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IRS tax forms	addition certain nonprofits comprehensive reporting requirements hospitals health care organizations schedule h. form may filed irs mail electronically authorized irs efile provider.the form disclosures require strongly encourage nonprofit boards adopt variety board policies regarding governance practices.suggestions go beyond sarbanesoxley requirements nonprofits adopt whistleblower document retention policies.irs indicated use form enforcement tool particularly regarding executive compensation.example nonprofits adopt specific procedures regarding executive compensation offered safe harbor excessive compensation rules section internal revenue code treasury regulation section ..public inspectionirc regulations state organization must provide copies three recent forms anyone requests whether person mail fax email.additionally requests may made via irs using form pdf copies often found online noted below.new irs form instructions form form ezdue th th month fiscal year months extensions.
IRS tax forms	late penalty political organizations –day clear nonprofits penalty failure provide public per day.citizen audit provides pdf copies annual returns signatures blacked out.economic research institute provides pdf copies annual returns signatures blacked out.foundation center irs form lookup tool provides pdf copies annual returns signatures blacked out.guidestar irs form information selection nonprofits free fee basednccs irs form search tool nonprofit organization profiles signatures blacked out.charity navigator uses irs forms rate charities.boardsource governance requirements .in addition form taxexempt organizations also subject variety disclosure compliance requirements various schedules attached form cases ez pf.filing schedules organizations supplements enhances clarifies disclosures compliance reporting made form .often filing schedules mandatory situations organizations otherwise subject filing requirements may consider completing certain schedules despite technically obligated to.current list possible schedule filings areschedule public charity status public supportschedule b schedule contributorsschedule c political campaign lobbying activitiesschedule supplemental financial statementsschedule e schoolsschedule f statement activities outside united statesschedule g supplemental information regarding fundraising gaming activitiesschedule h hospitalsschedule grants assistance organizations governments individuals united statesschedule j compensation informationschedule k supplemental information taxexempt bondsschedule l transactions interested personsschedule noncash contributionsschedule n liquidation termination dissolution significant disposition assetsschedule supplemental information form schedule r related organizations unrelated partnerships form annual returnreport employee benefit plan developed jointly irs united states department labor pension benefit guaranty corporation satisfy filing requirements internal revenue code irc employee retirement income security act erisa.form important compliance research disclosure tool intended assure employee benefit plans properly managed provide participants beneficiaries regulators sufficient information protect rights.
IRS tax forms	starting forms must filed electronically website department labor.form nr u.s. nonresident alien income tax return shorter version form nrez u.s. income tax return certainnonresident aliens dependents used nonresident aliens u.s. source income therefore file u.s. tax return.joint returns permitted husband wife must file separate return.form nrez used conditions similar ez form.the form x amended u.s. individual tax return used make corrections form form form ez tax returns previously filed.generally tax refund form must filed within years date original version filed within years date tax paid whichever later.
IRS tax forms	forms x processed manually therefore take longer regular returns.years prior form x three columns amounts original version net increase decrease line changed corrected amounts.form condensed single column corrected amounts.due confusion amongst taxpayers complete singlecolumn form irs revised form x returning original threecolumn format.selfemployed individuals others enough income taxes withheld might need file form es estimated tax individuals quarter make estimated installments annual tax liability payasyougo tax.entity returns form u.s. return partnership income used partnerships tax returns.form u.s. income tax return estates trusts used estates trusts tax returns.
IRS tax forms	series form u.s. corporation income tax return used c corporations tax returns.form u.s. income tax return corporation used corporations tax returns.form c u.s. income tax return cooperative associations used cooperatives tax returns.form h u.s. income tax return homeowners associations used condominium housing associations tax returns.form officially u.s corporate income tax return one irs tax forms used corporations specifically c corporations united states report income gains losses deductions credits figure tax liability.form many variants corporations different structures common variant form used corporations.form consists page lines additional schedules.lines deal income lines − deal deductions lines deal tax refundable credits payments.form originally introduced presidency woodrow wilson end world war described blank corporations report war excess profits income taxes.first applicable tax year form made available around march .
IRS tax forms	two forms released year form partnerships personal service corporations form nonresident aliens receive benefit personal exemptions.release forms came years release form personal income tax return form first applied tax year.the tax foundation published studies effective tax rate distribution across corporations well compliance cost.form also included tax foundation reports overall cost tax compliance.new york times article cited tax foundation report based data claim corporations assets less million spent .billion tax compliance yet effectively spent .
IRS tax forms	billion pay taxes suggesting huge inefficient cost compliance.a report wall street journal cost tax compliance software estimated average cost form form s. employment payroll taxes form employers annual federal unemployment futa tax returnform employers quarterly federal tax returnform employers quarterly tax return household employees longer used replaced schedule h form beginning tax year form employers annual federal tax return agricultural employeesform employers annual federal tax return transfer taxes form united states estate generationskipping transfer tax return used report estate taxesform united states gift generationskipping transfer tax return used report gift taxes information returns informational returns prepared third parties employers banks financial institutions etc.report information irs taxpayers help complete tax returns.forms report amounts calendar year january december basis regardless fiscal year used payer payee federal tax purposes.taxpayers usually required attach informational returns federal income tax returns unless form shows federal income tax withheld.many businesses organizations must file thousands information returns per year.the issuance nonissuance informational return determinative tax treatment required payee.
IRS tax forms	example income reported form might nontaxable taxable income might reported all.payeetaxpayer legally responsible reporting correct amount total income federal income tax return regardless whether informational return filed received.series form series used report health care insurance coverage per individual health insurance mandate affordable care act tax provisions.form lists primary recipient insurance policy along individuals covered it.forms also report period coverage whether entire year certain months.there three types formsa health insurance marketplace statement used report policies obtained health insurance marketplace.
IRS tax forms	form includes column listing monthly advance payments premium tax credit used complete form claim tax credit.b health coverage reports policies obtained health insurance providers.c employerprovided health insurance offer coverage reports health insurance offered employers least fulltime employees per terms employer shared responsibility provisions affordable care act.form prepared employer includes information whether employee actually enrolled coverage offered whether selffunded health care.employer provides coverage health insurance company instead selffunded health care employees may receive form c employer form b separately health insurance company.series form mortgage interest statement used report interest taxpayer paid mortgage.interest might taxdeductible itemized deductionthe form c contributions motor vehicles boats airplanes reports charitable contributions motor vehiclesthe form e student loan interest statement reports interests taxpayer paid student loans might qualify adjustment incomethe form f fines penalties amounts used governments governmental entities report fines penalties paid entitythe form mortgage assistance payments used report payments homeowners mortgage include funds hfa hardest hit fundthe form q qualifying longevity annuity contract information used report issuance contracts intended qualifying longevity annuity contractsthe form tuition statement reports either payments received amounts billed qualified tuition related expenses might entitle taxpayer adjustment income tax credit series form series used report various types income wages salaries tips form w used instead.
IRS tax forms	examples reportable transactions amounts paid noncorporate independent contractor services irs terminology payments nonemployee compensation.ubiquity form also led use phrase workers economy refer independent contractors themselves.requirement extended small business jobs act payments made persons receive income rental property.each payer must complete form covered transaction.four copies made one payer one payee one irs one state tax department required.payers file form reports must file electronically irs.
IRS tax forms	fewer requirement met paper copies filed irs also requires payer submit copy form summary information forms sent irs.returns must filed irs end february change january starting immediately following year income items proceeds paid.copies returns must sent payees however end january.law provides various dollar amounts form reporting requirement imposed.forms example filing required payees receive less payer applicable year.variants form several versions form used depending nature income transactiona acquisition abandonment secured propertyb proceeds broker barter exchange transactionsc cancellation debtcap changes corporate control capital structurediv dividends distributionsg government paymentsh health insurance advance paymentsint interest incomek merchant card third party network paymentsltc longterm care benefitsmisc miscellaneous incomenec nonemployee compensationoid original issue discountpatr taxable distributions received cooperativesq payment qualified education programsr distributions pensions annuities retirement profitsharing plans iras insurance contracts etc.s proceeds real estate transactionssa distributions hsa archer msa medicare advantage msas foreign persons u.s. source incomessa social security benefit statementssas social security benefit statement nonresident aliensrrb payments railroad retirement boardrrbr pension annuity income railroad retirement boardrrbs payments railroad retirement board nonresident aliens series form ira contribution informationform esa coverdell esa contribution informationform sa hsa archer msa medicare advantage msa information w series w form w return income tax withheld wages original form used report federal income tax withholding.
IRS tax forms	form w form ss reported social security tax withholding replaced form used employers report income tax withholding social security taxes.w form w wage tax statement used report wages paid employees taxes withheld them.employers must complete form w employee pay salary wage compensation part employment relationship.employer must mail form w employees january .deadline gives taxpayers months prepare returns april income tax due date.
IRS tax forms	form also used report fica taxes social security administration.form w along form w generally must filed employer social security administration end february.relevant amounts form w reported social security administration internal revenue service.territories w issued two letter code indicating territory wgu guam.corrections made done wc.
IRS tax forms	britishirish equivalent form w p. wg form wg gambling winnings used report gambling winnings direct wager irs.completed winnings .one session times buyin wager.w form w summary page w forms issued employer.used paper filing w information.
IRS tax forms	like w wc allows corrections.wss used w territorial returns.w form w used employers determine amount tax withholding deduct employees wages.form mailed irs retained employer.tax withholdings depend employees personal situation ideally equal annual tax due form .
IRS tax forms	filling form w employee calculates number form w allowances claim based expected tax filing situation year.amount money withheld federal income tax reduced form w allowance taken.interest paid overwithholding penalties might imposed underwithholding.alternatively addition employee send quarterly estimated tax payments directly irs form es.quarterly estimates may required employee additional income e.g.
IRS tax forms	investments selfemployment income subject withholding insufficiently withheld.specialized versions form types payment wp pensions example.w form w used filed employees employer claim advanced earned income tax credit added paychecks advance eitc would claim filed income tax.form used since last year eitc could gotten advance filing .w form w related documents application irs individual taxpayer identification number itin.
IRS tax forms	number used identify taxpayers qualify social security number.w series form wben certificate foreign status beneficial owner united states tax withholding used foreign persons including corporations certify nonu.s.status.form establishes one nonresident alien foreign corporation avoid reduce tax withholding u.s. source income rents u.s. property interest u.s. bank deposits dividends paid u.s. corporations.form used u.s. wages salaries earned nonresident aliens case form w used u.s. freelance dependent personal services income case form used.
IRS tax forms	form requires foreign person provide u.s. taxpayer identification number unless u.s. income dividends interest actively traded similar investments.wforms handle international issues.irs released new version wben february required corporations sign wbene form instead.w form w request taxpayer identification number certification serves two purposes.first used third parties collect identifying information help file information returns irs.
IRS tax forms	requests name address taxpayer identification information taxpayer form social security number employer identification number.form never actually sent irs maintained person files information return verification purposes.information form w payment made reported form .second purpose help payee avoid backup withholding.payer must collect withholding taxes certain reportable payments irs.
IRS tax forms	however payee certifies w subject backup withholding generally receive full payment due payer.similar withholding exemptions certifications found form w employees.w form w dependent care provider identification way day care service providers provide information individual take credits care children.form frequently replaced freeform statement indicating tax id day care individual much paid.w form w hiring incentives restore employment hire act employee affidavit certify new employee previously unemployed order qualify tax credit accordance hire act.
IRS tax forms	w form w form tax preparation professionals apply id number.phased favor electronic application.forms form election small business corporation used small businesses elect taxed subchapter corporation corporation.form foreign earned income filed taxpayers earned income sources outside united states exempt u.s. income tax.u.s. citizens resident aliens taxed worldwide income.qualify however form used exclude foreign earned income usd also used claim housing exclusion deduction.
IRS tax forms	filer cannot exclude deduct foreign earned income tax year.form application automatic extension time file u.s. individual income tax return used request extension time file federal income tax return individual extension pay tax.form additional child tax credit refundable tax credit.form change address used report change address internal revenue service.form prescreening notice certification request work opportunity credit used implementation federal governments work opportunity tax credit program.form health savings accounts hsas used health savings account hsa holders.hsa administrators required send hsa account holders file forms sa sa irs year.form tuition fees deduction.form premium tax credit refundable tax credit used conduction healthcare subsidies offered individuals families participating healthcare exchange.health exchanges send participants form year.public disclosure united states tax records publicly available exception forms nonprofit organizations generally open public inspection.selected tax data released economic data research.
IRS tax forms	countries norway finland tax records public information.tax filings u.s. private federal income taxation began controversy led congress prohibiting examination tax records .congress allowed public examination individual corporate tax payments disclosure eliminated .measure briefly considered again.various experts advocated income tax payments released individuals corporations shed light tax efficiency spur reform.
Rustock botnet	experts suggested releasing information cannot used identity theft address privacy concerns.see also irs efileirs volunteer income tax assistance programtaxation united states references external links media related taxation forms united states wikimedia commonsofficial websiteheight activities sent average spam messages per compromised machine per minute.reported estimates size vary greatly across different sources claims botnet may comprised anywhere machines.size botnet increased maintained mostly selfpropagation botnet sent many malicious emails intended infect machines opening trojan would incorporate machine botnet.the botnet took hit takedown mccolo isp responsible hosting botnets command control servers.mccolo regained internet connectivity several hours hours mbit second traffic observed likely indicating transfer command control russia.actions temporarily reduced global spam levels around effect last long spam levels increased january june attributed rustock botnet.on march botnet taken initially reported coordinated effort internet service providers software vendors.
Rustock botnet	revealed next day takedown called operation b action microsoft u.s. federal law enforcement agents fireeye university washington.to capture individuals involved rustock botnet july microsoft offering monetary reward amount us new information results identification arrest criminal conviction individuals.operations botnets composed infected computers used unwitting internet users.order hide presence user antivirus software rustock botnet employed rootkit technology.computer infected would seek contact commandandcontrol servers number ip addresses domains backup domains may direct zombies botnet perform various tasks sending spam executing distributed denial service ddos attacks.ninetysix servers operation time takedown.
TI-83 series	sending spam botnet uses tls encryption around percent cases extra layer protection hide presence.whether detected creates additional overhead mail servers handling spam.experts pointed extra load could negatively impact mail infrastructure internet emails sent days spam.see also botnethelpful wormmccolooperation bot roastsrizbi botnetzombie computer sciencealureonconfickergameover zeusstorm botnetbagle computer wormzeroaccess botnetregin malwarecyberwarfare russiazeus malware referencesreleased one popular graphing calculators students.addition functions present normal scientific calculators ti includes many features including function graphing polarparametricsequence graphing modes statistics trigonometric algebraic functions along many useful applications.although include many calculus functions applications programs written calculator loaded external sources.the ti redesigned twice first .ti replaced ti ti plus .redesign introduced design similar ti ti plus eliminating sloped screen common ti graphing calculators since ti included flash memory enabling devices operating system updated needed large new flash applications stored accessible new apps key.
TI-83 series	flash memory also used store user programs data.ti plus silver edition released featured approximately nine times available flash memory twice processing speed mhz standard ti plus translucent grey case inlaid small sparkles.redesign nicknamed ti parcus introduced slightly different shape calculator eliminated glossy grey screen border reduced cost streamlining printed circuit board four units.additional models ti plus ti plus designed upgrade ti.ti plus one tis popular calculators.
TI-83 series	uses zilog z microprocessor running mhz × monochrome lcd screen aaa batteries well backup cr cr battery.link port also built calculator form .mm jack.main improvement ti however addition kb flash rom allows operating system upgrades applications installed.flash memory used operating system kb available user files applications.another development ability install flash applications allows user add functionality calculator.
TI-83 series	applications made math science text editing uppercase lowercase letters organizers day planners editing spread sheets games many uses.designed use high school college students though used middle school students public school systems contains features scientific calculator well function parametric polar sequential graphing capabilities environment financial calculations matrix operations oncalculator programming more.symbolic manipulation differentiation algebra built ti plus.programmed using language called tibasic similar basic computer language.programming may also done ti assembly made z assembly collection ti provided system calls.assembly programs run much faster difficult write.
TI-83 series	thus writing assembly programs often done computer.ti plus silver edition ti plus silver edition released .enhancements .mb flash memory dualspeed mhz processor kb additional ram ti yet code support entire ram os improved link transfer hardware translucent silver case applications preinstalled.substantial flash memory increase significant.
TI-83 series	whereas ti hold maximum apps often less dependent size silver edition hold apps.also includes usb link cable box.almost completely compatible ti plus problems may arise programs e.g.games may run quickly silver edition programs problems link hardware.key layout same.a second version ti plus silver edition exists viewscreen vsc version.
TI-83 series	virtually identical additional port screen end rear unit enabling displays overhead projectors via cable panel.looks similar standard ti plus silvercolored frame identical standard silver edition around screen.the ti plus silver edition listed texas instruments website discontinued.in april ti plus silver edition replaced ti plus silver edition.feature processor amount flash memory ti plus silver edition features builtin usb port clock changeable faceplates.technical specifications cpu zilog z cpu mhz ti mhz silver edition inventec ti revision arom kb rom tiflash rom kb kb available user data programs mb silver editionram kb ram kb available user data programs kb silver edition however extra kb user accessible default extra memory used applications omnicalc ram recovery feature virtual calcdisplaytext × characters normal fontgraphics × pixels monochrome lcdiolink port .kbits button builtin keypadpower aaa batteries plus cr cr backupintegrated programming languages tibasic assembly language machine code.
TI-83 series	c requires computer z crosscompiler oncalc assembler.programming ti plus series similar languages natively supported calculator.include tibasic interpreted language used tis calculators tiasm unofficial name native z assembly language calculator based.tibasic tibasic builtin language ti series calculators well many ti graphing calculators.tibasic nonstructured programming language meaning arranged sequentially without use methods organized blocks code.
TI-83 series	due simplicity ubiquity ti calculators school curricula many students first experience programming.example hello world program equivalent assembly language example.assembly language ti first calculator ti series builtin assembly language support.ti ti ti capable running assembly language programs sending specially constructed hacked memory backup.support ti could accessed hidden feature calculator.
TI-83 series	users would write assembly asm program computer assemble send calculator program.user would execute command send prgmxxx xxx name program would execute program.successors ti replaced send backdoor lesshidden asm command.z assembly language gives programmer much power calculator builtin language tibasic.downside z assembly difficult learn tibasic.z assembly language programmed computer sent calculator via usb port written hand directly program editor using hexadecimal equivalents opcodes compiled using third party compiler programs.
TI-83 series	programs written assembly much faster efficient using tibasic processors native language interpreted.an example program displays hello world screen given.note bcall instruction macro syntactic sugar calling os routine.firmware replacement ti continued rely rsa cryptographic signing keys bits long many years known longer keys necessary security.bit keys publicly cracked part rsa factoring challenge.in group enthusiasts used brute force distributed methods find cryptographic signing keys ti calculator firmware allowing users directly flash operating systems devices.key ti calculator first published someone unitedti.org forum.
TI-83 series	needed several months crack it.keys found weeks unitedti.org community distributed computing project.texas instruments began sending dmca takedown requests variety different websites mirroring keys including unitedti reddit.com.became subject streisand effect mirrored number different sites including wikileaks.successor ti plus series introduced april update ti plus line.
TI-83 series	despite new appearance actual changes.main improvements ti plus ti plus silver edition modernized case design changeable faceplates silver edition new functions speed memory clock usb port connectivity.ti plus also brighter screen clearer contrast though caused bug lcd driver calculators sold.ti plus times memory ti plus ti plus silver edition times memory ti plus..
Egnyte	times speed ti plus.operating system math functionality remain essentially standard link port connecting rest ti calculator series.while mobile devices internet superseded calculators capabilities standardized testing precludes use devices.furthermore textbooks tailored ti effectively giving calculator monopoly field high school mathematics.see also comparison texas instruments graphing calculatorscalculator gamingcemetechsmall device c compilerzdk references external links features ti plus ti plus silver edition texas instruments product infoti plus guide book texas instruments product documentationhow texas instruments monopolized math class students using donorschoose raise money buy ti graphing calculatorssells cloudbased content security compliance collaboration tools businesses.egnyte founded focus modernized file servers since shifted selling tools help users securely collaborate coworkers third parties.history egnyte founded incorporated .privatelyheld company founded vineet jain rajesh ram kris lahiri amrit jassal.egnyte received million seed venture capital million july million million .egnyte announced .
Egnyte	million investment included seagate centurylink northgate capital prior investors kleiner perkins google ventures polaris partners.date egnyte raised .million including million series e funding led goldman sachs.by end company reported customers worldwide reached million annual recurring revenue.egnyte initially sold cloud onpremises file servers later added features collaboration security shifted focus cloud content governance businesses.combined two primary products—egnyte protect egnyte connect—into one platform manage govern secure data.features egnyte platform provides content security compliance collaboration capabilities govern content.
Egnyte	egnytes software used scan range data repositories malware—including email onpremises storage thirdparty cloud storage—and block ransomware attacks spreading.egnyte also governance risk dashboard analyzes organization’s risk level provides feedback areas improvement.egnyte’s collaboration features include cloud storage well coediting files microsoft google workspace.egnyte uses machine learning predictably cache files faster local access automatically categorize sensitive content.egnyte integrates number business productivity tools including box onedrive dropbox slack microsoft google workspace aws salesforce.also sells industryspecific software construction life sciences industries.egnyte offers tiered pricing plans varying capabilities.example saas subscribers get ransomware protection known threats file versioning enterprise customers access file restoration abnormal activity detection features.
Fuel cell	see also cloud storagecomparison file synchronization softwarecontent managementfile sharinghybrid cloudonpremises software referencesfuel cells different batteries requiring continuous source fuel oxygen usually air sustain chemical reaction whereas battery chemical energy usually comes metals ions oxides commonly already present battery except flow batteries.fuel cells produce electricity continuously long fuel oxygen supplied.the first fuel cells invented sir william grove .first commercial use fuel cells came century later following invention hydrogen–oxygen fuel cell francis thomas bacon .alkaline fuel cell also known bacon fuel cell inventor used nasa space programs since mids generate power satellites space capsules.since fuel cells used many applications.
Fuel cell	fuel cells used primary backup power commercial industrial residential buildings remote inaccessible areas.also used power fuel cell vehicles including forklifts automobiles buses boats motorcycles submarines.there many types fuel cells consist anode cathode electrolyte allows ions often positively charged hydrogen ions protons move two sides fuel cell.anode catalyst causes fuel undergo oxidation reactions generate ions often positively charged hydrogen ions electrons.ions move anode cathode electrolyte.time electrons flow anode cathode external circuit producing direct current electricity.
Fuel cell	cathode another catalyst causes ions electrons oxygen react forming water possibly products.fuel cells classified type electrolyte use difference startup time ranging second protonexchange membrane fuel cells pem fuel cells pemfc minutes solid oxide fuel cells sofc.related technology flow batteries fuel regenerated recharging.individual fuel cells produce relatively small electrical potentials .volts cells stacked placed series create sufficient voltage meet applications requirements.
Fuel cell	addition electricity fuel cells produce water heat depending fuel source small amounts nitrogen dioxide emissions.energy efficiency fuel cell generally however waste heat captured cogeneration scheme efficiencies obtained.history first references hydrogen fuel cells appeared .letter dated october published december edition london edinburgh philosophical magazine journal science welsh physicist barrister sir william grove wrote development first crude fuel cells.used combination sheet iron copper porcelain plates solution sulphate copper dilute acid.
Fuel cell	letter publication written december published june german physicist christian friedrich schönbein discussed first crude fuel cell invented.letter discussed current generated hydrogen oxygen dissolved water.grove later sketched design journal.fuel cell made used similar materials todays phosphoric acid fuel cell.in english engineer francis thomas bacon successfully developed kw stationary fuel cell.alkaline fuel cell afc also known bacon fuel cell inventor one developed fuel cell technologies nasa used since mids.in w. thomas grubb chemist working general electric company ge modified original fuel cell design using sulphonated polystyrene ionexchange membrane electrolyte.
Fuel cell	three years later another ge chemist leonard niedrach devised way depositing platinum onto membrane served catalyst necessary hydrogen oxidation oxygen reduction reactions.became known grubbniedrach fuel cell.ge went develop technology nasa mcdonnell aircraft leading use project gemini.first commercial use fuel cell.team led harry ihrig built kw fuel cell tractor allischalmers demonstrated across u.s. state fairs.
Fuel cell	system used potassium hydroxide electrolyte compressed hydrogen oxygen reactants.later bacon colleagues demonstrated practical fivekilowatt unit capable powering welding machine.pratt whitney licensed bacons u.s. patents use u.s. space program supply electricity drinking water hydrogen oxygen readily available spacecraft tanks.first hydrogen fuel cell automobile developed roger billings.utc power first company manufacture commercialize large stationary fuel cell system use cogeneration power plant hospitals universities large office buildings.in recognition fuel cell industry americas role fuel cell development us senate recognized october national hydrogen fuel cell day passing s. res .date chosen recognition atomic weight hydrogen .. types fuel cells design fuel cells come many varieties however work general manner.
Fuel cell	made three adjacent segments anode electrolyte cathode.two chemical reactions occur interfaces three different segments.net result two reactions fuel consumed water carbon dioxide created electric current created used power electrical devices normally referred load.at anode catalyst oxidizes fuel usually hydrogen turning fuel positively charged ion negatively charged electron.electrolyte substance specifically designed ions pass electrons cannot.freed electrons travel wire creating electric current.
Fuel cell	ions travel electrolyte cathode.reaching cathode ions reunited electrons two react third chemical usually oxygen create water carbon dioxide.design features fuel cell includethe electrolyte substance usually defines type fuel cell made number substances like potassium hydroxide salt carbonates phosphoric acid.the fuel used.common fuel hydrogen.the anode catalyst usually fine platinum powder breaks fuel electrons ions.the cathode catalyst often nickel converts ions waste chemicals water common type waste.gas diffusion layers designed resist oxidization.a typical fuel cell produces voltage ..v full rated load.
Fuel cell	voltage decreases current increases due several factorsactivation lossohmic loss voltage drop due resistance cell components interconnectionsmass transport loss depletion reactants catalyst sites high loads causing rapid loss voltage.to deliver desired amount energy fuel cells combined series yield higher voltage parallel allow higher current supplied.design called fuel cell stack.cell surface area also increased allow higher current cell.protonexchange membrane fuel cells archetypical hydrogen–oxide protonexchange membrane fuel cell pemfc design protonconducting polymer membrane typically nafion contains electrolyte solution separates anode cathode sides.called solid polymer electrolyte fuel cell spefc early protonexchange mechanism well understood.
Fuel cell	notice synonyms polymer electrolyte membrane protonexchange mechanism result acronym.on anode side hydrogen diffuses anode catalyst later dissociates protons electrons.protons often react oxidants causing become commonly referred multifacilitated proton membranes.protons conducted membrane cathode electrons forced travel external circuit supplying power membrane electrically insulating.cathode catalyst oxygen molecules react electrons traveled external circuit protons form water.in addition pure hydrogen type hydrocarbon fuels fuel cells including diesel methanol see directmethanol fuel cells indirect methanol fuel cells chemical hydrides.waste products types fuel carbon dioxide water.
Fuel cell	hydrogen used co released methane natural gas combined steam process called steam methane reforming produce hydrogen.take place different location fuel cell potentially allowing hydrogen fuel cell used indoors—for example fork lifts.the different components pemfc arebipolar plateselectrodescatalystmembrane andthe necessary hardware current collectors gaskets.the materials used different parts fuel cells differ type.bipolar plates may made different types materials metal coated metal graphite flexible graphite c–c composite carbon–polymer composites etc.membrane electrode assembly mea referred heart pemfc usually made protonexchange membrane sandwiched two catalystcoated carbon papers.platinum andor similar type noble metals usually used catalyst pemfc contaminated carbon monoxide necessitating relatively pure hydrogen fuel.
Fuel cell	electrolyte could polymer membrane.protonexchange membrane fuel cell design issues costin department energy estimated kw automotive fuel cell system costs us per kilowatt could achieved assuming volume production automotive units per year us per kilowatt could achieved assuming volume production units per year.many companies working techniques reduce cost variety ways including reducing amount platinum needed individual cell.ballard power systems experimented catalyst enhanced carbon silk allows reduction .–.mgcm platinum usage without reduction performance.
Fuel cell	monash university melbourne uses pedot cathode.published study documented first metalfree electrocatalyst using relatively inexpensive doped carbon nanotubes less cost platinum equal superior performance.recently published article demonstrated environmental burdens change using carbon nanotubes carbon substrate platinum.water air management pemfcsin type fuel cell membrane must hydrated requiring water evaporated precisely rate produced.water evaporated quickly membrane dries resistance across increases eventually crack creating gas short circuit hydrogen oxygen combine directly generating heat damage fuel cell.water evaporated slowly electrodes flood preventing reactants reaching catalyst stopping reaction.
Fuel cell	methods manage water cells developed like electroosmotic pumps focusing flow control.combustion engine steady ratio reactant oxygen necessary keep fuel cell operating efficiently.temperature managementthe temperature must maintained throughout cell order prevent destruction cell thermal loading.particularly challenging h → ho reaction highly exothermic large quantity heat generated within fuel cell.durability service life special requirements type cellsstationary fuel cell applications typically require hours reliable operation temperature − °c °c − °f °f automotive fuel cells require hour lifespan equivalent km mi extreme temperatures.current service life hours miles.automotive engines must also able start reliably − °c − °f high powertovolume ratio typically .
Fuel cell	kwl.limited carbon monoxide tolerance nonpedot cathodes.phosphoric acid fuel cell phosphoric acid fuel cells pafc first designed introduced g. v. elmore h. a. tanner.cells phosphoric acid used nonconductive electrolyte pass positive hydrogen ions anode cathode.cells commonly work temperatures degrees celsius.high temperature cause heat energy loss heat removed used properly.
Fuel cell	heat used produce steam air conditioning systems thermal energy consuming system.using heat cogeneration enhance efficiency phosphoric acid fuel cells .phosphoric acid electrolyte used pafcs nonconductive liquid acid forces electrons travel anode cathode external electrical circuit.since hydrogen ion production rate anode small platinum used catalyst increase ionization rate.key disadvantage cells use acidic electrolyte.
Fuel cell	increases corrosion oxidation components exposed phosphoric acid.solid acid fuel cell solid acid fuel cells safcs characterized use solid acid material electrolyte.low temperatures solid acids ordered molecular structure like salts.warmer temperatures °c cshso solid acids undergo phase transition become highly disordered superprotonic structures increases conductivity several orders magnitude.first proofofconcept safcs developed using cesium hydrogen sulfate cshso.
Fuel cell	current safc systems use cesium dihydrogen phosphate cshpo demonstrated lifetimes thousands hours.alkaline fuel cell alkaline fuel cell afc hydrogenoxygen fuel cell designed first demonstrated publicly francis thomas bacon .used primary source electrical energy apollo space program.cell consists two porous carbon electrodes impregnated suitable catalyst pt ag coo etc.space two electrodes filled concentrated solution koh naoh serves electrolyte.
Fuel cell	h gas gas bubbled electrolyte porous carbon electrodes.thus overall reaction involves combination hydrogen gas oxygen gas form water.cell runs continuously reactants supply exhausted.type cell operates efficiently temperature range – k provides potential .v. alkaline anion exchange membrane fuel cell aaemfc type afc employs solid polymer electrolyte instead aqueous potassium hydroxide koh superior aqueous afc.
Fuel cell	hightemperature fuel cells solid oxide fuel cell solid oxide fuel cells sofcs use solid material commonly ceramic material called yttriastabilized zirconia ysz electrolyte.sofcs made entirely solid materials limited flat plane configuration types fuel cells often designed rolled tubes.require high operating temperatures – °c run variety fuels including natural gas.sofcs unique since negatively charged oxygen ions travel cathode positive side fuel cell anode negative side fuel cell instead positively charged hydrogen ions travelling anode cathode case types fuel cells.oxygen gas fed cathode absorbs electrons create oxygen ions.oxygen ions travel electrolyte react hydrogen gas anode.
Fuel cell	reaction anode produces electricity water byproducts.carbon dioxide may also byproduct depending fuel carbon emissions sofc system less fossil fuel combustion plant.chemical reactions sofc system expressed followsanode reaction h o− → ho e−cathode reaction e− → o−overall cell reaction h → hosofc systems run fuels pure hydrogen gas.however since hydrogen necessary reactions listed fuel selected must contain hydrogen atoms.fuel cell operate fuel must converted pure hydrogen gas.
Fuel cell	sofcs capable internally reforming light hydrocarbons methane natural gas propane butane.fuel cells early stage development.challenges exist sofc systems due high operating temperatures.one challenge potential carbon dust build anode slows internal reforming process.research address carbon coking issue university pennsylvania shown use copperbased cermet heatresistant materials made ceramic metal reduce coking loss performance.another disadvantage sofc systems slow startup time making sofcs less useful mobile applications.
Fuel cell	despite disadvantages high operating temperature provides advantage removing need precious metal catalyst like platinum thereby reducing cost.additionally waste heat sofc systems may captured reused increasing theoretical overall efficiency high –.the high operating temperature largely due physical properties ysz electrolyte.temperature decreases ionic conductivity ysz.therefore obtain optimum performance fuel cell high operating temperature required.according website ceres power uk sofc fuel cell manufacturer developed method reducing operating temperature sofc system – degrees celsius.
Fuel cell	replaced commonly used ysz electrolyte cgo cerium gadolinium oxide electrolyte.lower operating temperature allows use stainless steel instead ceramic cell substrate reduces cost startup time system.moltencarbonate fuel cell molten carbonate fuel cells mcfcs require high operating temperature °c °f similar sofcs.mcfcs use lithium potassium carbonate salt electrolyte salt liquefies high temperatures allowing movement charge within cell – case negative carbonate ions.like sofcs mcfcs capable converting fossil fuel hydrogenrich gas anode eliminating need produce hydrogen externally.reforming process creates co emissions.
Fuel cell	mcfccompatible fuels include natural gas biogas gas produced coal.hydrogen gas reacts carbonate ions electrolyte produce water carbon dioxide electrons small amounts chemicals.electrons travel external circuit creating electricity return cathode.oxygen air carbon dioxide recycled anode react electrons form carbonate ions replenish electrolyte completing circuit.chemical reactions mcfc system expressed followsanode reaction co− h → ho co e−cathode reaction co ½o e− → co−overall cell reaction h ½o → hoas sofcs mcfc disadvantages include slow startup times high operating temperature.
Fuel cell	makes mcfc systems suitable mobile applications technology likely used stationary fuel cell purposes.main challenge mcfc technology cells short life span.hightemperature carbonate electrolyte lead corrosion anode cathode.factors accelerate degradation mcfc components decreasing durability cell life.researchers addressing problem exploring corrosionresistant materials components well fuel cell designs may increase cell life without decreasing performance.mcfcs hold several advantages fuel cell technologies including resistance impurities.
Fuel cell	prone carbon coking refers carbon buildup anode results reduced performance slowing internal fuel reforming process.therefore carbonrich fuels like gases made coal compatible system.united states department energy claims coal might even fuel option future assuming system made resistant impurities sulfur particulates result converting coal hydrogen.mcfcs also relatively high efficiencies.reach fueltoelectricity efficiency considerably higher – efficiency phosphoric acid fuel cell plant.
Fuel cell	efficiencies high fuel cell paired turbine heat captured used combined heat power chp system.fuelcell energy connecticutbased fuel cell manufacturer develops sells mcfc fuel cells.company says mcfc products range kw .mw systems achieve electrical efficiency utilize chp technology obtain higher overall efficiencies.one product dfcerg combined gas turbine according company achieves electrical efficiency .electric storage fuel cell electric storage fuel cell conventional battery chargeable electric power input using conventional electrochemical effect.
Fuel cell	however battery includes hydrogen oxygen inputs alternatively charging battery chemically.comparison fuel cell types glossary terms tableanodethe electrode oxidation loss electrons takes place.fuel cells galvanic cells anode negative terminal electrolytic cells electrolysis occurs anode positive terminal.aqueous solutionof relating resembling watermade water.catalysta chemical substance increases rate reaction without consumed reaction potentially recovered reaction mixture chemically unchanged.catalyst lowers activation energy required allowing reaction proceed quickly lower temperature.fuel cell catalyst facilitates reaction oxygen hydrogen.
Fuel cell	usually made platinum powder thinly coated onto carbon paper cloth.catalyst rough porous maximum surface area platinum exposed hydrogen oxygen.platinumcoated side catalyst faces membrane fuel cell.cathodethe electrode reduction gain electrons occurs.fuel cells galvanic cells cathode positive terminal electrolytic cells electrolysis occurs cathode negative terminal.electrolytea substance conducts charged ions one electrode fuel cell battery electrolyzer.fuel cell stackindividual fuel cells connected series.fuel cells stacked increase voltage.matrixsomething within something else originates develops takes form.membranethe separating layer fuel cell acts electrolyte ionexchanger well barrier film separating gases anode cathode compartments fuel cell.molten carbonate fuel cell mcfca type fuel cell contains molten carbonate electrolyte.
Fuel cell	carbonate ions co− transported cathode anode.operating temperatures typically near °c.phosphoric acid fuel cell pafca type fuel cell electrolyte consists concentrated phosphoric acid hpo.protons h transported anode cathode.operating temperature range generally – °c.protonexchange membrane fuel cell pema fuel cell incorporating solid polymer membrane used electrolyte.protons h transported anode cathode.
Fuel cell	operating temperature range generally – °c low temperature protonexchange membrane fuel cell ltpemfc.pem fuel cell operating temperature °c called high temperature protonexchange membrane fuel cell htpemfc.solid oxide fuel cell sofca type fuel cell electrolyte solid nonporous metal oxide typically zirconium oxide zro treated yo o− transported cathode anode.co reformate gas oxidized co anode.temperatures operation typically – °c.solutionan act process solid liquid gaseous substance homogeneously mixed liquid sometimes gas solid.a homogeneous mixture formed process especially singlephase liquid system.the condition dissolved.efficiency leading fuel cell types theoretical maximum efficiency energy efficiency system device converts energy measured ratio amount useful energy put system output energy total amount energy put input energy useful output energy percentage total input energy.
Fuel cell	case fuel cells useful output energy measured electrical energy produced system.input energy energy stored fuel.according u.s. department energy fuel cells generally energy efficient.higher systems energy generation.example typical internal combustion engine car energy efficient.
Fuel cell	combined heat power chp systems heat produced fuel cell captured put use increasing efficiency system –.the theoretical maximum efficiency type power generation system never reached practice consider steps power generation production transportation storage fuel conversion electricity mechanical power.however calculation allows comparison different types power generation.theoretical maximum efficiency fuel cell approaches theoretical maximum efficiency internal combustion engines approximately .practice fuel cell vehicle tanktowheel efficiency greater low loads shows average values driving cycle like nedc new european driving cycle used test procedure.comparable nedc value diesel vehicle .
Fuel cell	honda released demonstration fuel cell electric vehicle honda fcx clarity fuel stack claiming tanktowheel efficiency.it also important take losses due fuel production transportation storage account.fuel cell vehicles running compressed hydrogen may powerplanttowheel efficiency hydrogen stored highpressure gas stored liquid hydrogen.fuel cells cannot store energy like battery except hydrogen applications standalone power plants based discontinuous sources solar wind power combined electrolyzers storage systems form energy storage system.hydrogen used oil refining chemicals fertilizer production hydrogen produced steam methane reforming emits carbon dioxide.overall efficiency electricity hydrogen back electricity plants known roundtrip efficiency using pure hydrogen pure oxygen percent depending gas density conditions.
Fuel cell	electrolyzerfuel cell system store indefinite quantities hydrogen therefore suited longterm storage.solidoxide fuel cells produce heat recombination oxygen hydrogen.ceramic run hot degrees celsius.heat captured used heat water micro combined heat power mchp application.heat captured total efficiency reach – unit consider production distribution losses.chp units developed today european home market.professor jeremy p. meyers electrochemical society journal interface wrote fuel cells efficient relative combustion engines efficient batteries primarily due inefficiency oxygen reduction reaction ... oxygen evolution reaction hydrogen formed electrolysis water.... make sense operation disconnected grid fuel provided continuously.
Fuel cell	applications require frequent relatively rapid startups ... zero emissions requirement enclosed spaces warehouses hydrogen considered acceptable reactant pem fuel cell becoming increasingly attractive choice exchanging batteries inconvenient.military organizations evaluating fuel cells determine could significantly reduce battery weight carried soldiers.applications power stationary fuel cells used commercial industrial residential primary backup power generation.fuel cells useful power sources remote locations spacecraft remote weather stations large parks communications centers rural locations including research stations certain military applications.fuel cell system running hydrogen compact lightweight major moving parts.
Fuel cell	fuel cells moving parts involve combustion ideal conditions achieve .reliability.equates less one minute downtime sixyear period.since fuel cell electrolyzer systems store fuel rather rely external storage units successfully applied largescale energy storage rural areas one example.many different types stationary fuel cells efficiencies vary energy efficient.however fuel cells waste heat used heat building cogeneration system efficiency increase .
Fuel cell	significantly efficient traditional coal power plants one third energy efficient.assuming production scale fuel cells could save – energy costs used cogeneration systems.fuel cells also much cleaner traditional power generation fuel cell power plant using natural gas hydrogen source would create less one ounce pollution co every kw·h produced compared pounds pollutants generated conventional combustion systems.fuel cells also produce less nitrogen oxide emissions conventional coalfired power plants.one pilot program operating stuart island washington state.stuart island energy initiative built complete closedloop system solar panels power electrolyzer makes hydrogen.
Fuel cell	hydrogen stored u.s.gallon l tank pounds per square inch kpa runs relion fuel cell provide full electric backup offthegrid residence.another closed system loop unveiled late hempstead ny.fuel cells used lowquality gas landfills wastewater treatment plants generate power lower methane emissions..mw fuel cell plant california said largest type.smallscale subkwhr fuel cells developed use residential offgrid deployment.
Fuel cell	cogeneration combined heat power chp fuel cell systems including micro combined heat power microchp systems used generate electricity heat homes see home fuel cell office building factories.system generates constant electric power selling excess power back grid consumed time produces hot air water waste heat.result chp systems potential save primary energy make use waste heat generally rejected thermal energy conversion systems.typical capacity range home fuel cell – kwel – kwth.chp systems linked absorption chillers use waste heat refrigeration.the waste heat fuel cells diverted summer directly ground providing cooling waste heat winter pumped directly building.
Fuel cell	university minnesota owns patent rights type systemcogeneration systems reach efficiency – electric remainder thermal.phosphoricacid fuel cells pafc comprise largest segment existing chp products worldwide provide combined efficiencies close .molten carbonate mcfc solidoxide fuel cells sofc also used combined heat power generation electrical energy efficiencies around .disadvantages cogeneration systems include slow ramping rates high cost short lifetime.also need hot water storage tank smooth thermal heat production serious disadvantage domestic market place space domestic properties great premium.deltaee consultants stated global sales fuel cell microcombined heat power passed conventional systems sales .
Fuel cell	japanese ene farm project pass fc mchp systems .pemfc .sofc installed period – units lng lpg.fuel cell electric vehicles fcevs automobiles yearend fcevs leased sold worldwide.three fuel cell electric vehicles introduced commercial lease sale honda clarity toyota mirai hyundai ix fcev.
Fuel cell	additional demonstration models include honda fcx clarity mercedesbenz fcell.june demonstration fcevs driven km mi refuelings.fuel cell electric vehicles feature average range miles refuelings.refueled less minutes.u.s. department energys fuel cell technology program states fuel cells achieved – efficiency onequarter power – vehicle efficiency full power durability km mi less degradation.
Fuel cell	welltowheels simulation analysis address economics market constraints general motors partners estimated per mile traveled fuel cell electric vehicle running compressed gaseous hydrogen produced natural gas could use less energy emit less greenhouse gasses internal combustion vehicle.in toyota introduced first fuel cell vehicle mirai price .hyundai introduced limited production hyundai ix fcev lease agreement.honda started leasing honda clarity fuel cell.toyota introduced second generation mirai brand improving fuel efficiency expanding range compared original sedan model.criticism commentators believe hydrogen fuel cell cars never become economically competitive technologies take decades become profitable.
Fuel cell	elon musk ceo batteryelectric vehicle maker tesla motors stated fuel cells use cars never commercially viable inefficiency producing transporting storing hydrogen flammability gas among reasons.in lux research inc. issued report stated dream hydrogen economy ... nearer.concluded capital cost ... limit adoption mere .gw providing nearly insurmountable barrier adoption except niche applications.analysis concluded pem stationary market reach billion vehicle market including forklifts reach total billion.analyses cite lack extensive hydrogen infrastructure u.s. ongoing challenge fuel cell electric vehicle commercialization.in joseph romm author hype hydrogen said fcvs still overcome high fueling cost lack fueldelivery infrastructure pollution caused producing hydrogen.
Fuel cell	would take several miracles overcome problems simultaneously coming decades.concluded renewable energy cannot economically used make hydrogen fcv fleet either future.greentech medias analyst reached similar conclusions .clean technica listed disadvantages hydrogen fuel cell vehicles.car throttle.a video real engineering noted notwithstanding introduction vehicles run hydrogen using hydrogen fuel cars help reduce carbon emissions transportation.
Fuel cell	hydrogen still produced fossil fuels releases carbon dioxide producing hydrogen water energyconsuming process.storing hydrogen requires energy either cool liquid state put tanks high pressure delivering hydrogen fueling stations requires energy may release carbon.hydrogen needed move fcv kilometer costs approximately times much electricity needed move bev distance.assessment concluded hydrogen vehicles still efficient battery evs efficient.buses august fuel cell buses service around world.
Fuel cell	manufactured utc power toyota ballard hydrogenics proton motor.utc buses driven km mi .fuel cell buses higher fuel economy diesel buses natural gas buses.as nrel evaluating several current planned fuel cell bus projects u.s. trucks december toyota hino motors together seveneleven japan familymart lawson announced agreed jointly consider introducing lightduty fuel cell electric trucks lightduty fcets.lawson started testing low temperature delivery end july tokyo using hino dutro toyota mirai fuel cell implemented.familymart started testing okazaki city.in august toyota announced plan make fuel cell modules kentucky autoassembly plant use zeroemission big rigs heavyduty commercial vehicles.
Fuel cell	plan begin assembling electrochemical devices .forklifts fuel cell forklift also called fuel cell lift truck fuel cellpowered industrial forklift truck used lift transport materials.fuel cell forklifts used material handling us received funding doe .fuel cell fleets operated various companies including sysco foods fedex freight genco wegmans cocacola kimberly clark whole foods heb grocers.europe demonstrated fuel cell forklifts hylift extended hylifteurope units projects france austria.
Fuel cell	pike research projected fuel cellpowered forklifts would largest driver hydrogen fuel demand .most companies europe us use petroleumpowered forklifts vehicles work indoors emissions must controlled instead use electric forklifts.fuel cellpowered forklifts provide benefits batterypowered forklifts refueled minutes used refrigerated warehouses performance degraded lower temperatures.fc units often designed dropin replacements.motorcycles bicycles british manufacturer hydrogenpowered fuel cells intelligent energy ie produced first working hydrogenrun motorcycle called env emission neutral vehicle.motorcycle holds enough fuel run four hours travel km mi urban area top speed kmh mph.
Fuel cell	honda developed fuel cell motorcycle utilized honda fc stack.other examples motorbikes bicycles use hydrogen fuel cells include taiwanese company apfcts scooter using fueling system italys acta spa suzuki burgman scooter ie fuel cell received eu whole vehicle type approval .suzuki motor corp. ie announced joint venture accelerate commercialization zeroemission vehicles.airplanes worlds first propellerdriven airplane powered entirely fuel cell flown.fuel cell stack design allowed fuel cell integrated planes aerodynamic surfaces.fuel cellpowered unmanned aerial vehicles uav include horizon fuel cell uav set record distance flown small uav .
Fuel cell	boeing researchers industry partners throughout europe conducted experimental flight tests february manned airplane powered fuel cell lightweight batteries.fuel cell demonstrator airplane called used protonexchange membrane pem fuel celllithiumion battery hybrid system power electric motor coupled conventional propeller.in naval research laboratorys nrls ion tiger utilized hydrogenpowered fuel cell flew hours minutes.fuel cells also tested considered provide auxiliary power aircraft replacing fossil fuel generators previously used start engines power board electrical needs reducing carbon emissions.raptor e drone made successful test flight using fuel cell lighter lithiumion battery replaced.flight lasted minutes altitude metres ft although fuel cell reportedly enough fuel fly two hours.
Fuel cell	fuel contained approximately solid square centimetre .sq pellets composed proprietary chemical within unpressurized cartridge.pellets physically robust operate temperatures warm °c °f.cell arcola energy.lockheed martin skunk works stalker electric uav powered solid oxide fuel cell.boats worlds first fuel cell boat hydra used afc system .
Fuel cell	kw net output.amsterdam introduced fuel cellpowered boats ferry people around citys canals.submarines type submarines german italian navies use fuel cells remain submerged weeks without need surface.the ua nonnuclear submarine developed german naval shipyard howaldtswerke deutsche werft.system consists nine pem fuel cells providing kw kw each.ship silent giving advantage detection submarines.
Fuel cell	naval paper theorized possibility nuclearfuel cell hybrid whereby fuel cell used silent operations required replenished nuclear reactor water.portable power systems portable fuel cell systems generally classified weighing kg providing power less kw.potential market size smaller fuel cells quite large per annum potential growth rate market size around billion leading great deal research devoted development portable power cells.within market two groups identified.first microfuel cell market w range power smaller electronic devices.
Fuel cell	second kw range generators larger scale power generation e.g.military outposts remote oil fields.microfuel cells primarily aimed penetrating market phones laptops.primarily attributed advantageous energy density provided fuel cells lithiumion battery entire system.battery system includes charger well battery itself.fuel cell system would include cell necessary fuel peripheral attachments.

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