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History of Poland	waves displacement emigration took place war removed poland majority jews survived.significant jewish emigration followed events polish october political thaw polish political crisis.in – polish citizens deported soviet regime.number polish citizens died hands soviets estimated less .in – ukrainian nationalists associated organization ukrainian nationalists oun ukrainian insurgent army perpetrated massacres poles volhynia eastern galicia.estimates number polish civilian victims vary greatly tens hundreds thousands.approximately polands war casualties victims prisons death camps raids executions annihilation ghettos epidemics starvation excessive work ill treatment.war left one million children orphaned persons disabled.
History of Poland	country lost national assets whereas britain lost .france .. nearly half prewar poland expropriated soviet union including two great cultural centers lwów wilno.the policies nazi germany judged war international military tribunal nuremberg trials polish genocide trials aimed extermination jews poles roma characteristics genocide biological meaning term.changing boundaries population transfers terms potsdam agreement signed three victorious great powers soviet union retained territories captured result molotov–ribbentrop pact including western ukraine western belarus gained others.lithuania königsberg area east prussia officially incorporated soviet union case former without recognition western powers.poland compensated bulk silesia including breslau wrocław grünberg zielona góra bulk pomerania including stettin szczecin greater southern portion former east prussia along danzig gdańsk pending final peace conference germany eventually never took place.collectively referred polish authorities recovered territories included reconstituted polish state.
History of Poland	germanys defeat poland thus shifted west relation prewar location area oder–neisse curzon lines resulted country compact much broader access sea.poles lost prewar oil capacity soviets gained germans highly developed industrial base infrastructure made diversified industrial economy possible first time polish history.the flight expulsion germans eastern germany prior war began soviet conquest regions nazis process continued years immediately war.germans evacuated expelled migrated .early expulsions poland undertaken polish communist authorities even potsdam conference wild expulsions june mid july polish military militia expelled nearly people districts immediately east oder–neisse line ensure establishment ethnically homogeneous poland.german civilian population east oder–neisse line perished fighting prior surrender may afterwards germans poland employed forced labor prior expelled.many germans died labor camps zgoda labour camp potulice camp.
History of Poland	germans remained within new borders poland many later chose emigrate postwar germany.on hand .– million ethnic poles moved expelled previously polish areas annexed soviet union.vast majority resettled former german territories.least one million poles remained become soviet union least half million ended west elsewhere outside poland.however contrary official declaration former german inhabitants recovered territories removed quickly house poles displaced soviet annexation recovered territories initially faced severe population shortage.many exiled poles could return country fought belonged political groups incompatible new communist regimes originated areas prewar eastern poland incorporated soviet union see polish population transfers –.deterred returning simply strength warnings anyone served military units west would endangered.
History of Poland	many poles pursued arrested tortured imprisoned soviet authorities belonging home army formations see anticommunist resistance poland – persecuted fought western front.territories sides new polishukrainian border also ethnically cleansed.ukrainians lemkos living poland within new borders close forcibly moved soviet ukraine new territories northern western poland operation vistula.volhynia polish prewar population either killed expelled eastern galicia polish population reduced .according timothy d. snyder poles ukrainians killed ethnic violence occurred war.according estimate historian jan grabowski polish jews escaped nazis liquidation ghettos survived without leaving poland remainder perished.repatriated soviet union elsewhere february population census showed jews within polands new borders.
History of Poland	surviving jews many chose emigrate felt compelled antijewish violence poland.because changing borders mass movements people various nationalities emerging communist poland ended mainly homogeneous ethnically polish population .according december census.remaining members ethnic minorities encouraged authorities neighbors emphasize ethnic identities.polish peoples republic – postwar struggle power response february yalta conference directives polish provisional government national unity formed june soviet auspices soon recognized united states many countries.soviet domination apparent beginning prominent leaders polish underground state brought trial moscow trial sixteen june .
History of Poland	immediate postwar years emerging communist rule challenged opposition groups including militarily socalled cursed soldiers thousands perished armed confrontations pursued ministry public security executed.guerillas often pinned hopes expectations imminent outbreak world war iii defeat soviet union.polish rightwing insurgency faded amnesty february .the polish peoples referendum june arranged communist polish workers party legitimize dominance polish politics claim widespread support partys policies.although yalta agreement called free elections polish legislative election january controlled communists.democratic prowestern elements led stanisław mikołajczyk former prime ministerinexile participated provisional government elections ultimately eliminated electoral fraud intimidation violence.
History of Poland	times severe political confrontation radical economic change members mikołajczyks agrarian movement polish peoples party attempted preserve existing aspects mixed economy protect property rights.however elections government national unity ceased exist communists moved towards abolishing postwar partially pluralistic peoples democracy replacing state socialist system.communistdominated front democratic bloc elections turned front national unity became officially source governmental authority.polish governmentinexile lacking international recognition remained continuous existence .stalinism – polish peoples republic polska rzeczpospolita ludowa established rule communist polish united workers party pzpr.
History of Poland	name change polish republic officially adopted however proclamation constitution polish peoples republic .the ruling pzpr formed forced amalgamation december communist polish workers party ppr historically noncommunist polish socialist party pps.ppr chief wartime leader władysław gomułka declared polish road socialism intended curb rather eradicate capitalist elements.overruled removed imprisoned stalinist authorities.pps reestablished left wing since allied communists.ruling communists postwar poland preferred use term socialism instead communism identify ideological basis needed include socialist junior partner broaden appeal claim greater legitimacy eliminate competition political left.
History of Poland	socialists losing organization subjected political pressure ideological cleansing purges order become suitable unification terms ppr.leading procommunist leaders socialists prime ministers edward osóbkamorawski józef cyrankiewicz.during oppressive phase stalinist period – terror justified poland necessary eliminate reactionary subversion.many thousands perceived opponents regime arbitrarily tried large numbers executed.peoples republic led discredited soviet operatives bolesław bierut jakub berman konstantin rokossovsky.independent catholic church poland subjected property confiscations curtailments pressured signing accord government.
History of Poland	later despite partial thaw death stalin year persecution church intensified head cardinal stefan wyszyński detained.key event persecution polish church stalinist show trial kraków curia january .in warsaw pact formed polish army second largest soviet army.economic social developments early communist era large agricultural holdings former german property poland started redistributed land reform industry started nationalized.communist restructuring imposition workspace rules encountered active worker opposition already years –.moderate threeyear plan – continued rebuilding socialization socialist restructuring economy.
History of Poland	followed sixyear plan – heavy industry.rejection marshall plan made aspirations catching west european standards living unrealistic.the governments highest economic priority development heavy industry useful military.staterun controlled institutions common socialist countries eastern europe imposed poland including collective farms worker cooperatives.latter dismantled late socialist enough although later reestablished even smallscale private enterprises eradicated.stalinism introduced heavy political ideological propaganda indoctrination social life culture education.great strides made however areas employment became nearly full universal public education nearly eradicated adult illiteracy health care recreational amenities.
History of Poland	many historic sites including central districts warsaw gdańsk devastated war rebuilt great cost.the communist industrialization program led increased urbanization educational career opportunities intended beneficiaries social transformation along lines peasantsworkersworking intelligentsia paradigm.significant improvement accomplished lives polish peasants many able leave impoverished overcrowded village communities better conditions urban centers.stayed behind took advantage implementation land reform decree polish committee national liberation terminated antiquated widespread parafeudal socioeconomic relations poland.stalinist attempts establishing collective farms generally failed.due urbanization national percentage rural population decreased communist poland .
History of Poland	majority polands residents cities towns still live apartment blocks built communist era part accommodate migrants rural areas.thaw gomułkas polish october – march th congress communist party soviet union moscow ushered destalinization edward ochab chosen replace deceased bolesław bierut first secretary polish united workers party.result poland rapidly overtaken social restlessness reformist undertakings thousands political prisoners released many people previously persecuted officially rehabilitated.worker riots poznań june violently suppressed gave rise formation reformist current within communist party.amidst continuing social national upheaval shakeup took place party leadership part known polish october .retaining traditional communist economic social aims regime led władysław gomułka new first secretary pzpr liberalized internal life poland.
History of Poland	dependence soviet union somewhat mollified states relationships church catholic lay activists put new footing.repatriation agreement soviet union allowed repatriation hundreds thousands poles still soviet hands including many former political prisoners.collectivization efforts abandoned—agricultural land unlike comecon countries remained part private ownership farming families.statemandated provisions agricultural products fixed artificially low prices reduced eliminated.the legislative election followed several years political stability accompanied economic stagnation curtailment reforms reformists.one last initiatives brief reform era nuclear weapons–free zone central europe proposed adam rapacki polands foreign minister.culture polish peoples republic varying degrees linked intelligentsias opposition authoritarian system developed sophisticated level gomułka successors.
History of Poland	creative process often compromised state censorship significant works created fields literature theater cinema music among others.journalism veiled understanding varieties native western popular culture well represented.uncensored information works generated émigré circles conveyed variety channels.parisbased kultura magazine developed conceptual framework dealing issues borders neighbors future free poland ordinary poles radio free europe foremost importance.stagnation crackdown – one confirmations end era greater tolerance expulsion communist party several prominent marxist revisionists s.in conference polish bishops issued letter reconciliation polish bishops german bishops gesture intended heal bad mutual feelings left world war ii.
History of Poland	celebrations th anniversary christianization poland led cardinal stefan wyszyński bishops turned huge demonstration power popularity catholic church poland.the post liberalizing trend decline number years reversed march student demonstrations suppressed polish political crisis.motivated part prague spring movement polish opposition leaders intellectuals academics students used historicalpatriotic dziady theater spectacle series warsaw termination forced authorities springboard protests soon spread centers higher education turned nationwide.authorities responded major crackdown opposition activity including firing faculty dismissal students universities institutions learning.center controversy also small number catholic deputies sejm znak association members attempted defend students.in official speech gomułka drew attention role jewish activists events taking place.provided ammunition nationalistic antisemitic communist party faction headed mieczysław moczar opposed gomułkas leadership.
History of Poland	using context military victory israel sixday war polish communist leadership waged antisemitic campaign remnants jewish community poland.targets campaign accused disloyalty active sympathy israeli aggression.branded zionists scapegoated blamed unrest march eventually led emigration much polands remaining jewish population polish citizens left country.with active support gomułka regime polish peoples army took part infamous warsaw pact invasion czechoslovakia august brezhnev doctrine informally announced.in final major achievement gomułka diplomacy governments poland west germany signed december treaty warsaw normalized relations made possible meaningful cooperation number areas bilateral interest.particular west germany recognized postworld war ii de facto border poland east germany.worker revolts reforms gierek polish pope solidarity – price increases essential consumer goods triggered polish protests .
History of Poland	december disturbances strikes baltic sea port cities gdańsk gdynia szczecin reflected deep dissatisfaction living working conditions country.activity centered industrial shipyard areas three coastal cities.dozens protesting workers bystanders killed police military actions generally authority gomułka minister defense wojciech jaruzelski.aftermath edward gierek replaced gomułka first secretary communist party.new regime seen modern friendly pragmatic first enjoyed degree popular foreign support.to revitalize economy gierek regime introduced wideranging reforms involved largescale foreign borrowing.
History of Poland	actions initially caused improved conditions consumers years strategy backfired economy deteriorated.another attempt raise food prices resulted june protests.workers defence committee kor established response crackdown followed consisted dissident intellectuals determined support industrial workers farmers students persecuted authorities.opposition circles active late emboldened helsinki conference processes.in october archbishop kraków cardinal karol józef wojtyła became pope john paul ii head catholic church.catholics others rejoiced elevation pole papacy greeted june visit poland outpouring emotion.fueled large infusions western credit polands economic growth rate one worlds highest first half much borrowed capital misspent centrally planned economy unable use new resources effectively.
History of Poland	oil crisis caused recession high interest rates west polish government respond sharp domestic consumer price increases.growing debt burden became insupportable late negative economic growth set .around july polish foreign debt standing billion government made yet another attempt increase meat prices.workers responded escalating work stoppages culminated general strikes lublin.midaugust labor protests gdańsk shipyard gave rise chain reaction strikes virtually paralyzed baltic coast end month first time closed coal mines silesia.interenterprise strike committee coordinated strike action across hundreds workplaces formulated demands basis negotiations authorities.
History of Poland	strike committee sovereign decisionmaking aided team expert advisers included wellknown dissidents jacek kuroń karol modzelewski bronisław geremek tadeusz mazowiecki.on august representatives workers gdańsk shipyard led electrician activist lech wałęsa signed gdańsk agreement government ended strike.similar agreements concluded szczecin szczecin agreement silesia.key provision agreements guarantee workers right form independent trade unions right strike.following successful resolution largest labor confrontation communist polands history nationwide union organizing movements swept country.edward gierek blamed soviets following fraternal advice shoring communist party official trade unions allowing antisocialist forces emerge.september gierek replaced stanisław kania first secretary pzpr.delegates emergent worker committees poland gathered gdańsk september decided form single national union organization named solidarity.while party–controlled courts took contentious issues solidaritys legal registration trade union finalized november planning already begun imposition martial law.
History of Poland	parallel farmers union organized strongly opposed regime rural solidarity eventually registered may .meantime rapid deterioration authority communist party disintegration state power escalation demands threats various solidarity–affiliated groups occurring.according kuroń tremendous social democratization movement spheres taking place could contained.wałęsa meetings kania brought resolution impasse.following warsaw pact summit moscow soviet union proceeded massive military buildup along polands border december summit kania forcefully argued leonid brezhnev allied communists leaders feasibility external military intervention action taken.united states presidents jimmy carter ronald reagan repeatedly warned soviets consequences direct intervention discouraging open insurrection poland signaling polish opposition would rescue nato forces.in february defense minister general wojciech jaruzelski assumed position prime minister.
History of Poland	solidarity social revolt thus far free major use force march bydgoszcz three activists beaten secret police.nationwide warning strike .millionstrong solidarity union supported population large general strike called wałęsa march settlement government.solidarity communist party badly split soviets losing patience.kania reelected party congress july collapse economy continued general disorder.at first solidarity national congress september–october gdańsk lech wałęsa elected national chairman union vote.appeal issued workers east european countries urging follow footsteps solidarity.
History of Poland	soviets gathering antisocialist antisoviet orgy polish communist leaders increasingly led jaruzelski general czesław kiszczak ready apply force.in october jaruzelski named first secretary pzpr.plenums vote kept government posts.jaruzelski asked parliament ban strikes allow exercise extraordinary powers neither request granted decided proceed plans anyway.martial law jaruzelskis rule end communism – – december regime declared martial law poland army zomo special police forces used crush solidarity.soviet leaders insisted jaruzelski pacifies opposition forces disposal without soviet involvement.
History of Poland	almost solidarity leaders many affiliated intellectuals arrested detained.nine workers killed pacification wujek.united states western countries responded imposing economic sanctions poland soviet union.unrest country subdued continued.during martial law poland ruled socalled military council national salvation.open semiopen opposition communications recently practiced replaced underground publishing known eastern bloc samizdat solidarity reduced thousand underground activists.having achieved semblance stability polish regime relaxed rescinded martial law several stages.
History of Poland	december martial law suspended small number political prisoners including wałęsa released.although martial law formally ended july partial amnesty enacted several hundred political prisoners remained jail.jerzy popiełuszko popular prosolidarity priest abducted murdered security functionaries october .further developments poland occurred concurrently influenced reformist leadership mikhail gorbachev soviet union processes known glasnost perestroika.september general amnesty declared government released nearly political prisoners.however country lacked basic stability regimes efforts organize society top failed oppositions attempts creating alternate society also unsuccessful.
History of Poland	economic crisis unresolved societal institutions dysfunctional ruling establishment opposition began looking ways stalemate.facilitated indispensable mediation catholic church exploratory contacts established.student protests resumed february .continuing economic decline led strikes across country april may august.soviet union increasingly destabilized unwilling apply military pressure prop allied regimes trouble.polish government felt compelled negotiate opposition september preliminary talks solidarity leaders ensued magdalenka.
History of Poland	numerous meetings took place involved wałęsa general kiszczak among others.november regime made major public relations mistake allowing televised debate wałęsa alfred miodowicz chief allpoland alliance trade unions official trade union organization.fitful bargaining intraparty squabbling led official round table negotiations followed polish legislative election june year watershed event marking fall communism poland.third polish republic –today systemic transition polish round table agreement april called local selfgovernment policies job guarantees legalization independent trade unions many wideranging reforms.current sejm promptly implemented deal agreed national assembly elections set june june.
History of Poland	seats sejm national legislatures lower house senate seats freely contested remaining sejm seats guaranteed communists allies.the failure communists polls almost contested seats opposition resulted political crisis.new april novelization constitution called reestablishment polish presidency july national assembly elected communist leader general wojciech jaruzelski office.election seen time politically necessary barely accomplished tacit support solidarity deputies new presidents position strong.moreover unexpected definitiveness parliamentary election results created new political dynamics attempts communists form government failed.on august president jaruzelski asked journalist solidarity activist tadeusz mazowiecki form government september sejm voted approval prime minister mazowiecki cabinet.mazowiecki decided leave economic reform entirely hands economic liberals led new deputy prime minister leszek balcerowicz proceeded design implementation shock therapy policy.
History of Poland	first time postwar history poland government led noncommunists setting precedent soon followed eastern bloc nations phenomenon known revolutions .mazowieckis acceptance thick line formula meant would witchhunt i.e.absence revenge seeking exclusion politics regard former communist officials.in part attempted indexation wages inflation reached end soon dealt means radical methods.december sejm approved balcerowicz plan transform polish economy rapidly centrally planned one free market economy.constitution polish peoples republic amended eliminate references leading role communist party country renamed republic poland.
History of Poland	communist polish united workers party dissolved january .place new party social democracy republic poland created.territorial selfgovernment abolished legislated back march led locally elected officials fundamental unit administratively independent gmina.in october constitution amended curtail term president jaruzelski.november german–polish border treaty unified germany signed.in november lech wałęsa elected president fiveyear term december became first popularly elected president poland.polands first free parliamentary election held october .
History of Poland	parties entered new sejm largest representation received total vote.democratic constitution nato european union memberships several postsolidarity governments election election postcommunist leftwing parties took over.formerly soviet northern group forces vestige past domination left poland.in aleksander kwaśniewski social democratic party elected president remained capacity next ten years two terms.in new constitution poland finalized approved referendum replaced small constitution amended version communist constitution.poland joined nato .elements polish armed forces since participated iraq war afghanistan war.poland joined european union part enlargement .
History of Poland	however poland adopted euro currency legal tender instead uses polish złoty.in april polish president lech kaczynski dozens countrys top political military leaders died smolensk air disaster.after election conservative law justice party polish government repeatedly clashed eu institutions issue judicial reform accused european commission european parliament undermining european values eroding democratic standards.however polish government headed law justice party maintained reforms necessary due prevalence corruption within polish judiciary continued presence holdover communist era judges.in october polands governing law justice party pis parliamentary election keeping majority lower house.second centrist civic coalition ko.government prime minister mateusz morawiecki continued.however pis leader jaroslaw kaczynski considered powerful political figure poland although member government.
Foreign relations of Russia	july president andrzej duda supported pis reelected.see also notes references citations works cited bibliography recent general history poland books englishpublished poland external links movie onlineanimated history poland parp expo shanghai chinaborders poland a.d. –otherlooking polands history prism arthistory poland paintingshistory poland historycy.org forumhistory poland primary documentscommonwealth diverse cultures polands heritagepoland christianity new schaffherzog encyclopedia religious knowledge vol pp.– maps poland westslavs –poland –poland –poland –poland –poland –poland –poland –poland –poland polandarticle covers foreign policy russian federation since dissolution soviet union late .kremlins foreign policy debates show conflict three rival schools atlanticists seeking closer relationship united states western world general imperialists seeking recovery semihegemonic status lost previous decade neoslavophiles promoting isolation russia within cultural sphere.atlanticism dominant ideology first years new russian federation andrei kozyrev came attack failure defend russian preeminence former ussr.promotion yevgeny primakov minister foreign affairs marked beginning nationalistic approach foreign policy.– vladimir putins presidency lasted january may present.
Foreign relations of Russia	international affairs putin made increasingly critical public statements regarding foreign policy united states western countries.putin russia engaged several notable conflicts including neighbors ukraine georgia forcing relinquish territory.relations united states particular sharply deteriorated .history foreign policies following dissolution soviet union russian foreign policy seen born conflict three rival schools atlanticists seeking closer relationship united states western world general imperialists seeking recovery semihegemonic status lost previous decade neoslavophiles promoting isolation russia within cultural sphere.atlanticism dominant ideology first years new russian federation andrei kozyrev came attack failure defend russian preeminence former ussr.
Foreign relations of Russia	promotion yevgeny primakov minister foreign affairs mark beginning nationalistic approach foreign policy.– vladimir putins presidency lasted january may .international affairs putin made increasingly critical public statements regarding foreign policy united states western countries.february annual munich conference security policy criticised called united states monopolistic dominance global relations pointed united states displayed almost uncontained hyper use force international relations.said result one feels safe one feel international law like stone wall protect them.
Foreign relations of Russia	course policy stimulates arms race..putin proposed certain initiatives establishing international centres enrichment uranium prevention deploying weapons outer space.january interview putin said russia favour democratic multipolar world strengthening system international law.while putin often characterised autocrat western media politicians relationship former u.s. president george w. bush former brazilian president luis inacio lula da silva former venezuelan president hugo chávez former german chancellor gerhard schröder former french president jacques chirac former italian prime minister silvio berlusconi reported personally friendly.putins relationship germanys new chancellor angela merkel reported cooler businesslike partnership gerhard schröder accepted job russianled consortium vacating office.in wake september attacks united states agreed establishment coalition military bases central asia usled invasion afghanistan.russian nationalists objected establishment us military presence territory former soviet union expected putin keep us central asian republics least extract commitment washington withdraw bases soon immediate military necessity passed.during iraq disarmament crisis – putin opposed washingtons move invade iraq without benefit united nations security council resolution explicitly authorizing use military force.official end war announced american president george w. bush asked united nations lift sanctions iraq.
Foreign relations of Russia	putin supported lifting sanctions due course arguing un commission first given chance complete work search weapons mass destruction iraq.in putin former german chancellor gerhard schröder negotiated construction major gas pipeline baltic exclusively russia germany.schröder also attended putins rd birthday saint petersburg year.the commonwealth independent states cis seen moscow traditional sphere influence became one foreign policy priorities putin eu nato grown encompass much central europe recently baltic states.during ukrainian presidential election putin twice visited ukraine election show support ukrainian prime minister viktor yanukovych widely seen prokremlin candidate congratulated anticipated victory official election returns in.putins personal support yanukovych criticized unwarranted interference affairs sovereign state see also orange revolution.crises also developed russias relations georgia moldova former soviet republics accusing moscow supporting separatist entities territories.russias relations baltic states also remain tense.russoestonian relations deteriorated result bronze soldier controversy.putin took active personal part promoting act canonical communion moscow patriarchate signed may restored relations moscowbased russian orthodox church russian orthodox church outside russia year schism.in annual address federal assembly april putin announced plans declare moratorium observance treaty conventional armed forces europe russia nato members ratified started observing provisions russia unilateral basis.putin argues new nato members even signed treaty far imbalance presence nato russian armed forces europe creates real threat unpredictable situation russia.
Foreign relations of Russia	nato members said would refuse ratify treaty russia complied commitments made istanbul whereby russia remove troops military equipment moldova georgia.russian foreign minister sergey lavrov quoted saying response russia long since fulfilled istanbul obligations relevant cfe.russia suspended participation cfe midnight moscow time december .december united states officially said deeply regretted russian federations decision suspend implementation obligations treaty conventional armed forces europe cfe.state department spokesman sean mccormack written statement added russias conventional forces largest european continent unilateral action damages successful arms control regime.natos primary concern arising russias suspension moscow could accelerate military presence northern caucasus.the months following putins munich speech marked tension surge rhetoric sides atlantic.
Foreign relations of Russia	vladimir putin said anniversary victory day threats becoming fewer transforming changing appearance.new threats third reich show contempt human life aspiration establish exclusive dictate world.interpreted russian western commentators comparing u.s. nazi germany.on eve rd summit g heiligendamm american journalist anne applebaum married polish politician wrote whether waging cyberwarfare estonia threatening gas supplies lithuania boycotting georgian wine polish meat putin past years made clear intends reassert russian influence former communist states europe whether states want russian influence not.time also made clear longer sees western nations mere benign trading partners rather cold warstyle threats.british academic norman stone article wonder like putin compared putin general charles de gaulle.adi ignatius argues putin... stalin.
Foreign relations of Russia	mass purges russia today broad climate terror.putin reconstituting strong state anyone stands way pay it.russian american officials always denied idea new cold war.us secretary defense robert gates said yet munich conference face many common problems challenges must addressed partnership countries including russia.... one cold war quite enough.vladimir putin said prior rd g summit june want confrontation want engage dialogue.
Foreign relations of Russia	however want dialogue acknowledges equality parties’ interests.putin publicly opposed u.s. missile shield europe presented president george w. bush counterproposal june sharing use sovietera radar system azerbaijan rather building new system poland czech republic.putin expressed readiness modernize gabala radar station operation since .putin proposed would necessary place interceptor missiles poland interceptors could placed nato member turkey iraq.putin suggested also equal involvement interested european countries project.in june interview journalists g countries answering question whether russian nuclear forces may focused european targets case united states continues building strategic shield poland czech republic putin admitted part united states’ nuclear capability situated europe military experts consider represent potential threat take appropriate retaliatory steps.steps course must new targets europe.the end brought strained relations russia britain wake death former fsb officer london poisoning.
Foreign relations of Russia	july uk prime minister gordon brown expelled four russian envoys putins refusal extradite exkgb agent andrei lugovoi wanted uk murder fellow former spy alexander litvinenko london.russian constitution prohibits extradition russian nationals third countries.british foreign secretary david miliband said situation unique countries amended constitutions example give effect european arrest warrant.milibands statement widely publicized russian media british proposal change russian constitution.according vciom russians changing constitution respect.british ambassador moscow tony brenton said uk asking russia break constitution rather interpret way would make lugovois extradition possible.
Foreign relations of Russia	putin response advised british officials fix heads rather propose changing russian constitution said british proposals relic colonialera mindset.when litvinenko dying radiation poisoning allegedly accused putin directing assassination statement released shortly death friend alex goldfarb.critics doubted litvinenko true author released statement.asked litvinenko accusations putin said statement released posthumously author naturally deserves comment.the expulsions seen biggest rift since countries expelled others diplomats spying dispute.response situation putin stated think overcome minicrisis.russianbritish relations develop normally.
Foreign relations of Russia	russian side british side interested development relations.despite british ambassador tony brenton told russian foreign ministry uk diplomats would given days expelled response.russian government also announced would suspend issuing visas uk officials froze cooperation counterterrorism response britain suspending contacts federal security service.alexander shokhin president russian union industrialists entrepreneurs warned british investors russia face greater scrutiny tax regulatory authorities.could also lose government tenders.see crisis originating britains decision grant putins former patron russian billionaire boris berezovsky political asylum .
Foreign relations of Russia	earlier berezovsky called overthrow putin.on december russia ordered british council halt work regional offices seen latest round dispute murder alexander litvinenko britain said russias move illegal.following peace mission military exercises jointly conducted shanghai cooperation organisation sco member states putin announced august resumption permanent basis longdistance patrol flights russias strategic bombers suspended .us state department spokesman sean mccormack quoted saying response russia feels though want take old aircraft mothballs get flying thats decision.announcement made sco summit light joint russianchinese military exercises firstever history held russian territory makes believe putin inclined set antinato bloc asian version opec.when presented suggestion western observers already likening sco military organisation would stand opposition nato putin answered kind comparison inappropriate form substance.russian chief general staff yury baluyevsky quoted saying talk creating military political alliance union kind would contradict founding principles sco.the resumption longdistance flights russias strategic bombers followed announcement russian defense minister anatoliy serdyukov meeting putin december ships including aircraft carrier kuznetsov would take part first major navy sortie mediterranean since soviet times.sortie backed aircraft including strategic bombers.
Foreign relations of Russia	according serdyukov effort resume regular russian naval patrols worlds oceans view also supported russian media.military analyst novaya gazeta pavel felgenhauer believes accidentprone kuznetsov scarcely seaworthy menace crew putative enemy.in september putin visited indonesia became first russian leader visit country years.month putin also attended apec meeting held sydney australia met australian prime minister john howard signed uranium trade deal.first visit russian president australia.on october putin visited tehran iran participate second caspian summit met iranian leader mahmoud ahmadinejad.participants leaders azerbaijan kazakhstan turkmenistan.
Foreign relations of Russia	first visit leader kremlin iran since joseph stalins participation tehran conference .press conference summit putin said caspian states right develop peaceful nuclear programmes without restrictions.summit also agreed participants circumstances would let thirdparty state use territory base aggression military action participant.on october press conference following th russiaeu summit portugal putin proposed create russianeuropean institute freedom democracy headquartered either brussels one european capitals added ready supply funds financing europe covers costs projects russia.newly proposed institution expected monitor human rights violations europe contribute development european democracy.russian president vladimir putin exu.s.president george w. bush failed resolve differences u.s. plans planned missile defense system based poland czech republic meeting russian black sea resort sochi april .
Foreign relations of Russia	putin made clear agree decision establish sites eastern european countries said agreed strategic framework guide future u.s.russian relations russia u.s. said recognized era considered strategic threat enemy over.putin expressed cautious optimism two sides could find way cooperate missile defense described eightyear relationship russian president bush mostly positive.summit final meeting bush putin presidents follows leaders attendance last nato summit romania april – april .summit also highlighted differences washington moscow u.s.backed proposals extend military alliance include former soviet republics ukraine georgia.russia opposes proposed expansion fearing reduce influence neighbours.fareed zakaria suggests south ossetia war turned diplomatic disaster russia.suggests major strategic blunder turning neighboring nations ukraine embrace united states western nations more.
Foreign relations of Russia	george friedman founder ceo private intelligence agency stratfor takes opposite view arguing war russian foreign policy successful expanding russias influence.in july putin said address meeting russian ambassadors moscowrussia’s foreign policy always remain selfsufficient independent… consistent successive represents unique role country world affairs civilization development formed centuries.nothing isolationism confrontation provides integration global processes...we continue strongly defending united nations charter basis modern world order continue push everyone proceed fact united nations security council right make decisions cases requiring use force current issues mids marked dramatic downturn russian relations west even considering start new cold war.united states russia back opposing sides syrian civil war washington regarded moscow obstructionist regarding support bashar alassad government.in first time since united states cancelled summit russia latter granted asylum edward snowden.the greatest increase tensions however came ukraine crisis began saw crimean peninsula annexed russia.russia also inflamed separatist uprising donbas region though moscow continues deny involvement.united states responded events putting forth sanctions russia european countries followed suit worrying russian interference affairs central eastern europe.
Foreign relations of Russia	october saw russia years supporting syrian government indirectly directly intervene conflict turning tide favor assad regime.russias relations turkey already strained support assad regime deteriorated period especially turkish air force shot russian jet fighter november .russia also formed eurasian economic union armenia kazakhstan belarus.the russian government also remains bitter expansion nato eastern europe arguing western leaders promised nato would expand beyond borders.for decades dispute japan russia ownership kuril islands hindered closer cooperation two countries since high level talks involving prime minister shinzō abe ongoing attempt resolve situation.russias power international stage depends petroleum revenue.world completes transition renewable energy international demand russian oil gas coal resources dramatically reduced russias international power be.russia ranked countries index geopolitical gains losses energy transition gegalo.
Foreign relations of Russia	bilateral relations africa americas asia europe oceania perception global opinion pew research center indicated four surveyed countries positive view russia.top ten approving countries vietnam ghana china south korea lebanon philippines india nigeria tanzania ethiopia uganda .ten countries negative views russia pakistan turkey poland united kingdom jordan ukraine japan united states mexico australia .russians view russia overwhelmingly positive .alleged aggressiveness term used refer catherine greats th century agenda st century russian policies.
Foreign relations of Russia	supporters nato expansion eastern europe claimed would diminish russian aggression.the postmaidan conflict ukraine usually blamed russian aggression.natosponsored analysts described call cybernetic russian aggression ukraine s. multilateral nato european union russia member commonwealth independent states cis union russia belarus organization security cooperation europe osce paris club north atlantic cooperation council nacc.signed nato partnership peace initiative june .may nato russia signed nato–russia founding act parties hoped would provide basis enduring robust partnership alliance russia—one could make important contribution european security architecture st century though already time signing doubts cast whether accord could deliver ambitious goals.this agreement superseded nato–russia council agreed reykjavík ministerial unveiled rome nato summit may .june russia european union eu signed partnership cooperation agreement.recent years tensions heightened nato members eastern europe especially latvia lithuania estonia poland feel threatened russia.
Foreign relations of Russia	european union imposed sanctions russian businesses individuals regarding annexation crimea alleged support separatists war donbas.former soviet republics warsaw pact nonrussian countries part ussr termed near abroad russians.recently russian leaders referring countries collectively postsoviet space asserting russian foreign policy interest throughout region.ussr dissolved presidents russia ukraine belarus russia tried regain sort influence postsoviet space creating december regional organization – commonwealth independent states.following years russia initiated set agreements postsoviet states designed institutionalize relations inside cis.
Foreign relations of Russia	however agreements fulfilled cis republics began drift away russia time attempting stabilize broken economy ties west.one major issues influence foreign relations russia fsu remaining large russian minority populations many countries near abroad.issue dealt various ways individual country.posed particular problem countries live close russian border ukraine kazakhstan russians calling areas absorbed russia.large however russians nearabroad favor active intervention russia domestic affairs neighboring countries even defense interests ethnic russians.moreover three baltic states estonia latvia lithuania clearly signaled desire outside claimed russian sphere influence reflected joining nato alliance european union .close cultural ethnic historical links exist russia belarus ukraine.
Foreign relations of Russia	traditional russian perspective one ethnic group russians called great russians belarusians white russians ukrainians little russians.manifested lower levels nationalism areas particularly belarus ukraine disintegration soviet union.however ukrainians accept younger brother status relative russia russias efforts insert ukrainian domestic politics putins endorsement candidate ukrainian presidency last election contentious.russia maintains military bases armenia belarus kyrgyzstan moldova tajikistan.russias relationships georgia lowest point modern history due georgianrussian espionage controversy due russogeorgian war georgia broke diplomatic relations russia left commonwealth independent states.russias relations ukraine since also lowest point history result prowestern euromaidan revolution ukraine crimean crisis prorussian insurgency ukraines donetsk luhansk regions.ukraine like georgia introduced bill verkhovna rada withdraw commonwealth independent states kyiv begun process so.in addition russia also maintains relations bulgaria czech republic part former east germany hungary poland romania slovakia countries part former warsaw pact furthermore albania.russia also continues maintain friendly relations cuba mongolia vietnam well third world nonaligned countries afghanistan angola benin cambodia congo egypt ethiopia grenada guineabissau india iraq laos mozambique serbia syria former southern part yemen.
Foreign relations of Russia	international membership membership international organizationsrussia holds permanent seat grants veto power security council united nations un.prior soviet union held russias un seat breakup soviet union russian government informed united nations russia continue soviet unions membership united nations un organs.russia active member numerous un system organizations includingun general assembly security councilfood agriculture organizationunited nations conference trade developmentun educational scientific cultural organizationun office high commissioner refugeesunited nations industrial development organizationunited nations economic commission europerussia also participates important un peacekeeping missions includingrussia also holds memberships mediation international conflicts russia played important role helping mediate international conflicts particularly actively engaged trying promote peace following kosovo conflict.russias foreign minister claimed february nato european union considering using force keep serbs leaving kosovo following kosovo declaration independence.russia cosponsor middle east peace process supports un multilateral initiatives persian gulf cambodia burma angola former yugoslavia haiti.russia founding member contact group since denver summit june member g. november russia joined asiapacific economic cooperation forum apec.russia contributed troops natoled stabilization force bosnia affirmed respect international law osce principles.
Foreign relations of Russia	russia accepted un andor osce involvement instances regional conflict neighboring countries including dispatch observers georgia moldova tajikistan de facto republic artsakh.russia supported may set international tribunal try suspects murder lebanese prime minister rafiq hariri.territorial disputes kuril islands dispute concerns islands iturup kunashir shikotan khabomai group belonged japanese empire soviet–japanese war soviet union occupied southern part sakhalin island since japan lost war.russian sfsr part ussr got end second world war yalta conference allies agreed cession islands ussr.however stipulation included treaty capitulation japan later gave japan chance demand return controversial northern territories.however disputed territory currently administered russian federation majority inhabitants disputed territory supportive russian administration japanese inhabitants expelled islands .the dispute russia latvia regarding pytalovo abrene area pskov oblast russia settled march border treaty.disputes boundary peoples republic china finally resolved july .
Foreign relations of Russia	day foreign ministers two countries signed agreement beijing.agreement russia ceded approximately km territory china.territory transferred comprised tarabarov island approximately half bolshoy ussuriysky island.area transferred largely uninhabited.settlement border dispute followed years negotiations.
Foreign relations of Russia	final settlement result treaty goodneighborliness friendly cooperation concluded june signed chinese foreign minister li zhaoxing russian counterpart sergei lavrov.followed talks vladivostok.border dispute russia china along km border.caspian sea boundaries yet determined among littoral states.issues russia states bordering – azerbaijan kazakhstan – settled .russia common land caspiansea border turkmenistan iran agree caspian sea settlements.russia made territorial claim antarctica despite state first discovered continent reserved right make claims recognize claims nation.
Foreign relations of Russia	soviet union signed antarctic treaty .de jure taiwan asserts territory includes former lands qing empire including tuva part russia since .taiwan actively pursue claim lacks official relationship russia recognize taiwan sovereign nation.unresolved territorial issues estonia russia regarding territories pskov leningrad oblast russia still unresolved.treaty estonia–russia border ratified russian side.negotiations reopened treaty signed february ratification still pending.disputes boundary georgia relating russias recognition georgian regions south ossetia abkhazia independent states due south ossetia war led severance diplomatic relations them.following breakup soviet union russian federation refused recognize ukrainian sovereignty sevastopol well surrounding crimean oblast using argument city never practically integrated ukrainian ssr military status.
Foreign relations of Russia	claim relinquished bilateral peace friendship treaty confirmed crimea sevastopol belong ukraine.separate treaty established terms longterm lease land resources around sevastopol russia.annexation crimea russian federation early crimea annexed russia.since status crimea city sevastopol currently dispute russia ukraine ukraine majority un members consider crimea autonomous republic ukraine sevastopol one ukraines cities special status russia un members hand consider crimea federal subject russia sevastopol one russias federal cities.march state duma approved denunciation abovementioned peace friendship treaty longterm lease land sevastopol.
Foreign relations of Russia	russia officially recognize crimea question ground territorial disputes.see also arctic policy russiaforeign policy vladimir putinforeign relations soviet unionfoundations geopoliticslist diplomatic missions russialist diplomatic missions russiavisa requirements russian citizensbricssilk road references reading ambrosio thomas vandrovec geoffrey .mapping geopolitics russian federation federal assembly addresses putin medvedev.geopolitics.routledge.
Foreign relations of Russia	–.doi.... scid .bowen andrew .coercive diplomacy donbas explaining russian strategy eastern ukraine.journal strategic studies.– –.
Foreign relations of Russia	doi.... scid .contessi nicola .prospects accommodation resurgent russia.paul t.v.ed.. accommodating rising powers.past present future.
Foreign relations of Russia	cambridge cambridge university press.pp.–.doi.cbo.. isbn .dallagnol augusto césar mielniczuk fabiano zabolotsky boris .us army command general staff college ed.. return bear russian military engagement latin america case brazil.
Foreign relations of Russia	military review.fort leavenworth kansas ebsco publishing.issn .gvosdev nikolas k. marsh christopher .russian foreign policy interests vectors sectors.washington cq press.
Foreign relations of Russia	doi.. isbn .hopf ted ed..understandings russian foreign policy.pennsylvania state university press.isbn .kanet roger e. .
Foreign relations of Russia	kanet roger e ed.. russian foreign policy st century.london palgrave macmillan.doi.. isbn .kozyrev andrei.firebird elusive fate russian democracy u pittsburgh press primary source.andrei kozyrev russian foreign minister .larson deborah welch shevchenko alexei .
Foreign relations of Russia	status seekers chinese russian responses us primacy.international security.–.doi.isec..... scid .legvold robert ed..
Foreign relations of Russia	russian foreign policy st century shadow past.columbia university press.doi.legv.isbn .menkiszak marek .responsibility protect... russias strategy towards crisis syria pdf.
Foreign relations of Russia	fiia briefing paper.helsinki finnish institute international affairs.isbn .mankoff jeffrey .russian foreign policy return great power politics.council foreign relations book ed.. lanham md rowman littlefield.
Foreign relations of Russia	isbn .myers steven lee .new tsar rise reign vladimir putin.new york alfred a. knopf.isbn .oclc .roberts sean p. .
Foreign relations of Russia	russia international actor view europe us pdf.fiia report.helsinki finnish institute international affairs.isbn .rosefielde steven.putins russia economy defence foreign policy excerptsakwa richard .
Foreign relations of Russia	russia rest postcold war crisis world order.cambridge university press.p. .isbn .lay summary.
Foreign relations of Russia	cite book cite uses deprecated parameter layurl helpsaradzhyan simon nabi abdullaev.measuring national power putin’s russia decline.europeasia studies .statistical measures indicate russia rising western competitors – trailed behind united states china india absolute national power.saul norman e. .historical dictionary russian soviet foreign policy.
Foreign relations of Russia	rowman littlefield.isbn .lay summary.cite book cite uses deprecated parameter layurl helpstent angela e. .limits partnership u.s. russian relations twentyfirst century.
Foreign relations of Russia	princeton university press.p. .isbn .titarenko mikhail l. .russias strategic partnerships asia asian dimension russian federation foreign policy.china report.
Foreign relations of Russia	–.doi.. scid .tsygankov andrei p. .russianato mistrust ethnophobia double expansion contain russian bear.communist postcommunist studies.–.
Foreign relations of Russia	doi.j.postcomstud....weiner tim.folly glory america russia political warfare – pulitzer prize excerptwohlforth william vladislav zubok.abiding antagonism realism idealism mirage westernrussian partnership cold war.international politics pp –.yefremenko dmitry .forced desired modernity russias chances postamerican world.
Foreign relations of Russia	russia global affairs.foreign policy research foundation –.issn .archived original april .yefremenko dmitry .waiting storm.
Foreign relations of Russia	russian foreign policy era change.russia global affairs.foreign policy research foundation –.issn .ziegler charles e. russian–american relations tsarism putin.international politics pp –.
Foreign relations of Russia	online external links гайнижник п. п. росія проти україни – рр.від політики шантажу і примусу до війни на поглинання та спроби знищення.– к.«мп леся» .– с. isbn concept foreign policy russian federation february ministry foreign affairs russiain english russian ministry foreign affairs russian federationrussia neighbors dean peter krogh foreign affairs digital archivesforeign relations russiacontaining russia back future july article russian minister foreign affairs sergey lavrov.
Coal mining	coal valued energy content since widely used generate electricity.steel cement industries use coal fuel extraction iron iron ore cement production.united kingdom south africa coal mine structures colliery coal mine called pit aboveground structures pit head.australia colliery generally refers underground coal mine.coal mining many developments recent years early days men tunneling digging manually extracting coal carts large opencut longwall mines.mining scale requires use draglines trucks conveyors hydraulic jacks shearers.the coal mining industry long history significant negative environmental impacts local ecosystems health impacts local communities workers contributes heavily global environmental crises poor air quality climate change.
Coal mining	reasons coal one first fossil fuels phased various parts global energy economy.major coal producing countries though china indonesia india australia reached peak production production increases replacing falls europe usa proposed mines development.history methods extraction coal extraction methods vary depending whether mine underground mine surface also called open cast mine.additionally coal seam thickness geology factors selection mining method.economical method coal extraction surface mines electric shovel drag line.
Coal mining	economical form underground mining long wall involves using two spinning drums carbide bits runs along sections coal seam.many coals extracted surface underground mines require washing coal preparation plant.technical economic feasibility evaluated based following regional geological conditions overburden characteristics coal seam continuity thickness structure quality depth strength materials seam roof floor conditions topography especially altitude slope climate land ownership affects availability land mining access surface drainage patterns groundwater conditions availability labor materials coal purchaser requirements terms tonnage quality destination capital investment requirements.surface mining deep underground mining two basic methods mining.choice mining method depends primarily depth density overburden thickness coal seam seams relatively close surface depths less approximately ft usually surface mined.coal occurs depths ft usually deep mined cases surface mining techniques used.example western u.s. coal occur depths excess ft mined open pit methods due thickness seam – metres – feet.
Coal mining	coals occurring ft usually deep mined.however open pit mining operations working coal seams – metres – feet ground level instance tagebau hambach germany.surface mining coal seams near surface may economical extract coal using opencut also referred opencast openpit mountaintop removal strip mining methods.opencast coal mining recovers greater proportion coal deposit underground methods coal seams strata may exploited.equipment include following draglines operate removing overburden power shovels large trucks transport overburden coal bucket wheel excavators conveyors.
Coal mining	mining method explosives first used order break surface overburden mining area.overburden removed draglines shovel truck.coal seam exposed drilled fractured thoroughly mined strips.coal loaded onto large trucks conveyors transport either coal preparation plant directly used.most open cast mines united states extract bituminous coal.canada bc australia south africa open cast mining used thermal metallurgical coals.
Coal mining	new south wales open casting steam coal anthracite practiced.surface mining accounts around percent production australia us used percent production.globally percent coal production involves surface mining.strip mining strip mining exposes coal removing earth coal seam.earth removed referred overburden removed long strips.
Coal mining	overburden first strip deposited area outside planned mining area referred outofpit dumping.overburden subsequent strips deposited void left mining coal overburden previous strip.referred inpit dumping.it often necessary fragment overburden use explosives.accomplished drilling holes overburden filling holes explosives detonating explosive.overburden removed using large earthmoving equipment draglines shovel trucks excavator trucks bucketwheels conveyors.
Coal mining	overburden put previously mined empty strip.overburden removed theunderlying coal seam exposed block coal.block coal may drilled blasted hard otherwise loaded onto trucks conveyors transport coal preparation wash plant.strip empty coal process repeated new strip created next it.method suitable areas flat terrain.equipment used depends geological conditions.
Coal mining	example remove overburden loose unconsolidated bucket wheel excavator might productive.life area mines may years.contour mining contour mining method consists removing overburden seam pattern following contours along ridge around hillside.method commonly used areas rolling steep terrain.common deposit spoil downslope side bench thus created method spoil disposal consumed much additional land created severe landslide erosion problems.
Coal mining	alleviate problems variety methods devised use freshly cut overburden refill minedout areas.haulback lateral movement methods generally consist initial cut spoil deposited downslope site spoil second cut refilling first.ridge undisturbed natural material ft wide often intentionally left outer edge mined area.barrier adds stability reclaimed slope preventing spoil slumping sliding downhill.the limitations contour strip mining economic technical.operation reaches predetermined stripping ratio tons overburdentons coal profitable continue.
Coal mining	depending equipment available may technically feasible exceed certain height highwall.point possible produce coal augering method spiral drills bore tunnels highwall laterally bench extract coal without removing overburden.mountaintop removal mining mountaintop coal mining surface mining practice involving removal mountaintops expose coal seams disposing associated mining overburden adjacent valley fills.valley fills occur steep terrain limited disposal alternatives.mountaintop removal combines area contour strip mining methods.areas rolling steep terrain coal seam occurring near top ridge hill entire top removed series parallel cuts.
Coal mining	overburden isdeposited nearby valleys hollows.method usually leaves ridge hilltops flattened plateaus.process highly controversial drastic changes topography practice ofcreating headofhollowfills filling valleys mining debris covering streams disrupting ecosystems.spoil placed head narrow steepsided valley hollow.preparation filling area vegetation soil removed rock drain constructed middle area filled natural drainage course previously existed.fill completed underdrain form continuous water runoff system upper end valley lower end fill.
Coal mining	typical headofhollow fills graded terraced create permanently stable slopes.underground mining coal seams deep underground opencast mining require underground mining method currently accounts percent world coal production.deep mining room pillar bord pillar method progresses along seam pillars timber left standing support mine roof.room pillar mines developed stopping point limited geology ventilation economics supplementary version room pillar mining termed second mining retreat mining commonly started.miners remove coal pillars thereby recovering much coal coal seam possible.
Coal mining	work area involved pillar extraction called pillar section.modern pillar sections use remotecontrolled equipment including large hydraulic mobile roofsupports prevent caveins miners equipment left work area.mobile roof supports similar large diningroom table hydraulic jacks legs.large pillars coal mined away mobile roof supports legs shorten withdrawn safe area.mine roof typically collapses mobile roof supports leave area.there six principal methods underground mininglongwall mining accounts percent underground production.longwall shearer face feet more.
Coal mining	sophisticated machine rotating drum moves mechanically back forth across wide coal seam.loosened coal falls onto armored chain conveyor pan line takes coal conveyor belt removal work area.longwall systems hydraulic roof supports advance machine mining progresses.longwall mining equipment moves forward overlying rock longer supported coal allowed fall behind operation controlled manner.supports make possible high levels production safety.
Coal mining	sensors detect much coal remains seam robotic controls enhance efficiency.longwall systems allow percent coal recovery rate surrounding geology allows use.coal removed usually percent section roof allowed collapse safe manner.continuous mining utilizes continuous miner machine large rotating steel drum equipped tungsten carbide picks scrape coal seam.operating room pillar also known bord pillar system—where mine divided series tofoot – rooms work areas cut coalbed—it mine much tons coal minute nonmechanised mine would produce entire day.continuous miners account percent underground coal production.

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