south wales railway transport waterside coal workers defeated commonwealth new south wales governments arrested strike leaders organised special constables nonunion labour.
History of Australia	industrial workers world iww declared unlawful organisation members arrested.september protests womens peace army melbourne resulted extensive damage shops offices.following falls enlistments hughes announced second referendum conscription held december.referendum campaign proved divisive hughes denouncing opponents measure germans australia sinn féin iww.catholic archbishop melbourne daniel mannix labor premier queensland t. j. ryan prominent campaigners conscription.referendum defeated wider margin .
History of Australia	april recruiting conference including representatives commonwealth government state governments employers labour leaders also failed reach agreement measures increase troop numbers.enlistments lowest war leading disbandment battalions mutinies aif.paris peace conference hughes attended imperial war conference imperial war cabinet london june australia new zealand canada south africa british support separate representation eventual peace conference.paris peace conference hughes argued germany pay full cost war ultimately gained £ million war reparations australia.australia selfgoverning british dominions right become full members new league nations australia obtained special league nations mandate german new guinea allowing australia control trade immigration.
History of Australia	australia also gained per cent share formerly germanruled island nauru giving access rich superphosphate reserves.australia argued successfully japanese proposal racial equality clause league nations covenant hughes feared would jeopardise white australia policy.signatory treaty versailles full member league nations australia took important step towards international recognition sovereign nation.interwar years men money markets war prime minister billy hughes led new conservative force nationalist party formed old liberal party breakaway elements labor prominent deep bitter split conscription.estimated australians died result spanish flu pandemic almost certainly brought home returning soldiers.the success bolshevik revolution russia posed threat eyes many australians although small group socialists inspiration.
History of Australia	communist party australia formed though remaining electorally insignificant obtained influence trade union movement banned world war ii support molotovribbentrop pact menzies government unsuccessfully tried ban korean war.despite splits party remained active dissolution end cold war.the country party todays national party formed promulgate version agrarianism called countrymindedness.goal enhance status graziers operators big sheep ranches small farmers secure subsidies them.enduring longer major party save labor party generally operated coalition liberal party since becoming major party government australia—particularly queensland.other significant aftereffects war included ongoing industrial unrest included victorian police strike.industrial disputes characterised australia.
History of Australia	major strikes occurred waterfront coalmining timber industries late s. union movement established australian council trade unions actu response nationalist governments efforts change working conditions reduce power unions.the consumerism entertainment culture new technologies characterised united states also found australia.prohibition implemented australia though antialcohol forces successful hotels closed pm closed altogether city suburbs.the fledgling film industry declined decade despite million australians attending cinemas weekly venues.royal commission failed assist industry begun brightly release worlds first feature film story kelly gang atrophied revival s.stanley bruce became prime minister members nationalist party government voted remove w.m.hughes.speaking early bruce summed priorities optimism many australians saying men money markets accurately defined essential requirements australia seeking britain.
History of Australia	migration campaign operated development migration commission brought almost britons australia although schemes settle migrants returned soldiers land generally success.new irrigation areas western australia dawson valley queensland proved disastrousin australia costs major investment traditionally met state federal governments heavy borrowing overseas made governments s. loan council set coordinate loans threequarters came overseas.despite imperial preference balance trade successfully achieved britain.five years ..to.. australia bought .imports britain sold .
History of Australia	exports.wheat wool made twothirds australian exports dangerous reliance two export commodities.australia embraced new technologies transport communication.coastal sailing ships finally abandoned favour steam improvements rail motor transport heralded dramatic changes work leisure.cars lorries whole australia..
History of Australia	stage coach company cobb co established finally closed .queensland northern territory aerial service become australian airline qantas established.reverend john flynn founded royal flying doctor service worlds first air ambulance .daredevil pilot sir charles kingsford smith pushed new flying machines limit completing round australia circuit traversed pacific ocean via hawaii fiji us australia aircraft southern cross.went global fame series aviation records vanishing night flight singapore .
History of Australia	dominion status australia achieved independent sovereign nation status world war statute westminster.formalised balfour declaration report resulting imperial conference british empire leaders london defined dominions british empire following way autonomous communities within british empire equal status way subordinate one another aspect domestic external affairs though united common allegiance crown freely associated members british commonwealth nations.however australia ratify statute westminster .according historian frank crowley australians little interest redefining relationship britain crisis world war ii.the australia act removed remaining links british parliament australian states.from february june northern territory divided north australia central australia latitude °s.new south wales one territory surrendered namely jervis bay territory comprising hectares .
History of Australia	external territories added norfolk island ashmore island cartier islands australian antarctic territory transferred britain heard island mcdonald islands macquarie island transferred australia britain .the federal capital territory fct formed new south wales provide location proposed new federal capital canberra melbourne seat government .fct renamed australian capital territory act .northern territory transferred control south australian government commonwealth .great depression australia deeply affected great depression particularly due heavy dependence exports especially primary products wool wheat.exposed continuous borrowing fund capital works australian state governments already far secure economic indicators took turn worse.
History of Australia	australias dependence exports left extraordinarily vulnerable world market fluctuations according economic historian geoff spenceley.debt state new south wales accounted almost half australias accumulated debt december .situation caused alarm amongst politicians economists notably edward shann university western australia political union business leaders reluctant admit serious problems.australian finance magazine described loans occurring disconcerting frequency unrivalled british empire may loan pay maturing loans loan pay interest existing loans loan repay temporary loans bankers... thus well wall street crash australian economy already facing significant difficulties.economy slowed manufacturing country slipped recession profits slumped unemployment rose.at elections held october labor party swept power landslide victory stanley bruce former prime minister lost seat.
History of Australia	new prime minister james scullin largely inexperienced government almost immediately faced series crises.hamstrung lack control senate lack control banking system divisions within party best deal situation government forced accept solutions eventually split party .gravitated new south wales premier lang others prime minister scullin.various plans resolve crisis suggested sir otto niemeyer representative english banks visited mid proposed deflationary plan involving cuts government spending wages.treasurer ted theodore proposed mildly inflationary plan labor premier new south wales jack lang proposed radical plan repudiated overseas debt.premiers plan finally accepted federal state governments june followed deflationary model advocated niemeyer included reduction per cent government spending reduction bank interest rates increase taxation.
History of Australia	march lang announced interest due london would paid federal government stepped meet debt.may government savings bank new south wales forced close.melbourne premiers conference agreed cut wages pensions part severe deflationary policy lang renounced plan.grand opening sydney harbour bridge provided little respite growing crisis straining young federation.multimillionpound debts mounting public demonstrations move countermove lang scullin lyons federal governments governor new south wales philip game examining langs instruction pay money federal treasury.
History of Australia	game judged illegal.lang refused withdraw order may dismissed governor game.june elections lang labors seats collapsed.may seen creation new conservative political force united australia party formed breakaway members labor party combining nationalist party.federal elections december united australia party led former labor member joseph lyons easily office.remained power september .
History of Australia	lyons government often credited steering recovery depression although much owed policies remains contentious.stuart macintyre also points although australian gdp grew £.million £.million – real domestic product per head population still shillings greater – £.– £..australia recovered relatively quickly financial downturn – recovery beginning around .
History of Australia	prime minister joseph lyons favoured tough economic measures premiers plan pursued orthodox fiscal policy refused accept proposals premier new south wales jack lang default overseas debt repayments.according author anne henderson sydney institute lyons held steadfast belief need balance budgets lower costs business restore confidence lyons period gave australia stability eventual growth drama depression outbreak second world war.lowering wages enforced industry tariff protections maintained together cheaper raw materials saw shift agriculture manufacturing chief employer australian economy—a shift consolidated increased investment commonwealth government defence armaments manufacture.lyons saw restoration australias exports key economic recovery.the extent unemployment australia often cited peaking per cent debated.trade union figures often quoted people there...regard figures wildly understating extent unemployment wrote historian wendy lowenstein collection oral histories depression however david potts argued last thirty years ...historians period either uncritically accepted figure peak year including rounding third passionately argued third far low.
History of Australia	potts though suggested peak national figure per cent unemployed.measurement difficult part great variation geographically age gender level unemployment.statistics collected historian peter spearritt show .per cent men .per cent women unemployed comfortable sydney suburb woollahra.
History of Australia	say .per cent women working .per cent women interestedlooking work unable find much lower figure maybe first thought many women stayed home job force years especially unable find work.in working class suburb paddington .per cent men .per cent women listed unemployed.
History of Australia	geoffrey spenceley stated apart variation men women unemployment also much higher industries building construction industry comparatively low public administrative professional sectors.in country areas worst hit small farmers wheat belts far afield northeast victoria western australia saw income absorbed interest payments.extraordinary sporting successes something alleviate spirits australians economic downturn.sheffield shield cricket match sydney cricket ground bradman young new south welshman years age wrote name record books smashing previous highest batting score firstclass cricket runs minutes.rising stars world beating cricketing exploits provide australians much needed joy emerging great depression australia postworld war ii recovery.racehorse phar lap dominated australias racing industry one stage winning fourteen races row.famous victories included melbourne cup following assassination attempt carrying stone pounds weight.
History of Australia	phar lap sailed united states going win north americas richest race agua caliente handicap .soon cusp us success phar lap developed suspicious symptoms died.theories swirled champion race horse poisoned devoted australian public went shock.british empire games held sydney – february timed coincide sydneys sesquicentenary years since foundation british settlement australia.indigenous policy following federation aboriginal affairs state responsibility although commonwealth became responsible aboriginal population northern territory .
History of Australia	date commonwealth states except tasmania passed legislation establishing protectors aborigines protection boards extensive powers regulate lives aboriginal australians including ownership property place residence employment sexual relationships custody children.reserves established ostensibly protection aboriginal population dispossessed land.church groups also ran missions throughout australia providing shelter food religious instruction elementary schooling indigenous people.some officials concerned growing number aboriginal children mixed heritage particularly northern australia large indigenous south sea islander asian populations seen inconsistent white australia policy.laws concerning aboriginal australians progressively tightened make easier officials remove aboriginal children mixed descent parents place reserves missions institutions employment white employers.the segregation aboriginal people reserves institutions never systematically accomplished due funding constraints differing policy priorities states territories resistance aboriginal people.densely settled areas australia per cent aboriginal people lived reserves s. majority lived camps fringes country towns small percentage lived cities.
History of Australia	great depression aboriginal people moved reserves missions food shelter.almost half aboriginal population new south wales lived reserves.in northern australia majority employed aboriginal people worked pastoral industry lived camps often extended families.many also camped margins towns reserves could avoid controls imposed administrators reserves compounds missions.the native welfare conference state commonwealth officials endorsed policy biological absorption mixeddescent aboriginal australians white community.the destiny natives aboriginal origin full blood lies ultimate absorption people commonwealth therefore recommends efforts directed end.the officials saw policy aboriginal assimilation absorption white community progressive aimed eventually achieving civil economic equality mixeddescent aboriginal people.... efforts state authorities directed towards education children mixed aboriginal blood white standards subsequent employment conditions whites view taking place white community equal footing whites.the following decades saw increase number aboriginal australians mixed descent removed families although states territories progressively adopted policy cultural rather biological assimilation justified removals grounds child welfare.new south wales became first state introduce child welfare model whereby aboriginal children mixed descent removed families general welfare provisions court order.jurisdictions introduced welfare model war.
History of Australia	second world war defence policy late defence significant issue australians.elections political parties advocated increased defence spending context increased japanese aggression china germanys aggression europe however difference opinion defence spending allocated.united australia party government emphasised cooperation britain policy imperial defence.lynchpin british naval base singapore royal navy battle fleet hoped would use time need.defence spending interwar years reflected priority.
History of Australia	period – totalled £ million royal australian navy £ million australian army £ million royal australian air force established youngest three services.navy included two heavy cruisers four light cruisers service best equipped war.fearing japanese intentions pacific menzies established independent embassies tokyo washington receive independent advice developments.gavin long argues labor opposition urged greater national selfreliance buildup manufacturing emphasis army raaf chief general staff john lavarack also advocated.november labor leader john curtin said dependence australia upon competence let alone readiness british statesmen send forces aid dangerous hazard upon found australias defence policy.according john robertson british leaders also realised country could fight japan germany time.
History of Australia	never discussed candidly at...meetings australian british defence planners imperial conference.by september australian army numbered regulars.recruiting campaign late led majorgeneral thomas blamey increased reserve militia almost .first division raised war designated th division nd aif militia divisions paper st aif first world war.war september prime minister robert menzies made national radio broadcast fellow australians.melancholy duty inform officially consequence persistence germany invasion poland great britain declared war upon result australia also war.thus began australias involvement sixyear global conflict.
History of Australia	australians fight extraordinary variety locations including withstanding advance german panzers siege tobruk turning back advance imperial japanese army new guinea campaign undertaking bomber missions europe engaging naval battles mediterranean.home japanese attacks included minisubmarine raids sydney harbour heavy air raids near northern territorys capital darwin.the recruitment volunteer military force service home abroad announced nd australian imperial force citizen militia organised local defence.troubled britains failure increase defences singapore menzies cautious committing troops europe.end june france norway denmark low countries fallen nazi germany.britain stood alone dominions.
History of Australia	menzies called allout war increasing federal powers introducing conscription.menzies minority government came rely two independents election.in january menzies flew britain discuss weakness singapores defences.arriving london blitz menzies invited winston churchills british war cabinet duration visit.returning australia threat japan imminent australian army suffering badly greek crete campaigns menzies reapproached labor party form war cabinet.unable secure support unworkable parliamentary majority menzies resigned prime minister.
History of Australia	coalition held office another month independents switched allegiance john curtin sworn prime minister.eight weeks later japan attacked pearl harbor.from australian forces played prominent roles fighting mediterranean theatre including operation compass siege tobruk greek campaign battle crete syria–lebanon campaign second battle el alamein.a garrison around australian soldiers commanded lieutenant general leslie morshead besieged tobruk libya germanitalian army general erwin rommel april august .nazi propagandist lord haw haw derided defenders rats term soldiers adopted ironic compliment rats tobruk.vital defence egypt suez canal siege saw advance german army halted first time provided morale boost british commonwealth standing alone hitler.the war came closer home hmas sydney lost hands battle german raider kormoran november .with australias best forces committed fight hitler middle east japan attacked pearl harbor us naval base hawaii december eastern australia time.british battleship hms prince wales battlecruiser hms repulse sent defend singapore sunk soon afterwards.
History of Australia	australia illprepared attack lacking armaments modern fighter aircraft heavy bombers aircraft carriers.demanding reinforcements churchill december curtin published historic announcement australian government... regards pacific struggle primarily one united states australia must fullest say direction democracies fighting plan.without inhibitions kind make clear australia looks america free pangs traditional links kinship united kingdom.british malaya quickly collapsed shocking australian nation.british indian australian troops made disorganised last stand singapore surrendering february .around australian soldiers became prisoners war.
History of Australia	curtin predicted battle australia would follow.february darwin suffered devastating air raid first time australian mainland ever attacked enemy forces.following months australia attacked air almost times.two battlehardened australian divisions already steaming middle east singapore.churchill wanted diverted burma curtin refused anxiously awaited return australia.us president franklin d. roosevelt ordered commander philippines general douglas macarthur formulate pacific defence plan australia march .
History of Australia	curtin agreed place australian forces command general macarthur became supreme commander south west pacific.curtin thus presided fundamental shift australias foreign policy.macarthur moved headquarters melbourne march american troops began massing australia.late may japanese midget submarines sank accommodation vessel daring raid sydney harbour.june two japanese submarines briefly shelled sydneys eastern suburbs city newcastle.in effort isolate australia japanese planned seaborne invasion port moresby australian territory new guinea.
History of Australia	may us navy engaged japanese battle coral sea halted attack.battle midway june effectively defeated japanese navy japanese army launched land assault moresby north.july november australian forces repulsed japanese attempts city way kokoda track highlands new guinea.battle milne bay august first allied defeat japanese land forces.meanwhile north africa axis powers driven allies back egypt.turning point came july november australias th division played crucial role heaviest fighting first second battle el alamein turned north africa campaign favour allies.the battle buna–gona november january set tone bitter final stages new guinea campaign persisted .
History of Australia	offensives papua new guinea – single largest series connected operations ever mounted australian armed forces.may australian hospital ship centaur though clearly marked medical vessel sunk japanese raiders queensland coast killing including one nursing staff enraging popular opinion japan.australian prisoners war time suffering severe illtreatment pacific theatre.australian pows died constructing japans burmathailand railway japanese inflicted sandakan death march australian british prisoners war—only survived.single worst war crime perpetrated australians war.macarthur largely excluded australian forces main push north philippines japan.left australia lead amphibious assaults japanese bases borneo.
History of Australia	curtin suffered ill health strains office died weeks war ended replaced ben chifley.of australias wartime population seven million almost one million men women served branch services six years warfare.wars end gross enlistments totalled men women australian army served overseas raaf ran.killed died prisoners war died prisoners japanese.australian home front australian civilian population suffered less hands axis powers allied nations asia europe australia nevertheless came direct attack japanese naval forces aerial bombardments particularly resulting hundreds fatalities fuelling fear japanese invasion.axis naval activity australian waters also brought war close home australians.
History of Australia	austerity measures rationing labour controls measures implemented assist war effort.australian civilians dug air raid shelters trained civil defence first aid australian ports cities equipped anti aircraft sea defences.the australian economy markedly affected world war ii.expenditure war reached per cent gdp – compared per cent expenditure –.total war expenditure £ million .although peak army enlistments occurred june–july enlisted curtin labor government formed october largely responsible complete revision whole australian economic domestic industrial life.rationing fuel clothing food introduced although less severely britain christmas holidays curtailed brown outs introduced public transport reduced.
History of Australia	december government evacuated women children darwin northern australia refugees arrived south east asia japan advanced.january manpower directorate set ensure organisation australians best possible way meet defence requirements.minister war organisation industry john dedman introduced degree austerity government control previously unknown extent nicknamed man killed father christmas.in may uniform tax laws introduced australia ending state governments control income taxation.significance decision greater other... made throughout war added extensive powers federal government greatly reduced financial autonomy states.manufacturing grew significantly war.three australian firms producing machine tools one hundred so.
History of Australia	front line aircraft raaf become fourth largest allied air force .number aircraft built licence australia wars end notably beaufort beaufighter although majority aircraft britain later us.boomerang fighter designed built four months emphasised desperate state australia found japanese advanced.australia also created virtually nothing significant female workforce engaged direct war production.number women working factories rose .dame enid lyons widow former prime minister joseph lyons became first woman elected house representatives joining robert menzies new centreright liberal party australia formed .
History of Australia	election dorothy tangney became first woman elected senate.postwar boom menzies liberal dominance – politically robert menzies liberal party australia dominated much immediate post war era defeating labor government ben chifley part labor proposal nationalise banks following crippling coal strike led australian communist party.menzies became countrys longestserving prime minister liberal party coalition rural based country party every federal election .as united states early allegations communist influence society saw tensions emerge politics.refugees soviet dominated eastern europe immigrated australia australias north mao zedongs communist party china chinese civil war june communist north korea invaded south korea.menzies government responded united states led united nations security council request military aid south korea diverted forces occupied japan begin australias involvement korean war.
History of Australia	fighting bitter standstill un north korea signed ceasefire agreement july .australian forces participated major battles kapyong maryang san.australians served casualties amounted killed.during course korean war liberal government attempted ban communist party australia first legislation later referendum .attempts unsuccessful international events defection minor soviet embassy official vladimir petrov added sense impending threat politically favoured menzies liberalcp government labor party split concerns influence communist party trade union movement.tensions led another bitter split emergence breakaway democratic labor party dlp.
History of Australia	dlp remained influential political force often holding balance power senate .preferences supported liberal country party.labor party led h.v.evatt chifleys death .evatt served president united nations general assembly – helped draft united nations universal declaration human rights .
History of Australia	evatt retired amid signs mental illhealth arthur calwell succeeded leader young gough whitlam deputy.menzies presided period sustained economic boom beginnings sweeping social change included youth culture rock roll music late arrival television broadcasting.australian country music singer slim dusty would become musical embodiment rural australia australias first international music chart hit bush ballad pub beer rock roller johnny okeefes wild one became first local recording reach national charts peaking no..australian cinema produced little content british hollywood studios produced string successful epics australian literature featuring home grown stars chips rafferty peter finch.menzies remained staunch supporter links monarchy commonwealth nations formalised alliance united states also launched postwar trade japan beginning growth australian exports coal iron ore mineral resources would steadily climb japan became australias largest trading partner.when menzies retired replaced liberal leader prime minister harold holt.holt drowned swimming surf beach december replaced john gorton – william mcmahon –.
History of Australia	postwar immigration following world war ii chifley labor government instigated massive programme european immigration.minister immigration arthur calwell wrote experience pacific war taught us one thing surely seven million australians cannot hold three million square miles earths surface indefinitely.political parties shared view country must populate perish.calwell stated preference ten british immigrants one countries however numbers british migrants fell short expected despite government assistance.migration brought large numbers southern central europeans australia first time.government leaflet assured readers unskilled nonbritish migrants needed labour rugged projects ... work generally acceptable australians british workers.
History of Australia	australian economy stood sharp contrast warravaged europe newly arrived migrants found employment booming manufacturing industry government assisted programmes snowy mountains scheme.hydroelectricity irrigation complex southeast australia consisted sixteen major dams seven power stations constructed .remains largest engineering project undertaken australia.necessitating employment people countries many denoted birth multicultural australia.some .million immigrants arrived per cent came britain ireland.
History of Australia	novel theyre weird mob popular account italian migrating australia although written australianborn author john ogrady.australian population reached million –with sydney populous city.in may menzies government passed migration act replaced immigration restriction acts arbitrarily applied dictation test entry permit system reflected economic skills criteria.changes effectively ended white australia policy.legally ended .economic growth suburban living australia enjoyed significant growth prosperity increases living standards leisure time.
History of Australia	manufacturing industry previously playing minor part economy dominated primary production greatly expanded.first holden motor car came general motorsholdens fishermans bend factory november .car ownership rapidly increased—from owners every owners every .early four competitors holden set australian factories employing workers least fourfifths migrants.in per cent australian manufacturing protected tariffs.pressure business interests union movement ensured remained high.
History of Australia	historian geoffrey bolton suggests high tariff protection caused industries lapse lethargy neglecting research development search new markets.csiro expected fulfil research development.prices wool wheat remained high wool mainstay australias exports.sheep numbers grew million million .wool production increased tonnes period.wheat wool minerals ensured healthy balance trade .the great housing boom post war period saw rapid growth suburbs major australian cities.
History of Australia	census per cent lived rural australia per cent per cent lived farms.virtual full employment meant high standards living dramatic increases home ownership sixties australia equitable spread income world.beginning sixties australiawide mcnair survey estimated homes fridge telephone television washing machine vacuum cleaner.addition households acquired car.according one study one car every australians one .. vast majority families access car.car ownership flourished postwar period census data estimating .
History of Australia	per cent australian households early seventies owned least one car however felt rapid suburban growth desirable.distinguished architect designer robin boyd critic australias built surroundings described australia constant sponge lying pacific following fashions overseas lacking confidence homeproduced original ideas.dadaist comedian barry humphries performed character edna everage parody houseproud housewife staid melbourne suburbia character later morphed critique selfobsessed celebrity culture.first many satirical stage screen creations based around quirky australian characters sandy stone morose elderly suburbanite barry mckenzie naive australian expat london sir les patterson vulgar parody whitlamera politician.some writers defended suburban life.journalist craig macgregor saw suburban life ...solution needs migrants... hugh stretton argued plenty dreary lives indeed lived suburbs... might well worse surroundings.
History of Australia	historian peter cuffley recalled life child new outer suburb melbourne kind joyous excitement.imaginations saved us finding life humdrum wild freedom able roam far wide different kinds neighbouring bushland...children suburbs found space backyards streets lanes playgrounds reserves...in menzies government formally announced introduction new twotiered tv system—a governmentfunded service run abc two commercial services sydney melbourne summer olympics melbourne major driving force behind introduction television australia.colour tv began broadcasting .indigenous assimilation child removal native welfare conference state commonwealth officials agreed policy cultural assimilation aboriginal australians.paul hasluck commonwealth minister territories stated assimilation means practical terms course time expected persons aboriginal blood mixed blood australia live like white australians do.controls daily lives aboriginal people removal aboriginal children mixed descent continued policy assimilation although control largely exercised welfare boards removals justified welfare grounds.
History of Australia	number aboriginal people deemed wards state northern territory welfare laws doubled .the policy assimilation attracted increasing criticism aboriginal people supporters grounds negative effects aboriginal families denial aboriginal cultural autonomy.removals aboriginal children mixed descent families slowed late commonwealth adopted policy selfdetermination indigenous australians.in human rights equal opportunity commission estimated per cent onethird aboriginal children removed families .regional studies indicate per cent aboriginal children removed new south wales figure victoria per cent.robert manne estimates figure australia whole closer per cent.summarising policy assimilation forced removals aboriginal children mixed descent richard broome concludes even though childrens material conditions western education may improved removal even though removals necessary even though people thankful retrospect overall disaster....it rupturing tens thousands aboriginal families aimed eradicating aboriginality nation cause homogeneity fear difference.alliances – early menzies government saw australia part triple alliance concert us traditional ally britain.
History of Australia	first australian leadership opted consistently probritish line diplomacy time looking opportunities involve us south east asia.thus government committed military forces korean war malayan emergency hosted british nuclear tests .australia also commonwealth country offer support british suez crisis.menzies oversaw effusive welcome queen elizabeth ii first visit australia reigning monarch .made following remarks lighthearted speech american audience new york way attend coronation australia course british may say boot heels...but stand together – people stand together – till crack doom.as british influence declined south east asia us alliance came greater significance australian leaders australian economy.british investment australia remained significant late trade britain declined s. late australian army began reequip using us military equipment.
History of Australia	us established naval communications station north west cape first several built next decade.significantly australian army advisors sent help train south vietnamese forces developing conflict british part.according diplomat alan renouf dominant theme australias foreign policy australias liberal–country party governments anticommunism.another former diplomat gregory clark suggested specifically fear china drove australian foreign policy decisions twenty years.anzus security treaty signed origins australias new zealands fears rearmed japan.obligations us australia new zealand vague influence australian foreign policy thinking times significant.
History of Australia	seato treaty signed three years later clearly demonstrated australias position us ally emerging cold war.as britain struggled enter common market australia saw historic ties mother country rapidly fraying.canberra alarmed kept low profile wanting alienate london.russel ward states implications british entry europe seemed shattering australians particularly older people conservatives.carl bridge however points australia hedging british bets time.anzus treaty australias decision enter vietnam war involve britain japan australias leading export partner us largest source imports.
History of Australia	according bridge australias decision follow britains devaluation currency marked demise british australia.vietnam war australia increased size australian army training team vietnam aattv april government made sudden announcement close consultation united states battalion troops sent south vietnam.parliament menzies emphasised argument alliances made demands us.alliance involved presumably southeast asia treaty organization seato australia providing military assistance south vietnam signatory seato apparently requested it.documents released indicated decision commit troops made australia us request south vietnam.
History of Australia	three australian army battalions one time st australian task force atf base nui dat addition advisers aattv placed throughout vietnam personnel reached peak total almost comprising one third armys combat capacity.almost personnel served vietnam including ground troops naval forces air assets.in july new prime minister harold holt expressed governments support us role vietnam particular.dont know people would choose look security country friendship strength united states.visit year us holt assured president lyndon b. johnson ...i hope corner mind heart takes cheer fact admiring friend staunch friend australia way lbj.the liberalcp government returned massive majority elections held december fought national security issues including vietnam.opposition labor party advocated withdrawal conscripts vietnam deputy leader gough whitlam stated labor government might maintain regular army troops there.
History of Australia	arthur calwell leader labor party since retired favour whitlam months later.despite holts sentiments governments electoral success war became unpopular australia united states.movements end australias involvement gathered strength tet offensive early compulsory national service selected ballot became increasingly unpopular.elections government hung despite significant decline popularity.moratorium marches held across australia mid attracted large crowds melbourne march led labor mp jim cairns.nixon administration proceeded vietnamization war began withdrawal troops australian government.
History of Australia	november st australian task force reduced two battalions november atf withdrawn vietnam.last military advisors aattv withdrawn whitlam labor government middecember .the australian military presence vietnam lasted years purely human cost killed wounded.war cost australia million .reform reaction whitlam government elected december years opposition labor office gough whitlam introducing significant reforms exanding federal budget.welfare benefits extended payment rates increased national health insurance scheme introduced divorce laws liberalised.
History of Australia	commonwealth expenditure schools trebled two years mid commonwealth assumed responsibility funding higher education abolishing tuition fees.foreign affairs new government prioritised asia pacific region formally abolishing white australia policy recognising communist china enhancing ties indonesia.conscription abolished remaining australian troops vietnam withdrawn.australian national anthem changed god save queen advance australia fair imperial honours system replaced commonwealth level order australia queen elizabeth ii officially styled queen australia.relations us however became strained government members criticised resumption us bombing campaign north vietnam.in indigenous affairs government introduced policy selfdetermination aboriginal people economic social political affairs.
History of Australia	federal expenditure aboriginal services increased million million three years government.one first acts whitlam government establish royal commission land rights northern territory justice woodward.legislation based findings passed law fraser government aboriginal land rights act .as whitlam government control senate much legislation rejected amended.labor reelected reduced majority elections may senate remained obstacle political agenda.governments popularity also harmed deteriorating economic conditions series political scandals.
History of Australia	increased government spending rapid wage growth booming commodity prices first opec oil shock led economic instability.unemployment rate reached postwar high .per cent late annual inflation rate hit per cent.in – government began negotiations us billion foreign loans fund state development australias mineral energy resources.minister rex connor conducted secret discussions loan broker pakistan treasurer jim cairns misled parliament issue.arguing government incompetent following loans affair opposition liberalcountry party coalition delayed passage governments money bills senate government would promise new election.
History of Australia	whitlam refused deadlock ended government controversially dismissed governorgeneral john kerr november .opposition leader malcolm fraser installed caretaker prime minister pending election.fraser government federal elections december resulted landslide victory liberalcountry party coalition malcolm fraser continued prime minister.coalition government subsequent elections making fraser second longest serving australian prime minister time.fraser government espoused policy administrative competence economic austerity leavened progressive humanitarian social environmental interventions.
History of Australia	government enacted whitlam governments land rights bill changes increased immigration resettled indochinese refugees.promoted multiculturalism established special broadcasting service sbs multicultural broadcaster.foreign policy government continued labors friendly relations china indonesia repaired frayed relationship us opposed white minority rule south africa rhodesia.government also attempted use influence us china limit soviet expansionism.environmental policies included banning resource development fraser island great barrier reef creating kakadu national park banning whaling.
History of Australia	however government refused use commonwealth powers stop construction franklin dam tasmania resulting grassroots campaign dam contributed emergence influential environmental movement australiaon economic front fraser government followed fight inflation first strategy centred budget cuts wage restraint.welfare benefits restricted universal healthcare system partially dismantled university funding per student cut.however early economic conditions deteriorating.second oil shock increased inflation exacerbated boom commodity prices sharp increase real wages.international recession collapse resources boom severe drought eastern australia saw unemployment rise.
History of Australia	government responded keynesian deficit spending budget unemployment annual inflation exceeded per cent.federal elections march coalition government comfortably defeated labor popular new leader bob hawke.labor government – hawke government pursued mixture free market reforms consensus politics featuring summits government representatives business leaders trade unions nongovernment organisations order reach consensus key issues economic policy tax reform.centrepiece policy mix accord trade unions wage demands would curtailed return increased social benefits.welfare payments increased better targeted low incomes retirement benefits scheme superannuation extended employees.
History of Australia	new universal health insurance scheme medicare introduced.treasurer paul keating oversaw program deregulation microeconomic reforms broke keynesian economics traditionally favoured labor party.reforms included floating australian dollar deregulating capital markets allowing competition foreign banks.business regulation competition policy streamlined tariffs quotas australian manufactured goods rural commodities gradually reduced number government enterprises services progressively privatised.higher education system restructured significantly expanded partly funded reintroduction fees form student loans contributions hecs.
History of Australia	paul kelly concludes labor nonlabor underwent internal philosophical revolutions support new set ideas—faith markets deregulation reduced role government low protection creation new cooperative enterprise culture.the hawke government courted growing environmental movement series actions including using federal powers stop franklin dam development tasmania banning new uranium mines jabiluka proposing kakadu national park world heritage listing.foreign policy hawke government maintained strong relations us instrumental formation asia pacific economic cooperation apec group.australia contributed naval ships troops un forces gulf war iraq invaded kuwait .the government complemented consensus politics initiatives aimed fostering national unity.australia act eliminated last vestiges british legal authority federal level.australian bicentenary focus yearlong celebrations multicultural themes.
History of Australia	world expo held brisbane new parliament house canberra opened.strong economic growth falling unemployment unstable opposition bob hawkes popularity public contributed reelection hawke government .however economy went recession late unemployment rate risen per cent.governments popularity falling paul keating successfully challenged leadership became prime minister december .the keating governments first priority economic recovery.february released one nation job creation package later legislated tax cuts corporations individuals boost economic growth.unemployment reached .
History of Australia	per cent —the highest since great depression australia.liberalnational opposition proposed ambitious plan economic reform take election including introduction goods services tax.keating campaigned strongly tax returned office march .in may ambitious working nation jobs program introduced.keating government also pursued number big picture issues throughout two terms including increased political economic engagement asia pacific region indigenous reconciliation australian republic efficiency equity.government engaged closely indonesian president suharto regional partners successfully campaigned increase role apec major forum strategic economic cooperation.
History of Australia	council aboriginal reconciliation established following high court australias historic mabo decision first national native title legislation introduced regulate claims provide compensation loss native title.keating established republic advisory committee examine options australia becoming republic.government also introduced family payments superannuation guarantee compulsory employer contributions.under hawke government annual migration intake doubled – –.keating government responded community concerns pace immigration cutting immigration intake introducing mandatory detention illegal immigrants arriving without valid visa.immigration fell –.with foreign debt inflation unemployment still stubbornly high series ministerial resignations keating lost march election liberals john howard.
History of Australia	australia globalised world present howard government – john howard liberal–national party coalition served prime minister winning reelection become secondlongest serving prime minister menzies.one first programs instigated howard government nationwide gun control scheme following mass shooting port arthur.new government saw industrial relations taxation two key areas economic reform left undone hawkekeating governments.coalition introduced industrial relations reforms promoted individual contracts enterprise bargaining.controversially introduced workchoices legislation made easier small businesses terminate employment.
History of Australia	election howard treasurer peter costello proposed goods services tax gst successfully took electorate implemented july .a political concern new government significant public support pauline hanson later one nation party espoused populist policies including winding back free market reforms asian immigration programs indigenous australians.government responded public messaging criticising elites political correctness emphasising australian values.coalition initially cut immigration intakes abolished office multicultural affairs multicultural agencies introduced citizenship tests migrants.following sharp increase unauthorised arrivals boat government opened new mandatory detention centres remote areas australia issued temporary visas found refugees.following children overboard affair tampa affair government introduced pacific solution involved detaining unauthorised immigrants detention centres nauru papua new guinea refugee status determined well policy turning back vessels intercepted sea.in indigenous affairs prime minister rejected calls treaty indigenous australians apology past actions harmed them.
History of Australia	instead government pursued policy practical reconciliation involving specific measures improve indigenous education health employment housing.response high courts decision wik peoples v queensland howard government amended native title legislation limit native title claims.following release little children sacred report detailing widespread abuse aboriginal communities howard government launched northern territory intervention order create safe environment indigenous children.governments response criticised cochairs report received divided response indigenous community supported labor opposition.honouring commitment made election campaign howard government set peoples convention australian republic.resulting referendum republic failed.
History of Australia	howard avowed monarchist became australian prime minister publicly oppose constitutional amendment put people.in australia led united nations force east timor help establish democracy independence nation following political violence.period australia committed number peacekeeping stabilisation operations notably bougainville including operation bel isi – well operation helpem fren australianled regional assistance mission solomon islands ramsi early east timorese crisis.following september terrorist attacks us subsequent war terror australia committed troops afghanistan war iraq war.events along bali bombings terrorist incidents led creation national security committee antiterrorist legislation.in foreign affairs government advocated policy asia first asia emphasising traditional links commonwealth us.relations indonesia became strained east timor generally improved bali bombings.
History of Australia	australias support us policy war terror followed australiaunited states free trade agreement .trade agreements singapore thailand also secured relations china improved.australia joined us refusing ratify kyoto protocol greenhouse gas emissions arguing would harm australias economy would ineffective without participation china india.after initial cuts immigration intake increased – – bias towards skilled workers meet needs rapidly growing economy.immigration intake also became increasingly diverse proportion immigrants south asia increasing per cent – per cent –.inbound tourism also grew helped sydney olympic games .the economy continued uninterrupted expansion since early recession record jobs growth lowest unemployment rates since s. exports imports grew value third australias economic output early per cent .
History of Australia	china became australias second largest trading partner japan foreign investment australia doubled.coalition delivered budget surpluses years along proceeds government asset sales notably telstra partly invested future fund reduce national debt.income inequality private debt increased economy expanded biggest increase incomes accruing top per cent income earners.by howard government consistently trailing labor opposition opinion polls key issues rising interest rates unpopular work choices industrial relations reforms climate change policy.government also hampered leadership tensions howard costello opinion polls indicating desire generational change leadership opposition leader kevin rudd eighteen years younger howard widely seen vibrant.labor november election swing per cent howard became second sitting prime minister lose seat election.
History of Australia	labor government – kevin rudd became prime minister december held office june replaced leader julia gillard australias first female prime minister.following august federal election gillard formed minority labor government support australian greens three independents.gillard replaced prime minister rudd june labor lost subsequent september election.the first rudd government moved quickly ratify kyoto protocols dismantle previous governments work choices industrial relations reforms issue apology aboriginal australians past policies particularly removal aboriginal children families.government soon confronted global financial crisis subsequent global recession responding series economic stimulus measures worth billion.although economic growth slowed australia one advanced economies world avoid recession.rudd declared climate change great moral challenge generation government proposed emissions trading scheme ets address issue.
History of Australia	necessary legislation however twice rejected senate opposition greens refused support it.december un climate change conference copenhagen failed produce agreed international response global warming government decided postpone ets decision saw labor lose electoral support greens.government also lost public support proposed resources super profits tax following release henry tax review may .resulting media campaign tax mining industry particularly affected labors support resourcerich states queensland western australia.illegal immigration policy proved another difficult issue government initially closed nauru processing centre abolished temporary protection visas took measures improve legal rights processing time applicants asylum.however unauthorised arrivals boat increased sharply number mandatory detention stretched capacity.
History of Australia	new leader opposition tony abbot promised coalition government would stop boats.in june government behind opposition polls rudds popularity rating falling labor caucus replaced rudd gillard leader.new leader able negotiate concessions new mining tax large mining companies failed reach agreement east timor proposed migration processing centre there.following september election gillard government passed series legislation support greens held balance power senate.included enabling legislation national broadband network carbon pricing scheme mining tax national disability insurance scheme school funding reforms.illegal immigration policy however remained politically sensitive issue.government negotiated agreement malaysia process people plan gain support opposition greens struck high court.
History of Australia	number unauthorised immigrants arriving boat continued climb government reopened offshore processing centres manus island nauru.in indigenous affairs government introduced modified policy northern territory stronger futures northern territory year funding agreement.new policy retained many features northern territory intervention broader scope involved collaboration indigenous stakeholders.following mounting leadership speculation poor polling government rudd defeated gillard leadership ballot june returned prime minister promising replace carbon tax emissions trading scheme ensure people arriving without authority boat would settled australia.opposition promising stop boats abolish carbon tax mining tax reduce budget deficit government debt september election.liberalnational coalition government –present return liberalnational coalition power six years opposition initially failed restore stability office prime minister.prime minister tony abbotts rival malcolm turnbull challenged leadership liberals within abbotts first term.
History of Australia	turnbull narrowly returned coalition office party dissatisfaction leadership saw replaced scott morrison .abbott government prime minister tony abbotts liberalnational coalition government began implementing policies unauthorised maritime arrivals including operation sovereign borders boat turnbacks reintroduction temporary protection visas resettlement third countries found refugees.new policy strained relations indonesia number people arriving boat fell none .government continued australias economic engagement asia signing trade agreements china south korea japan.government also embraced intervention islamic state iraq syria joining air campaign sending special forces providing training iraqi army.the government made cuts indigenous programs brought indigenous affairs portfolio cabinet established indigenous advisory council.the governments may budget included measures deregulation university fees welfare cuts projected cuts funding states health education proved unpopular perception involved breaking number election promises.
History of Australia	government secured passage legislation abolishing carbon tax july mining tax september .the prime minister announced number decisions notably reintroduction knighthoods knighthood prince philip duke edinburgh approved cabinet widely criticised media.september government lost newspolls row malcolm turnbull successfully challenged leadership.turnbull government new turnbull government promised promote smart agile innovative australia jobs growth.government announced national innovation science agenda delivered budget featuring cuts company tax.however elections july saw government returned majority one minority senate making difficult secure passage government legislation.following national postal plebiscite government legalised samesex marriage december .in foreign affairs australia signed refugee exchange deal us september allowing detention manus island nauru settled us.
History of Australia	increased tension china australias criticism chinas policies south china sea australias new laws targeting foreign influence domestic politics ban national security grounds chinese companies supplying australias g communications network.trade china however continued grow.in united states japan india australia agreed revive quadrilateral security dialogue order counter chinese ambitions south china sea.australia signed modified transpacific partnership trade agreement nations march us withdrew original agreement.the government lost five byelections july .august government sought introduce legislation national energy guarantee including commitment meet australias emissions target paris agreement number coalition members vowed vote bill.resulting controversy harmed government already lost consecutive newspolls.
History of Australia	parliamentary liberal party elected scott morrison new leader sworn prime minister.morrison government presentthe morrison government committed remaining paris agreement promised greater focus reduction energy prices.foreign affairs government signed indonesia–australia comprehensive economic partnership agreement iacepa march .april treasurer delivered budget focusing tax cuts increased spending roads infrastructure forecast return surplus.government returned elections may threeseat majority.in constitutional convention aboriginal torres strait islander delegates issued uluru statement heart calling recognition indigenous sovereignty makarrata truth telling agreementmaking commission constitutional recognition indigenous australians voice parliament.government announced process develop options model ensure aboriginal torres strait islander people heard levels government.within year government confronted international covid pandemic subsequent recession australias first years.
History of Australia	february australia progressively closed borders foreign nationals recently visited highrisk countries culminating march general ban entry foreign nationals.march national cabinet including australian government state government territory government leaders created address crisis.national cabinet announced series increasingly tighter restrictions nonessential business travel gatherings people aim suppressing covid.restrictions progressively eased early may although individual states territories intermittently reimposed restrictions response particular outbreaks covid.the australian government made provision billion economic stimulus measures .billion health measures response covid.
History of Australia	result covid recession unemployment rate rose per cent february .per cent july .economy began recover second half unemployment rate fell .per cent march hours worked returned prerecession levels.april australia ranked countries number covid deaths per capita.in june australia united kingdom announced struck preliminary deal freetrade agreement.on september government announced australia united kingdom united states agreed creation enhanced trilateral security partnership dubbed aukus.
History of Australia	first initiative aukus would australia acquire nuclearpowered submarine technology.result agreement australia cancelled contract dieselelectric attackclass submarine french company naval group.china condemned aukus agreement stating seriously undermines regional peace stability intensifies arms race.france announced would withdraw ambassador australia protest lack consultation security agreement cancellation billion dollar contract french submarines.society culture present social developments indigenous australians aboriginal affairs still regulated state governments northern territory australian government.
History of Australia	states aboriginal australians banned drinking alcohol freedom association movement control property restricted.queensland western australia northern territory banned aboriginal people voting queensland western australia controlled right marry.aboriginals often subjected unofficial colour bars restricting access many goods services public facilities especially country towns.the official policy australian government state governments however assimilation aboriginal people mainstream culture aborigines partaborigines expected eventually attain manner living australians live members single australian community enjoying rights privileges accepting responsibilities observing customs influenced beliefs hopes loyalties australians.the key decade indigenous rights demand change led indigenous activists organisations federal council advancement aborigines torres strait islanders.menzies governments commonwealth electoral act gave indigenous people right vote federal elections.queensland became last state confer state voting rights aboriginal people.in yolngu people arnhem land sent bark petition australian parliament asking recognition traditional land rights.
History of Australia	subsequently took case supreme court northern territory ruled september .in charles perkins helped organise freedom rides parts australia expose discrimination inequality.gurindji people wave hill station commenced gurindji strike quest equal pay recognition land rights.in australian government gave aboriginal people rights social security benefits australians.a referendum called holt government saw australians vote per cent majority change australian constitution include aboriginal australians national census allow federal parliament legislate behalf.council aboriginal affairs established.demands indigenous selfdetermination preservation cultural identity increasingly promoted.january aboriginal activists erected aboriginal tent embassy lawns parliament house canberra issued number demands including land rights compensation past loss land selfdetermination.leader opposition gough whitlam among visited tent embassy discuss demands.the whitlam government came power december policy selfdetermination aboriginal people.
History of Australia	government also passed legislation racial discrimination established royal commission land rights northern territory formed basis fraser governments aboriginal land rights act .the land rights act applied northern territory aboriginal communities could also acquire land various state land rights acts legislation.early aboriginal communities gained title per cent northern territory land per cent south australian land.queensland government granted aboriginal reserve land occupiers grants gave limited rights revocable time.small proportion land states transferred traditional owners.hawke government handed uluru ayers rock traditional owners lease back commonwealth.
History of Australia	west australian government granted aboriginal reserve land amounting per cent states land traditional owners year year leases.key issues indigenous communities recognised land rights included security title protection culturally significant sites right veto adequately compensated mining development land.compensation previous dispossession land unresolved issue.in high court australia handed decision mabo case holding indigenous native title survived reception english law continued exist unless extinguished conflicting law interests land.keating government passed native title act regulate native title claims established native title tribunal hear claims.subsequent wik decision high court found pastoral lease necessarily extinguish native title.
History of Australia	response howard government amended native title act provide better protection pastoralists others interest land.march native titles tribunal determined indigenous communities established native title per cent australian continent one third exclusive title.from indigenous population grew faster australian population whole increasingly lived urban areas.aboriginal population per cent total population per cent living capital cities compared per cent population whole.indigenous population per cent population third living major cities compared twothirds people indigenous.growth due higher indigenous birth rate people indigenous descent also willing identify indigenous.

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