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1804264 | Suicide weapon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suicide%20weapon | Suicide weapon
the Battle of Shanghai, where a Chinese suicide bomber stopped a Japanese tank column by exploding himself beneath the lead tank, and at the Battle of Taierzhuang where dynamite and grenades were strapped on by Chinese troops who rushed at Japanese tanks and blew themselves up. During one incident at Taierzhuang, Chinese suicide bombers obliterated four Japanese tanks with grenade bundles. The Pacific War of World War II bore witness to the Japanese kamikaze suicide attack pilots ("kamikaze" was not a term used by the Japanese themselves). Late in the war, as the tide turned against Japan, kamikaze pilots were deployed to attempt to crash their aircraft into American and allied ships in the | 21,800 |
1804264 | Suicide weapon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suicide%20weapon | Suicide weapon
Pacific. The Japanese even developed specialized aircraft for the tactic, such as the Yokosuka Ohka flying bomb. A successful kamikaze attack would both kill the plane's pilot and damage the target ship, possibly even sinking it. Related tactics included the kaiten suicide minisub, a human torpedo which a single Japanese pilot would steer into an Allied ship.
North Korean tanks were attacked by South Koreans with suicide tactics during the North Korean conquest of the South.
American tanks at Seoul were attacked by North Korean suicide squads, who used satchel charges. A North Korean soldier named Li Su-Bok, who exploded an American tank with a suicide bomb, is hailed as a hero in North Korean | 21,801 |
1804264 | Suicide weapon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suicide%20weapon | Suicide weapon
propaganda.
Certain aircraft built or projected for the "Luftwaffe" during the time of the Allied bombing before the surrender of Nazi Germany in World War II, such as the Bachem Ba 349, "Fliegende Panzerfaust", Sombold So 344, Zeppelin Rammer or the Blohm & Voss BV 40 are sometimes listed as suicide weapons. However, they were not intended as such, even though the chances of survival would have been very limited for the pilots of such dangerous artifacts. In those years Nazi authorities considered the use of "selbstopfer" (suicide) planes such as the Messerschmitt Me 328 and the Fieseler 103.
During the Cold War, it was argued that the doctrine of mutual assured destruction turned nuclear | 21,802 |
1804264 | Suicide weapon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suicide%20weapon | Suicide weapon
weapons into suicide weapons. The idea of a Doomsday weapon took this to its logical extreme.
Political groups using suicide weapons in the post-Cold War era include mainly outfits affiliated to Islamic terrorism, among which even children have been used in order to escape detection when carrying out suicide attacks. However, non-Islamic groups, such as the Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam, also have been prone to use suicide weapons. Today, the most common suicide weapons used to carry out terrorist attacks are car bombs or truck bombs, as well as antipersonnel bombs carried by a single person. Suicide bombers strap explosives, often covered with nails, screws, or other items intended to act | 21,803 |
1804264 | Suicide weapon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suicide%20weapon | Suicide weapon
as fragments, to their bodies or otherwise carry them into populated areas and detonate them. The Tamil Tigers of Sri Lanka are known for having made high-profile use of this method in the assassination of Rajiv Gandhi. Similar methods have been also used by Palestinian terrorist groups in the Israeli–Palestinian conflict, among others.
Kamikaze attacks were mimicked in the September 11, 2001 attacks, in which a group of mostly Saudi terrorists destroyed the World Trade Center and part of the Pentagon by flying hijacked jet airliners into them. It was the first and only time in history that hijacked jet airliners filled with fuel were used as cruise missiles against targets of such magnitude.
# | 21,804 |
1804264 | Suicide weapon | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Suicide%20weapon | Suicide weapon
attacks, in which a group of mostly Saudi terrorists destroyed the World Trade Center and part of the Pentagon by flying hijacked jet airliners into them. It was the first and only time in history that hijacked jet airliners filled with fuel were used as cruise missiles against targets of such magnitude.
# Examples.
- Suicide bombs
- Explosive belt
- SVBIEDs
- Car Bomb
- Kamikaze air attacks by Japan in WWII
- Kaiten human-steered torpedo, used by Japan in WWII
# See also.
- Suicide attack weapons and methods
- Japanese Special Attack Units
- Indoctrination
- Religious terrorism
# External links.
- Japanese suicide weapon：Human torpedo "Kaiten" and Human Bomb "Ohoka"(Japanese) | 21,805 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
Michael Tomasello
Michael Tomasello (born January 18, 1950) is an American developmental and comparative psychologist, as well as linguist. He is co-director of Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology in Leipzig, co-director of the Wolfgang Kohler Primate Research Center, honorary professor at University of Leipzig and at Manchester University's Department of Psychology, and professor of psychology at Duke University.
Earning many prizes and awards from the end of the 1990s onward, he is considered one of today's most authoritative developmental and comparative psychologists. He is "one of the few scientists worldwide who is acknowledged as an expert in multiple disciplines". His | 21,806 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
"pioneering research on the origins of social cognition has led to revolutionary insights in both developmental psychology and primate cognition."
# Early life and education.
Tomasello was born in Bartow, Florida. He received his bachelor's degree 1972 from Duke University and his doctorate in Experimental Psychology 1980 from University of Georgia.
# Career.
He was a professor of psychology and anthropology at Emory University in Atlanta, Georgia, US, during the 1980s and 1990s. Subsequently, he moved to Germany to work at the Max Planck Institute.
He works on child language acquisition as a crucially important aspect of the enculturation process. He is a critic of Noam Chomsky's universal | 21,807 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
grammar, rejecting the idea of an innate universal grammar and instead proposing a functional theory of language development (sometimes called the social-pragmatic or usage-based approach to language acquisition) in which children learn linguistic structures through intention-reading and pattern-finding in their discourse interactions with others.
Tomasello also studies broader cognitive skills in a comparative light at the Wolfgang Köhler Primate Research Center in Leipzig. With his research team, he created a set of experimental devices to test toddlers' (from 6 months to 24 months) and apes' spatial, instrumental, and social cognition; the outcome of which is that social (even ultrasocial) | 21,808 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
cognition is what truly sets human apart.
### broad outlines.
More specifically, Tomasello argues that apes lack a series of skills:
- social learning through pedagogical ostentation and deliberate transmission;
- over-imitation, imitating not only action but also manners and styles of doing;
- informative pointing;
- perspectival views, looking at the same thing or event alternatively from another agent's angle;
- recursive mind reading, knowing what others know we know they know (and so forth);
- third-party punishment (when agent C punishes or avoids collaborating with agent B because of his unfairness toward agent A);
- building and enlarging common ground (communicating in order | 21,809 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
to share with others, and building a sphere of things that are commonly known);
- group-mindedness (prescriptive feeling of belonging, of interdependence, of self-monitoring following general, impersonal expectations); and
- cumulative culture, sometimes coined "the ratchet effect".
Tomasello sees these skills as being preceded and encompassed by the capacity to share attention and intention (collective intentionality), an evolutionary novelty that would have emerged as a cooperative integrating of apes skills that formerly worked in competition.
## The sharing of attention and of intention.
Inferring a common need, being motivated to act cooperatively to fulfill this need, coordinating | 21,810 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
individuals' roles and perspectives under the common goal of fulfilling this common need if, and only if other agent fulfill his commitment toward that goal, and sharing the spoils fairly ; thus can be defined the overall scheme of the sharing of attention and of intention. Tomasello holds such dual structure of commonality and individuality as being a cognitive integration of skills in mind reading, in instrumental action and in simulational thinking (meaning agents use an internal representation of the state of things, and simulate actions and outcomes of these actions). Individuals need to make clear or explicit, by eye contact, by gestural pantomime or else, that they intend to coordinate | 21,811 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
their actions and perspectives under a common goal. Communicating such a specific intent suggest agents can entertain a sense of forming a "we", to which they feel a sense of commitment, such that defecting from collaborating require an apology or a taking leave. Collaborative agents also see their interaction through a representational format amounting to a bird eye's view or view from nowhere, as suggested by their skills at role switching with their partner, and at inferring what is helpful or relevant to help their partner play their role.
Tomasello's defense, use and deepening of the shared attention and intention hypothesis rely on the experimental data asserted to above (see also ). | 21,812 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
Tomasello also resort to an evolutionary two-step scenario (see below), and to philosophical concepts borrowed to Paul Grice, John Searle, Margaret Gilbert, Michael Bratman, and anthropologist Dan Sperber.
At one point in time, after the emergence of the genus Homo two millions years ago, Homo Heidelbergensis or other close candidate became obligate foragers and scavengers under ecological pressures (desertification) driving to resources scarcity. Individuals able to avoid free-riders and to divide the spoils with collaborative partners would have gain an adaptive advantage over non cooperators. The heightened dependence on joint effort to gain food and the social selection of partners are | 21,813 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
taken to account for an evolution toward better skills at coordinating individual's roles and perspectives under a common attentional frame (that of the hunt or scavenging) and under a common goal, giving rise to joint, interpersonal intention. Later, around 200 000 years ago, new ecological pressures presumably posed by competition within groups put those comprising "loose pool" of collaborators at a disadvantage against groups of coherently collaborative individuals working for a common territorial defense. "Individuals [...] began to understand themselves as members of particular social group with a particular identity"..
For Tomasello, this two-step evolutionary path of macro ecological | 21,814 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
pressures impacting micro-level skills in representation, inferences and self-monitoring, does not hold because natural selection would see internal mechanisms. « Cognitive processes are a product of natural selection, but they are not its target. Indeed, natural selection cannot even "see" cognition; it can only "see" the effects of cognition in organizing and regulating overt actions ».. Ecological pressures would have put prior cooperative or mutualistic behaviors at such an advantage against competition as to create a new selective pressure favoring new cognitive skills, which would have posed new challenges, in an autocatalytic way.
Echoing the phylogenetic path, humans' unique skills | 21,815 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
at joint and collective intentionality develop during the individual's lifetime by scaffolding, not only on simple skills like distinguishing animate/inanimate matter, but also on the communicative conventions and institutions forming the socio-cultural environment, forming feedback loops that enrich and deepen both cultural ground and individual's prior skills. "[B]asic skills evolve phylogenetically, enabling the creation of cultural products historically, which then provide developing children with the biological and cultural tools they need to develop ontogenetically".
The sharing of attention and of intention is taken to be prior to language in evolutionary time and in an individual's | 21,816 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
lifetime, while conditioning language's acquisition through the parsing of joint attentional scenes into actors, objects, events and the like. More broadly, Tomasello sees the sharing of attention and of intention as the roots of human cultural world (the roots of conventions, of group identity, of institutions) : ""Human reasoning, even when it is done internally with the self, is [...] shot through and through with a kind of collective normativity in which the individuals regulate her actions and thinking based on the group's normative conventions and standards".
# Awards.
- Guggenheim Fellowship, 1997
- German National Academy of Sciences [elected, 2003]
- Fyssen Foundation Prize, Paris, | 21,817 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
2004
- Cognitive Development Society Book Award, 2005 (for "Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition")
- Jean Nicod Prize, Paris, 2006
- Mind and Brain Prize, University of Torino, 2007
- Fellow, Cognitive Science Society [elected 2008]
- , Stuttgart, 2009
- Oswald Külpe Prize, University of Würzburg, 2009
- Max Planck Research Prize [Human Evolution], Humboldt Society, 2010
- Heineken Prize for Cognitive Science, Amsterdam, 2010
- Hungarian National Academy of Sciences [elected, 2010]
- British Academy Wiley Prize in Psychology, 2011
- Klaus Jacobs Research Prize, 2011
- Wiesbadener Helmuth Plessner Prize, 2014
- Distinguished Scientific Contribution | 21,818 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
Award, American Psychological Association, 2015
- American Academy of Arts & Sciences (elected, 2017)
- National Academy of Science (elected, 2017)
# Selected works.
- Tomasello, M. & Call, J. (1997). "Primate Cognition". Oxford University Press.
- Tomasello, M. (1999). "The Cultural Origins of Human Cognition", Harvard University Press. (Winner of the William James Book Award of the APA, 2001)
- Tomasello, M. (2003). "Constructing a Language: A Usage-Based Theory of Language Acquisition", Harvard University Press. (Winner of the Cognitive Development Society Book Award, 2005)
- Tomasello, M. (2008). "Origins of Human Communication", MIT Press. (Winner of the Eleanor Maccoby Book Award | 21,819 |
1804290 | Michael Tomasello | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Michael%20Tomasello | Michael Tomasello
mmunication", MIT Press. (Winner of the Eleanor Maccoby Book Award of the APA, 2009)
- Tomasello, M. (2009). "Why We Cooperate", MIT Press.
- Tomasello, M. (2014). "A Natural History of Human Thinking", Harvard University Press.
- Tomasello, M. (2016). "A Natural History of Human Morality", Harvard University Press. (Winner of the Eleanor Maccoby Book Award of the APA, 2018)
- Tomasello, M. (2019). "Becoming Human: A Theory of Ontogeny". Harvard University Press.
# See also.
- "Dawn of Humanity" (2015 PBS film)
# External links.
- Official website at Max Planck Institute for Evolutionary Anthropology
- Max Planck Institute
- Origin of Human Communication, Jean Nicod Lectures (2006) | 21,820 |
1804291 | Balcombe railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Balcombe%20railway%20station | Balcombe railway station
Balcombe railway station
Balcombe railway station is on the Brighton Main Line in England, serving the village of Balcombe, West Sussex. It is down the line from via and is situated between and . It is managed by Southern.
Trains calling at Balcombe are primarily operated by Thameslink, with some Southern services during the peaks.
# History.
The original station was opened in July 1841 by the London and Brighton Railway, which became the London Brighton and South Coast Railway in 1846. The station was resited to its present position in 1848 or 1849.
The station became part of the Southern Railway during the grouping of 1923. The station then passed on to the Southern Region of British Railways | 21,821 |
1804291 | Balcombe railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Balcombe%20railway%20station | Balcombe railway station
on nationalisation in 1948. When sectorisation was introduced in the 1980s, the station was served by Network SouthEast until the privatisation of British Railways.
# Services.
The typical off-peak service from the station is:
- 2tph to Brighton via
- 2tph to Bedford via London Bridge
These services are operated by Thameslink
In the morning peak
- 1 train runs from Brighton to Cambridge (Thameslink)
- 1 train runs from Eastbourne to London Bridge (Southern)
- 1 train runs from Littlehampton to London Victoria (Southern)
- 2 trains runs from Littlehampton to Bedford (Thameslink)
- 1 train runs from London Victoria to Brighton (Southern)
No additional trains run in the evening peak
# | 21,822 |
1804291 | Balcombe railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Balcombe%20railway%20station | Balcombe railway station
as introduced in the 1980s, the station was served by Network SouthEast until the privatisation of British Railways.
# Services.
The typical off-peak service from the station is:
- 2tph to Brighton via
- 2tph to Bedford via London Bridge
These services are operated by Thameslink
In the morning peak
- 1 train runs from Brighton to Cambridge (Thameslink)
- 1 train runs from Eastbourne to London Bridge (Southern)
- 1 train runs from Littlehampton to London Victoria (Southern)
- 2 trains runs from Littlehampton to Bedford (Thameslink)
- 1 train runs from London Victoria to Brighton (Southern)
No additional trains run in the evening peak
# References.
- Station on navigable O.S. map | 21,823 |
1804307 | List of places in Leicestershire | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20places%20in%20Leicestershire | List of places in Leicestershire
List of places in Leicestershire
This is a list of cities, towns and villages within the ceremonial county boundaries of Leicestershire, England.
# A.
- , Abbots Oak, Acresford, , Allexton, Anstey, , , Arnesby, Asfordby, , , , , , , , , , , Atterton, Aylestone
# B.
- Bagworth, Bardon, Barkby, , , Barlestone, , Barsby, , Barwell, Battleflat, Battram, , , Beeby, , Belgrave, Belton, Belvoir, , , Bescaby, Billesdon, Bilstone, Birstall, Bittesby, Bitteswell, Blaby, Blackfordby, Blaston, Boothorpe, Botcheston, Bottesford, Boundary, , Branston, Brascote, Braunstone, , Brentingby, Bringhurst, Brooksby, Broughton Astley, Bruntingthorpe, Buckminster, , Burbage, , , , , Bushby
# C.
- Cadeby, Carlton, | 21,824 |
1804307 | List of places in Leicestershire | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20places%20in%20Leicestershire | List of places in Leicestershire
, , Catthorpe, , Chadwell, Charley, Chilcote, , , , , Coalville, , , Coleorton, , Congerstone, , Cosby, Cossington, Coston, Cotes, Cotesbach, , Coton, Countesthorpe, Cranoe, Croft, Cropston, ,
# D.
- Dadlington, , Desford, Diseworth, Dishley, , Donisthorpe, Drayton, ,
# E.
- , , , , Easthorpe, Eastwell, Eaton, Edmondthorpe, Ellistown, Elmesthorpe, Enderby, Evington, , ,
# F.
- , , , , Fleckney, , Foston, Foxton, , Freeby, Frisby, , , Frolesworth
# G.
- Gaddesby, Garthorpe, Gaulby, Gelsmoor, Gilmorton, , , Glenfield, Glooston, Goadby, , Goodwood, Gopsall, , , , , , , Greenhill, Griffydam, Grimston, Groby, , Gumley
# H.
- Hallaton, Halstead, Hamilton, Harby, Harston, Hathern, Heather, | 21,825 |
1804307 | List of places in Leicestershire | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20places%20in%20Leicestershire | List of places in Leicestershire
, Hemington, Higham on the Hill, Highfields, Hinckley, Hoby, Holwell, Horninghold, Hose, Hoton, Houghton on the Hill, Hugglescote, Humberstone, Huncote, Hungarton, Husbands Bosworth
# I.
- Ibstock, Illston, , Ingarsby,
# K.
- Kegworth, Keyham, Keythorpe, , , Kilby, , Kimcote, , , , , , , Knaptoft, Knighton, Knipton, Knossington
# L.
- , Laughton, Launde, Leesthorpe, Leicester, Leicester Castle, , , Leire, Lindley, , , , , , Littlethorpe, Lockington, Loddington, , , Loughborough, Lount, Lowesby, Lubenham, Lutterworth
# M.
- , Marefield, Market Bosworth, Market Harborough, Markfield, Measham, Medbourne, Melton Mowbray, Misterton, Moira, Mountsorrel, Mowmacre Hill, Mowsley, Muston
# N.
- | 21,826 |
1804307 | List of places in Leicestershire | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20places%20in%20Leicestershire | List of places in Leicestershire
Nailstone, Nanpantan, Narborough, Nether Broughton, Nevill Holt, Newbold, Harborough, Newbold, North West Leicestershire, Newbold Verdon, Newton Burgoland, Newton Harcourt, Newtown Linford, Newtown Unthank, Normanton, Normanton le Heath, Norris Hill, North Evington, North Kilworth, Norton juxta Twycross, Noseley
# O.
- Oadby, Oakthorpe, Odstone, Old Dalby, Orton on the Hill, Osbaston, Osbaston Hollow, Osgathorpe, Owston
# P.
- Packington, Peatling Magna, Peatling Parva, Peckleton, Pickwell, Pinwall, Plungar, Potters Marston, Prestwold, Primethorpe, Packingshire
# Q.
- Queniborough, Quorn
# R.
- Ragdale, Ratby, Ratcliffe Culey, Ratcliffe on the Wreake, Ravenstone, Rearsby, Redmile, River | 21,827 |
1804307 | List of places in Leicestershire | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20places%20in%20Leicestershire | List of places in Leicestershire
Soar, Rolleston, Rotherby, Rothley
# S.
- Saddington, Saltby, Sapcote, Saxby, Saxelby, Scalford, Scraptoft, Seagrave, Sewstern, Shackerstone, Shangton, Sharnford, Shawell, Shearsby, Sheepy Magna, Sheepy Parva, Shenton, Shepshed, Shoby, Sibson, Sileby, Six Hills, Skeffington, Sketchley, Slawston, Smeeton Westerby, Smockington, Snarestone, Snibston, Soar Valley, Somerby, South Croxton, South Kilworth, South Knighton, South Wigston, Sproxton, Stanford Hall, Stanton under Bardon, Stapleford, Stapleton, Staunton Harold, Stathern, Stockerston, Stoke Golding, Stonesby, Stoney Stanton, Stoneygate, Stonton Wyville, Stoughton, Stretton en le Field, Sutton Cheney, Sutton in the Elms, Swannington, Swepstone, | 21,828 |
1804307 | List of places in Leicestershire | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20places%20in%20Leicestershire | List of places in Leicestershire
ord, Swithland, Syston
# T.
- Theddingworth, Thornton, Thorpe Acre, Thorpe Arnold, Thorpe Astley, Thorpe Langton, Thorpe Satchville, Thringstone, Thrussington, Thurcaston, Thurlaston, Thurmaston, Thurnby, Tilton on the Hill, Tonge, Tugby, Tur Langton, Twycross, Twyford
# U.
- Ullesthorpe, Ulverscroft, Upper Bruntingthorpe, Upton
# V.
- Vale of Belvoir
# W.
- Walcote, Waltham on the Wolds, Walton, Walton on the Wolds, Wanlip, Wartnaby, Welham, Wellsborough, Whatborough, Whetstone, Whitwick, Wigston, Wigston Fields, Wigston Parva, Willoughby Waterleys, Wilson, Wistow, Withcote, Witherley, Woodhouse, Woodhouse Eaves, Woodthorpe, Worthington, Wycomb, Wyfordby, Wykin, Wymeswold, Wymondham | 21,829 |
1804293 | Nore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nore | Nore
Nore
The Nore is a sandbank at the mouth of the Thames Estuary, England. It marks the point where the River Thames meets the North Sea, roughly halfway between Havengore Creek in Essex and Warden Point on the Isle of Sheppey in Kent.
Until 1964 it marked the seaward limit of the Port of London Authority. As the sandbank was a major hazard for shipping coming in and out of London, in 1732 it received the world's first lightship. This became a major landmark, and was used as an assembly point for shipping. Today it is marked by Sea Reach No. 1 Buoy.
The Nore gives its name to the anchorage, or open roadstead, used by the Royal Navy's North Sea Fleet, and to the RN Command based there. It was | 21,830 |
1804293 | Nore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nore | Nore
the site of a notorious mutiny in 1797.
# Lightship.
The Nore is a hazard to shipping, so in 1732 the world's first lightship was moored over it in an experiment by Robert Hamblin, who patented the idea. The experiment must have proved successful, because by 1819 England had nine lightships. The Nore lightship was run by Trinity House, General Lighthouse Authority for England (and Wales, the Channel Islands and Gibraltar).
The early Nore lightships were small wooden vessels, often Dutch-built galliots. By the end of the 19th century a larger ship with a revolving light had appeared, but after about 1915 the authorities ceased to use a lightship. Sea Reach No. 1 Buoy as of 2006 marks the anchorage-point | 21,831 |
1804293 | Nore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nore | Nore
of the former lightship, about midway between Shoeburyness in Essex and the Isle of Sheppey in Kent. This defines the limit of the Thames and the beginning of the North Sea.
# Royal Navy.
The Nore has been the site of a Royal Navy anchorage since the age of sail, being adjacent to both the city and port of London and to the Medway, England's principal naval base and dockyard on the North Sea.
During the French Revolutionary War it was the scene of a notorious mutiny, when seamen protesting against their poor pay and working conditions refused orders and seized control of their ships in May 1797. The mutiny ended in June, but while the ringleaders were punished, much was done by the Admiralty | 21,832 |
1804293 | Nore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nore | Nore
to improve pay and conditions for the seamen.
From 1899 to 1955, the Royal Navy maintained a Commander-in-Chief, The Nore, a senior officer responsible for protecting the entrance to the port of London, and merchant traffic along the east coast of Britain. In the First World War the Nore Command principally had a supply and administrative function, but in the Second World War it oversaw naval operations in the North Sea along the East coast of Britain, guarding against invasion and protecting trade.
# Fort.
Also during the Second World War a series of defensive towers, known as Maunsell Forts were built in the Thames estuary to protect the approach to London from air and sea attack. The Nore | 21,833 |
1804293 | Nore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Nore | Nore
t coast of Britain, guarding against invasion and protecting trade.
# Fort.
Also during the Second World War a series of defensive towers, known as Maunsell Forts were built in the Thames estuary to protect the approach to London from air and sea attack. The Nore was the site of one of these, the Great Nore Tower. It was equipped with a battery of anti-aircraft guns and manned by a unit of the British Army. It was completed in 1943, but was abandoned at the end of hostilities. It was badly damaged in a collision in 1953 and dismantled in 1959–1960.
# External links.
- map of Thames estuary, 1840 at thames.me.uk, showing position of Nore lightship
- the Great Nore Tower at bobleroi.co.uk | 21,834 |
1804324 | Barachois (band) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barachois%20(band) | Barachois (band)
Barachois (band)
Barachois was an Acadian traditional music group from the Evangeline Region of Prince Edward Island. The band 's high-energy stage show highlighted local fiddling, stepdancing and song traditions.
# History.
The group was formed in the mid-1990s by siblings Hélène Bergeron and Albert Arsenault, distant cousin Louise Arsenault unrelated Chuck Arsenault. The name of the group refers to a barachois, an Acadian word for a type of shallow lagoon found on the ocean shores of eastern Canada.
The four began performing in 1993 at dinner theatres and house parties. In 1996 they recorded their first album, "Barachois". which was nominated in 1997 for three East Coast Music Awards, winning | 21,835 |
1804324 | Barachois (band) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barachois%20(band) | Barachois (band)
one of them, Francophone Recording of the Year. Over the group's nine-year run, they produced 3 albums and were awarded a number of national and international awards, including five ECMA's, a Juno nomination, and "Chevaliers" de l'Ordre de la Pleades (Officers in the order of French parliaments).
Barachois toured Canada and the US, as well as fifteen other countries.
The band amicably retired in 2003. Chuck and Albert toured as a duo for another seven years, presenting a show which included comedic skits as well as traditional music. Louise and Hélène went on to found and perform with two other traditional French-Acadian bands: Les Girls and Gadelle.
# Members.
The members of the group were:
- | 21,836 |
1804324 | Barachois (band) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Barachois%20(band) | Barachois (band)
bert toured as a duo for another seven years, presenting a show which included comedic skits as well as traditional music. Louise and Hélène went on to found and perform with two other traditional French-Acadian bands: Les Girls and Gadelle.
# Members.
The members of the group were:
- Albert Arsenault - fiddle, Acadian percussion, bass, vocals
- Hélène Bergeron - keyboards, guitar, fiddle, vocals
- Louise Arsenault - fiddle, guitar, foot percussion, vocals
- Chuck Arsenault - guitar, brass instruments, harmonica, vocals
# Discography.
- 1996 "Barachois- Acadian Music from Prince Edward Island"
- 1999 "Encore!"
- 2002 "Naturel"
# External links.
- Barachois discography at allmusic | 21,837 |
1804317 | Friarton Bridge | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friarton%20Bridge | Friarton Bridge
Friarton Bridge
The Friarton Bridge is a steel box girder bridge with a concrete deck, across the River Tay on the southeastern outskirts of Perth, Scotland, approximately 20 miles upstream of the Tay Road Bridge. The bridle was constructed by the Cleveland Bridge and Engineering Company with Miller Groupas the foundation and concrete sub-contractor. The bridge was designed by Freeman Fox and Partners with the team being led by Dr Oleg Kerensky CBE, DSc, BSc, FRS, FEng, FIStructE,FICE and the resident engineer was H Binnie. The site manager for Cleveland was J Robinson and for Miller it was R Gormley.The bridge was a pair of steel box girders (one under each carriage way) 4.3 m wide overlaid | 21,838 |
1804317 | Friarton Bridge | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friarton%20Bridge | Friarton Bridge
by a lightweight concrete deck. The bridge is 831m long with a river span of 174m. The river span provided a 25m head room for a width of 46m of the 76m wide navigation channel. The boxes vary in depth between 2.7m and 7.5m, with the deeper section located close to the river. It forms part of the eastern spur of the M90 between junctions 10 (Craigend) and 11 (Broxden), the most northerly motorway junction in the UK. It also forms part of the important east coast road corridor from Edinburgh through to Dundee and Aberdeen. It was the single largest structure on the M90, a title it will held until the completion of the Queensferry Crossing in 2017. It was the first large box girder bridge to be | 21,839 |
1804317 | Friarton Bridge | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friarton%20Bridge | Friarton Bridge
built to the Merrison Rules which were introduced in 1973 after the collapse during construction of three box girder bridges during the 1970s. The bridge was strengthened during the 2000s to cope with modern traffic loadings.
The bridge spans the river, the Dundee-Perth railway line, a number of warehouses and the A85 high above the surrounding plain.
It is a two-lane dual carriageway; unusually for a motorway (although not unusually for the M90) neither carriageway has a hard shoulder. When it was built in 1978, it was designated as the M85 motorway. When the A85 from the north end of the bridge to Dundee was renumbered in the early 1990s to A90 through to Dundee, the motorway's designation | 21,840 |
1804317 | Friarton Bridge | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Friarton%20Bridge | Friarton Bridge
85 high above the surrounding plain.
It is a two-lane dual carriageway; unusually for a motorway (although not unusually for the M90) neither carriageway has a hard shoulder. When it was built in 1978, it was designated as the M85 motorway. When the A85 from the north end of the bridge to Dundee was renumbered in the early 1990s to A90 through to Dundee, the motorway's designation changed to M90 to provide a continuous route number from Edinburgh through to Fraserburgh.
# References.
- TRIS Online: M90 Friarton Bridge Improvements
The Journal of the institution of Structural Engineers ; The Structural Engineer Volume 58A Number 12 December 1980; Design and construction of Friarton Bridge | 21,841 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
Taba Summit
The Taba Summit (also known as "Taba Talks", "Taba Conference" or short "Taba") were talks between Israel and the Palestinian Authority, held from 21 to 27 January 2001 at Taba, in the Sinai. They were peace talks aimed at enhancing the "final status" negotiations, to end the Israeli–Palestinian conflict. According to the statement issued by the negotiators at the end of the talks, they came closer to reaching a final settlement than in any previous peace talks. Prime Minister Ehud Barak's government terminated the talks on 27 January 2001 due to the upcoming Israeli election, and the new Sharon government did not restart them.
# Background.
The Taba Summit took place from 21 to | 21,842 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
27 January 2001 at Taba, after the failed Camp David 2000 Summit between Prime Minister of Israel Ehud Barak and the Palestinian President Yasser Arafat, and against the backdrop of the Second Intifada that commenced. The parties had first negotiated at Bolling Air Force Base in Washington, hosted by President Bill Clinton from 19 to 23 December 2000. The Israelis under Foreign Minister Shlomo Ben-Ami, the Palestinian under senior negotiator Saeb Erekat, Minister Yasser Abed Rabbo and Gaza security chief Mohammed Dahlan. President Clinton presented bridging proposals (the so-called "Clinton Parameters"). A summit in Sharm el-Sheikh, mediated by Egyptian President Hosni Mubarak, was planned on | 21,843 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
28 December. As the Palestinians delayed their acceptance of the Clinton Parameters, Barak decided not to go.
# Positions.
## Israeli start positions.
At the start of the Taba Summit, Israel held on three main points:
- no right of Palestinian refugees to return to inside the State of Israel
- no Palestinian sovereignty over the Temple Mount/Haram al-Sharif
- big settlement blocs (containing 80% of Jewish residents of the West Bank and Gaza) will be under Israeli sovereignty
## The Moratinos non-paper.
January 2001, the European Special Representative to the Middle East Process Miguel Moratinos presented a document, known as "The Moratinos non-paper," describing the outcome of the Taba | 21,844 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
negotiations. Although the paper has no official status, it has been acknowledged by the parties as being a relatively fair description of the outcome of the negotiations on the permanent status issues at Taba. It describes observed positions on the permanent status issues territory, Jerusalem, refugees and security, in order to find ways to come to joint positions. "At the same time it shows that there are serious gaps and differences between the two sides, which will have to be overcome in future negotiations." Summary of the paper:
### Territory.
The two sides agreed that in accordance with the UN Security Council Resolution 242, the 4 June 1967 lines would be the basis for the borders | 21,845 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
between Israel and the Palestinian state. Israel reduced its demands to 6% with territorial compensation that would offset about 3%, while the Palestinians proposed an Israeli annexation of about 3% along with a territorial compensation of the same amount. The Israeli proposal would have given the Palestinians some 97% of the land area of the West Bank.
#### West Bank.
Both sides presented their own maps of the West Bank. The maps served as a basis for the discussion on territory and settlements. The Israeli side presented two maps, and the Palestinian side engaged on this basis. The Palestinian side presented some illustrative maps detailing its understanding of Israeli interests in the West | 21,846 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
Bank. The Israeli side stated that the Clinton proposals provide for annexation of settlement blocs, areas which only had a small number of Palestinians. The Palestinian side did not agree that the parameters included blocs, and did not accept proposals to annex blocs. The Palestinian side stated that blocs would cause significant harm to the Palestinian interests and rights, particularly to the Palestinians residing in areas Israel sought to annex.
#### Gaza Strip.
Neither side presented any maps of the Gaza Strip. It was implied that the Gaza Strip would be under total Palestinian sovereignty, but details still had to be worked out. All settlements would be evacuated. The Palestinian side | 21,847 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
claimed it could be arranged in 6 months, a timetable not agreed to by the Israeli side. Both sides agreed that there was going to be a safe passage from the north of Gaza (Beit Hanun) to the Hebron district, and that the West Bank and the Gaza Strip must be territorially linked.
### Jerusalem.
Both sides accepted in principle the Clinton suggestion of having a Palestinian sovereignty over Arab neighborhoods and an Israeli sovereignty over Jewish neighborhoods in Jerusalem. Both sides favored the idea of an open city. The Israeli side accepted that Jerusalem would be the capital of the two states: "Yerushalaim", capital of Israel and "Al-Quds", capital of the state of Palestine. Both parties | 21,848 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
accepted the principle of respective control over each side's respective holy sites. Israel's sovereignty over the Western Wall would be recognized although there remained a dispute regarding the delineation of the area covered by the Western Wall and especially the link to what is referred to in Clinton's ideas as the space sacred to Judaism of which it is part. Both sides agreed that the question of "Haram al-Sharif"/Temple Mount has not been resolved.
### Refugees.
Non-papers were exchanged which were regarded as a good basis for the talks. Both sides agreed to adopt the principles and references which could facilitate the adoption of an agreement. Both sides suggested, as a basis, that | 21,849 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
the parties should agree that a just settlement of the refugee problem in accordance with the UN Security Council Resolution 242 must lead to the implementation of UN General Assembly Resolution 194. The Israeli side expressed its understanding that the wish to return shall be implemented within the framework of one of the following programs:
A. Return and repatriation
- 1. to Israel
- 2. to Israeli swapped territory
- 3. to the Palestinian state
B. Rehabilitation and relocation
- 1. Rehabilitation in host country
- 2. Relocation to third country
Both sides agreed that UNRWA should be phased out in accordance with an agreed timetable of five years, as a targeted period.
The Israeli | 21,850 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
side requested that the issue of compensation to Jewish immigrants from Arab countries be recognized, while accepting that it was not a Palestinian responsibility or a bilateral issue. The Palestinian side raised the issue of restitution of refugee property. The Israeli side rejected this.
### Security.
- 1. The Israeli side requested to have 3 early warning stations on Palestinian territory.
- 2. The Israeli side maintained that the Palestinian state would be non-militarized as per the Clinton proposals. The Palestinian side was prepared to accept limitation on its acquisition of arms, and be defined as a state with limited arms.
- 3. The two sides recognized that the state of Palestine | 21,851 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
would have sovereignty over its airspace. The Israeli side agreed to accept and honor all Palestinian civil aviation rights according to international regulations, but sought a unified air control system under overriding Israel control. In addition, Israel requested access to Palestinian airspace for military operations and training.
- 4. The Israeli side agreed to a withdrawal from the West Bank over a 36-month period with an additional 36 months for the Jordan Valley in conjunction with an international force. The Palestinian side rejected a 36-month withdrawal process from the West Bank expressing concern that a lengthy process would exacerbate Palestinian-Israeli tensions.
- 5. The Israeli | 21,852 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
side requested to maintain and operate five emergency locations on potentially Palestinian territory (in the Jordan Valley) with the Palestinian response allowing for maximum of two emergency locations conditional on a time limit for the dismantling. The Palestinian side declined to agree to the deployment of Israeli armed forces on Palestinian territory during emergency situations, but was prepared to consider ways in which international forces might be used in that capacity, particularly within the context of regional security cooperation efforts.
- 6. Both sides were prepared to commit themselves to promoting security cooperation and fighting terror.
- 7. The Palestinian side was confident | 21,853 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
that Palestinian sovereignty over borders and international crossing points would be recognized in the agreement.
## Positions mentioned in other sources.
Israel wanted to keep military control over Palestinian land and airspace in states of emergency, not because of a possible future threat from Palestine, but because of possible other threats from the East. The Palestinians wanted to accept international forces only.
The Palestinians could not accept Israeli annexation of Giv'at Ze'ev and Ma'ale Adumim in the Jerusalem area. Israel wanted future expansion of the settlements into the West Bank. Unlike the Palestinians, Israel did not consider East Jerusalem part of the West Bank and its | 21,854 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
Israeli inhabitants settlers.
# End of the negotiations.
## Official statement.
The Taba Summit officially ended with a joint statement, that included some of the following points:
## Reasons for impasse.
The breakdown is often attributed to the political circumstances posed by Israeli elections and changeover in leadership in the United States: They had run out of political time. They couldn't conclude an agreement with Clinton now out of office and Barak standing for reelection in two weeks. "We made progress, substantial progress. We are closer than ever to the possibility of striking a final deal," said Shlomo Ben-Ami, Israel's negotiator. Saeb Erekat, Palestinian chief negotiator, | 21,855 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
said, "My heart aches because I know we were so close. We need six more weeks to conclude the drafting of the agreement."
## Sharon Government's negation of the talks.
The following month the Likud party candidate Ariel Sharon defeated Ehud Barak in the Israeli elections and was elected as Israeli prime minister on 6 February 2001. Sharon's new government chose not to resume the high-level talks. Immediately after the elections and before the change of government, an 8 February 2001 statement published by the Israeli Ministry of Foreign Affairs stated that:
# Aftermath.
In June 2002, amidst claims he had lost control over militant groups, Yasser Arafat said in an Haaretz interview that he | 21,856 |
1804298 | Taba Summit | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Taba%20Summit | Taba Summit
claims he had lost control over militant groups, Yasser Arafat said in an Haaretz interview that he was willing to accept the Taba proposal. The Israeli government replied saying the offer was no longer valid.
# See also.
- List of Middle East peace proposals
# External links.
- "The Moratinos non-paper", on unispal
- Israeli–Palestinian negotiations Dec. 2000 – Jan. 2001 (Includes links to texts of Israeli, United States and other press reports)
- "Trying to Understand the Taba Talks". David Matz, "Palestine–Israel Journal of Politics, Economics and Culture". Vol.10 No.3 2003.
- Ariga.com
- 2001 Taba Talks Examination
- Maps: Israeli proposals, from Camp David (2000) to Taba (2001) | 21,857 |
1804334 | List of places in Rutland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20places%20in%20Rutland | List of places in Rutland
List of places in Rutland
This is a list of cities, towns and villages in the ceremonial county of Rutland, England.
# A.
- Ashwell
- Ayston
# B.
- Barleythorpe
- Barrow
- Barrowden
- Beaumont Chase
- Belmesthorpe
- Belton-in-Rutland
- Bisbrooke
- Braunston-in-Rutland
- Brooke
- Burley
# C.
- Caldecott
- Clipsham
- Cottesmore
# E.
- Edith Weston
- Egleton
- Empingham
- Essendine
- Exton
# G.
- Glaston
- Great Casterton
- Greetham
- Gunthorpe
# H.
- Hambleton
- Horn
# K.
- Ketton
# L.
- Langham
- Leighfield
- Little Casterton
- Lyddington
- Lyndon
# M.
- Manton
- Market Overton
- Martinsthorpe
- Morcott
# N.
- Normanton
- North Luffenham
# O.
- | 21,858 |
1804334 | List of places in Rutland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=List%20of%20places%20in%20Rutland | List of places in Rutland
ley
# C.
- Caldecott
- Clipsham
- Cottesmore
# E.
- Edith Weston
- Egleton
- Empingham
- Essendine
- Exton
# G.
- Glaston
- Great Casterton
- Greetham
- Gunthorpe
# H.
- Hambleton
- Horn
# K.
- Ketton
# L.
- Langham
- Leighfield
- Little Casterton
- Lyddington
- Lyndon
# M.
- Manton
- Market Overton
- Martinsthorpe
- Morcott
# N.
- Normanton
- North Luffenham
# O.
- Oakham
# P.
- Pickworth
- Pilton
- Preston
# R.
- Ridlington
- Ryhall
# S.
- Seaton
- South Luffenham
- Stoke Dry
- Stretton
# T.
- Teigh
- Thistleton
- Thorpe by Water
- Tickencote
- Tinwell
- Tixover
# U.
- Uppingham
# W.
- Wardley
- Whissendine
- Whitwell
- Wing
br | 21,859 |
1804340 | Madreporite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madreporite | Madreporite
Madreporite
The madreporite is a lightcolored calcareous opening used to filter water into the water vascular system of echinoderms. It acts like a pressure-equalizing valve. It is visible as a small red or yellow button-like structure, looking like a small wart, on the aboral surface of the central disk of a sea star. Close up, it is visibly structured, resembling a "madrepore" (stone coral, Scleractinia) colony. From this, it derives its name.
The water vascular system of the sea star consists of a series of seawater-filled ducts that function in locomotion and feeding and respiration. Its main parts are the madreporite, the stone canal, the ring canal, the radial canals, the lateral canals, | 21,860 |
1804340 | Madreporite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Madreporite | Madreporite
tar consists of a series of seawater-filled ducts that function in locomotion and feeding and respiration. Its main parts are the madreporite, the stone canal, the ring canal, the radial canals, the lateral canals, and the tube feet. The sieve-like madreporite allows entry of seawater into the stone canal, which connects to the ring canal around the mouth. Five or more radial canals extend from the ring canal, one in each arm above the ambulacral groove. From the radial canals extend many lateral canals, each of which leads to a tube foot. Each tube foot is a closed cylinder with muscular walls, having a sucker at the outer end and a bulb-like ampulla at its inner end within the body cavity. | 21,861 |
1804321 | USS Juniata (1862) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS%20Juniata%20(1862) | USS Juniata (1862)
USS Juniata (1862)
The first USS "Juniata" was a sloop of war in the United States Navy during the American Civil War.
"Juniata" was named for the Juniata River. She was launched at Philadelphia Navy Yard on 20 March 1862; sponsored by Miss Angela Turner; and commissioned there on 4 December, Commander John M. B. Glitz in command. "Juniata" was one of four sister ships which included , and .
# Service history.
## North Atlantic Blockading Squadron.
Scheduled for service in the West Indies, "Juniata" was temporarily assigned to the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron and stationed at Norfolk, Virginia, where her guns could help defend the area while machinery defects were corrected at the | 21,862 |
1804321 | USS Juniata (1862) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS%20Juniata%20(1862) | USS Juniata (1862)
Navy Yard. She departed Hampton Roads for the West Indies on 26 April 1863 and four days later captured schooner "Harvest" bound for Nassau, New Providence, with a cargo of cotton. She joined the West Indies Squadron at Havana on 5 May. She captured English steamer "Victor" about 8 miles off Morro Castle, Cuba on 28 May, and on 13 June took the schooner "Fashion", loaded with chemicals critically needed by the Confederacy. The next day she captured the English schooner "Elizabeth", and the "Don Jose" on 2 July.
"Juniata" continued to cruise in the West Indies convoying California-bound ships to safe waters and alertly watching for signs of Confederate cruisers and blockade runners until she | 21,863 |
1804321 | USS Juniata (1862) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS%20Juniata%20(1862) | USS Juniata (1862)
sail for New York on 24 November, arriving there 2 December. Under repairs at Philadelphia during the first half of 1864, "Juniata" departed on 12 August in search of Confederate cruiser "Tallahassee" reported off Sandy Hook, New Jersey. Five days later she anchored in Hampton Roads and joined the North Atlantic Blockading Squadron. She operated out of Hampton Roads until steaming to Wilmington early in December in preparation for forthcoming offensive operations against that powerful stronghold and blockade running center. She was in the thick of the fighting during the first attack on Fort Fisher, closing Southern batteries to get in position for effective bombardment. Her daring upon this | 21,864 |
1804321 | USS Juniata (1862) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS%20Juniata%20(1862) | USS Juniata (1862)
occasion, which cost her two officers and three men killed and 11 men wounded, was again displayed during the second attack on Fort Fisher between 13 January and 15 January 1865. Five more of her men were killed and 10 wounded in this assault which wrestled Wilmington from Southern hands, sealing off the Confederacy from effective foreign aid.
## South Atlantic Blockading Squadron.
"Juniata" was transferred to the South Atlantic Blockading Squadron on 18 January 1865 and arrived Charleston Roads the next day. After a brief visit to Port Royal, South Carolina, to repair some of the damage sustained in the furious action at Fort Fisher, she participated in the expedition to Bull's Bay in support | 21,865 |
1804321 | USS Juniata (1862) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS%20Juniata%20(1862) | USS Juniata (1862)
of General William Sherman's drive north through 17 February.
"Juniata" received orders on 23 February to cruise along the coast of Brazil as far south as Buenos Aires protecting American citizens and interests. After extensive repairs she departed Port Royal on this assignment on 17 June and arrived Bahia, Brazil, 8 August bringing that city its new United States consul. With the exception of a cruise to the coast of Africa from 12 June to 30 September 1866, she remained in South American waters until 30 April 1867 when she sailed from Rio de Janeiro for home, arriving Philadelphia on 24 June.
"Juniata" decommissioned at Philadelphia Navy Yard on 29 June and remained there until recommissioned | 21,866 |
1804321 | USS Juniata (1862) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS%20Juniata%20(1862) | USS Juniata (1862)
19 July 1869 and departed for Europe. She served, in European waters until 18 June 1872 when she sailed for the United States arriving Boston Navy Yard on 29 June. She decommissioned 10 July.
## "Polaris" search.
"Juniata" recommissioned on 10 February 1873 serving on the northeast coast until 26 June when she got underway for St. John's, Newfoundland en route to the west coast of Greenland to assist in her quest for survivors of "Polaris" which had come to grief exploring the Arctic with Charles Francis Hall. "Juniata" steamed as far north as Upernavik some 250 miles above Godhaven, Greenland, where she supplied "Tigress". She returned to New York 1 November 1873.
After a cruise to the Caribbean, | 21,867 |
1804321 | USS Juniata (1862) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS%20Juniata%20(1862) | USS Juniata (1862)
"Juniata" sailed for the European Station on 6 May 1874 and remained on duty there until she returned to the United States, arriving Baltimore, Maryland on 6 February 1876. While at Philadelphia, Pennsylvania on 21 August, Seaman John Osborne saved a shipmate from drowning, for which he was awarded the Medal of Honor. "Juniata" decommissioned at Norfolk on 1 September.
## Circumnavigation.
"Juniata" recommissioned at New York Navy Yard on 30 October 1882, Comdr. George Dewey in command, and departed on a voyage which took her around the World through the Strait of Gibraltar, the Suez Canal, to Bombay, Batavia, Singapore, and Hong Kong, among her many ports of call. She returned to New York | 21,868 |
1804321 | USS Juniata (1862) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=USS%20Juniata%20(1862) | USS Juniata (1862)
York Navy Yard on 30 October 1882, Comdr. George Dewey in command, and departed on a voyage which took her around the World through the Strait of Gibraltar, the Suez Canal, to Bombay, Batavia, Singapore, and Hong Kong, among her many ports of call. She returned to New York on 10 December 1885 and operated from that port until she sailed for the Pacific on 16 August 1886. She again returned to New York on 4 February 1889 and decommissioned 28 February 1889. "Juniata" was sold at Navy Yard, Portsmouth, New Hampshire, 25 March 1891, to Herbert H. Ives. There is an oil painting by Hector Leardie of the ship in a typhoon in the China Sea dated 29 and 30 September 1888, Hector Leardie was master. | 21,869 |
1804349 | An Ancient Tale: When the Sun Was a God | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=An%20Ancient%20Tale:%20When%20the%20Sun%20Was%20a%20God | An Ancient Tale: When the Sun Was a God
An Ancient Tale: When the Sun Was a God
An Ancient Tale: When the Sun Was a God (Polish: "Stara baśń: Kiedy słońce było bogiem") is a 2003 Polish film, directed by Jerzy Hoffman. The film is based on an 1876 novel, "Stara baśń", by Józef Ignacy Kraszewski.
# Cast.
- Bohdan Stupka as Popiel
- Ryszard Filipski as Wisz
- Jerzy Trela as Wizun
- Ewa Wiśniewska as Jarucha
- Anna Dymna as Jaga
- Małgorzata Foremniak as Księżna
- Maciej Kozłowski as Smerda
- Michał Żebrowski as Ziemek
- Katarzyna Bujakiewicz as Mila
- Daniel Olbrychski as Piastun
- Maria Niklińska as Żywia
- Andrzej Pieczyński as Znosek
- Marina Aleksandrova as Dziwa
- Mariusz Drężek as Bratanek
- Marcin Mroczek as Leszek
- | 21,870 |
1804349 | An Ancient Tale: When the Sun Was a God | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=An%20Ancient%20Tale:%20When%20the%20Sun%20Was%20a%20God | An Ancient Tale: When the Sun Was a God
ychski as Piastun
- Maria Niklińska as Żywia
- Andrzej Pieczyński as Znosek
- Marina Aleksandrova as Dziwa
- Mariusz Drężek as Bratanek
- Marcin Mroczek as Leszek
- Andrzej Krukowski as Ludek
- Maciej Zakościelny as Wramot
- Rafał Mroczek as Zdobek
- Dariusz Juzyszyn as Jarl Sigvald
- Wiktor Zborowski as Viking-Translator
- Ryszard Ronczewski as Miłosz
- Jan Prochyra as Mirsz
- Adam Graczyk as Sambor
- Krystyna Feldman as wróżka
- Michał Chorosiński as Bratanek
- Jerzy Braszka as Pachołek Ziemka
# See also.
- List of Polish films
- List of historical drama films
# External links.
- Jomsborg vikings appeared in the movie
- Army of Valhalla DVD Review at Blueprint: Review | 21,871 |
1804342 | Haywards Heath railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haywards%20Heath%20railway%20station | Haywards Heath railway station
Haywards Heath railway station
Haywards Heath railway station is on the Brighton Main Line in England, serving the town of Haywards Heath, West Sussex. It is down the line from via and is situated between and . It is managed by Southern.
Trains calling at Haywards Heath are operated by Southern and Thameslink. Until 2008 a small number of CrossCountry services also stopped here.
# History.
The London and Brighton Railway opened its main line from a junction with the London and Croydon Railway at Norwood as far as Haywards Heath on 12 July 1841, a coach service was provided to take passengers on the remainder of their journey towards Brighton. The remainder of the line to Brighton opened shortly | 21,872 |
1804342 | Haywards Heath railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haywards%20Heath%20railway%20station | Haywards Heath railway station
after on 21 September of the same year. The original station was designed by the architect David Mocatta and included a central passing line, and an awning over the platform. The station retained its importance as a junction following the construction of the line to Lewes from Keymer to the south. From 1846 the railway became the London Brighton and South Coast Railway.
On 3 September 1883 the Lewes and East Grinstead Railway opened a branch line from Copyhold Junction, just north of the station, to Horsted Keynes railway station on their existing line between those towns. There was an intermediate station at Ardingly. As a result, Haywards Heath station was enlarged by the provision of two | 21,873 |
1804342 | Haywards Heath railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haywards%20Heath%20railway%20station | Haywards Heath railway station
bay platforms.
As soon as the line was opened, the Lewes and East Grinstead Railway merged with the London Brighton and South Coast Railway, but until 1912, there was no physical connection between the tracks of the branch line and those of the main line; they ran parallel all the way to Haywards Heath station. Once the connection was made, it provided a relief route for the congested Brighton main line from Croydon to Brighton via Oxted, East Grinstead and Haywards Heath. This double-track branch line was closed to passengers on 28 October 1963, but a single-track section remains to serve a freight and aggregates terminal at Ardingly.
Haywards Heath station was the site of the first use of | 21,874 |
1804342 | Haywards Heath railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haywards%20Heath%20railway%20station | Haywards Heath railway station
the practice of "slipping" coaches from the rear of express trains, at intermediate junctions, for onward transmission to smaller stations. The earliest recorded example was in February 1858, when coaches for Hastings were slipped from a London Bridge to Brighton express. This practice was a regular feature at the station until the electrification of the line during 1932/3. The station and surrounding structures such as bridges were also totally rebuilt at this time. A single signal box, alongside Platform 4 (the westernmost platform face), replaced the former North and South boxes.
In 2014, work began on a new "Station Quarter", which would include construction of a new multi-storey car park | 21,875 |
1804342 | Haywards Heath railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haywards%20Heath%20railway%20station | Haywards Heath railway station
and footbridge to service the platforms, a new Waitrose supermarket on site and a regeneration of the existing station buildings. The multi-storey car park was opened in late 2016 along with the new footbridge, while the new Waitrose supermarket was opened in March 2017.
# Layout.
The station lies on a quadruple-track passing loop (the line either side of the station is double-track), which allows fast services to overtake stopping services. As such, it has a total of four platforms, one per track, numbered 1 to 4.
- Platforms 1 and 2 are used for southbound services to destinations such as , , and . Non-stop services usually pass through platform 2.
- Platforms 3 and 4 are used for northbound | 21,876 |
1804342 | Haywards Heath railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haywards%20Heath%20railway%20station | Haywards Heath railway station
services towards London and beyond. Non-stop services typically run through platform 3.
Unusually, the platforms have been numbered "right-to-left" (when facing London), instead of "left-to-right" which is the usual numbering scheme on the Brighton Main Line.
All platforms are signalled bidirectionally, which allows trains to run "the wrong way" during major disruption; this is not done in regular service.
## Access.
There are three entrances/exits at the station. The main one is just off Commercial Square; access to platforms is in the form of a subway under the railway line. The other two entrances and exits use the new footbridge on the southern end of the platforms; one end of the footbridge | 21,877 |
1804342 | Haywards Heath railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haywards%20Heath%20railway%20station | Haywards Heath railway station
leads onto Market Place and the other end connects with the station car park at Clair Road. All routes in and out of the station offer step-free access.
# Services.
The typical Monday-Saturday service from the station is:
## Northbound.
- 4tph (trains per hour) to London Victoria
- 2tph to via St Pancras International
- 2tph to via and .
## Southbound.
- 6tph to via
- 2tph to , one of which continues to
- 2tph to via and
Trains to and to (or ) run together between London and Haywards Heath, where they divide.
On Sundays there are 4 tph to Brighton. The service to Ore and Littlehampton runs separately. As of the Southern new May 2018 timetable, the Sunday service to Portsmouth harbour | 21,878 |
1804342 | Haywards Heath railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haywards%20Heath%20railway%20station | Haywards Heath railway station
no longer runs via Haywards Heath. Instead, it uses its normal Monday to Saturday route, The Arun Valley Line.
# Freight sidings.
The freight sidings at Haywards Heath were constructed during the First World War when the railway received a rapid growth in its freight traffic as a result of munitions trains travelling to Newhaven. They were intended to enable passenger trains to overtake slower freight traffic.
Today a sidings track does remain from Old Wickham Lane Bridge , 700 meters north of the station to Folly Hill Tunnel entrance. This line isn't often used anymore, however it is protected for future extension to the Bluebell Railway. An area imminently east of platform 1 is also protected | 21,879 |
1804342 | Haywards Heath railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haywards%20Heath%20railway%20station | Haywards Heath railway station
for the potential terminus platform / station for the Bluebell if it does reach Haywards Heath. The new terminus would have a maximum of 1 platform, but would not be numbered platform 0.
# Folly Hill tunnel.
Just south of the station there is a 249-yard (228.6 m) tunnel through Folly Hill. There was an accident during the construction of this tunnel on 2 January 1841, causing a roof fall and killing three men, which prevented the railway from opening through to Brighton in the July. Until the 1970s this tunnel suffered from an excess of water falling from the ground above and in the 1840s it had to be lined with galvanised iron sheeting to prevent the water from falling on the third class | 21,880 |
1804342 | Haywards Heath railway station | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haywards%20Heath%20railway%20station | Haywards Heath railway station
atform / station for the Bluebell if it does reach Haywards Heath. The new terminus would have a maximum of 1 platform, but would not be numbered platform 0.
# Folly Hill tunnel.
Just south of the station there is a 249-yard (228.6 m) tunnel through Folly Hill. There was an accident during the construction of this tunnel on 2 January 1841, causing a roof fall and killing three men, which prevented the railway from opening through to Brighton in the July. Until the 1970s this tunnel suffered from an excess of water falling from the ground above and in the 1840s it had to be lined with galvanised iron sheeting to prevent the water from falling on the third class passengers in open carriages. | 21,881 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
Cognitive semantics
Cognitive semantics is part of the cognitive linguistics movement. Semantics is the study of linguistic meaning. Cognitive semantics holds that language is part of a more general human cognitive ability, and can therefore only describe the world as people conceive of it. It is implicit that different linguistic communities conceive of simple things and processes in the world differently (different cultures), not necessarily some difference between a person's conceptual world and the real world (wrong beliefs).
The main tenets of cognitive semantics are:
- That grammar manifests a conception of the world held in a culture;
- That knowledge of language is acquired and contextual;
- | 21,882 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
That the ability to use language draws upon general cognitive resources and not a special language module.
As part of the field of cognitive linguistics, the cognitive semantics approach rejects the traditional separation of linguistics into phonology, morphology, syntax, pragmatics, etc. Instead, it divides semantics into "meaning-construction" and "knowledge representation". Therefore, cognitive semantics studies much of the area traditionally devoted to pragmatics as well as semantics.
The techniques native to cognitive semantics are typically used in lexical studies such as those put forth by Leonard Talmy, George Lakoff, Dirk Geeraerts, and Bruce Wayne Hawkins. Some cognitive semantic | 21,883 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
frameworks, such as that developed by Talmy, take into account syntactic structures as well.
# Points of contrast.
As a field, semantics is interested in three big questions: what does it mean for units of language, called lexemes, to have "meaning"? What does it mean for sentences to have meaning? Finally, how is it that meaningful units fit together to compose complete sentences? These are the main points of inquiry behind studies into lexical semantics, structural semantics, and theories of compositionality (respectively). In each category, traditional theories seem to be at odds with those accounts provided by cognitive semanticists.
Classic theories in semantics (in the tradition of | 21,884 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
Alfred Tarski and Donald Davidson) have tended to explain the meaning of parts in terms of "necessary and sufficient conditions", sentences in terms of "truth-conditions", and composition in terms of "propositional functions". Each of these positions is tightly related to the others. According to these traditional theories, the meaning of a particular sentence may be understood as the conditions under which the proposition conveyed by the sentence hold true. For instance, the expression "snow is white" is true if and only if snow is, in fact, white. Lexical units can be understood as holding meaning either by virtue of set of things they may apply to (called the "extension" of the word), or | 21,885 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
in terms of the common properties that hold between these things (called its "intension"). The intension provides an interlocutor with the necessary and sufficient conditions that let a thing qualify as a member of some lexical unit's extension. Roughly, propositional functions are those abstract instructions that guide the interpreter in taking the free variables in an open sentence and filling them in, resulting in a correct understanding of the sentence as a whole.
Meanwhile, cognitive semantic theories are typically built on the argument that lexical meaning is conceptual. That is, meaning is not necessarily reference to the entity or relation in some real or possible world. Instead, meaning | 21,886 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
corresponds with a concept held in the mind based on personal understanding. As a result, semantic facts like "All bachelors are unmarried males" are not treated as special facts about our language practices; rather, these facts are not distinct from encyclopaedic knowledge. In treating linguistic knowledge as being a piece with everyday knowledge, the question is raised: how can cognitive semantics explain paradigmatically semantic phenomena, like category structure? Set to the challenge, researchers have drawn upon theories from related fields, like cognitive psychology and cognitive anthropology. One proposal is to treat in order to explain category structure in terms of "nodes" in a "knowledge | 21,887 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
network". One example of a theory from cognitive science that has made its way into the cognitive semantic mainstream is the theory of prototypes, which cognitive semanticists generally argue is the cause of polysemy.
Cognitive semanticists argue that truth-conditional semantics is unduly limited in its account of full sentence meaning. While they are not on the whole hostile to truth-conditional semantics, they point out that it has limited explanatory power. That is to say, it is limited to indicative sentences, and does not seem to offer any straightforward or intuitive way of treating (say) commands or expressions. By contrast, cognitive semantics seeks to capture the full range of grammatical | 21,888 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
moods by also making use of the notions of framing and mental spaces.
Another trait of cognitive semantics is the recognition that meaning is not fixed but a matter of construal and conventionalization. The processes of linguistic construal, it is argued, are the same psychological processes involved in the processing of encyclopaedic knowledge and in perception. This view has implications for the problem of compositionality. An account in cognitive semantics called the dynamic construal theory makes the claim that words themselves are without meaning: they have, at best, "default construals," which are really just ways of using words. Along these lines, cognitive semantics argues that compositionality | 21,889 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
can only be intelligible if pragmatic elements like context and intention are taken into consideration.
# The structure of concepts.
Cognitive semantics has sought to challenge traditional theories in two ways: first, by providing an account of the meaning of sentences by going beyond truth-conditional accounts; and second, by attempting to go beyond accounts of word meaning that appeal to necessary and sufficient conditions. It accomplishes both by examining the structure of concepts.
## Frame semantics.
Frame semantics, developed by Charles J. Fillmore, attempts to explain meaning in terms of their relation to general "understanding", not just in the terms laid out by truth-conditional | 21,890 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
semantics. Fillmore explains meaning in general (including the meaning of lexemes) in terms of ""frames"". By "frame" is meant any concept that can only be understood if a larger system of concepts is also understood.
#### framing.
Many pieces of linguistic evidence motivate the frame-semantic project. First, it has been noted that word meaning is an extension of our bodily and cultural experiences. For example, the notion of "restaurant" is associated with a series of concepts, like "food, service, waiters, tables, and eating". These rich-but-contingent associations cannot be captured by an analysis in terms of necessary and sufficient conditions, yet they still seem to be intimately related | 21,891 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
to our understanding of "restaurant".
Second, and more seriously, these conditions are not enough to account for asymmetries in the ways that words are used. According to a semantic feature analysis, there is nothing more to the meanings of "boy" and "girl" than:
- 1. BOY [+MALE], [+YOUNG]
- 2. GIRL [+FEMALE], [+YOUNG]
And there is surely some truth to this proposal. Indeed, cognitive semanticists understand the instances of the concept held by a given certain word may be said to exist in a "schematic relation" with the concept itself. And this is regarded as a legitimate approach to semantic analysis, so far as it goes.
However, linguists have found that language users regularly apply | 21,892 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
the terms "boy" and "girl" in ways that go beyond mere semantic features. That is, for instance, people tend to be more likely to consider a young female a "girl" (as opposed to "woman"), than they are to consider a borderline-young male a "boy" (as opposed to "man"). This fact suggests that there is a latent frame, made up of cultural attitudes, expectations, and background assumptions, which is part of word meaning. These background assumptions go up and beyond those necessary and sufficient conditions that correspond to a semantic feature account. Frame semantics, then, seeks to account for these puzzling features of lexical items in some systematic way.
Third, cognitive semanticists argue | 21,893 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
that truth-conditional semantics is incapable of dealing adequately with some aspects of the meanings at the level of the sentence. Take the following:
- 1. You didn't spare me a day at the seaside; you deprived me of one.
In this case, the truth-conditions of the claim expressed by the antecedent in the sentence are not being denied by the proposition expressed after the clause. Instead, what is being denied is the way that the antecedent is framed.
Finally, with the frame-semantic paradigm's analytical tools, the linguist is able to explain a wider range of semantic phenomena than they would be able to with only necessary and sufficient conditions. Some words have the same definitions or | 21,894 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
intensions, and the same extensions, but have subtly different domains. For example, the lexemes "land" and "ground" are synonyms, yet they naturally contrast with different things -- "sea" and "air", respectively.
As we have seen, the frame semantic account is by no means limited to the study of lexemes—with it, researchers may examine expressions at more complex levels, including the level of the sentence (or, more precisely, the utterance). The notion of framing is regarded as being of the same cast as the pragmatic notion of "background assumptions". Philosopher of language John Searle explains the latter by asking readers to consider sentences like "The cat is on the mat". For such a sentence | 21,895 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
to make any sense, the interpreter makes a series of assumptions: i.e., that there is gravity, the cat is parallel to the mat, and the two touch. For the sentence to be intelligible, the speaker supposes that the interpreter has an idealized or default frame in mind.
#### profile and base.
An alternate strain of Fillmore's analysis can be found in the work of Ronald Langacker, who makes a distinction between the notions of "profile" and "base". The profile is the concept symbolized by the word itself, while the base is the encyclopedic knowledge that the concept presupposes. For example, let the definition of "radius" be "a line segment that joins the center of a circle with any point on | 21,896 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
its circumference". If all we know of the concept "radius" is its profile, then we simply know that it is a line segment that is attached to something called the "circumference" in some greater whole called the "circle". That is to say, our understanding is fragmentary until the base concept of "circle" is firmly grasped.
When a single base supports a number of different profiles, then it can be called a ""domain"". For instance, the concept profiles of "arc, center, and circumference" are all in the domain of "circle", because each uses the concept of "circle" as a base. We are then in a position to characterize the notion of a frame as being either the base of the concept profile, or (more | 21,897 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
generally) the domain that the profile is a part of.
## Categorization and cognition.
A major divide in the approaches to cognitive semantics lies in the puzzle surrounding the nature of category structure. As mentioned in the previous section, semantic feature analyses fall short of accounting for the frames that categories may have. An alternative proposal would have to go beyond the minimalistic models given by classical accounts, and explain the richness of detail in meaning that language speakers attribute to categories.
"Prototype theories", investigated by Eleanor Rosch, have given some reason to suppose that many natural lexical category structures are graded, i.e., they have prototypical | 21,898 |
1804305 | Cognitive semantics | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cognitive%20semantics | Cognitive semantics
members that are considered to be "better fit" the category than other examples. For instance, robins are generally viewed as better examples of the category "bird" than, say, penguins. If this view of category structure is the case, then categories can be understood to have central and peripheral members, and not just be evaluated in terms of members and non-members.
In a related vein, George Lakoff, following the later Ludwig Wittgenstein, noted that some categories are only connected to one another by way of "family resemblances". While some classical categories may exist, i.e., which are structured by necessary and sufficient conditions, there are at least two other kinds: "generative" | 21,899 |
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