wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
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1599634 | The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants (novel) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Sisterhood%20of%20the%20Traveling%20Pants%20(novel) | The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants (novel)
is portrayed as being rooted in one's birth yet dynamic, and also as existing between friendships in addition to blood relatives.
Coming of Age
br
This summer happens to be a wake-up call for each character. The girls are expected to make decisions for themselves and behave as responsible adults, as well as to figure out how to overcome obstacles and take risks.
# Critical reception.
"Sisterhood" was well-reviewed at the time of its release. USA Today's Deidre Donahue said "Sisterhood" "has resonated far more deeply than any of the grown-up novels I've read this year." Linda Bindner of the School Library Journal called it "a complex book about a solid group of friends, with each one a strong | 24,300 |
1599634 | The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants (novel) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=The%20Sisterhood%20of%20the%20Traveling%20Pants%20(novel) | The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants (novel)
bstacles and take risks.
# Critical reception.
"Sisterhood" was well-reviewed at the time of its release. USA Today's Deidre Donahue said "Sisterhood" "has resonated far more deeply than any of the grown-up novels I've read this year." Linda Bindner of the School Library Journal called it "a complex book about a solid group of friends, with each one a strong and courageous individual in her own right." Publisher's Weekly described it as "an outstanding and vivid book that will stay with readers for a long time."
"Sisterhood" became a "New York Times" bestseller, was named an ALA Best Books for Young Adults, won a Book Sense Book of the Year, and was named a Publishers Weekly Flying Start. | 24,301 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
Estadio Nacional del Perú
The Estadio Nacional of Peru is a multi-purpose stadium located in Lima, Peru. Its current capacity is 40,000 seats as stated by the Peruvian Football Federation without the lodges for some thousands more. The stadium was first inaugurated on 27 October 1952 for the 1953 South American Championship—replacing the Stadium Nacional—and is Peru's principal and national stadium. It has hosted three of the six South American Championship/Copa América football competitions held in Peru. It is referred to as the Coloso de José Díaz because of its proximity to a street of the same name. It is the home ground of the Peru national football team. The IPD (Peruvian Sport Institute)—a | 24,302 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
branch of the Ministry of Education—is the stadium's administrating entity. The stadium has undergone several renovations since its construction such as for the 2004 Copa América and the artificial turf that was installed for the 2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship at it will be used again for the 2019 FIFA U-17 World Cup. The most recent renovation started in 2010 and concluded in 2011. The re-inauguration ceremony of the renovated stadium was held on 24 July 2011 with a match between the Peru national under-20 football team and the Spain national under-20 football team.
# History.
## Early history.
Peru obtained its first football-based field in the late 19th century, when the club Unión | 24,303 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
Cricket asked the Municipality of Lima for an appropriate piece of land where they could play football. The municipality gave them a small piece of land in the Santa Beatriz neighborhood which belonged to a Shooting club. On July 18, 1897, the field was officially inaugurated and named Estadio Guadalupe. The Liga Peruana de Futbol (known as the FPF today) used it for the first tournaments in Lima.
In 1921, the English residents of Peru that owned the stadium renovated and renamed the stadium from Estadio Guadalupe to Stadium Nacional and donated it to the Peruvian government. It had small wooden stands that were later donated to the Estadio Teodoro Lolo Fernandez when it was demolished to make | 24,304 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
way for the new stadium which would host the 1953 South American Championship. In the 1950s, Miguel Dasso and the Peruvian President General Manuel A. Odria funded the project for the construction of the new stadium. The new stadium was planned to have capacity of 53,000 and have it entirely made out of cement. The northern and southern stands would have a capacity of 15,000 each while the eastern and western stands would have three levels. On 27 October 1952, the new Estadio Nacional was inaugurated with many comfortable features such as luxury boxes and elevators in one of the stands. The inauguration ceremony started early at 10:00 AM and lasted through the night. The ceremony included an | 24,305 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
award ceremony for many outstanding athletes including Teodoro Fernández, Alejandro Villanueva, Jorge Alcalde, Olympic gold medalist Edwin Vásquez and Pan American gold medalists Julia Sánchez and Gerardo Salazar. The inaugurating football match was played between players of the Peru national football team that formed two teams that played in the evening under the new illumination system.
## 1964 tragedy.
On 24 May 1964, Peru hosted Argentina in the Estadio Nacional before a crowd of 47,157 for a qualifying match pertaining to the 1964 Olympic Games that were to be hosted in Tokyo. Argentina led the match 1–0 during the second half and in the final minutes Peru equalized; however the Uruguayan | 24,306 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
referee Ángel Eduardo Pazos disallowed the goal. The spectators were infuriated by the decision and this led to a pitch invasion. The police used tear gas and brutal force to quell the disturbances. The stadium's exits were closed which trapped the spectators inside the stadium. The players and referees had to be escorted off the field by the police. A riot ensued outside the stadium and led the President Fernando Belaúnde Terry to declare a state of emergency which would last for a month. Unfortunately, more than 300 people lost their lives that day and left at least 4,000 injured. The tragedy led to the reduction of the stadium's capacity from 53,000 to 45,000.
## Tournaments hosted.
The | 24,307 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
Stadium Nacional was the sole venue for the South American Championship 1927, 1935, and 1939. The present Estadio Nacional hosted the 1953 South American Championship and 1957 South American Championship. In 1971, the playoff match for the 1971 Copa Libertadores Finals was played in Peru and featured Uruguayan Nacional and Argentine Estudiantes de La Plata. Nacional won by 2–0. The following year, Universitario de Deportes reached the final of the 1972 Copa Libertadores and hosted the first-leg of the finals. Two decades later, Sporting Cristal reached the 1997 Copa Libertadores Finals which allowed the Nacional to host one of the legs of the final for a third time. In 1992, modern lighting | 24,308 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
was installed in the stadium and in 1996, an electronic scoreboard was installed to replace the old manual one. The stadium's symbolic element is the tower situated in the northern stand. This tower was abandoned for many years until in 2004, it was used again for the Copa America. Popular international football teams and renowned players have played in the stadium, including Spain's Real Madrid, as well as players like Pelé and Maradona in previous years.
Thanks to a five million dollar government investment program to remodel older Peruvian stadiums, spectators were able to enjoy games with the high standards required by CONMEBOL for the 2004 Copa América. This was also the first time the | 24,309 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
Estadio Nacional was not the sole venue for the South American competition. In return the country received throngs of tourists, international media coverage, and more locals buying tickets to attend the games. Peru's biggest stadium, Estadio Monumental, is also located in Lima with a capacity of 80,093 and belongs to local club Universitario de Deportes although it was not used for the Copa América 2004.
Peru also hosted the 2005 FIFA U-17 World Championship. This stadium hosted several games including the final. Artificial turf was installed for this competition into all the venues used. The artificial turf still remains in the Estadio Nacional but has received heavy criticism from clubs of | 24,310 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
the Peruvian First Division, asking to remove it because of the constant injuries it causes. This is also the reason why the Peru national football team did not play its games in the Estadio Nacional for the 2010 FIFA World Cup Qualifiers. The artificial turf was removed following the 2010 renovations.
In 2008, the athletics track was temporarily covered with asphalt for the rally race Caminos del Inca. This was the first time the Estadio Nacional hosted such an event. Shortly after, the 6-lane Olympic running track was restored.
## 2010 renovations.
The stadium underwent major renovations in 2010 in a bid to the 2015 Pan American Games which included the construction of 371 luxury boxes, | 24,311 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
703 underground parking spaces, a new tower with a panoramic gourmet restaurant among other improvements. The renovations concluded in 2011. However, Toronto won the bidding process. The renovated stadium was inaugurated on 24 July 2011 with an U-20 match between Peru and Spain. The match was a 0–0 draw. Two months later on 5 September 2011, the senior national team played its first match in the renovated stadium against Bolivia. The match ended in a 2–2 draw with goals by Rinaldo Cruzado and Claudio Pizarro. it will be used for the opening and closing ceremonies for the 2019 Pan American Games and the 2019 Parapan American Games.
In addition to football, the Estadio Nacional is home to other | 24,312 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
sports. Sixteen Peruvian sporting federations are headquartered at the national stadium. These include the Boxing, Karate, Bodybuilding, Kung Fu, Taekwondo and Volleyball federations. They were temporarily relocated for the renovations of the stadium.
# Other events.
The stadium is also used for other kind of activities such as concerts including:
- Michael Jackson (1993) Cancelled
- Phil Collins (1995)
- Santana (1995)
- Travis
- R.E.M. (November 11, 2008)
- Soda Stereo (December 8 and 9, 2007)
- Deep Purple (amphitheater)
- Whitesnake (amphitheater)
- Cyndi Lauper (amphitheater)
- Canto Por El Sur (Gian Marco, Erika Ender, Pedro Suárez Vértiz, Christian Meier, Juan Luis Guerra, | 24,313 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
Alejandro Fernández, and many others)
- Voces Solidarias (Gian Marco, David Bisbal, Pedro Suárez Vértiz, Fito Páez, Alejandro Sanz, La Oreja de Van Gogh, Hombres G, Belanova, and many others)
- Los Fabulosos Cadillacs (November 29, 2008)
- Iron Maiden (March 26, 2009)
- The B-52's and New York Dolls
- KISS (April 14, 2009)
- Marc Anthony
- Oasis (April 30, 2009)
- Boy George (amphitheater)
- RBD
- Jonas Brothers and Demi Lovato (May 18 and 19, 2009)
- Red Hot Chili Peppers (September 14, 2011)
- WWE Summerslam Tour
- WWE Road to Wrestlemania 25 Tour
- Justin Bieber (October 17, 2011)
- Elton John (February 1, 2012)
- Jamiroquai (February 20, 2013)
- Alejandro Sanz (February | 24,314 |
1599554 | Estadio Nacional del Perú | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Estadio%20Nacional%20del%20Perú | Estadio Nacional del Perú
Elton John (February 1, 2012)
- Jamiroquai (February 20, 2013)
- Alejandro Sanz (February 26, 2013)
- The Cure (April 18, 2013)
- The Killers (April 4, 2013)
- Metallica (March 20, 2014)
- Paul McCartney (April 25, 2014)
- One Direction (April 27, 2014)
- Teen Top (August 20, 2014)
- Romeo Santos (April 23, 2015)
- Coldplay (April 5, 2016)
- Slipknot (October 18, 2016)
- Aerosmith (October 24, 2016)
- Justin Bieber (April 5, 2017)
- Linkin Park (May 11, 2017)
- Ed Sheeran (May 13, 2017)
- Incubus and Maroon 5 (September 19, 2017)
- Bruno Mars (November 30, 2017)
- Depeche Mode (March 18, 2018)
- Radiohead (April 17, 2018)
# External links.
- Peruvian Football Federation | 24,315 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
E6B
The E6B flight computer, nicknamed the "whiz wheel" or "prayer wheel", is a form of circular slide rule used in aviation and one of the very few analog calculating devices in widespread use in the 21st century.
They are mostly used in flight training, because these flight computers have been replaced with electronic planning tools or software and websites that make these calculations for the pilots. These flight computers are used during flight planning (on the ground before takeoff) to aid in calculating fuel burn, wind correction, time en route, and other items. In the air, the flight computer can be used to calculate ground speed, estimated fuel burn and updated estimated time of arrival. | 24,316 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
The back is designed for wind vector solutions, i.e., determining how much the wind is affecting one's speed and course.
# Construction.
They are usually made out of cardboard and plastic, or aluminum and plastic, with lettering and markings either printed or engraved into the metal. Pivots of metal models (metal with plastic grommet) will wear out the plastic grommet prematurely, causing the wheels to spin freely. This is not beneficial when computing while flying. The cardboard models (except when becoming wet) will outlast the metal versions for most people, and will not develop the "free wheel" even after years of use.
Electronic versions are also produced, resembling calculators, rather | 24,317 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
than manual slide rules. Aviation remains one of the few places that the slide rule is still in widespread use. Manual E6Bs/CRP-1s remain popular with some users and in some environments rather than the electronic ones because they are lighter, smaller, less prone to break, easy to use one-handed, quicker, and do not require electrical power.
In flight training for a private pilot or instrument rating mechanical flight computers are still often used to teach the fundamental computations. This is in part also due to the complex nature of some trigonometric calculations which would be comparably difficult to perform on a conventional scientific calculator. The graphic nature of the flight computer | 24,318 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
also helps catching many errors which in part explains their continued popularity. The ease of use of electronic calculators means typical flight training literature
does not cover the use of calculators or computers at all. In the ground exams for numerous pilot ratings, programmable calculators or calculators containing flight planning software are permitted to be used.
Many airspeed indicator (ASI) instruments have a movable ring built into the face of the instrument that is essentially a subset of the flight computer. Just like on the flight computer, the ring is aligned with the air temperature and the pressure altitude, allowing the true airspeed (TAS) to be read at the needle.
In addition, | 24,319 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
computer programs to emulate the flight computer functions are also available, both for computers and smartphones.
# Calculations.
Instructions for ratio calculations and wind problems are printed on either side of the computer for reference and are also found in a booklet sold with the computer. Also, many computers have Fahrenheit to Celsius conversion charts and various reference tables.
The front side of the flight computer is a logarithmic slide rule that performs multiplication and division. Throughout the wheel, unit names are marked (such as gallons, miles, kilometers, pounds, minutes, seconds, etc.) at locations that correspond to the constants that are used when going from one unit | 24,320 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
to another in various calculations. Once the wheel is positioned to represent a certain fixed ratio (for example, pounds of fuel per hour), the rest of the wheel can be consulted to utilize that same ratio in a problem (for example, how many pounds of fuel for a 2.5-hour cruise?) This is one area where the E6B and CRP-1 are different. Since the CRP-1s are made for the UK market, they can be used to perform the added conversions of Imperial to Metric units.
The wheel on the back of the calculator is used for calculating the effects of wind on cruise flight. A typical calculation done by this wheel answers the question: "If I want to fly on course A at a speed of B, but I encounter wind coming | 24,321 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
from direction C at a speed of D, then how many degrees must I adjust my heading, and what will my ground speed be?" This part of the calculator consists of a rotatable semi-transparent wheel with a hole in the middle, and a slide on which a grid is printed, that moves up and down underneath the wheel. The grid is visible through the transparent part of the wheel.
To solve this problem with a flight computer, first the wheel is turned so the wind direction (C) is at the top of the wheel. Then a pencil mark is made just above the hole, at a distance representing the wind speed (D) away from the hole. After the mark is made, the wheel is turned so that the course (A) is now selected at the top | 24,322 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
of the wheel. The ruler then is slid so that the pencil mark is aligned with the true airspeed (B) seen through the transparent part of the wheel. The wind correction angle is determined by matching how far right or left the pencil mark is from the hole, to the wind correction angle portion of the slide's grid. The true ground speed is determined by matching the center hole to the speed portion of the grid.
The mathematical formulas that equate to the results of the flight computer wind calculator are as follows:
Wind Correction Angle:
True ground speed:
Wind Correction Angle, in degrees, as it might be programmed into a computer (which includes conversion of degrees to radians and back):
True | 24,323 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
ground speed is calculated as:
# Modern-day E6Bs.
As smartphones and tablets become more and more available, different apps and websites are created for E-6B calculations. These new technologies can draw the results of the calculation and mark wind correction components and speeds. Flight planning website Skyvector and very popular iOS app ForeFlight have built-in E6Bs to help pilots calculate their corrected headings.
Although digital E6Bs are easier to use, flight schools today are still teaching their lessons based on mechanical E6Bs, and for FAA pilot written exams and checkrides pilots are encouraged to bring their mechanical E6Bs with them for necessary calculations.
# History.
The | 24,324 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
device's original name is E-6B, but is often abbreviated as E6B, or hyphenated as E6-B for commercial purposes.
The E-6B was developed in the United States by Naval Lt. Philip Dalton (1903–1941) in the late 1930s. The name comes from its original part number for the U.S Army Air Corps, before its reorganization in June 1941.
Philip Dalton was a Cornell University graduate who joined the United States Army as an artillery officer, but soon resigned and became a Naval Reserve pilot from 1931 until he died in a plane crash with a student practicing spins. He, with P. V. H. Weems, invented, patented and marketed a series of flight computers.
Dalton's first popular computer was his 1933 Model | 24,325 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
B, the circular slide rule with True Airspeed (TAS) and Altitude corrections pilots know so well. In 1936 he put a double-drift diagram on its reverse to create what the U.S. Army Air Corps (USAAC) designated as the E-1, E-1A and E-1B.
A couple of years later he invented the Mark VII, again using his Model B slide rule as a focal point. It was hugely popular with both the military and the airlines. Even Amelia Earhart's navigator Fred Noonan used one on their last flight. Dalton felt that it was a rushed design, and wanted to create something more accurate, easier to use, and able to handle higher flight speeds.
So he came up with his now famous wind arc slide, but printed on an endless cloth | 24,326 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
belt moved inside a square box by a knob. He applied for a patent in 1936 (granted in 1937 as 2,097,116). This was for the Model C, D and G computers widely used in World War II by the British Commonwealth (as the "Dalton Dead Reckoning Computer"), the U.S. Navy, copied by the Japanese, and improved on by the Germans, through Siegfried Knemeyer's invention of the disc-type "Dreieckrechner" device, somewhat similar to the eventual E6B's backside compass rose dial in general appearance, but having the compass rose on the front instead for real-time calculations of the wind triangle at any time while in flight. These are commonly available on collectible auction web sites.
The U.S. Army Air Corps | 24,327 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
decided the endless belt computer cost too much to manufacture, so later in 1937 Dalton morphed it to a simple, rigid, flat wind slide, with his old Model B circular slide rule included on the reverse. He called this prototype his Model H; the Army called it the E-6A.
In 1938 the Army wrote formal specifications, and had him make a few changes, which Weems called the Model J. The changes included moving the "10" mark to the top instead of the original "60". This "E-6B" was introduced to the Army in 1940, but it took Pearl Harbor for the Army Air Forces (as the former "Army Air Corps" was renamed on June 20, 1941) to place a large order. Over 400,000 E-6Bs were manufactured during World War | 24,328 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
II, mostly of a plastic that glows under black light. (Cockpits were illuminated this way at night.)
The base name "E-6" was fairly arbitrary, as there were no standards for stock numbering at the time. For example, other USAAC computers of that time were the C-2, D-2, D-4, E-1 and G-1, and flight pants became E-1s as well. Most likely they chose "E" because Dalton's previously combined time and wind computer had been the E-1. The "B" simply meant it was the production model.
The designation "E-6B" was officially marked on the device only for a couple of years. By 1943 the Army and Navy changed the marking to their joint standard, the AN-C-74 (Army/Navy Computer 74). A year or so later it | 24,329 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
was changed to AN-5835, and then to AN-5834 (1948). The USAF called later updates the MB-4 (1953) and the CPU-26 (1958), but navigators and most instruction manuals continued using the original E-6B name. Many just called it the "Dalton Dead Reckoning Computer", one of its original markings.
After Dalton's death, Weems updated the E-6B and tried calling it the E-6C, E-10, and so forth, but finally fell back on the original name, which was so well known by 50,000 World War II Army Air Force navigator veterans. After the patent ran out, many manufacturers made copies, sometimes using a marketing name of "E6-B" (note the moved hyphen).
An aluminium version was made by the London Name Plate Mfg. | 24,330 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
Co. Ltd. of London and Brighton and was marked "Computer Dead Reckoning Mk. 4A Ref. No. 6B/2645" followed by the arrowhead of UK military stores.
During World War II and into the early 1950s, The London Name Plate Mfg. Co. Ltd. produced a "Height & True Airspeed Computer Mk. IV" with the model reference "6B/345". The tool provided for calculation of the True Air Speed on the front side and Time-Speed calculations in relation to the altitude on the backside. They were still in use throughout the 1960s and 1970s in several European Air Forces, such as the German Air Force, until modern avionics made them obsolete.
# References in popular culture.
- "My eyes are dim I cannot see, I have not | 24,331 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
got my E-6B with me, over the Valley of the Ruhr". (World War II USAAC ditty)
- "His computer is the instrument on which he stakes his life ... Don't ask for his computer, for he'd sooner lend his wife". (Navigator's Song, 1943)
- In the "" episode "The Naked Time", Mr. Spock uses an E6B to calculate the time of impact of the "Enterprise" with a planet. In the episodes "Mudd's Women" and "Who Mourns for Adonais?", he is seen holding an E-6B.
- In the 2003 movie "The Core", from Paramount Pictures, an E-6B can be seen among the papers and flight documents of Space Shuttle co-pilot Major Rebecca "Beck" Childs, played by Hilary Swank, during the Shuttle re-entry scene.
# See also.
- Siegfried | 24,332 |
1599627 | E6B | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=E6B | E6B
t. In the episodes "Mudd's Women" and "Who Mourns for Adonais?", he is seen holding an E-6B.
- In the 2003 movie "The Core", from Paramount Pictures, an E-6B can be seen among the papers and flight documents of Space Shuttle co-pilot Major Rebecca "Beck" Childs, played by Hilary Swank, during the Shuttle re-entry scene.
# See also.
- Siegfried Knemeyer, inventor of the similar, contemporary "Dreieckrechner" flight calculator
- Wind triangle
# External links.
- 1938 article
- E6BX.com Online E6B – web-based E6B flight computer with illustrations
- A Tale of Two Whiz Wheels: E6-B versus CR Wind Solutions
- Free downloadable E6B – requires Java
- Free web based E6B aviation calculator | 24,333 |
1599682 | Froelich (crater) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Froelich%20(crater) | Froelich (crater)
Froelich (crater)
Froelich is a lunar impact crater on the far side of the Moon. It is located in the northern regions, just beyond the north-northwestern limb. Only a few kilometers separate this formation from the crater Lovelace to the north. Farther to the south is the crater Merrill, and to the southeast along the limb is the larger Brianchon.
This crater has a circular, symmetrical shape but the rim is worn and does not project very far above the surface. The inner walls are generally featureless, except for small craterlets along the eastern and southern sides. The interior floor has a low ridge in the northeastern quadrant and a small central rise.
# Satellite craters.
By convention | 24,334 |
1599682 | Froelich (crater) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Froelich%20(crater) | Froelich (crater)
the north-northwestern limb. Only a few kilometers separate this formation from the crater Lovelace to the north. Farther to the south is the crater Merrill, and to the southeast along the limb is the larger Brianchon.
This crater has a circular, symmetrical shape but the rim is worn and does not project very far above the surface. The inner walls are generally featureless, except for small craterlets along the eastern and southern sides. The interior floor has a low ridge in the northeastern quadrant and a small central rise.
# Satellite craters.
By convention these features are identified on lunar maps by placing the letter on the side of the crater midpoint that is closest to Froelich. | 24,335 |
1599658 | X Plastaz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=X%20Plastaz | X Plastaz
X Plastaz
X Plastaz is a Tanzanian hip hop musical group based in Arusha and founded in 1996. They are one of the most popular acts in the Tanzanian hip hop scene. Their style mixes elements from international hip hop and traditional Maasai music, represented by Maasai singer Merege. While Merege sings in maa (Maasai language), the other members of the group rap in swahili and haya. Merege is also well known to perform in traditional Maasai clothings.
X Plastaz hip hop is slower paced that most African hip hop and strongly characterised by Maasai deep chanting. X Plastaz songs such as "Aha!", "Dunia dudumizi", "Bamiza" and, most notably, "Msimu kwa msimu" are among the most popular hits in | 24,336 |
1599658 | X Plastaz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=X%20Plastaz | X Plastaz
the bongo flava genre.
# History.
The first line-up of X Plastaz consisted in the Ruff and Gsann brothers from Arusha, together with their colleague and roommate Ziggy from the Tanga Region. They began singing hip hop in 1995, while earning their living in a haircutting saloon. In 1996 they were noticed by Bonnie Luv, a record producer from Dar es Salaam, who had them record some single. Their first hit was "Bamiza" (1998), that was one of the most played songs by Tanzanian radios for several weeks. Another hit soon followed, "Wachaga piga chata".
In 1997 X Plastaz visited a traditional Maasai village west of Arusha and met Yamat Ole Meipuko, also known as Merege, who was the local "singing | 24,337 |
1599658 | X Plastaz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=X%20Plastaz | X Plastaz
champion" in his age class. They thus invited Merege to join them when they were performing in the surroundings of Arusha and Moshi. Their new "Maasai hip hop" style was an instant success, as Merege became a stable member of the line-up. Over time, the group also acquired new members, including Ruff and Gsann's two younger brothers and younger sister.
X Plastaz' Maasai hip hop caught the attention of Jay Rutledge, editor of the "Rough Guides" ethnic music CD series. Thanks to the inclusion of their songs in the "Rough Guides" compilations dedicated to Tanzania and African hip hop, X Plastaz received international acclaim and eventually began touring Europe as well as Latin America. In 2002, | 24,338 |
1599658 | X Plastaz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=X%20Plastaz | X Plastaz
they also participated in the World AIDS Day international event.
In 2004, German recording label Out Here Records published X Plastaz' first full-length album, "Maasai Hip Hop", which included the hit songs previously published in the "Rough Guides".
In 2006, X Plastaz suffered the sudden death of Nelly, died of injuries on 29 March after being stabbed. Born in 1976, he was the oldest member of the group and his sympathetic attitude towards the poor and needy was one of X Plastaz' trademarks. The video of Nelly's last song, "Nini dhambi kwa mwenye dhiki", shot on the Ol Doinyo Lengai volcano, is one of the most popular Africa music videos on YouTube. Despite this dramatic loss, X Plastaz | 24,339 |
1599658 | X Plastaz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=X%20Plastaz | X Plastaz
did not disband, and are still active today. In 2009, they published "Furaha", the first single of their upcoming second album. In the same, Gsan participated in BET Cypher, the annual gathering of America's top MCs, in Brooklyn, New York City. In 2010, they presented another new single, "Afrika", at the Sauti za Busara festival in Stone Town, Zanzibar.
# X Plastaz and Tanzanian culture.
Besides including Maasai vocal lines in their songs, X Plastaz base much of their image on the appeal of Maasai culture on both Tanzanian and international audiences. One of their more famous songs, "Aha!", is about life in a traditional Maasai village, and the music video of this song was shot in a traditional | 24,340 |
1599658 | X Plastaz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=X%20Plastaz | X Plastaz
village, displaying the lifestyle and customs of the Maasai people. The song's rap is in swahili and haya, while the chorus is actually a traditional Maasai chant. The song was also included in the HBO documentary "This Is My Africa".
In their musical and stylistic embrace of both traditional Maasai culture and American hip hop, X Plastaz were faced with a common issue in African contemporary and pop music, i.e., adapting what could be seen as a colonialist tradition to their own culture, while contributing to the development of the national and cultural identity of their country and their people. Their attitude is the result of the conscious and explicit intent of pursuing "African hip hop" | 24,341 |
1599658 | X Plastaz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=X%20Plastaz | X Plastaz
rather than mimicking American black music and, more in general, expressing subjection towards Western culture. For example, their website makes reference to the American magazine "National Geographic", which published an article on their music, but is also careful to explain what the magazine is.
As is often the case for hip hop acts, X Plastaz' lyrics often deal with social and political issues. Through their songs, X Plastaz bring the audience's attention to dramatic problems of Tanzania and Africa in general, including poverty, AIDS, and war.
# Discography.
- "Maasai Hip Hop" (Out Here Records 2004). Track listing: "Dunia dudumizi", "Bamiza", "Kitita", "Shika Iako", "Nini Dhambi kwa mwenye | 24,342 |
1599658 | X Plastaz | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=X%20Plastaz | X Plastaz
"National Geographic", which published an article on their music, but is also careful to explain what the magazine is.
As is often the case for hip hop acts, X Plastaz' lyrics often deal with social and political issues. Through their songs, X Plastaz bring the audience's attention to dramatic problems of Tanzania and Africa in general, including poverty, AIDS, and war.
# Discography.
- "Maasai Hip Hop" (Out Here Records 2004). Track listing: "Dunia dudumizi", "Bamiza", "Kitita", "Shika Iako", "Nini Dhambi kwa mwenye dhiki?", "Msimu kwa msimu", "Wachaga piga chata", "Ushanta", "Kutesa kwa zamu", "Aha!", "Kusanyikeni", "Haleluya", "Not Ready"
# External links.
- Myspace Music – X Plastaz | 24,343 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
Santa Bárbara () is a civil parish in the municipality of Vila do Porto in the Portuguese autonomous region of Azores. The population in 2011 was 405, in an area of 15.27 km².
# History.
The settlement of this place originated sometime in the 16th century, since around 1584, the Bay of São Lourenço was identified as "La Prainha", later referred to as the "Villa da prainha". The settlers of Santo Espírito and Santa Bárbara originated from the rural areas of the Algarve and Baixo Alentejo, and can be verified from the topological influences in the rural homes and villages of the region.
As Gaspar Frutuoso noted: ""The other [parish], of Santa Bárbara, is within | 24,344 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
the sierra, of the same band from Norte, a league and a half from Vila [do Porto]."" Frutuoso went on to explain:
The inhabitant settlements of the region formed from the distribution of its settlers, who occupied various places, some separated by large distances. Many of these points were connected by dirt roads, that were not easy to travel throughout the year, and the area obtained the non-ephemeral "Terras do Nordeste" ("Lands of the Northeast").
The description of the parish in the "Álbum Açoriano" (1903) refers to the parish as the poorest on the island, whose inhabitants are involved in the cultivation of wheat, potato and raising of cattle.
Gaspar Frutuoso noted that the history of | 24,345 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
these lands were influenced by its settlers and parishioners, including Father Ângelo Ângelo Soares da Câmara, who was responsible for the supporting the nascent communities, sacrificing his religious benefits to the improvished in the region. He was active in the construction of a potable water supply, including the fountain near the church, a new cemetery and other various improvements throughout his curate.
Owing to the hardships associated with a difficult physical relief and climate, many of the early poor suffered from a lack of foodstuffs. The region was dependent on the water mills to mill flour, and during the summer a lack of water meant that no milling occurred. Some innovative farmers | 24,346 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
constructed local mills, powered by oxen, horse or donkey that allowed them to mill grain or corn for their respective families or friends. The construction of windmills, particularly at Arrebentão permitted continuous milling, but dependent on wind.
The parish ceded, between 1965 and 31 December 1977, lands in Norte for a LORAN station (the LORAN Station of Santa Maria), that functioned as a pole for the Atlantic and coordinated long-range navigation with the stations in Flores and Porto Santo. At its time, the complex was built and operated by French military, who built a community that included not only the operational facilities, but residences and homes for its functionaries, that included | 24,347 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
streets, sports field and green-spaces. Following its closer, security was maintained until the middle of the 1980s, when it was abandoned, scavenged by locals and left in ruins.
The potable water distribution was inaugurated in the parish on 11 December 1966, while access to potable water only filtered to the rest of the communities by 1983.
# Geography.
The parish is located between the "Ribeira do Salto" and "Ponta do Norte", with its main nucleus along a valley, in an area of southeastern Santa Maria, about from the seat of Vila do Porto. Its geographic location on the island has resulted in it being referred to as the "Sol Nascente" parish (roughly, the "sun dawn"), owing to it being | 24,348 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
the first of the archipelagos of the Azores to glimpse the dawn (approximately 24 minutes earlier than the most distant community, on the island of Flores). With an area of approximately ,
Santa Bárbara is bounded in the north and east by the sea, south by the neighboring parish of Santo Espírito and south by São Pedro.
## Physical geography.
Santa Maria is one of the more important geomorphological islands of the archipelago, owing to its varied geological sedimentary, calcium and marine fossil deposits, along with basaltic formations.
The area of Santa Bárbara consists of geological basaltic stone and escoria, transformed by pressures and weathering. In the region of Arrebentão is a former | 24,349 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
quarry pit, where these deposits were excavated and sold, explaining the vertical slopes of the quarry. From its geological record and level of alteration, the pyroclasts are consolidated and took on the red-tinged colour, giving the name of the site: Pico Vermelho.
The highest points in the parish include the peak of Pico Alto , shared between the central parishes of the island, and Pico do Penedo, the heightest point totally within the parish of Santa Bárbara at an elevation of .
## Human geography.
Its accented relief of hills and valleys resulted in isolated communities of less than 100 inhabitants, with the largest being the seat of the parish (Santa Bárbara). Other communities in this | 24,350 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
parish included the "localities" of Termo da Igreja, Lagos, Lagoinhas, Feteiras de Santa Bárbara, Pocilgas, Pico do Penedo, Poço Grande, Boavista, Forno, Fajã de São Lourenço, Norte, Arrebentão and Tagarete, all located along the regional E.R. 1-1ª roadway that circles the island.
Apart from the socio-administrative centre of Santa Bárbara, the civil parish is identifiable by the Bay of São Lourenço, and locality of São Lourenço along the eastern coast. This landscape was formed from a partially destroyed caldera, resulting in its concave form oriented towards the sea, with terraces constructed along its exterior walls to support agriculture. The coastal area was built by successive generations, | 24,351 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
originally establishing residences at the water's edge, but successively branching into the interior. The concave coastal area includes several tourist-oriented villas, wine cellars and summer cottages used by locals throughout the year, in addition to the native community.
# Economy.
Agriculture is the primary resource in the parish, supplemented by some people involved in fishery, commerce and tourism.
São Lourenço is the tourist centre of activities in the civil parish, owing to its ocean frontage, scenic vista and microclimate. The neighbouring community of Maia, is sometimes confused by tourists, owing to their similar access and coastal position. The local microclimate of this region | 24,352 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
was also responsible for the growth of an early wine-making industry, highlighted by the terraced parcels located along the clifftops overlooking the residential and tourist cottages.
# Architecture.
- Bridge of Boavista (), a simple single-arch bridge dating to the 19th century, in the area of Boavista;
- Church Bridge of Santa Bárbara (), the simple single-arch bridge was constructed in 1881, and links the area of Pocilgas to Termo da Igreja;
- Windmills of Arrebentão (), the remains of the bases of several windmills utilized during the 19th century for millings of flower, classified as regional "Property of Public Interest";
## Military.
- Casemates of Pico Alto (), a military complex | 24,353 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
consisting of three casemates built after the Second World War, of reinforced concrete, embedded into the slope, along the roadway that borders Pico Alto. The visible feature of these military bunkers consist of facades and entrance-ways into the casemates.
- Fort of São Lourenço ()
- LORAN Station of Santa Maria (), the long-range navigation station was constructed by the French after the Second World War, but abandoned in the 1980s, following its deactivation. The site, which not only includes the operations buildings, but residences and game fields are in ruins, scavenged by locals following the removal of security personnel in the mid-1980s;
## Religious.
- Church of Santa Bárbara (), | 24,354 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
the parochial church of Santa Bárabra dates to the middle of the 17th century, consisting of single-nave and bell-tower structure, marked by main presbytery and lanteral angular chapels;
- Hermitage of Jesus, Maria e José (), located on the northern edge of São Lourenço, the hermitage dates to the 17th or early 18th century, and was one of the first retreats on the island, and part of a former estate;
- Hermitage of Nossa Senhora do Desterro ()
- Hermitage of Nossa Senhora de Lurdes (), the isolated single-nave hermitage in the region of Norte, is known for its main altar, constructed using volcanic stone, resembling the grotto where the Marian apparition occurred in Lourdes, France;
- Hermitage | 24,355 |
1599676 | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20Bárbara%20(Vila%20do%20Porto) | Santa Bárbara (Vila do Porto)
ingle-nave hermitage in the region of Norte, is known for its main altar, constructed using volcanic stone, resembling the grotto where the Marian apparition occurred in Lourdes, France;
- Hermitage of São Lourenço ()
- Império of the Holy Spirit of Santa Bárbara (), the small, unimposing "treatro" or chapel dedicated to the annual celebrations of the Cult of the Holy Spirit, was dedicated in 1900, to replace existent temporary structures. The simple one-room space includes altar and space for the artifacts of the religious and ceremonial processions held throughout the period following Pentecost Sunday;
# References.
- Notes
- Sources
# External links.
- A website about Santa Bárbara | 24,356 |
1599688 | Zaskar Range | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zaskar%20Range | Zaskar Range
Zaskar Range
The Zaskar Range or Zanskar Range is a mountain range in the Indian state of Jammu and Kashmir that separates Zanskar from Ladakh.
Geologically, the Zanskar Range is part of the Tethys Himalaya, an approximately 100-km-wide synclinorium formed by strongly folded and imbricated, weakly metamorphosed sedimentary series. The average height of the Zanskar Range is about 6,000 m (19,700 ft). Its eastern part is known as Rupshu. It belongs to the trans-Himalayas.
# Geography.
Zanskar covers an area of some , at an elevation of 3,500-7,000 metres (11,500–23,000 feet).
The Zaskar River flows through this range and cuts the deep and narrow Zanskar Gorge.
The range extends southeastward | 24,357 |
1599688 | Zaskar Range | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zaskar%20Range | Zaskar Range
ange is about 6,000 m (19,700 ft). Its eastern part is known as Rupshu. It belongs to the trans-Himalayas.
# Geography.
Zanskar covers an area of some , at an elevation of 3,500-7,000 metres (11,500–23,000 feet).
The Zaskar River flows through this range and cuts the deep and narrow Zanskar Gorge.
The range extends southeastward for some 400 miles (640 km) from the Karcha (Suru) River to the upper Karnali River. Kamet Peak (25,446 feet [7,756 metres]) is the highest point, and the most important passes are Shipki, Lipu Lekh (Lipulieke)
# References.
https://www.pmfias.com/himalayas-himalayan-ranges-shiwaliks-outer-himalayas-lesser-himalayas-greater-himalayas-trans-himalayas-purvanchal/ | 24,358 |
1599704 | Santa María del Mar District (Peru) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20María%20del%20Mar%20District%20(Peru) | Santa María del Mar District (Peru)
Santa María del Mar District (Peru)
Santa María del Mar District () is a district in southern Lima Province in Peru. It is bordered by the Pacific Ocean on the west, the district of San Bartolo on the north, the Chilca District of the Cañete Province on the east, and the Pucusana District on the south.
It is well known for its beaches and attracts many beachgoers every summer. Many of them also rent apartments during this season, making its population increase considerably. The district has some restaurants and a club with a large seawater swimming pool. The most popular beaches in the district are "Santa María" and "Embajadores".
# History.
Santa María del Mar began as part of the San Bartolo | 24,359 |
1599704 | Santa María del Mar District (Peru) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Santa%20María%20del%20Mar%20District%20(Peru) | Santa María del Mar District (Peru)
the Chilca District of the Cañete Province on the east, and the Pucusana District on the south.
It is well known for its beaches and attracts many beachgoers every summer. Many of them also rent apartments during this season, making its population increase considerably. The district has some restaurants and a club with a large seawater swimming pool. The most popular beaches in the district are "Santa María" and "Embajadores".
# History.
Santa María del Mar began as part of the San Bartolo District, but after an urbanization process that started in 1943, it became a district in 1962.
# See also.
- Administrative divisions of Peru
# External links.
- Municipality of Santa María del Mar | 24,360 |
1599709 | Lettuce big-vein disease | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lettuce%20big-vein%20disease | Lettuce big-vein disease
Lettuce big-vein disease
Lettuce big-vein disease causes leaf distortion and ruffling in affected lettuce plants.
This disease was first associated in 1983 with a rod-shaped virus named lettuce big-vein associated virus (LBVaV), which is transmitted by the obligately parasitic soil-inhabiting fungus, "Olpidium brassicae". However, in 2000, a second virus, "Mirafiori lettuce virus", was found in lettuce showing big-vein symptoms. Furthermore, since the lettuce infected with this virus alone developed big-vein symptoms, it is considered to be a main agent of the big-vein disease.
# Symptoms.
Affected plants have veins that become large and clear, causing the rest of the leaf to become ruffled. | 24,361 |
1599709 | Lettuce big-vein disease | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lettuce%20big-vein%20disease | Lettuce big-vein disease
(LBVaV), which is transmitted by the obligately parasitic soil-inhabiting fungus, "Olpidium brassicae". However, in 2000, a second virus, "Mirafiori lettuce virus", was found in lettuce showing big-vein symptoms. Furthermore, since the lettuce infected with this virus alone developed big-vein symptoms, it is considered to be a main agent of the big-vein disease.
# Symptoms.
Affected plants have veins that become large and clear, causing the rest of the leaf to become ruffled. Severely infected plants may fail to form a lettuce head.
# Control.
- Grow disease resistant cultivars.
- Use disease free healthy seeds.
- Drench the field with methyl bromide, chloropicrin, or dazomet solution. | 24,362 |
1599716 | Delia Ephron | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delia%20Ephron | Delia Ephron
Delia Ephron
Delia Ephron ( ; born July 12, 1944) is an American bestselling author, screenwriter, and playwright.
# Life and career.
Ephron was born in New York City, the second eldest of four daughters of screenwriters Phoebe and Henry Ephron. She is Jewish. Her movies include "You've Got Mail", "The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants", "Hanging Up" (based on her novel), and "Michael". She has written novels for adults ("Hanging Up," "The Lion Is In" and the recent "Siracusa") and teenagers ("Frannie in Pieces" and "The Girl with the Mermaid Hair"), books of humor, ("How to Eat Like a Child"), and essays. Her family is Jewish.
Her journalism has appeared in "The New York Times", "Oprah Magazine", | 24,363 |
1599716 | Delia Ephron | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delia%20Ephron | Delia Ephron
"Vogue", "More", "The Wall Street Journal", and "The Huffington Post". In 2011, she won an Athena Film Festival award for creativity and panache as a screenwriter.
Ephron collaborated with her elder sister, Nora, on "Love, Loss, and What I Wore", which ran for over two and a half years Off-Broadway. It has played in cities across the U.S., as well as in cities around the world including Paris, Rio de Janeiro, Cape Town, Manila, and Sydney.
# Filmography.
## Screenplays.
- "How to Eat Like a Child" (TV special, 1981)
- "Brenda Starr" (1989) – as by "Jenny Wolkind"
- "This Is My Life" (1992)
- "Mixed Nuts" (1994)
- "Michael" (1996)
- "You've Got Mail" (1998)
- "Hanging Up" (2000)
- | 24,364 |
1599716 | Delia Ephron | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delia%20Ephron | Delia Ephron
"The Sisterhood of the Traveling Pants" (2005)
- "Bewitched" (2005)
## Producer.
- "Sleepless in Seattle" (1993)
- "You've Got Mail" (1998)
- "Hanging Up" (2000)
# Books.
- (with Lorraine Bodger, under name Delia Brock) "The Adventurous Crocheter"
- "My Life and Nobody Else's"
- "Santa and Alex"
- "How to Eat Like a Child" (1979), illustrated by cartoonist Edward Koren
- "The Girl Who Changed the World"
- "Teenage Romance: Or, How to Die of Embarrassment" (1981)
- "Funny Sauce" (1986)
- "Do I Have to Say Hello?: Aunt Delia's Manners Quiz for Kids/Grownups" (1991)
- "Hanging Up" (1995)
- "Big City Eyes" (2000)
- "Frannie in Pieces" (2007)
- "The Girl with the Mermaid Hair" (2010)
- | 24,365 |
1599716 | Delia Ephron | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Delia%20Ephron | Delia Ephron
r, under name Delia Brock) "The Adventurous Crocheter"
- "My Life and Nobody Else's"
- "Santa and Alex"
- "How to Eat Like a Child" (1979), illustrated by cartoonist Edward Koren
- "The Girl Who Changed the World"
- "Teenage Romance: Or, How to Die of Embarrassment" (1981)
- "Funny Sauce" (1986)
- "Do I Have to Say Hello?: Aunt Delia's Manners Quiz for Kids/Grownups" (1991)
- "Hanging Up" (1995)
- "Big City Eyes" (2000)
- "Frannie in Pieces" (2007)
- "The Girl with the Mermaid Hair" (2010)
- "The Lion Is In" (2012)
- "Sister Mother Husband Dog: Etc" (2013)
- "Siracusa" (2016)
# External links.
- Hey! You Stole My Name! by Delia Ephron, in "The New York Times" (March 10, 2012) | 24,366 |
1599730 | Computer speakers | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer%20speakers | Computer speakers
Computer speakers
Computer speakers, or multimedia speakers, are speakers sold for use with computers, although usually capable of other audio uses, e.g. for an MP3 player. Most such speakers have an internal amplifier and consequently require a power source, which may be by a mains power supply often via an AC adapter, batteries, or a USB port. The signal input connector is often a 3.5 mm jack plug (usually color-coded lime green per the PC 99 standard); RCA connectors are sometimes used, and a USB port may supply both signal and power (requiring additional circuitry, and only suitable for use with a computer). Battery-powered wireless Bluetooth speakers require no connections at all. Most | 24,367 |
1599730 | Computer speakers | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer%20speakers | Computer speakers
computers have speakers of low power and quality built in; when external speakers are connected they disable the built-in speakers. Altec Lansing claims to have created the computer speaker market in 1990.
Computer speakers range widely in quality and in price. Computer speakers sometimes packaged with computer systems are small, plastic, and have mediocre sound quality. Some computer speakers have equalization features such as bass and treble controls. Bluetooth speakers can be connected with a computer by using an Aux jack and compatible adaptor.
More sophisticated computer speakers can have a subwoofer unit, to enhance bass output. The larger subwoofer enclosure usually contains the amplifiers | 24,368 |
1599730 | Computer speakers | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Computer%20speakers | Computer speakers
Bluetooth speakers can be connected with a computer by using an Aux jack and compatible adaptor.
More sophisticated computer speakers can have a subwoofer unit, to enhance bass output. The larger subwoofer enclosure usually contains the amplifiers for the subwoofer and the left and right speakers.
Some computer displays have rather basic speakers built-in. Laptop computers have built-in integrated speakers, usually small and of restricted sound quality to conserve space.
Instead of using a computer speaker for better sound, a computer can be connected to any external sound system, typically a high-power high-quality setup.
# See also.
- PC speaker
- Loudspeaker
- Loudspeaker enclosure | 24,369 |
270009 | Postage stamps and postal history of the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Postage%20stamps%20and%20postal%20history%20of%20the%20United%20States | Postage stamps and postal history of the United States
Postage stamps and postal history of the United States
The history of postal service of the United States began with the delivery of stampless letters, whose cost was borne by the receiving person, later also encompassed pre-paid letters carried by private mail carriers and provisional post offices, and culminated in a system of universal prepayment that required all letters to bear nationally issued adhesive postage stamps.
In the earliest days, ship captains arriving in port with stampless mail would advertise in the local newspaper names of those having mail and for them to come collect and pay for it, if not already paid for by the sender. Postal delivery in the United States was a matter | 24,370 |
270009 | Postage stamps and postal history of the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Postage%20stamps%20and%20postal%20history%20of%20the%20United%20States | Postage stamps and postal history of the United States
of haphazard local organization until after the Revolutionary War, when eventually a national postal system was established. Stampless letters, paid for by the receiver, and private postal systems, were gradually phased out after the introduction of adhesive postage stamps, first issued by the U.S. government post office July 1, 1847, in the denominations of five and ten cents, with the use of stamps made mandatory in 1855.
The issue and use of adhesive postage stamps continued during the 19th century primarily for first class mail. Each of these stamps generally bore the face or bust of an American president or another historically important statesman. However, once the Post Office realized | 24,371 |
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during the 1890s that it could increase revenues by selling stamps as "collectibles," it began issuing commemorative stamps, first in connection with important national expositions, later for the anniversaries of significant American historical events. Continued technological innovation subsequently prompted the introduction of special stamps, such as those for use with airmail, zeppelin mail, registered mail, certified mail, and so on. Postage due stamps were issued for some time and were pasted by the post office to letters having insufficient postage with the postage due to be paid to the postal carrier at the receiving address.
Today, stamps issued by the post office are self-adhesive, | 24,372 |
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and no longer require that the stamps be "licked" to activate the glue on their back. In many cases, post office clerks now use Postal Value Indicators (PVI), which are computer labels, instead of stamps.
Where for a century-and-a-half or so, stamps were almost invariably denominated with their values (5 cent, 10 cent, etc.) the United States post office now sells non-denominated "forever" stamps for use on first-class and international mail. These stamps are still valid even if there is a rate increase. However, for other uses, adhesive stamps with denomination indicators are still available and sold.
# Early postal history.
Postal services began in the first half of the 17th century serving | 24,373 |
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the first American colonies; today, the United States Postal Service is a large government organization providing a wide range of services across the United States and its territories abroad.
In the American colonies, informal independently run postal routes began in Boston as early as 1639, with Boston to New York City service starting in 1672.
Officially sanctioned mail service began in 1692 when King William III granted to an English nobleman a delivery "patent" that included the exclusive right to establish and collect a formal postal tax on official documents of all kinds. (Years later, taxation implemented through the mandatory purchase of stamps was an issue that helped to spark the | 24,374 |
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American Revolution.) The tax was repealed a year later, and very few were ever actually used in the thirteen colonies, but they saw service in Canada and the British Caribbean islands.
In the years leading up to the American Revolution mail routes among the colonies existed along the few roads between Boston, New York and Philadelphia. In the middle 18th century, individuals like Benjamin Franklin and William Goddard were the colonial postmasters who managed the mails then and were the general architects of a postal system that started out as an alternative to the Crown Post (the colonial mail system then) which was now becoming more distrusted as the American Revolution drew near. The postal | 24,375 |
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system that Franklin and Goddard forged out of the American Revolution became the standard for the new U.S. Post Office and is a system whose basic designs are still used in the United States Postal Service today.
# Post offices and postmarks.
In 1775, when Benjamin Franklin was appointed the first Postmaster General, the U.S. Post Office was born. So important was the Postmaster General that in 1829 this position was included among those in the President's Cabinet. As America began to grow and new towns and villages began to appear, so too did the Post Office along with them. The dates and postmarks generated from these places often has provided the historian with a window into a given time | 24,376 |
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and place in question. Each postmark is uniquely distinctive with its own name of state and town, in addition to its distinctive date. Post Offices that existed along railroad lines and at various military posts have their own special historical aspect. Mail and postmarks generated from prisoner of war camps during the Civil War, or from aboard naval ships, each with a U.S. Post Office aboard, can and have offered amazing insights into United States history and are avidly sought after by historians and collectors alike.
# Mail before postage stamps.
Before the introduction of stamps, it was the recipient of mail—not the sender—who generally paid the cost of postage, giving the fee directly | 24,377 |
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to the postman on delivery. The task of collecting money for letter after letter greatly slowed the postman on his route. Moreover, the addressee would at times refuse a piece of mail, which then had to be taken back to the Post Office (post office budgets always allowed for an appreciable volume of unpaid-for mail). Only occasionally did a sender pay delivery costs in advance, an arrangement that usually required a personal visit to the Post Office. To be sure, postmasters allowed some citizens to run charge accounts for their delivered and prepaid mail, but bookkeeping on these constituted another inefficiency.
Postage stamps revolutionized this process, leading to universal prepayment; but | 24,378 |
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a precondition for their issue by a nation was the establishment of standardized rates for delivery throughout the country. If postal fees were to remain (as they were in many lands) a patchwork of many different jurisdictional rates, the use of stamps would only produce limited gains in efficiency, for postal clerks would still have to spend time calculating the rates on many letters: only then would senders know how much postage to put on them.
# Provisional issue stamps.
The introduction of postage stamps in the UK in May 1840 was received with great interest in the United States (and around the world). Later that year, Daniel Webster rose in the U.S. Senate to recommend that the recent | 24,379 |
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English postal reforms—standardized rates and the use of postage stamps—be adopted in America.
It would be private enterprise, however, that brought stamps to the U. S. On February 1, 1842 a new carrier service called "City Despatch Post" began operations in New York City, introducing the first adhesive postage stamp ever produced in the western hemisphere, which it required its clients to use for all mail. This stamp was a 3¢ issue bearing a rather amateurish drawing of George Washington, printed from line engraved plates in sheets of 42 images. The company had been founded by Henry Thomas Windsor, a London merchant who at the time was living in Hoboken, New Jersey. Alexander M. Greig was | 24,380 |
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advertised as the post's "agent," and as a result, historians and philatelists have tended to refer to the firm simply as "Greig's City Despatch Post," making no mention of Windsor. In another innovation, the company placed mail-collection boxes around the city for the convenience of its customers.
A few months after its founding, the City Despatch Post was sold to the U.S. Government, which renamed it the "United States City Despatch Post." The government began operation of this local post on August 16, 1842, under an Act of Congress of some years earlier that authorized local delivery. Greig, retained by the Post Office to run the service, kept the firm's original Washington stamp in use, | 24,381 |
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but soon had its lettering altered to reflect the name change. In its revised form, this issue accordingly became the first postage stamp produced under the auspices of a government in the western hemisphere.
An Act of Congress of March 3, 1845 (effective July 1, 1845), established uniform (and mostly reduced) postal rates throughout the nation, with a uniform rate of five cents for distances under 300 miles (500 km) and ten cents for distances between 300 and 3000 miles. However, Congress did not authorize the production of stamps for nationwide use until 1847; still, postmasters realized that standard rates now made it feasible to produce and sell "provisional" issues for prepayment of uniform | 24,382 |
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postal fees, and printed these in bulk. Such provisionals included both prepaid envelopes and stamps, mostly of crude design, the New York Postmaster's Provisional being the only one of quality comparable to later stamps.
The provisional issues of Baltimore were notable for the reproduced signature of the city's postmaster—James M. Buchanan (1803-1876), a cousin to President James Buchanan. All provisional issues are rare, some inordinately so: at a Siegel Gallery auction in New York on March 2012, an example of the Millbury provisional fetched $400,000, while copies of the Alexandria and Annapolis provisionals each sold for $550,000. Eleven cities printed provisional stamps in 1845 and 1846:
- | 24,383 |
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Alexandria, Virginia ()
- Annapolis, Maryland ()
- Baltimore, Maryland ()
- Boscawen, New Hampshire ()
- Brattleboro, Vermont ()
- Lockport, New York ()
- Millbury, Massachusetts ( of George Washington)
- New Haven, Connecticut ()
- New York, New York ("POST OFFICE" over Washington portrait)
- Providence, Rhode Island ("POST OFFICE / PROV. R.I." in shaded box)
- St. Louis, Missouri (St. Louis Bears, Missouri coat of arms)
(See also:A Gallery of U. S. Postmasters' Provisional Stamps, 1845-47.)
The 1845 Congressional act did, in fact, raise the rate on one significant class of mail: the so-called "drop letter"—i. e., a letter delivered from the same post office that collected it. Previously | 24,384 |
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one cent, the drop letter rate became two cents.
# First national postage stamps.
Congress finally provided for the issuance of stamps by passing an act on March 3, 1847, and the Postmaster-General immediately let a contract to the New York City engraving firm of Rawdon, Wright, Hatch, and Edson. The first stamp issue of the U.S. was offered for sale on July 1, 1847, in New York City, with Boston receiving stamps the following day and other cities thereafter. They consisted of an engraved 5-cent red brown stamp depicting Benjamin Franklin (the first postmaster of the U.S.), and a 10-cent value in black with George Washington. Like all U.S. stamps until 1857, they were imperforate.
The 5-cent | 24,385 |
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stamp paid for a letter weighing less than 1/2 ounce and traveling up to 300 miles, the 10-cent stamp for deliveries to locations greater than 300 miles, or, twice the weight deliverable for the 5-cent stamp. Each stamp was hand engraved in what is believed to be steel, and laid out in sheets of 200 stamps. The 5-cent stamp is often found today with very poor impressions because the type of ink used contained small pieces of quartz that wore down the steel plates used to print the stamp. On the other hand, most 10-cent stamps are of strong impressions. A fresh and brilliantly printed 5-cent stamp is prized by collectors.
The use of stamps was optional: letters could still be sent requiring | 24,386 |
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payment of postage on delivery. Indeed, the post office did not issue any 2-cent value for prepaying drop letters in 1847, and these continued to be handled as they had been. Nevertheless, many Americans took up using stamps; about 3,700,000 of the 5¢ and about 865,000 of the 10¢ were sold, and enough of those have survived to ensure a ready supply for collectors, although the demand is such that a very fine 5¢ sells for around $300 as of 2019, and the 10¢ in very fine condition sells for around $1,000 in used form. Unused stamps are much scarcer, fetching around $3,000 and $20,000 respectively, if in very fine condition. One can pay as little as 5 to 10 percent of these figures if the stamps | 24,387 |
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are in poor condition.
The post office had become so efficient by 1851 that Congress was able to reduce the common rate to three cents (which remained unchanged for over thirty years), necessitating a new issue of stamps. Moreover, the common rate now applied to letters carried up to 3000 miles. This rate, however, only applied to prepaid mail: a letter sent without a stamp still cost the recipient five cents—clear evidence that Congress envisioned making stamp use mandatory in the future (it did so in 1855). The 1-cent drop-letter rate was also restored, and Post Office plans did not at first include a stamp for it; later, however, an essay for a 6-cent Franklin double-weight stamp was converted | 24,388 |
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into a drop-letter value. Along with this 1¢ stamp, the post office initially issued only two additional denominations in the series of 1851: 3¢ and 12¢, the three stamps going on sale that July and August. Since the 1847 stamps no longer conformed to any postal rate, they were declared invalid after short period during which the public could exchange old stamps for new ones. Ironically, however, within a few years the Post Office found that stamps in the old denominations were needed after all, and so, added a 10¢ value to the series in 1855, followed by a 5¢ stamp the following year. The full series included a 1¢ profile of Franklin in blue, a 3¢ profile of Washington in red brown, a 5¢ portrait | 24,389 |
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of Thomas Jefferson, and portraits of Washington for 10¢ green and 12¢ black values. The 1¢ stamp achieved notoriety, at least among philatelists, because production problems (the stamp design was too tall for the space provided) led to a welter of plate modifications done in piecemeal fashion, and there are no fewer than seven major varieties, ranging in price from $100 to $200,000 (the latter for the only stamp of the 200 images on the first plate that displays the design's top and bottom ornamentation complete). Sharp-eyed collectors periodically find the rare types going unrecognized.
1857 saw the introduction of perforation, and in 1860 24¢, 30¢ and 90¢ values (with still more images of | 24,390 |
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Washington and Franklin) were issued for the first time. These higher denominations, especially the 90c value, were available for such a short time (a little over a year) that they had virtually no chance of being used. The 90c stamp used is a very rare item, and so frequently forged that authorities counsel collectors to shun cancelled copies that lack expert certification.
In February 1861, a congressional act directed that "cards, blank or printed. . .shall also be deemed mailable matter, and charged with postage at the rate of one cent an ounce." Private companies soon began issuing post cards, printed with a rectangle in the top right corner where the stamp was to be affixed. (The Post | 24,391 |
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Office would not produce pre-stamped "postal cards" for another dozen years.)
The issue was declared invalid for postage in May 1861, as the Confederate States had supplies of them. Therefore, stamps used after that date usually have the marking "OLD STAMPS/NOT RECOGNIZED" on the cover.
# Issues of the Civil War era.
The outbreak of the American Civil War threw the postal system into turmoil. On April 13, 1861, (the day after the firing on Fort Sumter) John H. Reagan, postmaster-general of the Confederate States of America, ordered local postmasters to return their U.S. stamps to Washington D.C. (although it is unlikely that many did so), while in May the Union decided to withdraw and invalidate | 24,392 |
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all existing U.S. stamps, and to issue new stamps. Confederate post offices were left without legitimate stamps for several months, and while many reverted to the old system of cash payment at the post office, over 100 post offices across the South came up with their own provisional issues. Many of these are quite rare, with only single examples surviving of some types. Eventually the Confederate government issued its own stamps; see stamps and postal history of the Confederate States.
In the North, the new stamp designs became available in August, and old stamps were accepted in exchange, with different deadlines for replacement set for different regions of the country, first ranging from | 24,393 |
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September 10 to November 1, later modified to November 1 to January 1, 1862. The whole process was very confusing to the public, and there are number of covers from 1862 and later with 1857 stamps and bearing the marking "OLD STAMPS NOT RECOGNIZED".
The 1861 stamps had in common the letters "U S" in their design. To make them differentiable from the older stamps at a glance, all were required to have their values expressed in Arabic numerals (in the previous series, Arabic numerals had appeared only on the 30¢ stamp). The original issue included all the denominations offered in the previous series: 1¢, 3¢, 5¢, 10¢, 12¢, 24¢, 30¢ and 90¢ stamps. Numerals apart, several of these are superficially | 24,394 |
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similar to their earlier counterparts—particularly because Franklin, Washington and Jefferson still appear on the same denominations as previously. Differences in the design of the frames are more readily apparent.
A 2¢ stamp in black featuring Andrew Jackson was issued in 1863 and is now known to collectors as the "Black Jack". A black 15¢ stamp depicting the recently assassinated Abraham Lincoln was issued in 1866, and is generally considered part of the same series. While it was not officially described as such, and the 15¢ value was chosen to cover newly established fee for registered letters, many philatelists consider this to be the first memorial stamp ever issued.
The war greatly increased | 24,395 |
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the amount of mail in the North; ultimately about 1,750,000,000 copies of the 3¢ stamp were printed, and a great many have survived to the present day, typically selling for 2-3 dollars apiece. Most are rose-colored; pink versions are much rarer and quite expensive, especially the "pigeon blood pink", which goes for $3,000 and up.
The stamps of the 1861 series, unlike those of the two previous issues, remained valid for postage after they had been superseded—as has every subsequent United States stamp.
## Pony Express.
In 1860, the U.S. Post Office incorporated the services of the Pony Express to get mail to and from San Francisco, an important undertaking with the outbreak of the Civil War, | 24,396 |
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as a communication link between Union forces and San Francisco and the West Coast was badly needed. The Pony Express Trail from St. Joseph, Missouri, to Sacramento, California, was 1,840 miles long. Upon arrival in Sacramento, the U.S. mail was placed on a steamer and continued down the Sacramento River to San Francisco for a total of 1,966 miles. The Pony Express was a short-lived enterprise, remaining in operation for only 18 months. Consequently, there is little surviving Pony Express mail today, only 250 examples known in existence.
## Encased postage stamps.
Widespread hoarding of coins during the Civil War created a shortage, prompting the use of stamps for currency. To be sure, the | 24,397 |
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fragility of stamps made them unsuitable for hand-to-hand circulation, and to solve this problem, John Gault invented the encased postage stamp in 1862. A normal U. S. stamp was wrapped around a circular cardboard disc and then placed inside a coin-like circular brass jacket. A transparent mica window in the jacket allowed the face of the stamp to be seen. All eight denominations available in 1861-62, ranging from 1 cent to 90 cents, were offered in encased versions. Raised lettering on the metal backs of the jackets often advertised the goods or services of business firms; these included the Aerated Bread Company; Ayers Sarsaparilla and Cathartic Pills; Burnett's Cocoaine; Sands Ale; Drake's | 24,398 |
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Plantation Bitters; Buhl & Co. Hats and Furs; Lord & Taylor; Tremont House, Chicago; Joseph L. Bates Fancy Goods; White the Hatter, New York City; and Ellis McAlpin & Co. Dry Goods, Cincinnati. (See also: Fractional currency.)
# Grills.
During the 1860s, the postal authorities became concerned about postage stamp reuse. While there is little evidence that this occurred frequently, many post offices had never received any canceling devices. Instead, they improvised a canceling process by scribbling on the stamp with an ink pen ("pen cancellation"), or whittling designs in pieces of cork, sometimes very creatively ("fancy cancels"), to mark the stamps. However, since poor-quality ink could be | 24,399 |
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