wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
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906297 | Lois Maxwell | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lois%20Maxwell | Lois Maxwell
- "James Bond: Licence to Thrill" - TV Movie documentary (1987) as Herself
- "In Search of James Bond with Jonathan Ross" - TV Movie documentary (1995) as Miss Moneypenny
- "Behind the Scenes with 'Thunderball"' - Video documentary (1995) as Herself / Miss Moneypenny
- "Inside 'Octopussy"' - Video documentary short (2000) as Herself
- "Terence Young: Bond Vivant" - documentary video short (2000) as Herself
- "Inside 'Dr. No"' - Video documentary short (2000) as Herself
- "James Bond: A BAFTA Tribute" - TV Movie documentary (2000) as Herself
# External links.
- Obituary in "The Times", 1 October 2007
- "Miss Moneypenny Lives Here", Australian Broadcasting Corporation, 14 January 2005 | 19,500 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
Pepsi Max
Pepsi Max (also known as Pepsi Black in some countries) is a low-calorie, sugar-free cola, marketed by PepsiCo as an alternative to their drinks Pepsi and Diet Pepsi. It is sold primarily in European and Asian markets.
A drink with the same name but different formulation (containing ginseng and higher quantities of caffeine) was sold in the United States until it was renamed "Pepsi Zero Sugar" in late 2016.
# History.
Pepsi Max debuted in Australia, the United Kingdom, and Italy in April 1993. The rollout was expanded to Ireland the following September, and to France, Greece, Spain, Portugal, and the Netherlands the following December. By the end of 1994, Pepsi Max was sold in approximately | 19,501 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
twenty countries. By the end of 1995, that figure had more than doubled. The product remained unavailable in the United States until 2006 (the US, PepsiCo's home market, and the largest consumer of carbonated soft drinks), where one of its principal ingredients had not yet been approved by the Food and Drug Administration. The ingredient—acesulfame potassium—is combined with aspartame to provide the beverage's sweetness, whereas some other diet colas are sweetened by aspartame alone.
In early-2005, Pepsi Max Twist (with added lemon-lime flavour) joined the UK and Australian product line. In autumn 2005, "Pepsi Max Punch" was marketed in the UK for the festive season. Containing ginger and cinnamon, | 19,502 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
the product was similar in flavour to Pepsi Holiday Spice, a sugar-sweetened variety of Pepsi that was marketed in the US one year earlier. In late-2005 and early-2006, a coffee-flavoured variety was introduced in France, Finland, Ireland, Norway, and the UK. Known as "Pepsi Max Cappuccino" ("Pepsi Max Coffee Cino" in the UK), the product was prefigured by the similar Pepsi Kona (briefly test-marketed in the US in 1996) and Pepsi Tarik, available in Malaysia since 2005.
Pepsi Max was introduced to South Korea, Bulgaria, and the Philippines in 2006, as well as being reintroduced into Argentina in the spring of 2006 after being phased out after its launch in 1994. As well as this, Pepsi Max was | 19,503 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
introduced into Brazil, Egypt, Jordan, Lebanon, and the UAE during early 2007.
In October 2008, Pepsi announced it would be redesigning its logo and re-branding many of its products. Pepsi, Diet Pepsi, and Pepsi Max all use lower-case fonts for name brands, Mountain Dew was renamed "Mtn Dew", and Diet Pepsi Max was re-branded as Pepsi Max. The brand's blue and red globe trademark became a series of "smiles", with the central white band arcing at different angles depending on the product. The new imagery is being used. In the case of Pepsi Max, besides renaming of the drink its international name, the logo has a large "smile" likely to emphasize the North American drink's "Wake up people!" advertising | 19,504 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
campaign, and also uses black in the bottom half of the globe as opposed to the more standard royal blue. The new lower-case font used on Pepsi's products is reminiscent of the font used in Diet Pepsi's logo from the 1960s to the mid-1980s. The website for the "Wake up people!" campaign now redirects to the Pepsi Refresh Project. It is expected that the version of Pepsi Max outside North America will adopt the new logo used by its US–Canada counterpart; this has now occurred in Australia. In the UK, the cans now have the "Pepsi" text and the new Pepsi globe (with the normal Pepsi "smile" and the blue bottom half, as opposed to the black half used in the US) but the "Max" is in the previous style.
A | 19,505 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
Pepsi Max Lime version was released in the United States in February 2010 under the name "Pepsi Max Cease Fire" It was introduced in the UK in late-2011. It was cross-promoted with a new flavor series of Doritos chips called "3rd Degree Burn". In July 2010, Pepsi began to move its North American branding for Pepsi Max to match its global branding. It now carries a Max typography similar to that used worldwide, and rolled out a new slogan: "Zero Calories. Maximum Pepsi Taste". Its formula has not changed. In May 2011, Pepsi introduced the drink to Spain. In 2016, the drink was introduced to Venezuela. In 2017 Pepsi Max was launched in Costa Rica
In 2013, Pepsi Max collaborated with English magician | 19,506 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
Steven Frayne, also known as Dynamo, as part of their 'Live for Now' campaign which was launched the previous year. As part of a launch event, Dynamo was seen in London hanging from the side of a number 543 double-decker bus on its journey along Millbank, past the Houses of Parliament and across Westminster Bridge, while hundreds of passers by watched. The partnership also saw Dynamo appear in an on-pack promotion on cans and bottles of Pepsi Max during July and August, and secured 19 million unique impressions & 7 million total video views on social media.
In 2017, the drink was reintroduced in Belarus, the Czech Republic, Greece, Hungary, India, Slovakia, Slovenia, Turkey and Ukraine as Pepsi | 19,507 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
Black. As of 2017 it is available as Pepsi Max in Albania, Australia, Austria, Belgium, Bosnia and Herzegovina, China, Croatia, Denmark, Finland, France, Germany, Italy, Ireland, Liechtenstein, Luxembourg, Macedonia, Moldova, Montenegro, the Netherlands, New Zealand, Norway, the Philippines, Poland, Portugal, Romania, Russia, Serbia, Spain, Sweden, Switzerland, Thailand, the United Kingdom, and Venezuela.
# Product positioning.
Recent UK/Australia Pepsi Max television advertisements have featured the taglines "Maximum taste, no sugar" and "Don't worry, there's no sugar." Some have incorporated extreme sports and video games such as Motocross Mania in an attempt to appeal to young men (in contrast | 19,508 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
to other diet cola drinks, which tend to target young women). The British advertising campaign involved retouched versions of the American "Do the Dew" commercials for Mountain Dew (A variant of which is sold in the UK ), rebranded as "Live life to the Max".
Coca-Cola Zero, a sugar-free cola from the Coca-Cola Company, is marketed in a similar manner. In the UK some Coke Zero advertising alluded to Pepsi Max, leading to a robust counter-campaign by Pepsi extolling the virtues of the concept of "maximum" over that of "zero."
## Variants.
In early-2005, the North American drink Pepsi ONE was revised, with Splenda brand sucralose replacing the aspartame ingredient.
# Canadian formulation.
Beginning | 19,509 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
in early 1994, an entirely different Pepsi Max was marketed in Canada. Now regarded as a precursor to Pepsi Edge, it was sweetened with a combination of aspartame and high fructose corn syrup. As a result, it contained two-thirds fewer calories than full-sugar colas (including regular Pepsi), but more calories than conventional diet/light colas (or the version of Pepsi Max sold elsewhere). The Canadian product was discontinued in 2002; the Diet Pepsi Max product introduced in 2008 has no direct relationship to the earlier formulation.
# See also.
- List of Pepsi variations
# Further reading.
- Kotabe, M. and Helsen, K. "Global Marketing Management", John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
# External links.
- | 19,510 |
906265 | Pepsi Max | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pepsi%20Max | Pepsi Max
n entirely different Pepsi Max was marketed in Canada. Now regarded as a precursor to Pepsi Edge, it was sweetened with a combination of aspartame and high fructose corn syrup. As a result, it contained two-thirds fewer calories than full-sugar colas (including regular Pepsi), but more calories than conventional diet/light colas (or the version of Pepsi Max sold elsewhere). The Canadian product was discontinued in 2002; the Diet Pepsi Max product introduced in 2008 has no direct relationship to the earlier formulation.
# See also.
- List of Pepsi variations
# Further reading.
- Kotabe, M. and Helsen, K. "Global Marketing Management", John Wiley & Sons, 2004.
# External links.
- PepsiCo | 19,511 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
U.S. Labor Party
The U.S. Labor Party (USLP) was a political party formed in 1973 by the National Caucus of Labor Committees (NCLC). It served as a vehicle for Lyndon LaRouche to run for President of the United States in 1976, but it also sponsored many candidates for local offices and Congressional and Senate seats between 1972 and 1979. After that the political arm of the NCLC was the National Democratic Policy Committee. The party was the subject of a number of controversies and lawsuits during its short existence.
# Party objectives and ideology.
At first the party was leftist, "preaching Marxist revolution." A state leader described the aims of the party and its organ, "New Solidarity", | 19,512 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
as supporting the working class against capitalism, Nelson Rockefeller, and Leonard Woodcock, head of the United Auto Workers. The USLP predicted collapse of the monetary system by November 1976 and thermonuclear war by 1977. It opposed the Rockefeller family and had a reputation for harassing the Communist Party, the United Auto Workers, and other political foes. In a 1974 interview, the USLP candidate for Governor of Michigan characterized the Watergate scandal as a "deliberate attempt" to discredit Richard Nixon and weaken the presidency. By 1977 the party had shifted from the left to politics of the extreme right.
# History.
## 1972–1976.
The U.S. Labor Party was noted for its controversial | 19,513 |
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campaign tactics, and its invective against other politicians. Nelson Rockefeller, the former Governor of New York who was nominated to be vice president by Gerald Ford in 1974, was an early target of the USLP's attention. During the Senate's confirmation hearings, LaRouche appeared on behalf of the USLP as a witness against Rockefeller's nomination. He testified that a USLP survey showed 90 percent of U.S. workers and the unemployed hated Rockefeller.
In 1974 the Wisconsin branch of the Labor Party took out a newspaper advertisement announcing that it had filed for an injunction to prevent the CIA, FBI, and the New York Police Department from arresting Lyndon LaRouche (then known as Lyn Marcus) | 19,514 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
or anyone involved in the movement's kidnapping of Christopher White, who had married LaRouche's former common-law wife. According to detailed descriptions by LaRouche, White had been brainwashed by the CIA and KGB to kill him. The advertisement further reported that the movement had found a cure for psychosis and encouraged mental health professionals to contact them to develop this discovery. USLP member Harley Schlanger, a candidate for the House of Representatives, sued the Mecklenburg County, North Carolina, ABC liquor board in August 1976, for prohibiting campaigning on their property, which he contended was public property. The North Carolina ACLU joined the suit. The district court judge | 19,515 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
decided that the activity was protected free speech that could not be prohibited so long as activists did not block doorways.
One of the U.S. Labor Party's strategies focused on disrupting other left-wing groups, with questionable success. William Chapman wrote in "The Washington Post" in September 1976 that several public figures on the left had reported threats and intimidation, and said those responsible had identified themselves as members of LaRouche's NCLC or U.S. Labor Party. The linguist and political activist Noam Chomsky was accused of working for the CIA and being a tool of the Rockefellers; meetings he addressed were disrupted, and threats were made. The philosopher Paul Kurtz, | 19,516 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
editor of "The Humanist", was asked during his lectures at the State University of New York why he was practicing genocide. According to Chapman, sociologists Richard Cloward and Frances Fox Piven, specialists on urban poverty, were followed around the country having their speaking tours disrupted. Environmentalist Lester Brown was accused of genocide and told he would be hanged from a lamppost. LaRouche was asked how he expected a party with a five-year record of harassment and threats to win the election; he did not deny the incidents, but replied, "We are only engaged in an open political attack. We just want to challenge them in debate." He denied however that anyone had been threatened | 19,517 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
with physical harm: "Sure, we're going to get them – but politically."
The U.S. Labor Party was well financed, operating from the top floor of a building in New York's garment district. A teletype network connected the New York office to branches in a further 13 U.S. cities, and also included a two-way, 24-hour link to Wiesbaden, Germany. Membership was small, ranging from 20 to 100 people per city, with a core of 1,000 to 1,800 members; according to LaRouche, these were complemented by another 13,000 part-time party organizers. LaRouche said the party was funded by members' dues, other small contributions, and the sale of publications like "The Campaigner" and "New Solidarity" – one a theoretical | 19,518 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
journal, the other a twice-weekly newspaper. The party fielded candidates in local and congressional elections, generally garnering only insignificant percentages of the popular vote; but there were exceptions – in Seattle, a Labor Party member running for the city council won 27 percent of the vote, with another candidate who ran for city treasurer garnering 20 percent.
## Presidential campaign.
In an appearance on "Meet the Press" with other minor party candidates in October 1976, LaRouche predicted monetary collapse followed by thermonuclear war before summer if Jimmy Carter were elected. LaRouche also described Carter as "a nitwit to begin with, an empty slop jar into which bad lemonade | 19,519 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
is being poured." However, conservative Republicans like President Ford fared better, incongruously so, given the Labor Party's stated left-wing stance. "I call them honest Americans", LaRouche said. He described Ford as "weak but well-meaning" and "a known quantity we can live with".
On November 1, the eve of the election, the USLP purchased a half-hour block of time on NBC, the first of many national broadcasts by LaRouche that would follow in election years to come. The time was purchased over the objection of the network which unsuccessfully appealed the last-minute purchase to the Federal Election Commission. During the broadcast, which ran opposite a similar advertisement from Carter | 19,520 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
on another network, LaRouche said that Carter would have the U.S "irreversibly committed to nuclear war by no later than November of 1977" if elected. According to LaRouche's autobiography, he
NBC reported receiving hundreds of calls protesting the broadcast.
LaRouche's name was on the ballot in 23 states plus the District of Columbia on November 2, 1976. He received 40,043 votes (0.05%). U.S. Labor Party candidates sometimes received unusually high vote totals in comparison with those garnered by other small ideologically-based parties.
Following the election, the USLP brought lawsuits in three states challenging Carter's victory. The Republican Party joined the suits in Ohio and New York. | 19,521 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
Regional coordinator Paul Greenberg sought a recount in Milwaukee, saying "the election has actually been stolen — the actual winner was probably Jerry Ford."
For more information on LaRouche's 1976 presidential campaign and the movement's legal disputes with the FEC, see Lyndon LaRouche U.S. Presidential campaigns.
## 1977–1982.
In August 1977, the USLP said that the Federal Election Commission (FEC) was intentionally harassing the group as a result of a determination that forgiven debts were the equivalent of campaign contributions. The same month the USLP hired a former OSS and CIA operative, mercenary, firearms engineer and arms dealer, Colonel Mitch WerBell, to protect LaRouche. They | 19,522 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
said that LaRouche, then living in Wiesbaden, Germany, was being targeted for assassination by the "Baader-Meinhof Gang", allegedly on behalf of the Carter administration. Werbell in turn recruited the chief of police from his town, Powder Springs, Georgia, to set up the security.
In 1978, LaRouche began a vigorous USLP campaign for the presidency in 1980, targeting farmers, small businessmen and Teamsters Union members in the Heartland states.
In May 1978, USLP Steering Committee member Elliott Eisenberg campaigned in a Chicago suburb, saying that "the reason we picked Schaumburg is because it's a relatively conservative area ... There's more of a tendency for people to support nuclear power."
The | 19,523 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
USLP vice-presidential candidate, Khushro Ghandhi, campaigned in June 1979 and predicted victory based on support from the Teamsters (a faction of the union had ties to LaRouche). Running on a pro-nuclear power platform, Ghandhi said that the recent Three Mile Island accident was ordered by Energy Secretary James R. Schlesinger in order to create a false energy crisis.
By late summer of 1979 the NCLC and LaRouche had decided to join the Democratic Party so that LaRouche could run for that party's presidential nomination, and the U.S. Labor Party was disbanded.
In 1982 the USLP was sued for $1.5 million in damages by "U.S. News & World Report" when one of its employees allegedly impersonated | 19,524 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
a reporter. The magazine won an injunction against the party publications. Lyndon LaRouche, when asked about the matter, said, "I don't know anything about it and I never looked into it, but I do know that the liberal press uses undercover press practices that are abhorrent and beneath description."
## Far-right contacts.
The U.S. Labor Party had contacts with several notable figures on the extreme right wing of American politics. By the late 1970s, members were exchanging almost daily information with Roy Frankhouser, a government informant and infiltrator of both far right and far left groups who was involved with the Ku Klux Klan and the American Nazi Party. The LaRouche organization believed | 19,525 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
Frankhouser to be a federal agent who had been assigned to infiltrate right-wing and left-wing groups, and that he had evidence that these groups were actually being manipulated or controlled by the FBI and other agencies. LaRouche and his associates considered Frankhouser to be a valuable intelligence contact, and took his links to racist and anti-Semitic groups to be a cover for his intelligence work. Frankhouser played into these expectations, misrepresenting himself as a conduit for communications to LaRouche from "Mr. Ed", an alleged CIA contact, who did not exist. Frankhouser was convicted in 1975 of conspiring to sell half a ton of dynamite in connection with a school bus bombing that | 19,526 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
left one man dead, and had marched on Fifth Avenue in New York wearing a Gestapo uniform. LaRouche had organized his defense campaign regarding the dynamite charges. Frankhouser asserted he was working for the government and was sentenced to five years of probation instead of the decades in prison he could have received.
Frankhouser warned LaRouche in 1977 that, according to his claimed CIA contact "Mr. Ed", he was being considered for assassination, and introduced him to Mitchell WerBell III, a noted Office of Strategic Services (OSS) and Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) operative, mercenary, operator of a counterterrorism school, accused drug trafficker, firearms engineer, and arms dealer | 19,527 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
who said he had an ongoing connection to the CIA. LaRouche developed close ties with WerBell, hiring him as a security consultant for protection against the assumed assassination threat and to train his security staff. It was WerBell who arranged for LaRouche movement members to undergo anti-terrorist training. John George and Laird Wilcox say WerBell learned that the way to keep "LaRouche on the hook was to feed his monstrous ego while jerking his paranoia chain".
Frankhouser cultivated a contact with a media source in New York, enabling him to tip off LaRouche about upcoming stories before they became public. In 1979, Frankhouser was also placed on the payroll as a security consultant, having | 19,528 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
convinced LaRouche that he was actively connected to U.S. intelligence agencies. A government official later said that Frankhouser was one of the few people who could call LaRouche directly. Forrest Lee Fick, an associate of Frankhouser from the KKK, was added as a consultant in 1982. Fick helped Frankhouser, who was not a competent writer, to compose the memos from "Mr. Ed"; they appeared so authentic that when news about them began to leak out via defectors from LaRouche's security organization, journalists began to speculate about the identity of "Mr. Ed". Frankhouser and Fick later testified that, to justify their $700-per-week paychecks, they had invented their connections to the CIA, written | 19,529 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
memos purporting to be from CIA agents, and warned of imaginary assassination plots against the LaRouches. George and Wilcox called Frankhouser's deception "one of the biggest hoaxes in the annals of political extremism", made possible by what they called LaRouche's "obsession with conspiracy theories" and intelligence gathering.
The USLP also had brief contact with the Liberty Lobby led by Willis Carto. Carto had some exploratory talks with LaRouche about a joint strategy against the IRS, but the contact was marked by much mutual suspicion. Carto was troubled by the number of Jews in the U.S. Labor Party, and by their adherence to basic socialist positions, including their support for central | 19,530 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
banking, while Labor Party members considered people in the Liberty Lobby "red-necks" and "idiots".
# Criticism.
In 1979, a two-part article by Howard Blum and Paul L. Montgomery appeared in the "New York Times" that accused LaRouche of running a cult. Blum wrote that LaRouche had turned the U.S. Labor Party—with 1,000 members listed in 37 offices in North America, and 26 in Europe and Latin America—into an extreme-right, anti-Semitic organization, despite the presence of Jewish members. The "Times" alleged that members had taken courses in how to use knives and rifles, and had produced reports for South Africa on anti-apartheid groups in the United States. A farm in upstate New York was allegedly | 19,531 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
being used for guerrilla training, attended by LaRouche members from Germany and Mexico. Several members also underwent a six-day anti-terrorist training course, at a cost of $200 per person per day, at a camp in Powder Springs, Georgia, run by WerBell.
The "Times" reported that U.S. Labor Party members were playing a dominant role in a number of companies in Manhattan: Computron Technologies Corporation, which included Mobil Oil and Citibank among its clients; World Composition Services, which the Times wrote had one of the most advanced typesetting complexes in the city and had the Ford Foundation among its clients; and PMR Associates, a printing shop that produced the party's publications | 19,532 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
and some high school newspapers (see ).
Blum wrote that, from 1976 onwards, party members were transmitting intelligence reports on left-wing members to the FBI and local police. In 1977, he wrote, commercial reports on U.S. anti-apartheid groups were prepared by LaRouche members for the South African government, student dissidents were reported to the Shah of Iran's Savak secret police, and the anti-nuclear movement was investigated on behalf of power companies. He also wrote that LaRouche was telling his membership several times a year that he was being targeted for assassination, including by the Queen, "big-time Zionist mobsters," the Council on Foreign Relations, the Justice Department, | 19,533 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
and the Mossad.
LaRouche denied the newspaper's charges, and said he had filed a $100 million libel suit. His press secretary said the series was intended "to set up a credible climate for an assassination hit".
The USLP has also been called a "radical and cult-like group". Milton Copulos of the Heritage Foundation described the USLP as "a virulently anti-Semitic outgrowth of the Students for a Democratic Society (SDS)" which used the Fusion Energy Foundation as a front to "win the confidence of unsuspecting businessmen". "Washington Post" columnist Richard Cohen wrote that the USLP began "on the political left but has since gone so far in the opposite direction that to call it politically | 19,534 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
right is to slander the entire conservative movement". Labor-union journalist Victor Riesel, while writing of "anti-capitalistic movements, ranging all the way from the Communist Party U.S.A. to the Trotskyite Socialist Workers' Party", said in 1976 "the most extreme activists in this sprawling radicalism are the youthful U.S. Labor Party". Civil Rights activist Julian Bond called the party "a group of leftwing fascists".
LaRouche critic and biographer Dennis King says that when the USLP sponsored LaRouche's 1976 campaign, the NCLC was still in transition from a far-left to far-right ideology but by 1977-1978 both organizations (which were really one and the same for all essential purposes) | 19,535 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
were advocating extreme-right positions. King described a typical post-transition USLP campaign in "Lyndon LaRouche and the New American Fascism" (Doubleday, 1989):
In Baltimore, USLP candidate Debra Freeman appealed openly to racist and anti-Semitic sentiments in her 1978 campaign against incumbent Congressman Parren Mitchell, chairman of the Black Congressional Caucus. Freeman, who is white, described Mitchell as a 'house nigger' for Baltimore's 'Zionists' and an example of 'bestiality' in politics...She won more than 11 percent of the vote, doing especially well in several white precincts.
The NCLC had used similar language as early as 1974, when an alderman in Madison, Wisconsin, was called | 19,536 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
a "house nigger" at a city-council meeting. According to Dennis King, the USLP chairman advocated launching ABC (atomic, biological and chemical) warfare against the Soviet Union as well as the military crushing of Britain (which his newspaper described as the headquarters of the "Zionist-British organism").
# National Democratic Policy Committee.
The National Democratic Policy Committee (NDPC), a political action committee, is regarded as the successor to the USLP. LaRouche's politics were not shared by many in the Democratic Party, allowing him to occupy a niche with little competition. In 1986, the NDPC was reported to have fielded candidates in "146 congressional races, 14 Senate contests, | 19,537 |
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seven governors' contests and more than 600 state legislative and party posts."
# USLP candidates.
- Nicholas F. Benton gathered petitions in 1978 for Governor of California, but did not appear on the ballot
- Michael Billington, candidate in 1977 for County Executive of Westchester County, New York, in 1978 for New York's 24th congressional district
- Robert Bowen, candidate in 1975 for New Jersey's 34th legislative district, in 1976 for New Jersey's 1st congressional district, in 1978 for U.S. Senate from New Jersey.
- Elijah C. (Zeke) Boyd, candidate in 1974 and 1976 for U.S. Senate from New York, in 1977 for Mayor of New York City
- Anton Chaitkin, candidate in 1973 for Mayor of New | 19,538 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
York City, in 1974 for Governor of New York, in 1978 for Pennsylvania's 2nd congressional district
- Wayne Evans, candidate in 1975 for Lieutenant Governor of Michigan, in 1976 for Vice President of the United States
- Paul Gallagher, candidate in 1977 for 1977 New York City Council President, in 1978 for New York's 18th congressional district, in 1978 for Governor of New York
- Khushro Ghandi, candidate in 1974 for Michigan House of Representatives 18th district, in 1977 for Mayor of Buffalo, New York, in 1978 for New York's 37th congressional district.
- Elliott Greenspan, candidate in 1975 for New Jersey's 13th legislative district, in 1976 for New Jersey's 4th congressional district, | 19,539 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
in 1978 for New Jersey's 7th congressional district
- Mel Klenetsky, candidate in 1978 for Governor of Illinois, candidate in 1981 for Mayor of New York City
- H. Graham Lowry, candidate in 1976 for U.S. Senate from Massachusetts, in 1978 for Massachusetts's 11th congressional district
- J. Philip Rubinstein, candidate in 1978 for Lieutenant Governor of New York
- Harley Schlanger, candidate in 1976 for North Carolina's 9th congressional district
- William Wertz, candidate in 1976 for U.S. Senate from Washington
## NDPC candidates and personnel.
This list includes those who have been identified as holding a position within the NDPC and candidates who have run in two or more races, won | 19,540 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
primaries, or have otherwise gained attention while running NDPC candidates or otherwise identified as "LaRouche Democrats".
- Ted Andromidas, candidate in 1983 for Los Angeles City Council, in 1990 for California's 29th congressional district, in 1994 for U.S. Senate from California
- Mark Calney, Northwest coordinator for the NDPC, candidate in 1983 for Seattle City Council, in 1984 for Governor of Washington, 1985 for Mayor of Seattle, Washington, in 1990 for Governor of California, in 1992 for California's 30th congressional district, in 1994 for Governor of California
- James J. Cleary, candidate in 1984 for New Jersey's 8th congressional district, in 1986 for New Jersey's 7th congressional | 19,541 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
district, in 1990 for New Jersey's 12th congressional district, in 1994 for New Jersey's 7th congressional district (with the "LaRouche Was Right" party)
- Michael DiMarco, candidate in 1983 for New Jersey's 7th legislative district, in 1984 for New Jersey's 13th congressional district, in 1992 for New Jersey's 4th congressional district (with LaRouche's "Democrats for Economic Recovery" party).
- Mark Fairchild, candidate in 1986 for Lieutenant Governor of Illinois (won the Democratic primary), in 1990 for Governor of Illinois
- William Ferguson, candidate in 1983 for School Committee in Boston, Massachusetts, in 1994 for U.S. Senate from Massachusetts (with the "LaRouche Was Right" party), | 19,542 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
in 2001 for Massachusetts's 9th congressional district
- Lawrence Freeman, candidate in 1994 and in 1998 for Governor of Maryland
- Khushro Ghandi, West Coast coordinator of NDPC, candidate in 1983 for Los Angeles City Council, in 1989 for Mayor of Los Angeles., in 1989 for California Lieutenant Governor
- Bill G. Goff, candidate in 1986 for Michigan State Senate (won Democratic Party primary)
- Paul Goldstein, chief of security
- James A. Green, candidate in 1986 for Michigan State Senate (won Democratic Party primary)
- Elliott Greenspan, Executive Director of the NDPC, candidate in 1983 for New Jersey's 38th legislative district, in 1984 for U.S. Senate from New Jersey, in 1985 for | 19,543 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
Governor of New Jersey, candidate in 1986 for New Jersey's 9th congressional district, in 2001 for Governor of New Jersey
- Janice Hart, candidate in 1986 for Secretary of State of Illinois (won the Democratic primary), in 1988 for Clerk of Circuit Court for Cook County, Illinois
- Warren Hamerman, NDPC Chairman
- Art Hoffmann, candidate in 1984 for California's 39th congressional district, in 1986 for California's 40th congressional district (initial results showed that Hoffman won the Democratic Party primary, but a recount gave the victory to a write-in candidate), in 1989 for a seat on the Santa Ana Unified School District board of trustees, in 1990 for California's 38th congressional | 19,544 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
district. He also ran for the Orange Unified School District board and the Rancho Santiago College board of trustees in unknown years.
- Georgia Irey, candidate in 1984 for California's 45th congressional district, in 1986 for U.S. Senate from Indiana
- Sheila Jones, Midwest director for the NDPC, candidate in 1986 for U.S. Senate from Illinois, in 1987 for Mayor of Chicago, in 1988 for Cook County recorder of deeds, in 1989 for Mayor of Chicago, in 1990 for Lieutenant Governor of Illinois, in 1991 for Mayor of Chicago, in 1994 for Governor of Illinois, in 1995 for Mayor of Chicago
- Mel Klenetsky, co-director of political operations for the NDPC, national campaign director for LaRouche, | 19,545 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
candidate in 1982 for U.S. Senate from New York
- Brian Lantz, founding member and Northern California director of the NDPC, candidate in 1986 for U.S. Senate from California, in 1987 for California's 5th congressional district
- Evelyn Lantz, member of PANIC, candidate in 1983 for California's 5th congressional district, in 1986 for California's 9th congressional district, in 1994 for U.S. Senate from Texas and for state Democratic Party chair, in 1998 for U.S. Senate from Texas
- Mel Logan, candidate in 2000 for U.S. Senate from Wyoming (won the Democratic Party primary)
- Rose-Marie Love, candidate in 1986 for Mayor of Chicago, in 1992 for Illinois' 7th congressional district (with LaRouche's | 19,546 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
"Economic Recovery Party"), in 1994 for Secretary of State of Illinois
- Fernando Oliver, candidate in 1986 for Lieutenant Governor of New York (later removed from ballot by court order)
- J. Philip Rubinstein, President of Caucus Distributors, Northeast Regional Director of the NDPC, candidate in 1985 for Mayor of New York, in 1986 for Governor of New York (later removed from ballot by court order)
- Dana Scanlon, spokeswoman for NDPC
- Harley Schlanger, Southwest coordinator of NDPC, candidate in 1984 for U.S. Senate for Texas, in 1986 for Texas's 8th congressional district, in 1990 for U.S. Senate for Texas
- Don Scott, candidate in 1984 for Ohio's 7th congressional district, in 1986 | 19,547 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
for U.S. Senate from Ohio, in 1990 for Ohio's 7th congressional district
- Lewis duPont Smith, candidate in 1988 for New Hampshire's 2nd congressional district, in 1990 for Pennsylvania's 5th congressional district, in 1994 for Minnesota Attorney General, in 1998 for New Jersey's 4th congressional district
- Nancy Spannaus, candidate in 1990 for U.S. Senate from Virginia, in 1993 for Governor of Virginia, in 1994 for U.S. Senate from Virginia, in 1996 for U.S. Senate from Virginia, in 2002 for U.S. Senate from Virginia
- Webster Tarpley, candidate in 1986 for U.S. Senate from New York (later removed from ballot by court order)
- Philip Valenti, candidate in 1992 for U.S. Senate from Pennsylvania, | 19,548 |
906287 | U.S. Labor Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=U.S.%20Labor%20Party | U.S. Labor Party
in 1994 for Minnesota Attorney General, in 1998 for New Jersey's 4th congressional district
- Nancy Spannaus, candidate in 1990 for U.S. Senate from Virginia, in 1993 for Governor of Virginia, in 1994 for U.S. Senate from Virginia, in 1996 for U.S. Senate from Virginia, in 2002 for U.S. Senate from Virginia
- Webster Tarpley, candidate in 1986 for U.S. Senate from New York (later removed from ballot by court order)
- Philip Valenti, candidate in 1992 for U.S. Senate from Pennsylvania, in 1994 for Pennsylvania governor
- William Wertz, candidate in 1982 for U.S. Senate from California, in 1983 for Los Angeles City Council
# See also.
- Views of Lyndon LaRouche and the LaRouche movement | 19,549 |
906329 | Wiryeseong | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wiryeseong | Wiryeseong
Wiryeseong
Wiryeseong was the name of two early capitals of Baekje, one of the Three Kingdoms of Korea. Both are believed to have been in the modern-day Seoul area. According to "Samguk Sagi" (the oldest surviving Korean history book, written in the 12th century), Onjo, the son of Goguryeo's founder Jumong, founded the nation of "Sipje" (십제, 十濟; later became "Baekje") on Wiryeseong in 18 BC, while his elder brother Biryu established himself in Michuhol (미추홀, 彌鄒忽) further to the west. The location of Michuhol is usually believed to be present-day Incheon.
After some time, Biryu recognized that Michuhol's land was too barren and saline to sustain his people, so he moved to Wiryeseong with his | 19,550 |
906329 | Wiryeseong | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wiryeseong | Wiryeseong
people (Shortly after, the name of the state is changed from "Sipje" to "Baekje"). Later, Onjo moved further south because of Malgal to the north and Lelang to the east.
The former Wiryeseong is called Habuk (north of the river) Wiryeseong and the latter is called Hanam (south of the river) Wiryeseong. The earthen walls of Pungnap Toseong and Mongchon Toseong in Songpa-gu, Seoul are believed by many to be the remains of Hanam Wiryeseong.
During the Hanseong period, Baekje grew up against Southern Mahan and Northern Chinese Commanderies including Daifang, which attempted to violate their border. In the process, Baekje modified the political systems, and expended its territory to Mahan and Hwanghae | 19,551 |
906329 | Wiryeseong | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Wiryeseong | Wiryeseong
grew up against Southern Mahan and Northern Chinese Commanderies including Daifang, which attempted to violate their border. In the process, Baekje modified the political systems, and expended its territory to Mahan and Hwanghae region, and it became as a regional power.
Wiryeseong served as Baekje's capital until 475, when Goguryeo's King Jangsu attacked Baekje and captured Wiryeseong, as well as the whole Han River area, and killing Baekje's King Gaero. Baekje's next king Munju moved south and set the new capital at Ungjin (modern day Gongju city).
# See also.
- List of Korea-related topics
- History of Korea
- Castles in Korea
- Pungnap Toseong
- Mongchon Toseong
- Ungjin
- Sabi | 19,552 |
906334 | Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metre freestyle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swimming%20at%20the%202004%20Summer%20Olympics%20–%20Women's%20400%20metre%20freestyle | Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metre freestyle
Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metre freestyle
The women's 400 metre freestyle event at the 2004 Olympic Games was contested at the Olympic Aquatic Centre of the Athens Olympic Sports Complex in Athens, Greece on August 15.
France's Laure Manaudou won the gold medal in this event, with a European record time of 4:05.34. The silver medal was awarded to Poland's Otylia Jędrzejczak, who finished behind Manaudou by half a second (0.50), in an outstanding time of 4:05.84. U.S. swimmer Kaitlin Sandeno, who earned a silver in the 400 m individual medley on the previous day, fought off a challenge from Romania's Camelia Potec in the final lap to take a bronze by two tenths of a | 19,553 |
906334 | Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metre freestyle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Swimming%20at%20the%202004%20Summer%20Olympics%20–%20Women's%20400%20metre%20freestyle | Swimming at the 2004 Summer Olympics – Women's 400 metre freestyle
the Athens Olympic Sports Complex in Athens, Greece on August 15.
France's Laure Manaudou won the gold medal in this event, with a European record time of 4:05.34. The silver medal was awarded to Poland's Otylia Jędrzejczak, who finished behind Manaudou by half a second (0.50), in an outstanding time of 4:05.84. U.S. swimmer Kaitlin Sandeno, who earned a silver in the 400 m individual medley on the previous day, fought off a challenge from Romania's Camelia Potec in the final lap to take a bronze by two tenths of a second (0.20), clocking at 4:06.19.
# Records.
Prior to this competition, the existing world and Olympic records were as follows.
# External links.
- Official Olympic Report | 19,554 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
Hydrogen economy
The hydrogen economy is the use of hydrogen as a low carbon fuel, particularly for heating, hydrogen vehicles, seasonal energy storage and long distance transport of energy.
The hydrogen economy is proposed as part of the future low-carbon economy. In order to phase out fossil fuels and limit global warming, hydrogen is being considered as its combustion only releases clean water, and no to the atmosphere. , however, hydrogen is mainly used as an industrial feedstock, primarily for the production of ammonia, methanol and petroleum refining.
Hydrogen gas does not occur naturally in convenient reservoirs. almost all the world's hydrogen is produced by steam methane reforming | 19,555 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
(SMR). The remainder is produced as a byproduct from electrolysis processes such as chlor-alkali. Small amounts of hydrogen are produced by the dedicated production of hydrogen from water. The production of hydrogen from both the natural gas steam reforming process and the dedicated water electrolysis process are hampered by unavoidable efficiency issues. there is not enough cheap clean electricity (renewable and nuclear) for hydrogen to become a significant part of the low-carbon economy, and carbon dioxide is a by-product of the SMR process.
# Rationale.
A hydrogen economy was proposed by the University of Michigan to solve some of the negative effects of using hydrocarbon fuels where the | 19,556 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
carbon is released to the atmosphere (as carbon dioxide, carbon monoxide, unburnt hydrocarbons, etc.). Modern interest in the hydrogen economy can generally be traced to a 1970 technical report by Lawrence W. Jones of the University of Michigan.
In the current hydrocarbon economy, transportation is fueled primarily by petroleum and heating by natural gas. Burning of hydrocarbon fuels emits carbon dioxide and other pollutants. The demand for energy is increasing, particularly in China, India, and other developing countries.
Proponents of a world-scale hydrogen economy argue that hydrogen can be an environmentally cleaner source of energy to end-users, without release of pollutants such as particulates | 19,557 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
or carbon dioxide. A 2004 analysis asserted that "most of the hydrogen supply chain pathways would release significantly less carbon dioxide into the atmosphere than would gasoline used in hybrid electric vehicles" and that significant reductions in carbon dioxide emissions would be possible if carbon capture or carbon sequestration methods were utilized at the site of energy or hydrogen production.
Hydrogen has a high energy density by weight but has a low energy density by volume. Even when highly compressed or liquified, the energy density by volume is only 1/4 that of gasoline, although the energy density by weight is approximately three times that of gasoline or natural gas. An Otto-cycle | 19,558 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
internal-combustion engine running on hydrogen is said to have a maximum efficiency of about 38%, 8% higher than a gasoline internal-combustion engine.
The combination of the fuel cell and electric motor is 2-3 times more efficient than an internal-combustion engine. Capital costs of fuel cells have reduced significantly over recent years, with a modeled cost of $50/kW cited by the Department of Energy.
Previous technical obstacles have included hydrogen storage issues and the purity requirement of hydrogen used in fuel cells, as with current technology, an operating fuel cell requires the purity of hydrogen to be as high as 99.999%. Hydrogen engine conversion technology could be considered | 19,559 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
more economical than fuel cells.
In the short term hydrogen has been proposed as a method of reducing harmful diesel exhaust.
# History.
The term "hydrogen economy" was coined by John Bockris during a talk he gave in 1970 at General Motors (GM) Technical Center. The concept was proposed earlier by geneticist J.B.S. Haldane.
A spike in attention for the concept during the 2000s was repeatedly described as hype by some critics and proponents of alternative technologies. İnterest in the energy carrier resurged in the 2010s, notably by the forming of the Hydrogen Council in 2017. Several manufacturers released hydrogen fuel cell cars commercially, with manufacturers such as Toyota and industry | 19,560 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
groups in China planning to increase numbers of the cars into the hundreds of thousands over the next decade.
# Current hydrogen market.
Hydrogen production is a large and growing industry, as of 2004. Globally, some 57 million metric tons of hydrogen, equal to about 170 million tons of oil equivalent, were produced in 2004. The growth rate is around 10% per year. Within the United States, 2004 production was about 11 million metric tons (Mt), an average power flow of 48 gigawatts. (For comparison, the average electric production in 2003 was some 442 GW.) As of 2005, the economic value of all hydrogen produced worldwide is about $135 billion per year.
There are two primary uses for hydrogen | 19,561 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
today. About half is used in the Haber process to produce ammonia (NH), which is then used directly or indirectly as fertilizer. Because both the world population and the intensive agriculture used to support it are growing, ammonia demand is growing. Ammonia can be used as a safer and easier indirect method of transporting hydrogen. Transported ammonia can be then converted back to hydrogen at the bowser by a membrane technology.
The other half of current hydrogen production is used to convert heavy petroleum sources into lighter fractions suitable for use as fuels. This latter process is known as hydrocracking. Hydrocracking represents an even larger growth area, since rising oil prices encourage | 19,562 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
oil companies to extract poorer source material, such as oil sands and oil shale. The scale economies inherent in large-scale oil refining and fertilizer manufacture make possible on-site production and "captive" use. Smaller quantities of "merchant" hydrogen are manufactured and delivered to end users as well.
If energy for hydrogen production were available (from wind, solar, fission or fusion nuclear power etc.), use of the substance for hydrocarbon synfuel production could expand captive use of hydrogen by a factor of 5 to 10. Present U.S. use of hydrogen for hydrocracking is roughly 4 Mt per year.
The large market and sharply rising prices in fossil fuels have also stimulated great interest | 19,563 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
in alternate, cheaper means of hydrogen production. As of 2002, most hydrogen is produced on site and the cost is approximately $0.70/kg and, if not produced on site, the cost of liquid hydrogen is about $2.20/kg to $3.08/kg.
# Production, storage, infrastructure.
Today's hydrogen is mainly produced (90%) from fossil sources.
## Methods of production.
Molecular hydrogen is not available on Earth in convenient natural reservoirs. Most hydrogen in the lithosphere is bonded to oxygen in water. Manufacturing elemental hydrogen does require the consumption of a hydrogen carrier such as a fossil fuel or water. The former carrier consumes the fossil resource and produces carbon dioxide, but often | 19,564 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
requires no further energy input beyond the fossil fuel. Decomposing water, the latter carrier, requires electrical or heat input, generated from some primary energy source (fossil fuel, nuclear power or a renewable energy). Hydrogen can also be produced by refining the effluent from geothermal sources in the lithosphere. Hydrogen produced by zero emission renewable energy sources such as electrolysis of water using wind power, solar power, hydro power, wave power or tidal power is referred to as green hydrogen. Hydrogen produced from coal may be referred to as brown hydrogen, and from natural gas as blue hydrogen. Hydrogen produced as a waste by-product or industrial by-product is sometimes | 19,565 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
referred to as grey hydrogen.
## Current production methods.
Hydrogen is industrially produced from steam reforming, which uses fossil fuels such as natural gas. The energy content of the produced hydrogen is less than the energy content of the original fuel, some of it being lost as excessive heat during production. Steam reforming emits carbon dioxide.
A small part (4% in 2006) is produced by electrolysis using electricity and water, consuming approximately 50 kilowatt-hours of electricity per kilogram of hydrogen produced.
### Electrolysis of water.
Hydrogen can be made via high pressure electrolysis, low pressure electrolysis of water, or a range of other emerging electrochemical processes | 19,566 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
such as high temperature electrolysis or carbon assisted electrolysis. However, current best processes for water electrolysis have an effective electrical efficiency of 70-80%, so that producing 1 kg of hydrogen (which has a specific energy of 143 MJ/kg or about 40 kWh/kg) requires 50–55 kWh of electricity. At an electricity cost of $0.06/kWh, as set out in the Department of Energy hydrogen production
targets for 2015, the hydrogen cost is $3/kg. With the range of natural gas prices from 2016 as shown in the graph (Hydrogen Production Tech Team Roadmap, November 2017) putting the cost of SMR hydrogen at between $1.20 and $1.50, the cost price of hydrogen via electrolysis is still over double | 19,567 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
2015 DOE hydrogen target prices. The US DOE target price for hydrogen in 2020 is $2.30/kg, requiring an electricity cost $0.037/kWh, which is achievable given recent PPA tenders for wind and solar in many regions. This puts the $4/gge H2 dispensed objective well within reach, and close to a slightly elevated natural gas production cost for SMR.
In other parts of the world, steam methane reforming is between $1–3/kg on average. This makes production of hydrogen via electrolysis cost competitive in many regions already, as outlined by Nel Hydrogen and others, including an article by the IEA examining the conditions which could lead to a competitive advantage for electrolysis.
### Kværner process.
The | 19,568 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
Kværner process or Kvaerner carbon black & hydrogen process (CB&H) is a method, developed in the 1980s by a Norwegian company of the same name, for the production of hydrogen from hydrocarbons (CH), such as methane, natural gas and biogas.
Of the available energy of the feed, approximately 48% is contained in the hydrogen, 40% is contained in activated carbon and 10% in superheated steam.
## Experimental production methods.
### Biological production.
Fermentative hydrogen production is the fermentative conversion of organic substrate to biohydrogen manifested by a diverse group of bacteria using multi enzyme systems involving three steps similar to anaerobic conversion. Dark fermentation | 19,569 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
reactions do not require light energy, so they are capable of constantly producing hydrogen from organic compounds throughout the day and night. Photofermentation differs from dark fermentation because it only proceeds in the presence of light. For example, photo-fermentation with "Rhodobacter sphaeroides" SH2C can be employed to convert small molecular fatty acids into hydrogen. Electrohydrogenesis is used in microbial fuel cells where hydrogen is produced from organic matter (e.g. from sewage, or solid matter) while 0.2 - 0.8 V is applied.
Biological hydrogen can be produced in an algae bioreactor. In the late 1990s it was discovered that if the algae is deprived of sulfur it will switch | 19,570 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
from the production of oxygen, i.e. normal photosynthesis, to the production of hydrogen.
Biological hydrogen can be produced in bioreactors that use feedstocks other than algae, the most common feedstock being waste streams. The process involves bacteria feeding on hydrocarbons and excreting hydrogen and CO. The CO can be sequestered successfully by several methods, leaving hydrogen gas. In 2006-2007, NanoLogix first demonstrated a prototype hydrogen bioreactor using waste as a feedstock at Welch's grape juice factory in North East, Pennsylvania (U.S.).
### Biocatalysed electrolysis.
Besides regular electrolysis, electrolysis using microbes is another possibility. With biocatalysed electrolysis, | 19,571 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
hydrogen is generated after running through the microbial fuel cell and a variety of aquatic plants can be used. These include reed sweetgrass, cordgrass, rice, tomatoes, lupines, and algae
### High-pressure electrolysis.
High pressure electrolysis is the electrolysis of water by decomposition of water (HO) into oxygen (O) and hydrogen gas (H) by means of an electric current being passed through the water. The difference with a standard electrolyzer is the compressed hydrogen output around 120-200 bar (1740-2900 psi, 12–20 MPa). By pressurising the hydrogen in the electrolyser, through a process known as chemical compression, the need for an external hydrogen compressor is eliminated, the | 19,572 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
average energy consumption for internal compression is around 3%.
European largest (1 400 000 kg/a, High-pressure Electrolysis of water, alkaline technology) hydrogen production plant is operating at Kokkola, Finland.
### High-temperature electrolysis.
Hydrogen can be generated from energy supplied in the form of heat and electricity through high-temperature electrolysis (HTE). Because some of the energy in HTE is supplied in the form of heat, less of the energy must be converted twice (from heat to electricity, and then to chemical form), and so potentially far less energy is required per kilogram of hydrogen produced.
While nuclear-generated electricity could be used for electrolysis, | 19,573 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
nuclear heat can be directly applied to split hydrogen from water. High temperature (950–1000 °C) gas cooled nuclear reactors have the potential to split hydrogen from water by thermochemical means using nuclear heat. Research into high-temperature nuclear reactors may eventually lead to a hydrogen supply that is cost-competitive with natural gas steam reforming. General Atomics predicts that hydrogen produced in a High Temperature Gas Cooled Reactor (HTGR) would cost $1.53/kg. In 2003, steam reforming of natural gas yielded hydrogen at $1.40/kg. In 2005 natural gas prices, hydrogen costs $2.70/kg.
High-temperature electrolysis has been demonstrated in a laboratory, at 108 MJ (thermal) per | 19,574 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
kilogram of hydrogen produced, but not at a commercial scale. In addition, this is lower-quality "commercial" grade Hydrogen, unsuitable for use in fuel cells.
### Photoelectrochemical water splitting.
Using electricity produced by photovoltaic systems offers the cleanest way to produce hydrogen. Water is broken into hydrogen and oxygen by electrolysis—a photoelectrochemical cell (PEC) process which is also named artificial photosynthesis. William Ayers at Energy Conversion Devices demonstrated and patented the first multijunction high efficiency photoelectrochemical system for direct splitting of water in 1983. This group demonstrated direct water splitting now referred to as an "artificial | 19,575 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
leaf" or "wireless solar water splitting" with a low cost thin film amorphous silicon multijunction sheet immersed directly in water. Hydrogen evolved on the front amorphous silicon surface decorated with various catalysts while oxygen evolved off the back metal substrate. A Nafion membrane above the multijunction cell provided a path for ion transport. Their patent also lists a variety of other semiconductor multijunction materials for the direct water splitting in addition to amorphous silicon and silicon germanium alloys. Research continues towards developing high-efficiency multi-junction cell technology at universities and the photovoltaic industry. If this process is assisted by photocatalysts | 19,576 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
suspended directly in water instead of using photovoltaic and an electrolytic system, the reaction is in just one step, which can improve efficiency.
### Photoelectrocatalytic production.
A method studied by Thomas Nann and his team at the University of East Anglia consists of a gold electrode covered in layers of indium phosphide (InP) nanoparticles. They introduced an iron-sulfur complex into the layered arrangement, which when submerged in water and irradiated with light under a small electric current, produced hydrogen with an efficiency of 60%.
In 2015, it was reported that Panasonic Corp. has developed a photocatalyst based on niobium nitride that can absorb 57% of sunlight to support | 19,577 |
906156 | Hydrogen economy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20economy | Hydrogen economy
the decomposition of water to produce hydrogen gas. The company plans to achieve commercial application "as early as possible", not before 2020.
### Concentrating solar thermal.
Very high temperatures are required to dissociate water into hydrogen and oxygen. A catalyst is required to make the process operate at feasible temperatures. Heating the water can be achieved through the use of concentrating solar power. Hydrosol-2 is a 100-kilowatt pilot plant at the Plataforma Solar de Almería in Spain which uses sunlight to obtain the required 800 to 1,200 °C to heat water. Hydrosol II has been in operation since 2008. The design of this 100-kilowatt pilot plant is based on a modular concept. As | 19,578 |
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a result, it may be possible that this technology could be readily scaled up to the megawatt range by multiplying the available reactor units and by connecting the plant to heliostat fields (fields of sun-tracking mirrors) of a suitable size.
### Thermochemical production.
There are more than 352 thermochemical cycles which can be used for water splitting, around a dozen of these cycles such as the iron oxide cycle, cerium(IV) oxide-cerium(III) oxide cycle, zinc zinc-oxide cycle, sulfur-iodine cycle, copper-chlorine cycle and hybrid sulfur cycle are under research and in testing phase to produce hydrogen and oxygen from water and heat without using electricity. These processes can be more | 19,579 |
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efficient than high-temperature electrolysis, typical in the range from 35% - 49% LHV efficiency. Thermochemical production of hydrogen using chemical energy from coal or natural gas is generally not considered, because the direct chemical path is more efficient.
None of the thermochemical hydrogen production processes have been demonstrated at production levels, although several have been demonstrated in laboratories.
## Hydrogen as a byproduct of other chemical processes.
The industrial production of chlorine and caustic soda by electrolysis generates a sizable amount of Hydrogen as a byproduct. In the port of Antwerp a 1MW demonstration fuel cell power plant is powered by such byproduct. | 19,580 |
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This unit has been operational since late 2011. The excess hydrogen is often managed with a hydrogen pinch analysis.
## Storage.
Although molecular hydrogen has very high energy density on a mass basis, partly because of its low molecular weight, as a gas at ambient conditions it has very low energy density by volume. If it is to be used as fuel stored on board the vehicle, pure hydrogen gas must be stored in an energy-dense form to provide sufficient driving range.
### Pressurized hydrogen gas.
Increasing gas pressure improves the energy density by volume, making for smaller, but not lighter container tanks (see pressure vessel). Achieving higher pressures necessitates greater use of external | 19,581 |
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energy to power the compression. The mass of the hydrogen tanks needed for compressed hydrogen reduces the fuel economy of the vehicle. Because it is a small molecule, hydrogen tends to diffuse through any liner material intended to contain it, leading to the embrittlement, or weakening, of its container. The most common method of on board hydrogen storage in today's demonstration vehicles is as a compressed gas at pressures of roughly 700 bar (70 MPa).
### Liquid hydrogen.
Alternatively, higher volumetric energy density liquid hydrogen or slush hydrogen may be used. However, liquid hydrogen is cryogenic and boils at 20.268 K (–252.882 °C or –423.188 °F). Cryogenic storage cuts weight but | 19,582 |
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requires large liquification energies. The liquefaction process, involving pressurizing and cooling steps, is energy intensive. The liquefied hydrogen has lower energy density by volume than gasoline by approximately a factor of four, because of the low density of liquid hydrogen — there is actually more hydrogen in a litre of gasoline (116 grams) than there is in a litre of pure liquid hydrogen (71 grams). Liquid hydrogen storage tanks must also be well insulated to minimize boil off.
Japan have a liquid hydrogen (LH2) storage facility at a terminal in Kobe, and are expected to receive the first shipment of liquid hydrogen via LH2 carrier in 2020. Hydrogen is liquified by reducing its temperature | 19,583 |
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to -253 °C, similar to liquified natural gas (LNG) which is stored at -162 °C. A potential efficiency loss of 12.79% can be achieved, or 4.26kWh/kg out of 33.3kWh/kg.
### Storage as hydride.
Distinct from storing molecular hydrogen, hydrogen can be stored as a chemical hydride or in some other hydrogen-containing compound. Hydrogen gas is reacted with some other materials to produce the hydrogen storage material, which can be transported relatively easily. At the point of use the hydrogen storage material can be made to decompose, yielding hydrogen gas. As well as the mass and volume density problems associated with molecular hydrogen storage, current barriers to practical storage schemes | 19,584 |
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stem from the high pressure and temperature conditions needed for hydride formation and hydrogen release. For many potential systems hydriding and dehydriding kinetics and heat management are also issues that need to be overcome. A French company McPhy Energy is developing the first industrial product, based on Magnesium Hydrate, already sold to some major clients such as Iwatani and ENEL.
### Adsorption.
A third approach is to adsorb molecular hydrogen on the surface of a solid storage material. Unlike in the hydrides mentioned above, the hydrogen does not dissociate/recombine upon charging/discharging the storage system, and hence does not suffer from the kinetic limitations of many hydride | 19,585 |
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storage systems. Hydrogen densities similar to liquefied hydrogen can be achieved with appropriate adsorbent materials. Some suggested adsorbents include activated carbon, nanostructured carbons (including CNTs), MOFs, and hydrogen clathrate hydrate.
### Underground hydrogen storage.
Underground hydrogen storage is the practice of hydrogen storage in underground caverns, salt domes and depleted oil and gas fields. Large quantities of gaseous hydrogen have been stored in underground caverns by ICI for many years without any difficulties. The storage of large quantities of liquid hydrogen underground can function as grid energy storage. The round-trip efficiency is approximately 40% (vs. 75-80% | 19,586 |
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for pumped-hydro (PHES)), and the cost is slightly higher than pumped hydro. Another study referenced by a European staff working paper found that for large scale storage, the cheapest option is hydrogen at €140/MWh for 2,000 hours of storage using an electrolyser, salt cavern storage and combined-cycle power plant. The European project Hyunder indicated in 2013 that for the storage of wind and solar energy an additional 85 caverns are required as it cannot be covered by PHES and CAES systems. A German case study on storage of hydrogen in salt caverns found that if the German power surplus (7% of total variable renewable generation by 2025 and 20% by 2050) would be converted to hydrogen
and | 19,587 |
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stored underground, these quantities would require some 15 caverns of 500,000 cubic metres each
by 2025 and some 60 caverns by 2050 – corresponding to approximately one third of the number of
underground gas caverns currently operated in Germany. In the US, Sandia Labs are conducting research into the storage of hydrogen in depleted oil and gas fields, which could easily absorb large amounts of renewably produced hydrogen as there are some 2.7 million depleted wells in existence.
### Power to gas.
Power to gas is a technology which converts electrical power to a gas fuel. There are 2 methods, the first is to use the electricity for water splitting and inject the resulting hydrogen into the | 19,588 |
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natural gas grid. The second (less efficient) method is used to convert carbon dioxide and water to methane, (see natural gas) using electrolysis and the Sabatier reaction. The excess power or off peak power generated by wind generators or solar arrays is then used for load balancing in the energy grid. Using the existing natural gas system for hydrogen Fuel cell maker Hydrogenics and natural gas distributor Enbridge have teamed up to develop such a power to gas system in Canada.
### Pipeline storage.
A natural gas network may be used for the storage of hydrogen. Before switching to natural gas, the UK and German gas networks were operated using towngas, which for the most part consisted of | 19,589 |
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hydrogen. The storage capacity of the German natural gas network is more than 200,000 GWh which is enough for several months of energy requirement. By comparison, the capacity of all German pumped storage power plants amounts to only about 40 GW·h. Similarly UK pumped storage is far less than the gas network. The transport of energy through a gas network is done with much less loss (<0.1%) than in a power network (8%). The use of the existing natural gas pipelines for hydrogen was studied by NaturalHy
## Infrastructure.
The hydrogen infrastructure would consist mainly of industrial hydrogen pipeline transport and hydrogen-equipped filling stations like those found on a hydrogen highway. Hydrogen | 19,590 |
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stations which were not situated near a hydrogen pipeline would get supply via hydrogen tanks, compressed hydrogen tube trailers, liquid hydrogen trailers, liquid hydrogen tank trucks or dedicated onsite production.
Because of hydrogen embrittlement of steel, and corrosion natural gas pipes require internal coatings or replacement in order to convey hydrogen. Techniques are well-known; over 700 miles of hydrogen pipeline currently exist in the United States. Although expensive, pipelines are the cheapest way to move hydrogen. Hydrogen gas piping is routine in large oil-refineries, because hydrogen is used to hydrocrack fuels from crude oil.
Hydrogen piping can in theory be avoided in distributed | 19,591 |
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systems of hydrogen production, where hydrogen is routinely made on site using medium or small-sized generators which would produce enough hydrogen for personal use or perhaps a neighborhood. In the end, a combination of options for hydrogen gas distribution may succeed.
While millions of tons of elemental hydrogen are distributed around the world each year in various ways, bringing hydrogen to individual consumers would require an evolution of the fuel infrastructure. For example, according to GM, 70% of the U.S. population lives near a hydrogen-generating facility but has little public access to that hydrogen. The same study however, shows that building the infrastructure in a systematic | 19,592 |
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way is much more doable and affordable than most people think. For example, one article has noted that hydrogen stations could be put within every 10 miles in metro Los Angeles, and on the highways between LA and neighboring cities like Palm Springs, Las Vegas, San Diego and Santa Barbara, for the cost of a Starbuck's latte for every one of the 15 million residents living in these areas.
South Korea and Japan, which as of 2019 lack international electrical interconnectors, are investing in the hydrogen economy.
#### centralized vs. distributed production.
In a future full hydrogen economy, primary energy sources and feedstock would be used to produce hydrogen gas as stored energy for use | 19,593 |
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in various sectors of the economy. Producing hydrogen from primary energy sources other than coal, oil, and natural gas, would result in lower production of the greenhouse gases characteristic of the combustion of these fossil energy resources.
One key feature of a hydrogen economy would be that in mobile applications (primarily vehicular transport) energy generation and use could be decoupled. The primary energy source would need no longer travel with the vehicle, as it currently does with hydrocarbon fuels. Instead of tailpipes creating dispersed emissions, the energy (and pollution) could be generated from point sources such as large-scale, centralized facilities with improved efficiency. | 19,594 |
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This would allow the possibility of technologies such as carbon sequestration, which are otherwise impossible for mobile applications. Alternatively, distributed energy generation schemes (such as small scale renewable energy sources) could be used, possibly associated with hydrogen stations.
Aside from the energy generation, hydrogen production could be centralized, distributed or a mixture of both. While generating hydrogen at centralized primary energy plants promises higher hydrogen production efficiency, difficulties in high-volume, long range hydrogen transportation (due to factors such as hydrogen damage and the ease of hydrogen diffusion through solid materials) makes electrical energy | 19,595 |
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distribution attractive within a hydrogen economy. In such a scenario, small regional plants or even local filling stations could generate hydrogen using energy provided through the electrical distribution grid. While hydrogen generation efficiency is likely to be lower than for centralized hydrogen generation, losses in hydrogen transport could make such a scheme more efficient in terms of the primary energy used per kilogram of hydrogen delivered to the end user.
The proper balance between hydrogen distribution and long-distance electrical distribution is one of the primary questions that arises about the hydrogen economy.
Again the dilemmas of production sources and transportation of hydrogen | 19,596 |
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can now be overcome using on site (home, business, or fuel station) generation of hydrogen from off grid renewable sources..
### Distributed electrolysis.
Distributed electrolysis would bypass the problems of distributing hydrogen by distributing electricity instead. It would use existing electrical networks to transport electricity to small, on-site electrolysers located at filling stations. However, accounting for the energy used to produce the electricity and transmission losses would reduce the overall efficiency.
Natural gas combined cycle power plants, which account for almost all construction of new electricity generation plants in the United States, generate electricity at efficiencies | 19,597 |
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of 60 percent or greater. Increased demand for electricity, whether due to hydrogen cars or other demand, would have the marginal impact of adding new combined cycle power plants. On this basis, distributed production of hydrogen would be roughly 40% efficient. However, if the marginal impact is referred to today's power grid, with an efficiency of roughly 40% owing to its mix of fuels and conversion methods, the efficiency of distributed hydrogen production would be roughly 25%.
The distributed production of hydrogen in this fashion would be expected to generate air emissions of pollutants and carbon dioxide at various points in the supply chain, e.g., electrolysis, transportation and storage.
# | 19,598 |
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Fuel cells as alternative to internal combustion.
One of the main offerings of a hydrogen economy is that the fuel can replace the fossil fuel burned in internal combustion engines and turbines as the primary way to convert chemical energy into kinetic or electrical energy; hereby eliminating greenhouse gas emissions and pollution from that engine. Although hydrogen can be used in conventional internal combustion engines, fuel cells, being electrochemical, have a theoretical efficiency advantage over heat engines. Fuel cells are more expensive to produce than common internal combustion engines.
Some types of fuel cells work with hydrocarbon fuels, while all can be operated on pure hydrogen. | 19,599 |
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