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905857 | Cross River State | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cross%20River%20State | Cross River State
of volcanic-stone monoliths of unknown age), the Mary Slessor Tomb, Calabar Drill Monkey Sanctuary, Cross River National Park, Afi Mountain walkway canopy, Kwa falls, Agbokim waterfalls, Tinapa Business Resort, Mono rail way and the annual Calabar Carnival that takes place during the Christmas period.... | 18,600 |
905857 | Cross River State | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cross%20River%20State | Cross River State
trips to the Obanliku Mountain Resort.
# Education.
Tertiary educational institutions in the State includes University of Calabar and Cross River State University of Technology located in the state capital Calabar, Ibrahim Babangida College of Agriculture located in Obubra Local Government Area, Cro... | 18,601 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
Ford LTD (Americas)
The Ford LTD (pronounced "el-tee-dee") is a range of automobiles manufactured by Ford Motor Company for the 1965 to 1986 model years. Introduced as the highest trim of the full-size Ford model range, the LTD introduced options and features normally reserved for more luxurious Li... | 18,602 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
Squire five-door woodgrain station wagon.
For the 1979 model year, the LTD was downsized, becoming externally smaller than the LTD II, and for 1983, it became a mid-size car. The Ford Granada was discontinued, with the LTD nameplate moving to a restyled version of that car; the full-size LTD then b... | 18,603 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
a "Limited" trim designation for the Galaxie. There is evidence in early 1970s Australian LTD sales brochures, that "Lincoln Type Design" was adapted by Ford's Australian marketing, as the meaning of the LTD nameplate to play up Lincoln-like exclusitivity and design influence of its Falcon-based LTD... | 18,604 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
(1965–1968).
The Ford Galaxie 500 LTD was introduced in August 1964 at the start of the 1965 model year and prompted the Chevrolet Caprice at midyear 1965, the AMC Ambassador "DPL" in 1966, the Plymouth Fury "VIP," and the similar Dodge Monaco. These upscale models had features found primarily on l... | 18,605 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
were interiors made of better materials and more powerful engines. Most of these upper trim models were usually hardtops as opposed to pillared bodies.
In 1966, the LTD series became completely separate from the Galaxie 500, which continued as the mid-line offering (the performance-oriented Galaxie... | 18,606 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
cylinder, four-way hazard flashers, and front outboard shoulder belt mounting points.
The 1968 model year would be transitional for the LTD and all full-size Fords. Though the body and frame of the 1965–1967 models were carryovers, the 1968 model featured horizontal hidden headlights and a more for... | 18,607 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
wood-grained Country Squire became the "LTD Country Squire."
This generation was introduced with covered headlights on the top level LTD coupe, sedan and station wagon, which were deployed using a vacuum canister system that kept the doors down when a vacuum condition existed in the lines, provided... | 18,608 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
way to a more conventional design, and an energy-absorbing steering column was introduced as part of the 1968 safety package.
## Limousine.
A limousine version of the car was also considered, with the extra length at the C-pillar and the rear doors. At least one example was built, by Lehmann-Peter... | 18,609 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
inches.
## Timeline.
1969:Ford LTD is given a redesign on a longer (121-inch) wheelbase chassis; the hidden headlights and formal roofline introduced in 1967 are retained. An all-new body features a split grille with a horizontal center divider (shared with XLs and Country Squires).
- 1970: The s... | 18,610 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
column.
- 1971: The LTD was given a styling update. In the rear, the long-running Ford styling tradition ended as the twin round or square "jet exhaust" taillights were replaced by horizontal taillights on all full-size Fords. In between the two tail lamps was a center "third" brakelight; on the Ga... | 18,611 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
consoles; the console was similar to the console in the XLs and Mercury Marauders of 1969–1970, with a "stirrup" style shift handle.
A customized 1971 LTD is featured prominently in the 1973 American film White Lightning. It is the car driven by the film’s lead character, portrayed by Burt Reynolds... | 18,612 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
the LTD was given a major redesign for 1973. The requirements for 5-mph front bumpers had taken effect, with larger rear bumpers to be added in 1973. While the redesign slightly decreased the weight of the LTD, it still was far in excess of two tons, making agility and fuel economy both key weak poi... | 18,613 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
carryover from the 1973 model year. Mid-year, a non-woodgrain LTD wagon became available. A new Federal law required seat belts to be buckled before the starter would operate; public protests prompted the government to relax this requirement. Subsequent models got a simple "Fasten Seat Belt" warning... | 18,614 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
(as well as to differentiate it from the Mercury Marquis), the two-door was converted from a hardtop to a coupe with wide B-pillars and a tall, narrow "opera window" (Chevrolet did the same thing in 1973 with the Caprice Coupe). More or less the Ford counterpart to the Mercury Grand Marquis, the LTD... | 18,615 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
and fuel filler sported warnings to this effect.
- 1976: Four-wheel disc brakes and 8-track were optional. Last year for LTD Brougham trim level.
- 1977: Since the LTD Brougham had been discontinued, the LTD Landau received the former Brougham interior as the base offering. Optional interiors, inc... | 18,616 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
time since the 1940s, the full-size Ford line was powered exclusively by V8 engines. The base engine was the 302 cid V8. The next largest engine was Ford's 351 CID V8, the most common choice. Still larger was Ford's 400 CID V8. Topping the range was the 429 cid V8, in 1974 this was replaced by the 4... | 18,617 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
as a downsized alternative to the full-sized LTD which had competition from GM's newly downsized full-sized cars. The LTD II was based on the Ford Torino and served as a restyled replacement for it. The LTD II styling was also adapted to update the final generation of the Ford Ranchero. The LTD II w... | 18,618 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
view that such a radically smaller "full-size car" would turn off buyers; advertisements for LTD and Mercury Marquis touted the "road-hugging weight" of the larger cars and compared their larger dimensions side by side with GM flagship sedan Cadillac Fleetwood Brougham. For owners who would still pr... | 18,619 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
Louisville Assembly, with Atlanta Assembly, Los Angeles Assembly, and Oakville Assembly following suit in August. Unlike the Chrysler R platform, the Ford Panther platform was completely new from the ground up. The LTD and Marquis lost nearly 15 inches in length and some 400 pounds of curb weight wi... | 18,620 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
option in 1982. For 1981, to further improve fuel economy (while avoiding diesel or 6-cylinder engines), Ford introduced a variant of the Windsor V8. The 255 proved an unpopular choice; at 115 hp, its output was ill-suited for the LTD's size and the engine was dropped after 1982. Most LTDs of this ... | 18,621 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
Victoria replaced the Landau on a permanent basis; it had a landau roof with a brushed aluminum band, a stylistic element shared with the 1977–1979 Thunderbird and ultimately traced back to the 1955 Ford from whence the Crown Victoria name originated. Mercury's contemporary Grand Marquis was equival... | 18,622 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
a stand-alone model (as did the Mercury Grand Marquis).
# Fourth generation (1983–1986).
For model year 1983, Ford introduced the LTD and Mercury Marquis as rebadged variants of the second generation Ford Granada and Mercury Cougar (sedan and wagon), all using the Fox platform. The full-size cars ... | 18,623 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
a 3.3 L "Thriftpower Six" inline-6, and a "5.0L Windsor" V8 (upgraded to fuel injection). Inherited from the Granada was a 3.8 L "Essex" V6; after 1984, the V6 replaced the inline-6 entirely. For 1984, the V6 gained fuel injection in United States versions (Canadian-market versions remained carburet... | 18,624 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
drive in the mid-size segment; the LTD/Marquis was ultimately superseded by the Ford Taurus/Mercury Sable model year 1986, with Ford marketing both the LTD/Marquis and the Ford Taurus for the 1986 model year. The last LTD rolled off the Atlanta, Georgia assembly line on December 13, 1985 and off the... | 18,625 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
and 10 inch rear drum brakes, and a 3.27:1 rear gear ratio with a Traction-Lok differential. The LX model was the only LTD to have a tachometer in the instrument cluster. The center console and floor-mounted shifter re-appeared, having last been available in the full-size 1972 model year. Police Pac... | 18,626 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
in the 1985 model year, with only 134 produced that year.
# Brazil.
The LTD was built locally in Brazil between 1967 and 1983, based on the 1966 Galaxie platform. A stretch limousine version was assembled locally as well.
# Venezuela.
The LTD was introduced to the Venezuelan market in 1966, aimi... | 18,627 |
905858 | Ford LTD (Americas) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ford%20LTD%20(Americas) | Ford LTD (Americas)
LTDs were assembled in the Ford plant of Valencia, Venezuela, some for export to Colombia, Bolivia, Ecuador and Peru.
Versions of the Fox-body 1983–1986 North American LTD manufactured in Venezuela continued the use of the Granada name complete with uplevel Elite badged versions. There was also a F... | 18,628 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
Buenaventura Báez
Ramón Buenaventura Báez Méndez, better known as Buenaventura Báez (July 14, 1812March 14, 1884) was the President of the Dominican Republic for five nonconsecutive terms. He is known for attempting to annex the Dominican Republic to other countries on several occasions. His son Ramó... | 18,629 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
between a married Spanish woman and the priest Antonio Sánchez-Valverde. Pablo was raised by a French silversmith (a factor that generated a deep francophilia in both Pablo and Buenaventura) known as "Monsieur Capellier", and became a wealthy businessman, slaveholder and politician. Teresa de Jesús Mé... | 18,630 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
swarthy, earning the nickname of "Jabao". Cultured and good-looking, Báez was very popular among women, especially because of his gallantry.
Due to his family's fortune he was able to study in Europe, particularly France. There, he learned various languages including English and French. When his fath... | 18,631 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
led a faction of Dominicans that tried to remove the anti-white bias in the Haitian Constitution, but failed.
Báez was, at first, completely and totally against any move to leave the union with Haiti. Then, on 15 December 1843 Báez, as leader of the Dominican legislative faction, proposed to French c... | 18,632 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
and imprisoned some of them, tried futilely to prevent the publication of a copy of the Act of Independence in January 1844 in Azua, and in February did not allow the flag of the newly Dominican state to be raised in the city plaza; in part, he was very pessimistic due to the numerical superiority of ... | 18,633 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
a protectorate over the Dominican Republic, but the French refused. As president for the first time, from 1849 until 1853, he attempted to convince the United States to take over the country. He was president again from 1856 until 1857, when he was deposed in a coup.
Báez next supported the idea of h... | 18,634 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
president, from 1868 until 1874, during which time he again attempted to have the United States annex the Dominican Republic. This time he was almost successful, as he convinced American President Ulysses S. Grant to send warships to the Dominican Republic, and drew up an annexation treaty which reach... | 18,635 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
Offspring.
Genealogical studies have identified President Báez, and President Espaillat as well, as the most recent common ancestors for most of the Dominican oligarchy, since their offspring managed to establish bonds with the most rich and powerful families from Santiago, and thus, from the country... | 18,636 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
Amelia Vicini Cabral de Barletta (1925–2006)
- José María Vicini Cabral (1926–2007)
- José Leopoldo Vicini Pérez
- Marco Vicini Pérez
- Felipe Vicini Cabral (1936–1997)
- Auristela Cabral Bermúdez (1901–1988)
- Donald Joseph Reid Cabral (1923–2006)
- William John Reid Cabral (1925–2010)
- Patr... | 18,637 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
José María Cabral Lluberes (b. 1967)
- Petrica Cabral Vega (b. 1938)
- María Amalia León Cabral (b. 1960)
- Sarah Amalia Jorge León
- Lidia Josefina León Cabral (b. 1962)
- José Eduardo León Cabral (1963–1975)
- Marco Buenaventura Cabral Vega
- Marco Antonio Cabral Bermúdez (1906–1973)
- Josef... | 18,638 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
Luis José Cabral Arzeno
- Lucía Amelia Cabral Arzeno
- Virginia Cabral Arzeno
- Ramona Antonio Cabral y Báez
- Eduardo Sánchez Cabral
- Buenaventura Cabral y Báez
- Carmen Amelia Mercedes Cabral Machado
- Carlos Alberto Cabral Machado
- Pablo Buenaventura Cabral Machado
- Mario Fermín Cabral ... | 18,639 |
905896 | Buenaventura Báez | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Buenaventura%20Báez | Buenaventura Báez
o
- Mario Fermín Cabral y Báez (1877–1961)
- Manuel Antonio Cabral Tavares (1907–1999)
- Alba María Antonia "Peggy" Cabral Cornero (b. 1947)
- Teodoro Osvaldo Buenaventura Báez Machado (1857–?)
- José Ramón Báez López-Penha (1909–1995)
- Buenaventura Báez López-Penha
- Marcos Antonio Báez Cocco... | 18,640 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
Transparent ceramics
Many ceramic materials, both glassy and crystalline, have found use as optically transparent materials in various forms from bulk solid-state components to high surface area forms such as thin films, coatings, and fibers. Such devices have found widespread use for various appl... | 18,641 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
scale of the incident light wave), optical transparency in polycrystalline materials is limited by the amount of light that is scattered by their microstructural features. The amount of light scattering therefore depends on the wavelength of the incident radiation, or light.
For example, since vis... | 18,642 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
as opposed to transparent materials. Recent nanoscale technology, however, has made possible the production of (poly)crystalline transparent ceramics such as alumina AlO, yttria alumina garnet (YAG), and neodymium-doped .
# Introduction.
Transparent ceramics have recently acquired a high degree o... | 18,643 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
throughout the 3–5 micrometer mid-IR range. Yttria is fully transparent from 3–5 micrometers, but lacks sufficient strength, hardness, and thermal shock resistance for high-performance aerospace applications. Not surprisingly, a combination of these two materials in the form of the yttria-alumina g... | 18,644 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
with good optical properties. The method avoids many of the problems encountered in conventional glass forming and may be extensible to other oxides. This goal has been readily accomplished and amply demonstrated in laboratories and research facilities worldwide using the emerging chemical processi... | 18,645 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
Columbia University, Arthur Schawlow at Bell Labs, and Gould at TRG (Technical Research Group). Maiman used a solid-state light-pumped synthetic ruby to produce red laser light at a wavelength of 694 nanometers (nm). Synthethic ruby lasers are still in use. Both sapphires and rubies are corundum, a... | 18,646 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
in a broad variety of laser applications is determined by a combination of high emission cross section with long spontaneous emission lifetime, high damage threshold, mechanical strength, thermal conductivity, and low thermal beam distortion. The fact that the Czochralski crystal growth of Nd:YAG i... | 18,647 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
are typically 1–5 kW.
In addition, Nd:YAG lasers are used in ophthalmology to correct posterior capsular opacification, a condition that may occur after cataract surgery, and for peripheral iridotomy in patients with acute angle-closure glaucoma, where it has superseded surgical iridectomy. Freque... | 18,648 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
cellulitis, a rare skin disease usually occurring on the scalp. Using hysteroscopy in the field of gynecology, the Nd:YAG laser has been used for removal of uterine septa within the inside of the uterus.
In dentistry, Nd:YAG lasers are used for soft tissue surgeries in the oral cavity.
## Glasses... | 18,649 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
of n and the strain-optical coefficient may be tailored by altering the chemical composition. Glasses have lower thermal conductivities than the alumina or YAG, however, which imposes limitations on their use in continuous and high repetition-rate applications.
The principal differences between th... | 18,650 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
it more difficult to obtain continuous wave laser operation (CW), relative to the same lasing ions in crystalline solid laser hosts.
Several glasses are used in transparent armor, such as normal plate glass (soda-lime-silica), borosilicate glass, and fused silica. Plate glass has been the most com... | 18,651 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
based glass-ceramic known as TransArm, for use in transparent armor systems. It has all the workability of an amorphous glass, but upon recrystallization it demonstrates properties similar to a crystalline ceramic. Vycor is 96% fused silica glass, which is crystal clear, lightweight and high streng... | 18,652 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
components are free of internal stress or intrinsic birefringence, and allow relatively large doping levels or optimized custom-designed doping profiles. This highlights the use of ceramic nanomaterials as being particularly important for high-energy laser elements and applications.
Primary scatte... | 18,653 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
nanomaterials are in the form of grain boundaries which separate nanoscale regions of crystalline order. Moreover, when the size of the scattering center (or grain boundary) is reduced well below the size of the wavelength of the light being scattered, the light scattering no longer occurs to any s... | 18,654 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
light (~ 0.5 µm or 500 nm) eliminates much of the light scattering, resulting in a translucent or even transparent material.
Furthermore, results indicate that microscopic pores in sintered ceramic nanomaterials, mainly trapped at the junctions of microcrystalline grains, cause light to scatter an... | 18,655 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
In addition, Livermore researchers realized that these fine-grained ceramic nanomaterials might greatly benefit high-powered lasers used in the National Ignition Facility (NIF) Programs Directorate. In particular, a Livermore research team began to acquire advanced transparent nanomaterials from Ko... | 18,656 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
from nanoscale particles and powders, and determined the most important parameters affecting their quality. In these objects, the team largely followed the Japanese production and processing methodologies, and used an in house furnace to vacuum sinter the nanopowders. All specimens were then sent o... | 18,657 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
vacuum sintering techniques. The spectroscopic studies suggest overall improvement in absorption and emission and reduction in scattering loss. Scanning electron microscope and transmission electron microscope observations revealed an excellent optical quality with low pore volume and narrow grain ... | 18,658 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
studies favor the use of high dopant concentration in the design of an efficient microchip laser. With 4 at% dopant, the group obtained a slope efficiency of 40%. High-power laser experiments yield an optical-to-optical conversion efficiency of 30% for Nd (0.6 at%) YAG nanomaterial as compared to 3... | 18,659 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
the 1960s.
In 1966, a transparent ceramic, Yttralox, was invented by Dr. Richard C. Anderson at the General Electric Research Laboratory, with further work at GE's Metallurgy and Ceramics Laboratory by Drs. Paul J. Jorgensen, Joseph H. Rosolowski, and Douglas St. Pierre. Yttralox is "transparent a... | 18,660 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
by Greskovich and Woods. The additive served to control grain growth during densification, so that porosity remained on grain boundaries and not trapped inside grains where it would be quite difficult to eliminate during the initial stages of sintering. Typically, as polycrystalline ceramics densif... | 18,661 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
infrared (IR) applications because it is one of the longest wavelength transmitting oxides. It is refractory with a melting point of 2430 °C and has a moderate coefficient of thermal expansion coefficient. The thermal shock and erosion resistance is considered to be intermediate among the oxides, b... | 18,662 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
ytterbium as dopant allow the efficient operation both in cw operation
and in pulsed regimes.
At high concentration of excitations (of order of 1%) and poor cooling, the quenching of emission at laser frequency and avalanche broadband emission takes place.
## Future.
The Livermore team is also ... | 18,663 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
solid containing yttrium, aluminum, and neodymium. The smoke is then collected, which consists of spherical nanoparticles.
The Livermore team is also exploring new forming techniques (e.g. extrusion molding) which have the capacity to create more diverse, and possibly more complicated, shapes. The... | 18,664 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
ions near the slab center.
In general, nanomaterials promise to greatly expand the availability of low-cost, high-end laser components in much larger sizes than would be possible with traditional single crystalline ceramics. Many classes of laser designs could benefit from nanomaterial-based laser... | 18,665 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
(NVD) is an optical instrument that allows images to be produced in levels of light approaching total darkness. They are most often used by the military and law enforcement agencies, but are available to civilian users. Night vision devices were first used in World War II,
and came into wide use d... | 18,666 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
than the more standard two 18 mm tubes.
Thermal images are visual displays of the amount of infrared (IR) energy emitted, transmitted, and reflected by an object. Because there are multiple sources of the infrared energy, it is difficult to get an accurate temperature of an object using this metho... | 18,667 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
the near-infrared, just beyond the visual spectrum, and can see emitted or reflected near-infrared in complete visual darkness. All objects above the absolute zero temperature (0 K) emit infrared radiation. Hence, an excellent way to measure thermal variations is to use an infrared vision device, u... | 18,668 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
examples of infrared imaging science. Thermal imaging cameras detect radiation in the infrared range of the electromagnetic spectrum (roughly 900–14,000 nanometers or 0.9–14 µm) and produce images of that radiation, called "thermograms".
Since infrared radiation is emitted by all objects near room... | 18,669 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
and other warm-blooded animals become easily visible against the environment, day or night. As a result, thermography is particularly useful to the military and to security services.
## Thermography.
In thermographic imaging, infrared radiation with wavelengths between 8–13 micrometers strikes th... | 18,670 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
in the detector must demonstrate large changes in resistance as a result of minute changes in temperature. As the material is heated, due to the incoming infrared radiation, the resistance of the material decreases. This is related to the material's temperature coefficient of resistance (TCR) speci... | 18,671 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
of thin films of these crystlalline compounds with superior properties, which may be easily integrated into the fabrication process. VO has low resistance but undergoes a metal-insulator phase change near 67 °C and also has a lower TCR value. On the other hand, VO exhibits high resistance and also ... | 18,672 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
are critical, as the transmission window and related cut-offs (UV – IR) control the spectral bandwidth over which the window is operational. Not only must these materials possess abrasion resistance and strength properties common of most armor applications, but due to the extreme temperatures assoc... | 18,673 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
to track it. Missiles that use infrared seeking are often referred to as "heat-seekers", since infrared is just below the visible spectrum of light in frequency and is radiated strongly by hot bodies. Many objects such as people, vehicle engines and aircraft generate and retain heat, and as such, a... | 18,674 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
While the strength of sapphire is better than that of other available mid-range infrared dome materials at room temperature, it weakens above ~600 °C.
Limitations to larger area sapphires are often business related, in that larger induction furnaces and costly tooling dies are necessary in order t... | 18,675 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
missiles will require new domes that are substantially more durable than those in use today, while still retaining maximum transparency across a wide wavelength range. A long-standing trade-off exists between optical bandpass and mechanical durability within the current collection of single-phase i... | 18,676 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
its undoped polycrystalline yttria, while lanthana-doped yttria was similarly developed by GTE Labs. The two versions had comparable IR transmittance, fracture toughness, and thermal expansion, while the undoped version exhibited twice the value of thermal conductivity.
Renewed interest in yttria ... | 18,677 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
levels that were too high to allow processing to full transparency, 2 of them were processed to theoretical density and moderate transparency. Samples were sintered to a closed pore state at temperatures as low as 1400 C.
After the relatively short sintering period, the component is placed in a ho... | 18,678 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
yttria nanomaterials were produced at lower temperatures, shorter total firing times, and without extra additives which tend to reduce the thermal conductivity.
Recently, a newer method has been developed by Mouzon, which relies on the methods of glass-encapsulation, combined with vacuum sintering... | 18,679 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
and optical microscopy both in reflection and transmission. The key to this method is to keep porosity intergranular during pre-sintering, so that it can be removed subsequently by HIP treatment. It was found that agglomerates of closely packed particles are helpful to reach that purpose, since the... | 18,680 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
is limited solid solubility in either one of the constituent phases, permitting a wide range of compositions to be investigated and compared to each other. According to the phase diagram, bi-phase mixtures are stable for all temperatures below ~ 2100 °C. In addition, neither yttria nor magnesia sho... | 18,681 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
suggests that limiting the grain size of the nanocomposite to approximately 1/15th of the wavelength of light is sufficient to limit scattering.
Nanocomposites of yttria and magnesia have been produced with a grain size of approximately 200 nm. These materials have yielded good transmission in the... | 18,682 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
depending on the material system, and there does not appear to be any general consensus regarding strengthening mechanisms, even within a given system. In the SiC/AlO system, for example, it is widely known and accepted that the addition of SiC particles to the AlO matrix results in a change of fai... | 18,683 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
due to residual thermal stresses introduced upon cooling form processing temperatures.
- Microcracking along stress-induced dislocations in the matrix material.
# Armor.
There is an increasing need in the military sector for high-strength, robust materials which have the capability to transmit l... | 18,684 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
the designated threat but also provide a multi-hit capability with minimized distortion of surrounding areas. Transparent armor windows must also be compatible with night vision equipment. New materials that are thinner, lightweight, and offer better ballistic performance are being sought.
Existin... | 18,685 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
materials has also led to investigations into other polymeric materials such as transparent nylons, polyurethane, and acrylics. The optical properties and durability of transparent plastics limit their use in armor applications. Investigations carried out in the 1970s had shown promise for the use ... | 18,686 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
have generated the need for new materials. Chemical or thermal treatments can increase the strength of glasses, and the controlled crystallization of certain glass systems can produce transparent glass-ceramics. Alstom Grid Research & Technology (Stafford, UK), produced a lithium disilicate based g... | 18,687 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
to defeat advanced threats. Three major transparent candidates currently exist: aluminum oxynitride (AlON), magnesium aluminate spinel (spinel), and single crystal aluminum oxide (sapphire).
## Aluminium oxynitride spinel.
Aluminium oxynitride spinel (AlON), abbreviated as AlON, is one of the lea... | 18,688 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
and formed into complex geometries using conventional ceramic forming techniques such as hot isostatic pressing, and slip casting.
The Surmet Corporation has acquired Raytheon's ALON business and is currently building a market for this technology in the area of Transparent Armor, Sensor windows, R... | 18,689 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
such as those used in supermarkets. Surmet has successfully produced a 15"x18" curved AlON window and is currently attempting to scale up the technology and reduce the cost. In addition, the U.S. Army and U.S. Air Force are both seeking development into next generation applications.
## Spinel.
Ma... | 18,690 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
offers some processing advantages over AlON, such as the fact that spinel powder is available from commercial manufacturers while AlON powders are proprietary to Raytheon. It is also capable of being processed at much lower temperatures than AlON and has been shown to possess superior optical prope... | 18,691 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
products business is being pursued by two key U.S. manufacturers: "Technology Assessment and Transfer" and the "Surmet Corporation".
An extensive NRL review of the literature has indicated clearly that attempts to make high-quality spinel have failed to date because the densification dynamics of s... | 18,692 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
sintering aid into a powder leave fairly inhomogeneous distribution of Lif that must be homogenized by extended heat treatment times at elevated temperatures. The homogenizing temperature for Lif/Spinel occurs at the temperature of fast reaction between the LiF and the AlO. In order to avoid this d... | 18,693 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
as well as commercial use of spinel.
## Sapphire.
Single-crystal aluminum oxide (sapphire – AlO) is a transparent ceramic. Sapphire's crystal structure is rhombohedral and thus its properties are anisotropic, varying with crystallographic orientation. Transparent alumina is currently one of the m... | 18,694 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
and application standpoint can be attributed to two areas of business: electromagnetic spectrum windows for missiles and domes, and electronic/semiconductor industries and applications.
There are current programs to scale-up sapphire grown by the heat exchanger method or edge defined film-fed grow... | 18,695 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
material to that which is grown via single crystal techniques, but is much less expensive, and retains much of the hardness, transmission, and scratch-resistant characteristics. Saint-Gobain is currently capable of producing 0.43" thick (as grown) sapphire, in 12" × 18.5" sheets, as well as thick, ... | 18,696 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
dome materials that are substantially more durable than those in use today, while retaining maximum transparency across the entire operational spectrum or bandwidth. A long-standing compromise exists between optical bandpass and mechanical durability within the current group of single-phase (crysta... | 18,697 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
(or magnesia MgO) with a back-up plate of transparent plastic. The two plates (bonded together with a transparent adhesive) afford complete ballistic protection against 0.30 AP M2 projectiles at 0° obliquity with a muzzle velocity of per second.
Another transparent composite armor provided complet... | 18,698 |
905803 | Transparent ceramics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Transparent%20ceramics | Transparent ceramics
those observed for single phase solid-state components. Despite a lack of agreement regarding mechanism of failure, it is widely accepted that nanocomposite ceramic materials can and do offer improved mechanical properties over those of single phase materials or nanomaterials of uniform chemical co... | 18,699 |
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