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Reception and criticism of WhatsApp security and privacy features	flaw patched users encouraged update whatsapp.in june whatsapp announced would take legal action users send disproportionately high number messages using communication platform.company reiterated platform meant private messaging businesses interact customers business app.notification website company stated beginning december whatsapp take legal action determine engaged assisting others abuse violates terms service automated bulk messaging.in september whatsapp criticized implementation delete everyone feature.ios users elect save media camera roll automatically.user deletes media everyone whatsapp delete images saved ios camera roll users able keep images.
Reception and criticism of WhatsApp security and privacy features	whatsapp released statement saying feature working properly images stored camera roll cannot deleted due apples security layers.in december whatsapp confirmed security flaw would allow hackers use malicious gif image file gain access recipients data.recipient opened gallery within whatsapp even sending malicious image hack triggered device contents become vulnerable.flaw patched users encouraged update whatsapp.in november whatsapp released new privacy feature let users decide adds group.during late customized version whatsapp developed anonymous developers named gbwhatsapp.although gb whatsapp alternative original version still leading platform market updated advanced features.many features original whatsapp lack.they almost features like interface messages sending receiving installation.on december whatsapp fixed security flaw allowed cyber attackers repeatedly crash messaging application members group chat could fixed forcing complete uninstall reinstall app.
Reception and criticism of WhatsApp security and privacy features	bug discovered check point august reported whatsapp.fixed version .. onwards.april whatsapp sued nso group allegedly using spyware produces hack least whatsapp users.company responded claiming responsible control clients use software.according research citizen lab countries may used software hack whatsapp include saudi arabia bahrain kazakhstan morocco mexico united arab emirates.on december part antitrust case google complaint made whatsapp gave google access private messages.
Reception and criticism of WhatsApp security and privacy features	complaint heavily redacted due part ongoing case therefore cannot determined claim alleges tampering apps endtoend encryption google accessing user backups.january whatsapp announced update privacy policy states whatsapp would collect metadata users share facebook family companies starting february .previously users could optout data sharing longer option.new policy fully apply within eu order comply gdpr.new policy allow whatsapp see send messages still endtoend encrypted allow facebook see data phone operating system user users time zone ip address profile picture status phone number app usage contacts stored whatsapp.this move drawn intense criticism facebook whatsapp critics claiming erodes users privacy.facing pushback lack clarity facebook data sharing whatsapp postponed implementation updated privacy policy february may announced plans limit functionality app dont approve new terms give persistent reminders so.
Reception and criticism of WhatsApp security and privacy features	propublica investigation september propublica published extensive investigation whatsapps use outside contractors artificial intelligence systems examine user communication collaboration law enforcement.investigation includes information complaint filed whistleblower u.s. securities exchange commission.internal whatsapp company documents revealed facebooks considerable efforts brand whatsapp paragon privacy.whatsapp employs around contractors via accenture offices austin texas dublin singapore.job review content reported whatsapp users pay starts .hour.user flags message theyve received previous four messages decrypted sent content review team.
Reception and criticism of WhatsApp security and privacy features	reviewer less minute decide whether nothing place user watch list ban them.due pranks ambiguous content language nuances translation errors process prone misunderstandings.whatsapp also uses artificial intelligence systems scan unencrypted data collected users profile image status phone number imei os names images users whatsapp groups list users electronic devices facebook instgram accounts compares suspicious patterns terms images previously deemed abusive.whatsapp shares message metadata law enforcement agencies department justice.legally required discretion investigating facebook leaks provide critical location account information realtime data recipients messaged target subject.whatsapp message metadata used help jail people whistleblower natalie edwards.whatsapp reported instances possible childexploitation imagery national center missing exploited children.
List of TCP and UDP port numbers	referencesusually use port numbers match services corresponding tcp udp implementation exist.the internet assigned numbers authority iana responsible maintaining official assignments port numbers specific uses.however many unofficial uses wellknown registered port numbers occur practice.similarly many official assignments refer protocols never longer common use.article lists port numbers associated protocols experienced significant uptake.table legend wellknown ports port numbers range − wellknown ports system ports.
List of TCP and UDP port numbers	used system processes provide widely used types network services.unixlike operating systems process must execute superuser privileges able bind network socket ip address using one wellknown ports.registered ports range port numbers − registered ports.assigned iana specific service upon application requesting entity.systems registered ports used without superuser privileges.
List of TCP and UDP port numbers	dynamic private ephemeral ports range – − contains dynamic private ports cannot registered iana.range used private customized services temporary purposes automatic allocation ephemeral ports.note see also port computer networkinginternet protocol suitelist ip numberslists network protocolscomparison file transfer protocols references notes reading reynolds joyce postel jon october .assigned numbers.ietf.
List of TCP and UDP port numbers	doi.rfc.rfc .external links service name transport protocol port number registry.iana.org.internet assigned numbers authority.
Pretty Good Privacy	pgp used signing encrypting decrypting texts emails files directories whole disk partitions increase security email communications.phil zimmermann developed pgp .pgp similar software follow openpgp open standard pgp encryption software standard rfc encrypting decrypting data.design pgp encryption uses serial combination hashing data compression symmetrickey cryptography finally publickey cryptography step uses one several supported algorithms.public key bound username email address.first version system generally known web trust contrast x. system uses hierarchical approach based certificate authority added pgp implementations later.
Pretty Good Privacy	current versions pgp encryption include options automated key management server.pgp fingerprint public key fingerprint shorter version public key.fingerprint someone validate correct corresponding public key.fingerprint like ca e b df cc bca b ff printed business card.compatibility pgp evolves versions support newer features algorithms create encrypted messages older pgp systems cannot decrypt even valid private key.
Pretty Good Privacy	therefore essential partners pgp communication understand others capabilities least agree pgp settings.confidentiality pgp used send messages confidentially.pgp uses hybrid cryptosystem combining symmetrickey encryption publickey encryption.message encrypted using symmetric encryption algorithm requires symmetric key generated sender.symmetric key used also called session key.
Pretty Good Privacy	message session key sent receiver.session key must sent receiver know decrypt message protect transmission encrypted receivers public key.private key belonging receiver decrypt session key use symmetrically decrypt message.digital signatures pgp supports message authentication integrity checking.latter used detect whether message altered since completed message integrity property former determine whether actually sent person entity claimed sender digital signature.
Pretty Good Privacy	content encrypted changes message fail decryption appropriate key.sender uses pgp create digital signature message either rsa dsa algorithms.pgp computes hash also called message digest plaintext creates digital signature hash using senders private key.web trust encrypting messages verifying signatures critical public key used send messages someone entity actually belong intended recipient.simply downloading public key somewhere reliable assurance association deliberate accidental impersonation possible.
Pretty Good Privacy	first version pgp always included provisions distributing users public keys identity certification also constructed cryptographically tampering accidental garble readily detectable.however merely making certificate impossible modify without detected insufficient prevent corruption certificate created before.users must also ensure means public key certificate actually belong person entity claiming it.given public key specifically information binding user name key may digitally signed thirdparty user attest association someone actually user name key.several levels confidence included signatures.
Pretty Good Privacy	although many programs read write information include level certification calculating whether trust key.the web trust protocol first described phil zimmermann manual pgp version .as time goes accumulate keys people may want designate trusted introducers.everyone else choose trusted introducers.everyone gradually accumulate distribute key collection certifying signatures people expectation anyone receiving trust least one two signatures.cause emergence decentralized faulttolerant web confidence public keys.the web trust mechanism advantages centrally managed public key infrastructure scheme used smime universally used.users willing accept certificates check validity manually simply accept them.
Pretty Good Privacy	satisfactory solution found underlying problem.certificates recent openpgp specification trust signatures used support creation certificate authorities.trust signature indicates key belongs claimed owner owner key trustworthy sign keys one level own.level signature comparable web trust signature since validity key certified.level signature similar trust one certificate authority key signed level able issue unlimited number level signatures.
Pretty Good Privacy	level signature highly analogous trust assumption users must rely whenever use default certificate authority list like included web browsers allows owner key make keys certificate authorities.pgp versions always included way cancel revoke public key certificates.lost compromised private key require communication security retained user.less equivalent certificate revocation lists centralised pki schemes.recent pgp versions also supported certificate expiration dates.the problem correctly identifying public key belonging particular user unique pgp.public keyprivate key cryptosystems problem even slightly different guises fully satisfactory solution known.
Pretty Good Privacy	pgps original scheme least leaves decision whether use endorsementvetting system user pki schemes requiring instead every certificate attested central certificate authority accepted correct.security quality best publicly available information known method allow person group break pgp encryption cryptographic computational means.indeed cryptographer bruce schneier characterized early version closest youre likely get militarygrade encryption.early versions pgp found theoretical vulnerabilities current versions recommended.addition protecting data transit network pgp encryption also used protect data longterm data storage disk files.
Pretty Good Privacy	longterm storage options also known data rest i.e.data stored transit.the cryptographic security pgp encryption depends assumption algorithms used unbreakable direct cryptanalysis current equipment techniques.in original version rsa algorithm used encrypt session keys.rsas security depends upon oneway function nature mathematical integer factoring.similarly symmetric key algorithm used pgp version idea might point future found previously undetected cryptanalytic flaws.specific instances current pgp idea insecurities exist publicly known.
Pretty Good Privacy	current versions pgp added additional encryption algorithms cryptographic vulnerability varies algorithm used.however none algorithms current use publicly known cryptanalytic weaknesses.new versions pgp released periodically vulnerabilities fixed developers come light.agency wanting read pgp messages would probably use easier means standard cryptanalysis e.g.rubberhose cryptanalysis blackbag cryptanalysis e.g.installing form trojan horse keystroke logging softwarehardware target computer capture encrypted keyrings passwords.
Pretty Good Privacy	fbi already used attack pgp investigations.however vulnerabilities apply pgp conventional encryption software.in incident involving seized psion pdas belonging members red brigade indicated neither italian police fbi able decrypt pgpencrypted files stored them.a second incident december see boucher involving us customs agents seized laptop pc allegedly contained child pornography indicates us government agencies find nearly impossible access pgpencrypted files.additionally magistrate judge ruling case november stated forcing suspect reveal pgp passphrase would violate fifth amendment rights i.e.suspects constitutional right incriminate himself.fifth amendment issue opened government appealed case federal district judge ordered defendant provide key.evidence suggests british police investigators unable break pgp instead resorted using ripa legislation demand passwordskeys.
Pretty Good Privacy	november british citizen convicted ripa legislation jailed nine months refusing provide police investigators encryption keys pgpencrypted files.pgp cryptosystem criticized complexity standard implementation low usability user interface including recognized figures cryptography research.uses ineffective serialization format storage keys encrypted data resulted signaturespamming attacks public keys prominent developers gnu privacy guard.backwards compatibility openpgp standard results usage relatively weak default choices cryptographic primitives cast cipher cfb mode sk password hashing.standard also criticized leaking metadata usage longterm keys lack forward secrecy.popular enduser implementations suffered various signaturestriping cipher downgrade metadata leakage vulnerabilities attributed complexity standard.
Pretty Good Privacy	history early history phil zimmermann created first version pgp encryption .name pretty good privacy inspired name grocery store ralphs pretty good grocery featured radio host garrison keillors fictional town lake wobegon.first version included symmetrickey algorithm zimmermann designed named bassomatic saturday night live sketch.zimmermann longtime antinuclear activist created pgp encryption similarly inclined people might securely use bbss securely store messages files.license fee required noncommercial use complete source code included copies.in posting june entitled pgp marks th anniversary zimmermann describes circumstances surrounding release pgpit day sent first release pgp couple friends uploading internet.
Pretty Good Privacy	first sent allan hoeltje posted peacenet isp specialized grassroots political organizations mainly peace movement.peacenet accessible political activists world.uploaded kelly goen proceeded upload usenet newsgroup specialized distributing source code.request marked usenet posting us only.kelly also uploaded many bbs systems around country.
Pretty Good Privacy	dont recall postings internet began june th th.it may surprising back yet know enough usenet newsgroups realize us tag merely advisory tag little real effect usenet propagated newsgroup postings.thought actually controlled usenet routed posting.back clue post anything newsgroup didnt even clear idea newsgroup was.pgp found way onto internet rapidly acquired considerable following around world.users supporters included dissidents totalitarian countries affecting letters zimmermann published included testimony us congress civil libertarians parts world see zimmermanns published testimony various hearings free communications activists called cypherpunks provided publicity distribution decades later cryptoparty activists much via twitter.criminal investigation shortly release pgp encryption found way outside united states february zimmermann became formal target criminal investigation us government munitions export without license.
Pretty Good Privacy	time cryptosystems using keys larger bits considered munitions within definition us export regulations pgp never used keys smaller bits qualified time.penalties violation found guilty substantial.several years investigation zimmermann closed without filing criminal charges anyone else.zimmermann challenged regulations imaginative way.published entire source code pgp hardback book via mit press distributed sold widely.anybody wishing build copy pgp could cut covers separate pages scan using ocr program conceivably enter typein program ocr software available creating set source code text files.
Pretty Good Privacy	one could build application using freely available gnu compiler collection.pgp would thus available anywhere world.claimed principle simple export munitions—guns bombs planes software—was remains restricted export books protected first amendment.question never tested court respect pgp.cases addressing encryption software however two federal appeals courts established rule cryptographic software source code speech protected first amendment ninth circuit court appeals bernstein case sixth circuit court appeals junger case.us export regulations regarding cryptography remain force liberalized substantially throughout late s. since compliance regulations also much easier.
Pretty Good Privacy	pgp encryption longer meets definition nonexportable weapon exported internationally except seven specific countries list named groups individuals substantially us trade prohibited various us export controls.pgp founding pgp inc. turmoil zimmermanns team worked new version pgp encryption called pgp .new version considerable security improvements including new certificate structure fixed small security flaws pgp .x certificates well permitting certificate include separate keys signing encryption.furthermore experience patent export problems led eschew patents entirely.pgp introduced use cast a.k.a.
Pretty Good Privacy	cast symmetric key algorithm dsa elgamal asymmetric key algorithms unencumbered patents.after federal criminal investigation ended zimmermann team started company produce new versions pgp encryption.merged viacrypt zimmermann sold commercial rights licensed rsa directly rsadsi changed name pgp incorporated.newly combined viacryptpgp team started work new versions pgp encryption based pgp system.unlike pgp exclusively command line program pgp designed start software library allowing users work command line inside gui environment.original agreement viacrypt zimmermann team viacrypt would evennumbered versions zimmermann oddnumbered versions.
Pretty Good Privacy	viacrypt thus created new version based pgp called pgp .remove confusion could pgp successor pgp pgp renamed released pgp may .network associates acquisition december pgp inc. acquired network associates inc. nai.zimmermann pgp team became nai employees.nai first company legal export strategy publishing source code.
Pretty Good Privacy	nai pgp team added disk encryption desktop firewalls intrusion detection ipsec vpns pgp family.export regulation liberalizations longer required publishing source nai stopped releasing source code.in early zimmermann left nai.served chief cryptographer hush communications provide openpgpbased email service hushmail.also worked veridis companies.october nai announced pgp assets sale suspending development pgp encryption.
Pretty Good Privacy	remaining asset kept pgp ebusiness server original pgp commandline version.february nai canceled support pgp products exception renamed commandline product.nai formerly mcafee intel security mcafee continued sell support product name mcafee ebusiness server .pgp corporation symantec august several expgp team members formed new company pgp corporation bought pgp assets except command line version nai.new company funded rob theis doll capital management dcm terry garnett venrock associates.
Pretty Good Privacy	pgp corporation supported existing pgp users honored nais support contracts.zimmermann served special advisor consultant pgp corporation continuing run consulting company.pgp corporation created new serverbased product called pgp universal.mid pgp corporation shipped command line version called pgp command line integrated pgp encryption platform applications.pgp corporation made first acquisition german software company glück kanja technology ag became pgp deutschland ag.
Pretty Good Privacy	pgp corporation acquired hamburgbased certificate authority tc trustcenter parent company chosensecurity form pgp trustcenter division.after purchase nais pgp assets pgp corporation offered worldwide pgp technical support offices draper utah offenbach germany tokyo japan.on april symantec corp. announced would acquire pgp million intent integrating enterprise security group.acquisition finalized announced public june .source code pgp desktop available peer review.also intel corporation acquired mcafee.mcafee ebusiness server transferred software diversified services sells supports develops name sds ebusiness server.for enterprise townsend security currently offers commercial version pgp ibm ibm z mainframe platforms.townsend security partnered network associates create compatible version pgp ibm platform.
Pretty Good Privacy	townsend security ported pgp time ibm z mainframe.version pgp relies free zos encryption facility utilizes hardware acceleration.software diversified services also offers commercial version pgp sds ebusiness server ibm z mainframe.in may bug named efail discovered certain implementations pgp could reveal plaintext contents emails encrypted it.chosen mitigation vulnerability pgp desktop mandate use seip protected packets ciphertext lead old emails encrypted objects longer decryptable upgrading software version mitigation.pgp corporation encryption applications section describes commercial programs available pgp corporation.
Pretty Good Privacy	information programs compatible openpgp specification see external links below.while originally used primarily encrypting contents email messages attachments desktop client pgp products diversified since set encryption applications managed optional central policy server.pgp encryption applications include emails attachments digital signatures laptop full disk encryption file folder security protection im sessions batch file transfer encryption protection files folders stored network servers recently encrypted signed http requestresponses means clientside enigform serverside mod openpgp module.also wordpress plugin available called wpenigformauthentication takes advantage session management features enigform modopenpgp.the pgp desktop .x family includes pgp desktop email pgp whole disk encryption pgp netshare.additionally number desktop bundles also available.depending application products feature desktop email digital signatures im security whole disk encryption file folder security encrypted selfextracting archives secure shredding deleted files.
Pretty Good Privacy	capabilities licensed different ways depending features required.the pgp universal server .x management console handles centralized deployment security policy policy enforcement key management reporting.used automated email encryption gateway manages pgp desktop .x clients.addition local keyserver pgp universal server works pgp public keyserver—called pgp global directory—to find recipient keys.capability delivering email securely recipient key found via secure https browser session.with pgp desktop .x managed pgp universal server .x first released pgp encryption applications based new proxybased architecture.newer versions pgp software eliminate use email plugins insulate user changes desktop applications.
Pretty Good Privacy	desktop server operations based security policies operate automated fashion.pgp universal server automates creation management expiration keys sharing keys among pgp encryption applications.the symantec pgp platform undergone rename.pgp desktop known symantec encryption desktop sed pgp universal server known symantec encryption management server sems.current shipping versions symantec encryption desktop .. windows macos platforms symantec encryption server ...also available pgp commandline enables command linebased encryption signing information storage transfer backup well pgp support package blackberry enables rim blackberry devices enjoy sendertorecipient messaging encryption.new versions pgp applications use openpgp smime allowing communications user nist specified standard.openpgp within pgp inc. still concern surrounding patent issues.
Pretty Good Privacy	rsadsi challenging continuation viacrypt rsa license newly merged firm.company adopted informal internal standard called unencumbered pgp would use algorithm licensing difficulties.pgp encryptions importance worldwide many wanted write software would interoperate pgp .zimmermann became convinced open standard pgp encryption critical cryptographic community whole.july pgp inc. proposed ietf standard called openpgp.
Pretty Good Privacy	gave ietf permission use name openpgp describe new standard well program supported standard.ietf accepted proposal started openpgp working group.openpgp internet standards track active development.many email clients provide openpgpcompliant email security described rfc .current specification rfc november successor rfc .rfc specifies suite required algorithms consisting elgamal encryption dsa triple des sha.
Pretty Good Privacy	addition algorithms standard recommends rsa described pkcs v. encryption signing well aes cast idea.beyond many algorithms supported.standard extended support camellia cipher rfc signing key exchange based elliptic curve cryptography ecc i.e.ecdsa ecdh rfc .support ecc encryption added proposed rfc bis .the free software foundation developed openpgpcompliant software suite called gnu privacy guard freely available together source code gnu general public license maintained separately several graphical user interfaces interact gnupg library encryption decryption signing functions see kgpg seahorse macgpg.
Pretty Good Privacy	several vendors also developed openpgpcompliant software.the development open source openpgpcompliant library openpgp.js written javascript supported horizon framework programme european union allowed webbased applications use pgp encryption web browser.pgprfc pgp message exchange formats obsoleteopenpgprfc openpgp message format obsoleterfc openpgp message formatrfc camellia cipher openpgprfc elliptic curve cryptography ecc openpgpdraftietfopenpgpcryptorefresh openpgp message formatpgpmimerfc mime security pretty good privacy pgprfc mime security openpgpopenpgps encryption ensure secure delivery files messages well provide verification created sent message using process called digital signing.open source office suite libreoffice implemented document signing openpgp version .. linux.using openpgp communication requires participation sender recipient.openpgp also used secure sensitive files theyre stored vulnerable places like mobile devices cloud.limitations advancement cryptography parts pgp criticized datedthe long length pgp public keysdifficulty users comprehend poor usabilitylack ubiquitylack forward secrecyin october roca vulnerability announced affects rsa keys generated buggy infineon firmware used yubikey tokens often used pgp.
Pretty Good Privacy	many published pgp keys found susceptible.yubico offers free replacement affected tokens.see also references reading garfinkel simson .pgp pretty good privacy.oreilly associates.
Pretty Good Privacy	isbn .levy steven january .crypto code rebels beat government—saving privacy digital age.penguin books.isbn .lucas michael w. april .pgp gpg email practical paranoid.
Pretty Good Privacy	starch press.isbn .zimmermann phil june .wrote pgp.retrieved march .external links openpgpsdkmit public key directory registration searchlist public keyserversietf openpgp working groupopenpgp alliance
Genome	consists nucleotide sequences dna rna rna viruses.genome includes genes coding regions noncoding dna well mitochondrial dna chloroplast dna.study genome called genomics.genomes several organisms sequenced genes analyzed.human genome project sequenced entire genome homo sapiens successfully completed april .
Genome	origin term term genome created hans winkler professor botany university hamburg germany.oxford dictionary suggests name blend words gene chromosome.however see omics thorough discussion.related ome words already existed biome rhizome forming vocabulary genome fits systematically.sequencing mapping genome sequence complete list nucleotides c g dna genomes make chromosomes individual species.
Genome	within species vast majority nucleotides identical individuals sequencing multiple individuals necessary understand genetic diversity.walter fiers university ghent belgium first establish complete nucleotide sequence viral rnagenome bacteriophage ms. next year fred sanger completed first dnagenome sequence phage φx base pairs.first complete genome sequences among three domains life released within short period mids first bacterial genome sequenced haemophilus influenzae completed team institute genomic research .months later first eukaryotic genome completed sequences chromosomes budding yeast saccharomyces cerevisiae published result europeanled effort begun mids.first genome sequence archaeon methanococcus jannaschii completed institute genomic research.the development new technologies made genome sequencing dramatically cheaper easier number complete genome sequences growing rapidly.
Genome	us national institutes health maintains one several comprehensive databases genomic information.among thousands completed genome sequencing projects include rice mouse plant arabidopsis thaliana puffer fish bacteria e. coli.december scientists first sequenced entire genome neanderthal extinct species humans.genome extracted toe bone yearold neanderthal found siberian cave.new sequencing technologies massive parallel sequencing also opened prospect personal genome sequencing diagnostic tool pioneered manteia predictive medicine.major step toward goal completion full genome james d. watson one codiscoverers structure dna.whereas genome sequence lists order every dna base genome genome map identifies landmarks.
Genome	genome map less detailed genome sequence aids navigating around genome.human genome project organized map sequence human genome.fundamental step project release detailed genomic map jean weissenbach team genoscope paris.reference genome sequences maps continue updated removing errors clarifying regions high allelic complexity.decreasing cost genomic mapping permitted genealogical sites offer service extent one may submit ones genome crowdsourced scientific endeavours dna.land new york genome center example economies scale citizen science.viral genomes viral genomes composed either rna dna.
Genome	genomes rna viruses either singlestranded rna doublestranded rna may contain one separate rna molecules segments monopartit multipartit genome.dna viruses either singlestranded doublestranded genomes.dna virus genomes composed single linear molecule dna made circular dna molecule.also viral rna called single stranded rna serves template mrna synthesis single stranded rna serves template dna synthesis.the viral envelope outer layer membrane viral genomes use enter host cell.classes viral dna rna consists viral envelope not.
Genome	prokaryotic genomes prokaryotes eukaryotes dna genomes.archaea bacteria single circular chromosome however bacterial species linear multiple chromosomes.dna replicated faster bacterial cells divide multiple copies chromosome present single cell cells divide faster dna replicated multiple replication chromosome initiated division occurs allowing daughter cells inherit complete genomes already partially replicated chromosomes.prokaryotes little repetitive dna genomes.however symbiotic bacteria e.g.
Genome	serratia symbiotica reduced genomes high fraction pseudogenes dna encodes proteins.some bacteria auxiliary genetic material also part genome carried plasmids.word genome used synonym chromosome.eukaryotic genomes eukaryotic genomes composed one linear dna chromosomes.number chromosomes varies widely jack jumper ants asexual nemotode one pair fern species pairs.surprising amount dna eukaryotic genomes contain compared genomes.
Genome	amount even necessary dna proteincoding noncoding genes due fact eukaryotic genomes show much fold variation sizes.however special characteristic caused presence repetitive dna transposable elements tes.a typical human cell two copies autosomes one inherited parent plus two sex chromosomes making diploid.gametes ova sperm spores pollen haploid meaning carry one copy chromosome.addition chromosomes nucleus organelles chloroplasts mitochondria dna.mitochondria sometimes said genome often referred mitochondrial genome.
Genome	dna found within chloroplast may referred plastome.like bacteria originated mitochondria chloroplasts circular chromosome.unlike prokaryotes eukaryotes exonintron organization protein coding genes variable amounts repetitive dna.mammals plants majority genome composed repetitive dna.genes eukaryotic genomes annotated using finder.coding sequences dna sequences carry instructions make proteins referred coding sequences.
Genome	proportion genome occupied coding sequences varies widely.larger genome necessarily contain genes proportion nonrepetitive dna decreases along increasing genome size complex eukaryotes.noncoding sequences noncoding sequences include introns sequences noncoding rnas regulatory regions repetitive dna.noncoding sequences make human genome.two categories repetitive dna genome tandem repeats interspersed repeats.
Genome	tandem repeats short noncoding sequences repeated headtotail called tandem repeats.microsatellites consisting basepair repeats minisatellite repeats bp.tandem repeats make human genome fruit fly genome.tandem repeats functional.example telomeres composed tandem repeat ttaggg mammals play important role protecting ends chromosome.in cases expansions number tandem repeats exons introns cause disease.
Genome	example human gene huntingtin htt typically contains – tandem repeats nucleotides cag encoding polyglutamine tract.expansion repeats results huntingtons disease neurodegenerative disease.twenty human disorders known result similar tandem repeat expansions various genes.mechanism proteins expanded polygulatamine tracts cause death neurons fully understood.one possibility proteins fail fold properly avoid degradation instead accumulating aggregates also sequester important transcription factors thereby altering gene expression.tandem repeats usually caused slippage replication unequal crossingover gene conversion.
Genome	transposable elements transposable elements tes sequences dna defined structure able change location genome.tes categorized either mechanism replicates copyandpaste mechanism excised genome inserted new location.human genome three important classes tes make human dna classes long interspersed nuclear elements lines interspersed nuclear elements sines endogenous retroviruses.elements big potential modify genetic control host organism.the movement tes driving force genome evolution eukaryotes insertion disrupt gene functions homologous recombination tes produce duplications te shuffle exons regulatory sequences new locations.retrotransposons retrotransposons found mostly eukaryotes found prokaryotes retrotransposons form large portion genomes many eukaryotes.
Genome	retrotransposon transposable element transpose rna intermediate.retrotransposons composed dna transcribed rna transposition rna transcript copied back dna formation help specific enzyme called reverse transcriptase.retrotransposons carry reverse transcriptase gene trigger transposition genes lack reverse transcriptase must use reverse transcriptase synthesized another retrotransposon.retrotransposons transcribed rna duplicated another site genome.retrotransposons divided long terminal repeats ltrs nonlong terminal repeats nonltrs.long terminal repeats ltrs derived ancient retroviral infections encode proteins related retroviral proteins including gag structural proteins virus pol reverse transcriptase integrase pro protease cases env envelope genes.
Genome	genes flanked long repeats ends.reported ltrs consist largest fraction plant genome might account huge variation genome size.nonlong terminal repeats nonltrs classified long interspersed nuclear elements lines short interspersed nuclear elements sines penelopelike elements ples.dictyostelium discoideum another dirslike elements belong nonltrs.nonltrs widely spread eukaryotic genomes.long interspersed elements lines encode genes reverse transcriptase endonuclease making autonomous transposable elements.human genome around lines taking around genome.short interspersed elements sines usually less base pairs nonautonomous rely proteins encoded lines transposition.
Genome	alu element common sine found primates.base pairs occupies human genome around copies.dna transposons dna transposons encode transposase enzyme inverted terminal repeats.expressed transposase recognizes terminal inverted repeats flank transposon catalyzes excision reinsertion new site.cutandpaste mechanism typically reinserts transposons near original location within kb.
Genome	dna transposons found bacteria make human genome genome roundworm c. elegans.genome size genome size total number dna base pairs one copy haploid genome.genome size varies widely across species.invertebrates small genomes also correlated small number transposable elements.fish amphibians intermediatesize genomes birds relatively small genomes suggested birds lost substantial portion genomes phase transition flight.
Genome	loss dna methylation allows adequate expansion genome.in humans nuclear genome comprises approximately .billion nucleotides dna divided linear molecules shortest nucleotides length longest nucleotides contained different chromosome.clear consistent correlation morphological complexity genome size either prokaryotes lower eukaryotes.genome size largely function expansion contraction repetitive dna elements.since genomes complex one research strategy reduce number genes genome bare minimum still organism question survive.experimental work done minimal genomes single cell organisms well minimal genomes multicellular organisms see developmental biology.
Genome	work vivo silico.genome size due transposable elements many enormous differences size genomes specially mentioned multicellular eukaryotic genomes.main reason big variety sizes due presence transposable elements.tes known contribute significant change cells mass dna.process correlated longterm accommodation host genome therefore expansion genome size.here table significant representative genomes.
Genome	see see also lists sequenced genomes.genomic alterations cells organism originate single cell expected identical genomes however cases differences arise.process copying dna cell division exposure environmental mutagens result mutations somatic cells.cases mutations lead cancer cause cells divide quickly invade surrounding tissues.certain lymphocytes human immune system vdj recombination generates different genomic sequences cell produces unique antibody cell receptors.during meiosis diploid cells divide twice produce haploid germ cells.
Genome	process recombination results reshuffling genetic material homologous chromosomes gamete unique genome.genomewide reprogramming genomewide reprogramming mouse primordial germ cells involves epigenetic imprint erasure leading totipotency.reprogramming facilitated active dna demethylation process entails dna base excision repair pathway.pathway employed erasure cpg methylation mc primordial germ cells.erasure mc occurs via conversion hydroxymethylcytosine hmc driven high levels teneleven dioxygenase enzymes tet tet.
Genome	genome evolution genomes sum organisms genes traits may measured studied without reference details particular genes products.researchers compare traits karyotype chromosome number genome size gene order codon usage bias gccontent determine mechanisms could produced great variety genomes exist today recent overviews see brown saccone pesole benfey protopapas gibson muse reese gregory .duplications play major role shaping genome.duplication may range extension short tandem repeats duplication cluster genes way duplication entire chromosomes even entire genomes.duplications probably fundamental creation genetic novelty.horizontal gene transfer invoked explain often extreme similarity small portions genomes two organisms otherwise distantly related.horizontal gene transfer seems common among many microbes.
Genome	also eukaryotic cells seem experienced transfer genetic material chloroplast mitochondrial genomes nuclear chromosomes.recent empirical data suggest important role viruses subviral rnanetworks represent main driving role generate genetic novelty natural genome editing.fiction works science fiction illustrate concerns availability genome sequences.michael crichtons novel jurassic park subsequent film tell story billionaire creates theme park cloned dinosaurs remote island disastrous outcomes.geneticist extracts dinosaur dna blood ancient mosquitoes fills gaps dna modern species create several species dinosaurs.chaos theorist asked give expert opinion safety engineering ecosystem dinosaurs repeatedly warns outcomes project unpredictable ultimately uncontrollable.
Genome	warnings perils using genomic information major theme book.the film gattaca set futurist society genomes children engineered contain ideal combination parents traits metrics risk heart disease predicted life expectancy documented person based genome.people conceived outside eugenics program known invalids suffer discrimination relegated menial occupations.protagonist film invalid works defy supposed genetic odds achieve dream working space navigator.film warns future genomic information fuels prejudice extreme class differences cant afford genetically engineered children.see also references reading benfey p protopapas ad .
Genome	essentials genomics.prentice hall.brown ta .genomes .oxford bios scientific publishers.isbn .gibson g muse sv .
Genome	primer genome science second ed.. sunderland mass sinauer assoc.isbn .gregory tr .evolution genome.elsevier.isbn .reece rj .
Genome	analysis genes genomes.chichester john wiley sons.isbn .saccone c pesole g .handbook comparative genomics.chichester john wiley sons.
Genome	isbn .werner e december .silico multicellular systems biology minimal genomes.drug discovery today.–.doi.s.
Arkeia Software	pmid .external links ucsc genome browser – view genome annotations organisms.genomecenter.howard.edubuild dna moleculesome comparative genome sizesdna interactive history dna sciencedna beginningall human genome project—from genome.govanimal genome size databaseplant genome size databasegoldgenomes online databasethe genome news networkncbi entrez genome project databasencbi genome primergenecards—an integrated database human genesbbc news – final genome chapter publishedimg integrated microbial genomes system—for genome analysis doejgigeknome technologies nextgen sequencing data analysis—nextgeneration sequencing data analysis illumina service geknome technologies.produces network backup software platforms including windows macintosh linux aix bsd hpux also backup appliance integrating software disk storage network connectivity.january western digital corporation announced acquired arkeia software.may community representative wdc posted forum indicating arkeia network backup product line phased out.history originally named knox software company founded france michel gouget along michel colzi nordine kherif arnaud spicht together marketing exec phillippe roussel.first incorporated san jose california company reincorporated france million seriesa investment spef ventures banque populaire crédit agricole private equity followed million seriesb investment investors .
Arkeia Software	products backup software firms backup software released several successive products.earlier product smart backup available — reviewed linux user developer current backup product arkeia network backup software reviewed various releases linux magazine linux format.in company released product system image vmware virtual machines.company acquired intellectual property engineering resources kadena systems deal added sourcebased data deduplication software.technology uses sliding window approach identify duplicate data checks data stream one byte time finds blocks match application seen before.current version .
Arkeia Software	automatically adjusts block sizes based file type order maximize dedupe ratios.licenses companys products generally fee licenses beginning made available limitedcapability free version.first version arkeia light available .current free version called arkeia network backup free use edition available download company’s website.in addition ubuntu .lts repository released nocost smallnetwork package .appliances firms backup appliance originally called edgefort arkeia backup appliance released also several versions.
Symbolic link	allows backup administrators remotely manage backup operations remote sites without sending data back headquarters wan.reviewed storage magazine review edgefort appliance.referencestoday supported posix operating system standard unixlike operating systems freebsd linux macos.limited support also exists windows operating systems windows vista windows degree windows windows xp form shortcut files.overview symbolic link contains text string automatically interpreted followed operating system path another file directory.file directory called target.symbolic link second file exists independently target.
Symbolic link	symbolic link deleted target remains unaffected.symbolic link points target sometime later target moved renamed deleted symbolic link automatically updated deleted continues exist still points old target nonexisting location file.symbolic links pointing moved nonexisting targets sometimes called broken orphaned dead dangling.symbolic links different hard links.hard links link paths different volumes file systems whereas symbolic links may point file directory irrespective volumes link target reside.hard links always refer existing file whereas symbolic links may contain arbitrary path point anything.symbolic links operate transparently many operations programs read write files named symbolic link behave operating directly target file.however effect changing otherwise hierarchic filesystem tree directed graph consequences simple operations determining current directory process.
Symbolic link	even unix standard navigating directorys parent directory longer works reliably face symlinks.shells heuristically try uphold illusion treeshaped hierarchy causes produce different results programs manipulate pathnames without heuristic relying operating system instead.programs need handle symbolic links specially e.g.shells backup utilities thus need identify manipulate directly.some unix well linux distributions use symbolic links extensively effort reorder file system hierarchy.accomplished several mechanisms variant contextdependent symbolic links.offers opportunity create intuitive applicationspecific directory tree reorganize system without redesign core set system functions utilities.
Symbolic link	posix unixlike operating systems posixcompliant operating systems symbolic links created symlink system call.ln shell command normally uses link system call creates hard link.ln flag specified symlink system call used instead creating symbolic link.symlinks introduced .bsd unix u.c.berkeley.the following command creates symbolic link commandline interface shell ln targetpath linkpathtargetpath relative absolute path symbolic link point.
Symbolic link	usually target exist although symbolic links may created nonexistent targets.linkpath path symbolic link.after creating symbolic link may generally treated alias target.file system management commands e.g.cp rm may used symbolic link.commands read write file contents access contents target file.
Symbolic link	rm delete file command however removes link target file.likewise mv command moves renames link target.the posix directory listing application ls denotes symbolic links arrow name pointing name target file see following example long directory list requested l option.directory listing symbolic link points directory requested link displayed.order obtain listing linked directory path must include trailing directory separator character slash.note example create three directory creation link tmp directory.storage symbolic links early implementations symbolic links stored symbolic link information data regular files.
Symbolic link	file contained textual reference links target file mode bits indicated type file symbolic link.this method slow inefficient use diskspace small systems.improvement called fast symlinks allowed storage target path within data structures used storing file information disk inodes.space normally stores list disk block addresses allocated file.thus symlinks short target paths accessed quickly.systems fast symlinks often fall back using original method target path exceeds available inode space.
Symbolic link	original style retroactively termed slow symlink.also used disk compatibility older versions operating systems.although storing link value inside inode saves disk block disk read operating system still needs parse path name link always requires reading additional inodes generally requires reading potentially many directories processing list files inodes finds match links path components.link points file directory fast symlinks provide significantly better performance symlinks.the vast majority posixcompliant implementations use fast symlinks.however posix standard require entire set file status information common regular files implemented symlinks.allows implementations use solutions storing symlink data directory entries.the file system permissions symbolic link used access modes target file controlled target files permissions.
Symbolic link	operating systems freebsd offer ability modify file permissions filesystem attributes symbolic link lchmod lchflags system calls respectively.the reported size symlink number characters path points to.mac os aliases mac os applications users also employ aliases added feature following target even moved another location volume.confused shell command alias.microsoft windows ntfs symbolic link ntfs .introduced support symbolic links type file.
Symbolic link	included windows xp enabled default kernel mode programs windows vista later versions windows enabled support symbolic links user mode applications well supplied command line utility mklink creating them.thirdparty drivers required enable support ntfs symbolic links windows xp.unlike junction points symbolic link also point file remote server message block smb network path.additionally ntfs symbolic link implementation provides full support crossfilesystem links.however functionality enabling crosshost symbolic links requires remote system also support them.symbolic links designed aid migration application compatibility posix operating systems.
Symbolic link	microsoft aimed windows vistas symbolic links function like unix links.however implementation differs unix symbolic links several ways.example windows vista users must manually indicate creating symbolic link whether file directory.windows vista support maximum reparse points therefore symbolic links given path i.e.given path indirections windows gives up.
Symbolic link	users new create symbolic link privilege administrators default create symbolic links.desired behavior must changed local security policy management console.additionally ntfs symbolic links files distinct ntfs symbolic links directories therefore cannot used interchangeably unlike posix symbolic link refer either files directories.in windows vista later working directory path ends symbolic link current parent path reference .. refer parent directory symbolic link rather target.behaviour also found shell level least posix systems including linux never accessing files directories operating system calls.instance bash builtin commands pwd cd operate current logical directory.
Symbolic link	pwd often used scripts determine actual current working directory.path used system call use .. use actual filesystem parent directory containing .. pseudodirectory entry.cd .. cat something cat ..something may return completely different results.examples ps mklink envlocalappdataplex media server gplex media serverps newitem path ctargetpath itemtype symboliclink value fsourcepath ntfs junction points windows version ntfs introduced reparse points enabled among things use volume mount points junction points.junction points directories moreover local directories junction points remote shares unsupported.
Symbolic link	windows xp resource kits include program called linkd create junction points powerful one named junction distributed sysinternals mark russinovich.not standard applications support reparse points.noticeably backup suffers problem issue error message x folders backed contain reparse point.shortcuts shortcuts supported graphical file browsers operating systems may resemble symbolic links differ number important ways.one difference type software able follow themsymbolic links automatically resolved file system.software program upon accessing symbolic link see target instead whether program aware symbolic links not.shortcuts treated like ordinary files file system software programs aware them.
Symbolic link	software programs understand shortcuts windows shell file browsers treat references files.another difference capabilities mechanismmicrosoft windows shortcuts normally refer destination absolute path starting root directory whereas posix symbolic links refer destinations via either absolute relative path.latter useful symlink target share common ancestor path known creation e.g.archive file unpacked anywhere.microsoft windows application shortcuts contain additional metadata associated destination whereas posix symbolic links strings interpreted absolute relative pathnames.unlike symbolic links windows shortcuts maintain references targets even target moved renamed.windows domain clients may subscribe windows service called distributed link tracking track changes files folders interested.service maintains integrity shortcuts even files folders moved across network.
Symbolic link	additionally windows x later windows shell tries find target broken shortcut proposing delete it.folder shortcuts almost like shortcuts transparent windows shell.implemented ordinary folders need read andor system attribute containing shortcut named target.lnk refers target hidden desktop.ini least following contentsfolder shortcuts created used windows shell network neighborhood example.shell objects shell objects shell folders defined windows registry used implement sort symbolic link too.like folder shortcuts transparent windows shell.a minimal implementation clsid used placeholderthe documents folder desktop well fonts administrative tools folders control panel examples shell objects redirected filesystem folders.
Symbolic link	cygwin symbolic links cygwin simulates posixcompliant symbolic links microsoft windows file system.uses identical programming user utility interfaces unix see creates windows shortcuts .lnk files additional information used cygwin time symlink resolution.cygwin symlinks compliant posix standard terms resolved windows standards terms ondisk representation.additionally cygwin set support native windows symbolic links used cygwin without restrictions.requireschanging cygwin environment variable contain winsymlinksnativerunning cygwin elevated rights windows restricts creation symbolic links privileged userssome differences exist however.cygwin way specify shortcutrelated information – working directory icon – place parameters ln command.
Symbolic link	create standard microsoft .lnk files cygwin provides mkshortcut readshortcut utilities.the cygwin users guide information topic.msys based cygwin similar set winsymlinks settings defaults copying files.summary legacy systems amiga command creating symbolic links makelink also used hard links.internally dos.library returns error code indicating target soft link try perform actions legal file applications wish follow symbolic link needs explicitly make call follow link retry operation.amigados shell follow links automatically.
Symbolic link	os os operating system symbolic links somewhat resemble shadows graphical workplace shell.however shadows due fully objectoriented system object model considerably powerful robust simple link.example shadows lose capabilities renamed either object subject link relocated.variable symbolic links symbolic links may implemented contextdependent variable fashion link points varying targets depending configuration parameter runtime parameter instantaneous condition.a variable variant symbolic link symbolic link variable name embedded it.allows flexibility filesystem order possible standard symbolic link.
Symbolic link	variables embedded symbolic link may include user environment specific information.operating systems make use variant symbolic links include netbsd dragonfly bsd domainos.tru uses context dependent symbolic link context cluster member number.pyramid technologys osx operating system implemented conditional symbolic links pointed different locations depending universe program running in.universes supported attss sysv.berkeley software distribution bsd .. example ps command run att universe symbolic link directory bin would point .attbin program .attbinps would executed.whereas ps command run ucb universe bin would point .ucbbin .ucbbinps would executed.similar conditional symbolic links also created directories lib usrlib usrinclude.
Apache Hadoop	see also symlink race — securityvulnerability caused symbolic linksfreedup — generates links identical data automatically references external links q difference hard soft links applied linuxjunction maintain ntfs junction points windows abovefsutil hardlink microsoft technet page using commandline tool fsutil create hardlinks windows abovelink shell extension windows explorer context menu overlay icons property sheet handler maintain hardlinks ntfs junction points symbolic links etc.symbolic drivers windows xp japanese file system drivers enable symbolic links windows xp also mirrored link shell extension site.sources available.provides software framework distributed storage processing big data using mapreduce programming model.hadoop originally designed computer clusters built commodity hardware still common use.since also found use clusters higherend hardware.modules hadoop designed fundamental assumption hardware failures common occurrences automatically handled framework.the core apache hadoop consists storage part known hadoop distributed file system hdfs processing part mapreduce programming model.hadoop splits files large blocks distributes across nodes cluster.

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