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1599810 | History of human sexuality | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History%20of%20human%20sexuality | History of human sexuality
have ravished many women: Leda in the form of a swan, Danaë disguised as a golden rain, Alkmene disguised as her own husband. Zeus also raped a boy, Ganymede, a myth that paralleled Cretan custom.
### Etruria.
The ancient Etruscans had very different views on sexuality, when compared with the other European ancient peoples, most of whom had inherited the Indo-European traditions and views on the gender roles.
Greek writers, such as Theopompus and Plato named the Etruscan 'immoral' and from their descriptions we find out that the women commonly had sex with men who were not their husbands and that in their society, children were not labelled "illegitimate" just because they did not know who | 24,900 |
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the father was. Theopompus also described orgiastic rituals, but it is not clear whether they were a common custom or only a minor ritual dedicated to a certain deity.
### Rome.
The citizen's duty to control his body was central to the concept of male sexuality in the Roman Republic. "Virtue" "(virtus", from "vir", "man") was equated with "manliness." The equivalent virtue for female citizens of good social standing was "pudicitia", a form of sexual integrity that displayed their attractiveness and self-control. Female sexuality was encouraged within marriage. In Roman patriarchal society, a "real man" was supposed to govern both himself and others well, and should not submit to the use or | 24,901 |
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pleasure of others. Same-sex behaviors were not perceived as diminishing a Roman's masculinity, as long as he played the penetrative or dominating role. Acceptable male partners were social inferiors such as prostitutes, entertainers, and slaves. Sex with freeborn male minors was formally prohibited (see "Lex Scantinia"). "Homosexual" and "heterosexual" thus did not form the primary dichotomy of Roman thinking about sexuality, and no Latin words for these concepts exist.
Depictions of frank sexuality are abundant in Roman literature and art. The "fascinum", a phallic charm, was a ubiquitous decoration. Sexual positions and scenarios are depicted in great variety among the wall paintings preserved | 24,902 |
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at Pompeii and Herculaneum. Collections of poetry celebrated love affairs, and "The Art of Love" by the Augustan poet Ovid playfully instructed both men and women in how to attract and enjoy lovers. Elaborate theories of human sexuality based on Greek philosophy were developed by thinkers such as Lucretius and Seneca. Classical myths often deal with sexual themes such as gender identity, adultery, incest, and rape.
Like other aspects of Roman life, sexuality was supported and regulated by traditional Roman religion, both the public cult of the state and private religious practices and magic. Cicero held that the desire to procreate "(libido)" was "the seedbed of the republic," as it was the | 24,903 |
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cause for the first form of social institution, marriage, which in turn created the family, regarded by the Romans as the building block of civilization. Roman law penalized sex crimes "(stuprum)", particularly rape, as well as adultery. A Roman husband, however, committed the crime of adultery only when his sexual partner was a married woman.
Prostitution was legal, public, and widespread. Entertainers of any gender were assumed to be sexually available (see "infamia"), and gladiators were sexually glamorous. Slaves lacked legal personhood, and were vulnerable to sexual exploitation.
The dissolution of Republican ideals of physical integrity in relation to political liberty contributes to | 24,904 |
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and is reflected by the sexual license and decadence associated with the Roman Empire. Anxieties about the loss of liberty and the subordination of the citizen to the emperor were expressed by a perceived increase in passive homosexual behavior among free men. Sexual conquest was a frequent metaphor for Roman imperialism.
## French Polynesia.
The Islands have been noted for their sexual culture. Many sexual activities seen as taboo in western cultures were viewed as appropriate by the native culture. Contact with Western societies has changed many of these customs, so research into their pre-Western social history has to be done by reading antique writings.
Children slept in the same room | 24,905 |
1599810 | History of human sexuality | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History%20of%20human%20sexuality | History of human sexuality
as their parents and were able to witness their parents while they had sex. Intercourse simulation became real penetration as soon as boys were physically able. Adults found simulation of sex by children to be funny. As children approached 11 attitudes shifted toward girls.
Premarital sex was not encouraged but was allowed in general, restrictions on adolescent sexuality were incest, exogamy regulations, and firstborn daughters of high-ranking lineage. After their firstborn child, high-ranking women were permitted extramarital affairs.
Adam Johann von Krusenstern in his book about the same expedition as Yuri's, reports that a father brought a 10-12-year-old girl on his ship, and she had sex | 24,906 |
1599810 | History of human sexuality | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History%20of%20human%20sexuality | History of human sexuality
with the crew. According to the book of Charles Pierre Claret de Fleurieu and Étienne Marchand, 8-year-old girls had sex and performed other sexual acts in public.
### Sexual revolution.
The second sexual revolution was a substantial change in sexual morality and sexual behaviour throughout the West in the 1960s and early 1970s. One factor in the change of values pertaining to sexual activities was the invention of new, efficient technologies for the personal control of ability to enter pregnancy. Prime among them, at that time, was the first birth control pill. Liberalized laws on abortion in many countries likewise made it possible to safely and legally break off an unwanted pregnancy without | 24,907 |
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having to invoke a birth posing grave danger to the health of the mother.
# Same-sex relations.
Societal attitudes towards same-sex relationships have varied over time and place, from expecting all males to engage in same-sex relationships, to casual integration, through acceptance, to seeing the practice as a minor sin, repressing it through law enforcement and judicial mechanisms, and to proscribing it under penalty of death.
In a detailed compilation of historical and ethnographic materials of pre-industrial cultures, "strong disapproval of homosexuality was reported for 41% of 42 cultures; it was accepted or ignored by 21%, and 12% reported no such concept. Of 70 ethnographies, 59% reported | 24,908 |
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homosexuality absent or rare in frequency and 41% reported it present or not uncommon."
In cultures influenced by Abrahamic religions, the law and the church established sodomy as a transgression against divine law or a crime against nature. The condemnation of anal sex between males, however, predates Christian belief. It was frequent in ancient Greece; "unnatural" can be traced back to Plato.
Many historical figures, including Socrates, Lord Byron, Edward II, and Hadrian, have had terms such as "gay" or "bisexual" applied to them; some scholars, such as Michel Foucault, have regarded this as risking the anachronistic introduction of a contemporary construction of sexuality foreign to their | 24,909 |
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times, though others challenge this.
A common thread of constructionist argument is that no one in antiquity or the Middle Ages experienced homosexuality as an exclusive, permanent, or defining mode of sexuality. John Boswell has countered this argument by citing ancient Greek writings by Plato, which describe individuals exhibiting exclusive homosexuality.
# Religion and sex.
## Judaism.
In Jewish law, sex is not considered intrinsically sinful or shameful when conducted in marriage, nor is it a necessary evil for the purpose of procreation. Sex is considered a private and holy act between a husband and wife. Certain deviant sexual practices, enumerated below, were considered gravely immoral | 24,910 |
1599810 | History of human sexuality | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History%20of%20human%20sexuality | History of human sexuality
"abominations" sometimes punishable by death. The residue of sex was considered ritually unclean outside the body, and required ablution.
Recently, some scholars have questioned whether the Old Testament banned all forms of homosexuality, raising issues of translation and references to ancient cultural practices. However, rabbinic Judaism had unambiguously condemned homosexuality.
### Mosaic law.
- "And God blessed them, and God said to them, "Be fruitful and multiply and fill the earth and subdue it, and rule over the fish of the sea and over the fowl of the sky and over all the beasts that tread upon the earth." (Genesis 1:28)
The Torah, while being quite frank in its description of various | 24,911 |
1599810 | History of human sexuality | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=History%20of%20human%20sexuality | History of human sexuality
sexual acts, forbids certain relationships. Namely, adultery, all forms of incest, male homosexuality, bestiality, and introduced the idea that one should not have sex during the wife's period:
- "You shall not lie carnally with your neighbor's wife, to become defiled by her." (Lev. 18:20)
- "Thou shalt not lie with mankind, as with womankind: it is abomination." (Lev. 18:22)
- "And with no animal shall you cohabit, to become defiled by it. And a woman shall not stand in front of an animal to cohabit with it; this is depravity." (Lev. 18:23)
- "And to a woman during the uncleanness of her separation, you shall not come near to uncover her nakedness." (Lev. 18:19)
The above passages may, | 24,912 |
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however, be open to modern interpretation. The original meanings of these verses did not change, but their interpretation may have changed after they were translated into English and other languages. This view however, has been counteracted by conservatives.
## Christianity.
Christianity re-emphasised the Jewish attitudes on sexuality with two new concepts. First, there was the re-iterated idea that marriage was absolutely exclusive and indissoluble, placing further guidance on divorce and expanding on the reasons and principles behind those laws. Second, in Old Testament times marriage was almost universal, in continuity with the total matrimony in Eden, but in the New Testament, the trajectory | 24,913 |
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is extended forward to the goal of no marriage in the new heavens and new earth (see Matthew 22). Practically therefore the new age after Jesus now has marriage as only normative, but celibacy is a valuable gift in and of itself.
### New Testament.
The New Testament is quite clear on principles regarding sexual relations. In one of his letters to the Corinthian church, Paul directly answers some questions they had asked about this.
Paul is speaking into a situation where the church was falling into lust, and some members even using prostitutes (6:16), while others advocated a 'higher spirituality' that wrongly denied pleasure from earthly things, including abstinence from sex (7:1). Paul | 24,914 |
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writes to them to explain the right context for sex in marriage, and the importance of couples keeping having sex and giving each other pleasure, but encourages them to pursue celibacy (as he later explains [7:32-35], so that they may devote more time and energy to others) wherever God has granted that gift (7:7).
Many other passages refer to sex or marriage.
### Later Christian thought.
St. Augustine opined that before Adam's fall, there was no lust in the sexual act, but that it was entirely subordinate to human reason. Later theologians similarly concluded that the lust involved in sexuality was a result of original sin, but nearly all agreed that this was only a venial sin if conducted | 24,915 |
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within marriage without inordinate lust.
In Reformed schools, as represented for example by the Westminster Confession, three purposes of marriage are drawn out: for mutual encouragement, support, and pleasure; for having children; and to prevent lustful sin.
Today, many Christians have adopted the view that there is no sin whatsoever in the uninhibited enjoyment of marital relations. Some Christians will tend to limit the circumstances and degree to which sexual pleasure is morally licit, for example to build self-control to prevent sex becoming addictive, or as a fast.
## Hinduism.
In India, Hinduism accepted an open attitude towards sex as an art, science and spiritual practice. The most | 24,916 |
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famous pieces of Indian literature on sex are Kamasutra (Aphorisms on Love) and Kamashastra (from Kama = pleasure, shastra = specialised knowledge or technique). This collection of explicit sexual writings, both spiritual and practical, covers most aspects of human courtship and sexual intercourse. It was put together in this form by the sage Vatsyayana from a 150 chapter manuscript that had itself been distilled from 300 chapters that had in turn come from a compilation of some 100,000 chapters of text. The Kamasutra is thought to have been written in its final form sometime between the third and fifth century AD.
Also notable are the sculptures carved on temples in India, particularly the | 24,917 |
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Khajuraho temple. The frank depiction of uninhibited sex hints towards a liberated society and times where people believed in dealing openly with all aspects of life. On the other hand, a group of thinkers believe that depiction of sexually implicit carvings outside the temples indicate that one should enter the temples leaving desires (kama).
Apart from Vatsyayana's Kamashastra, which is no doubt the most famous of all such writings, there exist a number of other books, for example:
- The "Ratirahasya", literal translation – secrets (rahasya) of love (rati, the union);
- The "Panchasakya", or the five (panch) arrows (sakya);
- The "Ratimanjari", or the garland (manjari) of love (rati, the | 24,918 |
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union)
- The "Ananga Ranga", or the stage of love.
The "Secrets of Love" was written by a poet named Kukkoka. He is believed to have written this treatise on his work to please one Venudutta, considered to be a king. This work was translated into Hindi years ago and the author's name became Koka in short and the book he wrote was called "Koka Shastra". The same name crept into all the translations into other languages in India. "Koka Shastra" literally means doctrines of Koka, which is identical with the "Kama Shastra", or doctrines of love, and the names "Koka Shastra" and "Kama Shastra" are used indiscriminately.
## Islam.
In Islam sexual intercourse is allowed only after marriage and | 24,919 |
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not considered intrinsically sinful or shameful when conducted in marriage. In fact it is considered a private and holy act between a husband and wife. Certain deviant sexual practices are considered gravely immoral "abominations" sometimes punishable by death. The full body ablution is required before performing prayers subsequent to coitus.
If a Muslim engaged in sexual intercourse with any other than the spouse i.e. if outside of marriage then this would be considered sinful, and a crime, and such extra-marital intercourse, referred to as zina in the Qur'an is punishable in few countries that fully practice Islamic law (Sharia) by corporal punishment of 100 lashes if the person is unmarried | 24,920 |
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(fornication) and by death if the person is married to another (adultery). This only if the actual copulation is witnessed by four people who will attest to such, and as per Qur'an text if the accuser can not bring 4 witnesses the punishment is 80 lashes for making unsubstantiated accusations. Generally this means the punishments are not carried out unless the culprits themselves confess to the sin on four separate occasions and therefore are liable to be punished for the crime.
# Technology and sex.
In the mid 20th century advances in medical science and modern understanding of the menstrual cycle led to observational, surgical, chemical and laboratory techniques to allow diagnosis and the | 24,921 |
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treatment of many forms of infertility.
# Pederasty.
Some cultures normalized or promoted adult males and male youths, usually teenagers, entering into pedagogic friendships or love affairs that also had an erotic dimension. These were usually sexually expressed, but chaste ones were not infrequent. If sexual, that phase of the relationship lasted until the youth was ready for adulthood and marriage. Other cultures saw such relationships as inimical to their interests – often on religious grounds – and tried to stamp them out.
# Zoophilia.
Zoophilia or bestiality—sexual activity between humans and animals—probably dates back to prehistory. Depictions of humans and animals in a sexual context | 24,922 |
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appear infrequently in rock art in Europe beginning around the onset of the Neolithic and the domestication of animals. Bestiality remained a common theme in mythology and folklore through the classical period and into the Middle Ages (e.g. "Leda and the Swan") and several ancient authors purported to document it as a regular, accepted practice – albeit usually in "other" cultures.
Explicit legal prohibition of human sexual contact with animals is a legacy of the Abrahamic religions: the Hebrew Bible imposes the death penalty on both the person and animal involved in an act of bestiality. There are several examples known from medieval Europe of people and animals executed for committing bestiality. | 24,923 |
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With the Age of Enlightenment, bestiality was subsumed with other sexual "crimes against nature" into civil sodomy laws, usually remaining a capital crime.
Bestiality remains illegal in most countries. Though religious and "crime against nature" arguments may still be used to justify this, today the central issue is the ability of non-human animals to give consent: it is argued that sex with animals is inherently abusive. In common with many paraphilias, the internet has allowed the formation of a zoophile community that has begun to lobby for zoophilia to be considered an alternative sexuality and for the legalisation of bestiality.
# Prostitution.
Prostitution is the sale of sexual services, | 24,924 |
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such as oral sex or sexual intercourse. Prostitution has been described as the "world's oldest profession". Gonorrhoeae is recorded at least up to 700 years ago and associated with a district in Paris formerly known as "Le Clapiers". This is where the prostitutes were to be found at that time.
In some cultures, prostitution has been an element of religious practices. Religious prostitution is well documented in the ancient cultures of the near East, such as Sumer, Babylon, ancient Greece and Israel, where prostitutes appear in the Bible. In Greece the hetaerae were often women of high social class, whereas in Rome the meretrices were of lower social order. The Devadasi, prostitutes of Hindu | 24,925 |
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temples in south India, were made illegal by the Indian government in 1988.
# Sexually transmitted diseases.
For much of human history, sexually transmitted diseases have been a scourge of humanity. They raged unchecked through society until the discovery of antibiotics. The development of inexpensive condoms and education about sexually transmitted diseases has helped reduce risks. For a period of about thirty years (in the second half of the twentieth century) their threat subsided. However, due to the free movement of people and uncontrolled distribution of antibiotics, organisms resistant to antibiotics quickly spread and at the present time pose a threat to people who have more than one | 24,926 |
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sex partner.
## AIDS.
AIDS has profoundly changed modern sexuality. It was first noticed (although many historians think that the first case was in 1959) spreading among gay men and intravenous drug users in the 1970s and 1980s. Today, the majority of victims are heterosexual women, men, and children in developing countries. In most developing countries, fear of epidemic has drastically changed many aspects of twentieth century human sexuality. Fear of contracting AIDS has driven a revolution in sex education, which now centers far more the use of protection and abstinence, and spends much more time discussing sexually transmitted diseases.
Further effects of this disease run deep, radically | 24,927 |
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impacting the expected average lifespan as reported by the BBC News: "[The expected average lifespan] is falling in many African countries – a girl born today in Sierra Leone could expect only to live to 36, in contrast to Japan, where today's newborn girl might reach 85 on average."
# See also.
- Birth control movement in the United States
- Cultural history of the buttocks
- Ephebophilia
- European sexuality leading up to and during World War II
- Kamashastra
- Lesbian American history
- Lesbian pulp fiction
- LGBT History
- LGBT history in the United States
- Gay male pulp fiction
- History of feminism
- History of erotic depictions
- Paraphilia
- Pederasty
- Pedophilia
- | 24,928 |
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Polyamory
- Pornography
- Pornocracy
- Sexual orientation
- Heterosexuality
- Homosexuality
- Bisexuality
- Asexuality
- Sexual revolution in 1960s America
- Sexual revolution
- "The History of Sexuality" (book series)
- Timeline of LGBT history
- Timeline of reproductive rights legislation
- Transgender American history
- Transvestophilia
# Further reading.
- Foucault, Michel. "The History of Sexuality", Volumes 1, 2 and 3. New York: Vintage Books, 1990.
- Hubbard, Thomas K. (ed.) "Homosexuality in Greece and Rome: A Sourcebook of Basic Documents", University of California Press, 2003.
- Rousseau, George and Roy Porter. "Sexual Underworlds of the Enlightenment" (Chapel Hill: | 24,929 |
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A Sourcebook of Basic Documents", University of California Press, 2003.
- Rousseau, George and Roy Porter. "Sexual Underworlds of the Enlightenment" (Chapel Hill: The University of North Carolina Press, 1987).
# External links.
- Sex Scrolls – Journey through the hormones of history
- History of Sexuality
- University of California, Santa Barbara's "SexInfo"
- Hers and History of Sexuality
- Explore the History of Sex with the Bacchanalian – By Mark Zedler
## Sexual orientation.
- The Invention of Heterosexuality by Jonathan Katz
- The World History of Male Love
- Encyclopedia of GLBQT culture
- Who's Gay? What's Straight?
- The Myth of Ancient Greek Sexuality by Bruce Thornton | 24,930 |
1599887 | Cetuximab | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cetuximab | Cetuximab
Cetuximab
Cetuximab is an epidermal growth factor receptor (EGFR) inhibitor used for the treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer, metastatic non-small cell lung cancer and head and neck cancer. Cetuximab is a chimeric (mouse/human) monoclonal antibody given by intravenous infusion that is distributed under the trade name Erbitux in the U.S. and Canada by the drug company Eli Lilly and Co. and outside those countries by the drug company Merck KGaA. In Japan, Merck KGaA, Bristol-Myers Squibb and Eli Lilly have a co-distribution.
In July 2009, the FDA approved cetuximab (Erbitux) for treatment of colon cancer with wild-type KRAS, since it had little or no effect in colorectal tumors harboring | 24,931 |
1599887 | Cetuximab | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cetuximab | Cetuximab
a KRAS mutation (this also applied to the EGFR antibody panitumumab). This was the first genetic test to guide treatment of cancer. In July 2012, the FDA approved a real time PCR companion diagnostic test for KRAS, the therascreen KRAS test.
# Medical uses.
A diagnostic immunohistochemistry assay (EGFR pharmDx) can be used to detect EGFR expression in the tumor material. Approximately 75% of patients with metastatic colorectal cancer have an EGFR-expressing tumor and are therefore considered eligible for treatment with cetuximab or panitumumab, according to FDA guidelines. Unfortunately, there is evidence that immunohistochemical EGFR receptor testing does not predict response to either cetuximab | 24,932 |
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or panitumumab, so that this has been called a "misleading biomarker" that has nevertheless caused insurers and even health systems to deny payment for EGFR antibody treatment for patients who lack a positive tumor EGFR histochemical test.
## Head and neck cancer.
Cetuximab was approved by the FDA in March 2006 for use in combination with radiation therapy for treating squamous cell carcinoma of the head and neck (SCCHN) or as a single agent in patients who have had prior platinum-based therapy.
# Side effects.
One of the more serious side effects of cetuximab therapy is the incidence of acne-like rash. This rash rarely leads to dose reductions or termination of therapy. It is generally | 24,933 |
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reversible.
Further severe infusion reactions include but are not limited to: fevers, chills, rigors, urticaria, itchiness, rash, hypotension, nausea, vomiting, headache, shortness of breath, wheezing, angioedema, dizziness, anaphylaxis, and cardiac arrest. Therefore, pretreatment with diphenhydramine (30 to 60) min before administration is standard of care. Other common side effects include photosensitivity, hypomagnesemia due to magnesium wasting, and less commonly pulmonary and cardiac toxicity.
## Alpha-gal allergy.
Certain geographic regions have a high rate of anaphylactic reactions to cetuximab upon the first exposure to the medication. This is unusual because exposure to the allergen | 24,934 |
1599887 | Cetuximab | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cetuximab | Cetuximab
must occur before the development of an allergy. Fewer than 1% of people in the northeast United States reacted, while greater than 20% in the southeast did. The alpha-gal allergy is believed to result from tick bites. Lone star ticks are native to the regions of the US where reactions occurred and were found to be the vector. Cetuximab is produced in the mouse myeloma cell line SP2/0, and contains the alpha-gal oligosaccharide on the Fab portion of the heavy chain.
# Mechanism of action.
Cetuximab is a chimeric (mouse/human) monoclonal antibody which binds to and inhibits EGFR.
# KRAS Testing.
The KRAS gene encodes a small G protein on the EGFR pathway. Cetuximab and other EGFR inhibitors | 24,935 |
1599887 | Cetuximab | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cetuximab | Cetuximab
only work on tumors in which KRAS is not mutated.
KRAS mutational analysis is commercially available from a number of laboratories.
In July 2009, the US Food and Drug Administration (FDA) updated the labels of two anti-EGFR monoclonal antibody drugs (panitumumab (Vectibix) and cetuximab (Erbitux)) indicated for treatment of metastatic colorectal cancer to include information about KRAS mutations.
Studies have indicated that detection of KRAS gene mutations helps physicians identify patients that are unlikely to respond to treatment with targeted EGFR inhibitors, including cetuximab and panitumumab. Accordingly, genetic testing to confirm the absence of KRAS mutations (and so the presence | 24,936 |
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of the KRAS wild-type gene), is now clinically routine before the start of treatment with EGFR inhibitors. mCRC patients with wild-type KRAS tumors have been shown to benefit from a response rate of over 60% and a decreased risk for progression of over 40% when treated with Erbitux as 1st-line therapy. Around 65% of mCRC patients have the KRAS wild-type gene.
# History.
Michael Sela, Ester Hurwitz and co-workers published observations on EGFR inhibition in 1988. Yeda Research, on behalf of the Weizmann Institute of Science in Israel, challenged the Aventis-owned patent, licensed by Imclone, for the use of anti-epidermal growth factor receptor antibodies in combination with chemotherapy, to | 24,937 |
1599887 | Cetuximab | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cetuximab | Cetuximab
slow the growth of certain tumors which was filed in 1989 by Rhone-Poulenc-Rorer. The court ruled that Yeda is sole owner of the patent in the U.S., while Yeda and Sanofi-Aventis co-own the patent's foreign counterparts.
# Society and culture.
## Manufacture.
- Eli Lilly and Company is responsible for the manufacture and supply of Erbitux in bulk-form active pharmaceutical ingredient (API) for clinical and commercial use in the U.S. and Canada.
- Merck KGaA manufactures Erbitux for supply in its territory (outside the U.S. and Canada) as well as for Japan.
## Distribution.
- Erbitux is marketed in the U.S. and Canada by Eli Lilly.
- Outside the U.S. and Canada, Erbitux is commercialized | 24,938 |
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by Merck KGaA. Eli Lilly receives royalties from Merck KGaA.
- A separate agreement grants co-exclusive rights among Merck, Bristol-Myers Squibb and Eli Lilly in Japan and expires in 2032.
## Sales.
Cetuximab is given by intravenous therapy and costs up to $30,000 for eight weeks of treatment per patient.
Merck KGaA had 887 million euros ($1.15 billion) in Erbitux sales in 2012, from head and neck as well as bowel cancer, while Bristol-Myers Squibb generated $702 million in sales from the drug.
Erbitux was the eighth best-selling cancer drug of 2013, with sales of $1.87 billion.
## Biosimilars.
Erbitux had 2013 worldwide sales of US$1.9 billion making it a lucrative target for biosimilars | 24,939 |
1599887 | Cetuximab | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cetuximab | Cetuximab
developers. Additionally the patent protection for Erbitux in Europe expired in June 2014, and in the U.S. and in Japan the protection will expire in 2016. However biosimilars of Erbitux are not expected until 2018.
As of 2014 biosimilars of cetuximab were in development by several companies.
## Insider trading.
Cetuximab failed to get FDA approval in 2001, which caused the stock price of the developer ImClone to drop dramatically. Prior to the announcement, several executives sold stock, and the SEC launched an investigation into insider trading. This resulted in a widely publicized criminal case, which resulted in prison terms for media celebrity Martha Stewart, ImClone chief executive | 24,940 |
1599887 | Cetuximab | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cetuximab | Cetuximab
the stock price of the developer ImClone to drop dramatically. Prior to the announcement, several executives sold stock, and the SEC launched an investigation into insider trading. This resulted in a widely publicized criminal case, which resulted in prison terms for media celebrity Martha Stewart, ImClone chief executive officer Samuel D. Waksal and Stewart's broker at Merrill Lynch, Peter Bacanovic.
# Research.
The efficacy of cetuximab was explored in a clinical trial of advanced gastric cancer published in 2013; cetuximab showed no survival benefit.
# External links.
- FDA Erbitux (cetuximab) Information Page
- Erbitux site from Bristol-Myers Squibb, ImClone Systems, and Merck KGaA | 24,941 |
1599929 | Demerara River | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demerara%20River | Demerara River
Demerara River
The Demerara River is a river in eastern Guyana that rises in the central rainforests of the country and flows to the north for 346 kilometres until it reaches the Atlantic Ocean. Georgetown, Guyana's largest seaport and capital, is situated on the east bank of the river's mouth. The river divides Essequibo Islands-West Demerara (Region 3) on the west bank from Demerara-Mahaica (Region 4) to the east. The Demerara's estuary is narrow and the flowrate is rapid. This scouring action maintains a 5-to-6-metre-deep direct channel to the ocean. The river's deep brown color is primarily the result of the massive quantities of silt carried from upriver by the powerful currents. So powerful | 24,942 |
1599929 | Demerara River | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demerara%20River | Demerara River
are these currents, that the ocean retains the Demerara's brown color for a considerable distance out to sea.
The Demerara's width and depth allow oceangoing vessels up to 5,000 t to navigate up to Linden (105 km from the mouth), while smaller vessels may reach up to Malali (245 km from the mouth). Beyond Malali, numerous rapids make further upstream travel impossible.
A floating bridge, the Demerara Harbour Bridge, crosses the river south of Georgetown from Peter's Hall, East Bank Demerara to Schoon Ord, West Bank Demerara.
Tributaries of the Demerara River include the Haiama River, Kuruabaru River, Haiakwa Creek and Haianari Creek.
The islands Inver, Borselem, and Biesen are found from | 24,943 |
1599929 | Demerara River | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Demerara%20River | Demerara River
Beyond Malali, numerous rapids make further upstream travel impossible.
A floating bridge, the Demerara Harbour Bridge, crosses the river south of Georgetown from Peter's Hall, East Bank Demerara to Schoon Ord, West Bank Demerara.
Tributaries of the Demerara River include the Haiama River, Kuruabaru River, Haiakwa Creek and Haianari Creek.
The islands Inver, Borselem, and Biesen are found from the mouth. Borselem was once the location of the Dutch capital of Demerara.
A Dutch colony of the same name was situated along the river's banks. The colony founded the sugarcane industry that continues to thrive today. Bauxite is also mined around the Demerara, and Linden is a major export centre. | 24,944 |
1599917 | Tom Ray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%20Ray | Tom Ray
Tom Ray
Thomas Archer Ray (August 2, 1919 – April 6, 2010) was an American animator.
# Career.
Ray was born in Williams, Arizona. He began work at Warner Bros. Cartoons in 1937, working under Tex Avery until 1941. He later worked at John Sutherland Productions, getting his first screen credit there with Destination Earth in 1956. In 1958, he returned to Warner Bros. and became a master animator in the Robert McKimson unit. After a brief stay in the Friz Freleng unit, he was assigned to work with the Chuck Jones unit, where he co-directed "Adventures of the Road-Runner" and several "Bugs Bunny Show" episodes. He followed Jones to Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer in 1963; there, he directed two Tom and Jerry | 24,945 |
1599917 | Tom Ray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%20Ray | Tom Ray
compilation shorts, "Matinee Mouse" in 1966 and "Shutter Bugged Cat" in 1967.
His later credits include animation on "Pink Panther" shorts, Ralph Bakshi’s "Heavy Traffic" and "Coonskin", Chuck Jones TV specials, numerous Filmation and Hanna-Barbera series, "Tiny Toon Adventures" and "Animaniacs". Ray directed many episodes of various series including the Sunbow Productions animated series based on Hasbro properties and was also the director for episodes of Film Roman's "Garfield and Friends".
After his retirement from the Los Angeles animation business in 1998, Ray founded his own animation studio, Tomstone Animation, first located in East Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. Ray moved his studio to | 24,946 |
1599917 | Tom Ray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tom%20Ray | Tom Ray
ous series including the Sunbow Productions animated series based on Hasbro properties and was also the director for episodes of Film Roman's "Garfield and Friends".
After his retirement from the Los Angeles animation business in 1998, Ray founded his own animation studio, Tomstone Animation, first located in East Stroudsburg, Pennsylvania. Ray moved his studio to Virginia Beach, Virginia just before he died in Virginia on April 6, 2010 aged 90.
Ray's brother, Brenda Ellen Ray, continues to live in Atlanta, Gerorgia. Ray's son, Thomas G. "Greg" Ray, and daughter, Donna Mouliot, followed him into the animation business.
# External links.
- Tomstone Animation Studios
- Tom Ray Filmography | 24,947 |
1599940 | Thomas S. Ray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20S.%20Ray | Thomas S. Ray
Thomas S. Ray
Thomas S. Ray (also known as Tom Ray; born September 21, 1954) is an ecologist who created and developed the Tierra project, a computer simulation of artificial life.
In 1975, he and Donald R. Strong were the first to propose the theory of skototropism in an article in the journal "Science" (190: 804-806), which he later worked into his senior thesis at Florida State University (FSU), after conducting additional experiments. The thesis was expanded into his Ph.D. thesis at Harvard University. While at FSU, he earned undergraduate degrees in biology and chemistry.
He is currently Professor of Zoology and Adjunct Professor of Computer Science at the University of Oklahoma in Norman. | 24,948 |
1599940 | Thomas S. Ray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20S.%20Ray | Thomas S. Ray
Previously, he was assistant professor and associate professor in the School of Life and Health Sciences at the University of Delaware from 1981 to 1998.
Tom Ray is also a former member of the International Core War Society.
# Cultural references.
In The Rise of Endymion, Dan Simmons's conclusion to his famous Hyperion Cantos sci-fi series, it is revealed by the character of Aenea that the TechnoCore originated from a human experiment in which computer programs were allowed to compete for resources (e.g. memory) and evolve accordingly. It is specified that the one responsible for it was Tom Ray, which possibly refers to the biologist's Tierra project.
# External links.
- Thomas S. Ray's | 24,949 |
1599940 | Thomas S. Ray | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thomas%20S.%20Ray | Thomas S. Ray
fessor in the School of Life and Health Sciences at the University of Delaware from 1981 to 1998.
Tom Ray is also a former member of the International Core War Society.
# Cultural references.
In The Rise of Endymion, Dan Simmons's conclusion to his famous Hyperion Cantos sci-fi series, it is revealed by the character of Aenea that the TechnoCore originated from a human experiment in which computer programs were allowed to compete for resources (e.g. memory) and evolve accordingly. It is specified that the one responsible for it was Tom Ray, which possibly refers to the biologist's Tierra project.
# External links.
- Thomas S. Ray's web site
- Kurzweil's Turing Fallacy
- Mediamatic.net | 24,950 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
Huichol
The Huichol or Wixáritari are an indigenous people of Mexico living in the Sierra Madre Occidental range in the states of Nayarit, Jalisco, Zacatecas, and Durango. They are best known to the larger world as the "Huichol", however, they refer to themselves as "Wixáritari" ("the people") in their native Huichol language. The adjectival form of "Wixáritari" and name for their own language is "Wixárika".
# Location.
The Huichol say that they originated in the state of San Luis Potosí. Once yearly, some Huichol journey back to San Luís, their ancestral homeland to perform "Mitote" Peyote (Hikuri, in Wixarika) ceremonies. "This ancient tribe is located deep in the mountains of central Mexico...have | 24,951 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
lived here for at least 15,000 years according to carbon dating of the ashes from their sacred fireplaces."
The three main Huichol communities belong to the municipality of Mezquitic, Jalisco and are called San Sebastián Teponohuastlan ("Wautüa" in Huichol), Santa María Cuexcomatitlán ("Tuapuri" in Huichol) and San Andrés Cohamiata ("Tatei Kié" in Huichol).
Other Wixarika communities include Guadalupe Ocotán (in Nayarit), and Santa Catarina and Tuxpán de Bolaños in Jalisco. However, only around 7,000 Wixáritari live in their homeland while some 13,000 have migrated to other places within Nayarit, and other still live in La Sierra de La Yesca.
# History.
The Wixárika arrived in the Bolaños | 24,952 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
Canyon region after the arrival of the Tepehuanes. There are numerous theories among anthropologists and historians about the timing of the arrival of this ethnic group in the region, but according to Wixárika oral history, when they arrived in the region they currently consider home, the region was already inhabited by another ethnic group. Tepecano oral history also confirms that villages currently inhabited by Wixárika, such as Santa Catarina, were Tepecano villages in the past. In addition, there exist no stories of conquest or domination of the Wixárika by the Tepecanos in regarding the origin of Wixárika is that they come from the region of San Luis Potosí and that before their migration | 24,953 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
to the Bolaños Canyon region, they considered themselves part of the Guachichil ethnic group. Central to the traditional religion of the Wixárika is the gathering of hikuri (a hallucinogenic cactus) in the place that they call Wirikuta, that is located in the region of Real de Catorce in the state of San Luis Potosí. Hikuri does not grow in the region of Wixárika, but it is abundant in San Luis Potosí, territory that was at the center of the dominion of the Guachichiles before the arrival of the Spaniards. The Guachichiles were known to be bellicose and fiercely defensive of their territory. It is unlikely that the Guachichiles would have let the Wixárika pass peacefully through their territory | 24,954 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
to gather peyote unless they recognized them as part of their own ethnic group. This is confirmed by oral history of Wixárika, as well as the similarity between the language of Wixárika and the extinct language of the Guachichiles compared to their present neighbors, the Cora.
Historical documents indicate that during the 16th century, the Wixárika had already arrived in the region that is today northern Jalisco. The writings of Alonso Ponce, that date from the year 1587, indicate that the province of Tepeque was inhabited by an ethnic group who used to unite with the Guachichiles to carry out attacks and incursions on Spanish settlements and caravans. The Spaniards who explored the region | 24,955 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
that later became Jerez wrote that they were groups of Guachichiles in the region that had pushed out the Zacatecas that had previously resided there. Through this historical evidence one can postulate that the Wixárika arrived in the Bolaños Canyon region around the same time as the Spaniards. The arrival of the Spaniards in territories of the Guachichiles in Zacatecas and San Luis Potosí had certainly brought epidemics to the indigenous communities whose members had no resistance to the diseases of Europe. In addition, those natives who did not die of the epidemics suffered due to the concentrations and encomiendas carried out by the Spaniards in order to work the recently discovered mines | 24,956 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
of the region. These experiences are also documented in the oral history of wixaritari.
The Wixárika arrived in the Bolaños Canyon region looking for refuge and settled among the Tepecano settlements that already existed there. It is likely that there was mixing among the ethnic groups, as is evidenced by the many traditions, rituals (as the one of the use of chimales, or woods of oration, and the use of peyote in their ceremonies) shared among the groups. It is clear that the two ethnic groups would unite under a single leader to defend themselves from Spanish incursions and to mount rebellions against the Spanish colonial government. There is historical evidence of a rebellion mounted jointly | 24,957 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
by the two ethnic groups in El Teúl in 1592 and another one in Nostic in 1702.
# Language.
The Huichol language, Wixarika, is a Uto-Aztecan language (Corachol branch) related to Cora. Huichol words conform to four patterns according to their inflection: type I words, principally verbs, are inflected for person and mode, and type II words, principally nouns, are capable of being inflected for number and possession. Type III words include quantifiers and are inflected for case and optionally for gender and person. Type IV words are uninflected. Huichol major sentence types include transitive, intransitive, complemented transitive, and complemented. Complemented sentences contain object-like | 24,958 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
constituents, termed complements. True objects do not stand in cross reference with any affix in the verbal. Complements include quotative phrases and direct objects of double transitive sentences. Huichol minor sentence types are vocatives and exclamations.
# Lifestyle.
In summer, when the rains come, they live on their ranchos (farms) in tiny rancherias (hamlets) and make cheese from the milk from their cattle, which they slaughter and eat usually only during celebrations. For the most part, their diet consists of tortillas, made from the Blue, Red, Yellow or White "Sacred corn," beans, rice and pasta, the occasional chicken or pig (from which they make "chicharrones"), chili peppers, supplemented | 24,959 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
with wild fruits and vegetables of the region, such as "colorines", a legume gathered from trees, or "ciruelas" (wild plums) and guayabas (guavas).
Marriages are arranged by the parents when the children are very young. Huichol usually marry between the ages of fourteen and seventeen. Extended Huichol families live together in rancho settlements. These small communities consist of individual houses which belong to a nuclear family. Each settlement has a communal kitchen and the family shrine, called a xiriki, which is dedicated to the ancestors of the rancho. The buildings surround a central patio. The individual houses are traditionally built of stone or adobe with grass-thatched roofs.
A | 24,960 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
district of related ranchos is known as a temple district. Temple districts are all members of a larger community district. Each community district is ruled by a council of "kawiterutsixi", elder men who are usually also shamans.
Crafts of the Huichol include embroidery, beadwork, sombreros (hats), archery equipment, prayer arrows, and weaving, as well as "cuchuries", woven or embroidered bags.
The Huichol seek autonomy in their land, but have two governments, one native to the Huichol and one answering to the Mexican Government through "Municipal Agents" in the larger settlements. The government has established schools without much success in the Huichol Zone during the last 40 years, both | 24,961 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
church and state. A private Junior High School has led to some friction between "Town" and "Gown" among members of the tribe. Friction also exists between converts to Christianity, the scorned "aleluyas," and followers of the old religion, which means the evangelicals and their missions are barely tolerated.
With the building of roads in the Huichol Zone in the last ten years, new influences are impacting the social fabric of the Huichol. Where mules, horses and burros used to be the main forms of transport, trucks are becoming more prominent, importing food, medicines and beer. Although this of course can be beneficial, it was also degrading to the culture as a whole. In 1986, the Huichols | 24,962 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
continued to live isolated lives very traditionally in every aspect, but since this contact from within their own country, they have had to adapt and change to be more modern.
# Religion and mythology.
Their religion consists of four principal deities: the trinity of Corn, Blue Deer and Peyote, and the Eagle, all descended from their Sun God, "Tao Jreeku". Most Huichols retain the traditional beliefs and are resistant to change.
- The "Huichol think that two opposed cosmic forces exist in the world : an igneous one represented by Tayaupá, "Our Father" the Sun, and an aquatic one, represented by Nacawé, the Rain Goddess". "The eagle-stars, our Father's luminous creatures, hurl themselves into | 24,963 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
the lagoons and ... Nacawé's water serpents ... rise into the skies to shape the clouds".
- "According to Huichol [belief], the Sun created earthly beings with his saliva, which appeared in the shape of red foam on the surface of the ocean's waves." "New things are born from "hearts" or essences, which the Huichol see in the red sea foam that flowed from Our Father the Sun ... . The Sun itself has a "heart" that is its forerunner. It adopts the shape of a bird, the "tau kúkai". The bird came out of the underworld and placed a cross on the ocean. Father Sun was born, climbed up the cross, ... in this way killing the world's darkness with his blows".
- "Kacíwalí is ... maize goddess. The wind | 24,964 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
carried her to the top of a mountain, which was given to her as a dwelling". "Kacíwalí's rain serpents are changed into fish".
- "Komatéame is ... goddess ... of midwives. Both she and Otuanáka [another goddess] have tiny children in human shape, male and female". "Stuluwiákame has the responsibility to give humans children, and Na'alewáemi ... gives animals their young".
- Tatéi Kükurü 'Uimari ... Our Mother Dove Girl, who was also mother of the boy who became the Sun.
- Tatéi Wérika ... associated with the Sun and often depicted as a two-headed eagle.
- Tatéi Niwetükame ... patroness of children, who determines the sex of a child before it is born and gives it its soul (kupuri).
## Peyote.
Like | 24,965 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
many indigenous American groups, Huichols have traditionally used the peyote (hikuri) cactus in religious rituals. Huichol practices seem to reflect pre-Columbian practices particularly accurately. These rituals involve singing, weeping, and contact with ancestor spirits.
"It is Wirikuta, where the Huichol go each year to collect peyote." "Before reaching Wirikúta, their final destination, they pass by the sacred springs of Tatéi Matiniéri ("Where Our Mother Lives"), the house of the eastern rain goddess. They cross steppes. The first one is the Cloud Gate; the second, Where the Clouds Open." This pilgrimage takes place annually as a desire to return to where life originated and heal oneself. | 24,966 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
The Huichols assume roles of gods along the trail that they usually take by foot. Upon arrival in Wirikuta, the hunt begins and the first cactus that is found is shared among everyone. Then they harvest enough peyote for the year (since they only make the trip one time every year). After the work is done, they eat enough peyote (a hallucinogen) to have visions. Because of the visions and effects of the plant, the shaman is able to speak to the gods and ensure the regeneration of the Huichols' souls.
### Mexican government protection.
Huichol rituals involve the hallucinogenic cactus known as peyote. Due to the desire to use this traditional plant recreationally, the Mexican government, with | 24,967 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
the help of international organizations, has input laws allowing for its use in religious practices only and any other use or possession can be a crime worthy of ten to twenty-five years in prison. It has gotten harder and harder for the indigenous to find their sacred plant and they have had to ask for intervention from the Mexican government to protect a section of their trail. As stated by Pedro Medellin, the head of a government study on peyote population in Huichol sacred areas, "If peyote disappears, then their whole culture disappears."
## Animism.
Huichols have traditionally believed that in rituals they interact with the primal ancestor spirits of fire, deer, and other elements of | 24,968 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
the natural world.
"A newborn, separated from its umbilical cord, will still have ... the agave plant where the cord was buried. When children grow up they need to obtain cuttings from their protector so that they can bury their children's umbilical cords under them".
The "Huichol ... keep ... the souls of ancestors who have returned to the world in the shape of rock crystals."
# Art.
In traditional Huichol communities, an important ritual artifact is the "nieli'ka": a small square or round tablet with a hole in the center covered on one or both sides with a mixture of beeswax and pine resin into which threads of yarn are pressed. Nieli'kas are found in most Huichol sacred places such as | 24,969 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
house shrines ("xiriki"), temples, springs, and caves.
In the past thirty years, about four thousand Huichols have migrated to cities, primarily Tepic, Nayarit, Guadalajara and Mexico City. It is these urbanized Huichols who have drawn attention to their rich culture through their art. To preserve their ancient beliefs they have begun making detailed and elaborate yarn paintings, a development and modernization of the nieli'ka.
For the Huichol however, yarn painting is not only an aesthetic or commercial art form; the symbols in these paintings are sprung out of Huichol culture and its shamanistic traditions. From the small beaded eggs and jaguar heads to the modern detailed yarn paintings | 24,970 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
in psychedelic colors, each is related to a part of Huichol tradition and belief. In more modern times they have been able to develop these art forms in ways they could not before. The colors and intricacy of the yarn and materials for beads are more readily available to make more detailed and colorful pieces of art. Previously, beaded art was made with bone, seeds, jade, ceramics, or other like materials when now the Huichols have access to glass beads of multiple colors. The modern yarn that Huichols use is woven much tighter and is thinner allowing for great detail and the colors are commercial allowing for much more variety. Before access to these materials in cities, Huichols used vegetable | 24,971 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
dyes.
The first large yarn paintings were exhibited in Guadalajara in 1962 which were simple and traditional. At present with the availability of a larger spectrum of commercial dyed and synthetic yarn, more finely spun yarn paintings have evolved into high quality works of art.
The beaded art is a relatively new innovation and is constructed using glass, plastic or metal beads pressed onto a wooden form covered in beeswax. Common bead art forms include masks, bowls and figurines. Like all Huichol art, the bead work depicts the prominent patterns and symbols featured in the Huichol religion.
Some Huichol shaman-artists have acquired some fame and commercial success: the acclaimed Huichol | 24,972 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
yarn painter José Benítez Sánchez has had an exposition of his works in the USA.
# Current issues.
## Religious freedom.
Wixaritari are relatively well-known among anthropologists for their long tradition of rejecting Catholic influences and continuing traditional Shamanistic practices. Indeed, Wixaritari, along with the Lacandons and other ethnic minorities in the country, have fought for their religious and cultural freedom since the arrival of the Spanish conquerors. These ethnic minorities are often portrayed as non-existent or as extremely marginal due to the stereotype of indigenous people in Mexico as fervent Roman Catholics. Wixarika people have also been victims of discrimination, | 24,973 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
indigenous rights violations and even been stripped of their lands on the grounds of not sharing the same religious faith. Since a couple of decades ago, Wixarika culture has seen the increasing influence of United States evangelical Protestants who, by building churches and helping the community financially, have made their way into Wixarika traditions.
## Environmental impacts.
### Mining.
Currently, one of their sacred mountains, Wirikuta, important in ceremonial migration, peyote hunt, and deer dances, is being purchased for silver mining by a Canadian mining company, First Majestic Silver. On October 27, 2000 United Nations Education, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) claimed | 24,974 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
this site as a protected area for its importance as a cultural route and endemic flora and fauna species. Before a gathering of 60,000 people at Wirikuta Fest on May 26, 2012, First Majestic silver announced it had returned some of their mining concessions to the national mining reserve to protect Wirikuta, but the Wixarika Regional Council expose this as a farce. Later on June 9, 2001 it was declared as a National Sacred Site under the State of San Luis Potosi's Natural Protection act. Canada's First Majestic Silver Corp still decided to purchase mineral rights on November 13, 2009 with 80% of their interest within the protected land.
The company's current methods includes open pit mining | 24,975 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
and lixiviation through cyanide, using two kilograms of NaCN per tonne of ore. While open pit mining itself removes entire habitats and landscapes, the addition of sodium cyanide, NaCN, is a lethal method requiring only 0.2 grams to kill a person. In April, 2010 the company also opened a new cyanidation plant in Coahuila, Mexico where it has started producing 3500 tons of cyanide a day to help them expand their mining efforts. Currently the Huicholes are trying to find outside groups to help them in the conservation of their land and culture by protecting this mountain, as well as appealing to the President to honor his agreement to protect their holy sites.
### Roads.
Besides the mining conflicts, | 24,976 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
the Wixarika community has faced further problems by the construction of a road in Jalisco during 2008. The community has made it clear that the persons involved in the project don't have any rights to use Wixarika lands for whatever end; hence, they are committing violation of internationally recognized indigenous rights.
# See also.
- Symphony No. 7 (Glass)
# References.
- Benítez, Fernando (1968 & 1971) "Los Huicholes." In "Los Indios de México," Volume I. México DF, México: Ediciones ERA.
- Benítez, Fernando (1968 & 1971) "En la tierra mágica del peyote." México DF, México: Ediciones ERA.
- Furst, Peter T. (1972a). "El concepto huichol del alma." In "Mitos y arte huicholes". ed.Furst, | 24,977 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
P. T. & Nahmad, S. pp. 7–113. México: "SepSetentas" 50.
- Furst, Peter T. (1972b). "Para encontrar nuestra vida." In :- "El peyote entre los huicholes". ed. Nahmad, S.; Klineberg, O.; Furst, P. T. & Myerhof, B. G.. pp. 109–194. México: "SepSetentas" 29.
- Lumholtz, Carl (1900). "Symbolism of the Huichol Indians", "Decorative Art of the Huichol Indians." Memoirs of the American Museum of Natural History, Volume III. New York.
- Lumholtz, Carl (1903). Unknown Mexico – Volume I & II. London: MacMillan & Company Ltd. Reprinted by Rio Grande Press. 1973
- Negrín, Juan (1976). "The Huichol Creation of the World." E. B. Crocker Art Gallery, Sacramento, California.
- Negrín, Juan (1977). "El Arte | 24,978 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
Contemporaneo de los Huicholes." Universidad de Guadalajara, INAH, Museo Regional de Guadalajara, México.
- Negrín, Juan (1979). "The Huichol: A Pre-Columbian Culture in Mexico Today". Paris: The UNESCO Courier.
- Negrín, Juan (1979). "Sacred Colors of the Huichol". Portfolio (The Magazine of the Visual Arts). New York.
- Negrín, Juan (1985). "Acercamiento histórico y subjetivo al huichol." Universidad de Guadalajara, México.
- Negrín, Juan (2001). "An Appreciation of Huichol Culture." Entheos (Journal of Psychedelic Spirituality). San Diego, CA.
- Negrín, Juan (2005). "Corazón, memoria y visiones." Artes de México (número 75). México DF, México.
- Negrín, Juan (2005). "Protagonistas del | 24,979 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
arte huichol." Artes de México (número 75), México DF, México.
- Zingg, Robert M. (1938) "The Huicholes: Primitive Artists." New York: G.E. Stechert and Company.
- Zingg, Robert M. (1982). Los huicholes. 2 vols. transl. Paschero, C. México: Instituto Nacional Indigenista.
# External links.
- Wixarika Research Center
- Frente en Defensa de Wirikuta
- Huichol Music
- Trailer for feature film "Huicholes: The Last Peyote Guardians" on the pilgrimage to Wirikuta and threats to its survival.
- The Huichol Center for Cultural Survival and Traditional Arts
- Portal Wixarika – Wixarika tribal website put together by the Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, Mexico.
- | 24,980 |
1599905 | Huichol | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Huichol | Huichol
arika Research Center
- Frente en Defensa de Wirikuta
- Huichol Music
- Trailer for feature film "Huicholes: The Last Peyote Guardians" on the pilgrimage to Wirikuta and threats to its survival.
- The Huichol Center for Cultural Survival and Traditional Arts
- Portal Wixarika – Wixarika tribal website put together by the Comisión Nacional para el Desarrollo de los Pueblos Indígenas, Mexico.
- Huichol Indian Culture and History
- History of Huichol art and culture
- Huicholes y Plaguicidas The Huichol and Pesticides Project]
- The Huichol and Tobacco
- Huichol literature, "Indian.org: Indigenous People's Literature
- Wixarika Regional Council
- Wixárika(Huichol)-Spanish Translator | 24,981 |
1599944 | New Trinity Baroque | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New%20Trinity%20Baroque | New Trinity Baroque
New Trinity Baroque
New Trinity Baroque is an ensemble and orchestra with an associated chamber choir, specialised in baroque music played on period instruments. It was founded in 1998 in London but is now based in Atlanta, United States. It is led by harpsichordist and conductor Predrag Gosta.
The orchestra has worked with guest artists such as Florian Deuter, Marijana Mijanovic, John Holloway, Evelyn Tubb, Marion Verbruggen, Leif Aruhn-Solén, Ingrid Matthews, and Michael Fields. They have published several CDs, and have appeared at several international festivals, including the Boston Early Music Festival, Piccolo Spoleto Festival (in Charleston, South Carolina), the Belgrade Early Music | 24,982 |
1599944 | New Trinity Baroque | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=New%20Trinity%20Baroque | New Trinity Baroque
y harpsichordist and conductor Predrag Gosta.
The orchestra has worked with guest artists such as Florian Deuter, Marijana Mijanovic, John Holloway, Evelyn Tubb, Marion Verbruggen, Leif Aruhn-Solén, Ingrid Matthews, and Michael Fields. They have published several CDs, and have appeared at several international festivals, including the Boston Early Music Festival, Piccolo Spoleto Festival (in Charleston, South Carolina), the Belgrade Early Music Festival in Serbia, Korkyra Baroque Festival in Croatia and Vammala Early Music Festival (Sastamala Gregoriana) in Finland.
# External links.
- New Trinity Baroque's home page
- Edition Lilac CD label
- New Trinity Baroque's recordings at CD BABY | 24,983 |
1599946 | Loco (loa) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Loco%20(loa) | Loco (loa)
Loco (loa)
Loco (also spelled Loko) is a loa, patron of healers and plants, especially trees in the Vodou religion. He is a racine (root), and a rada loa. Among several other Loa he is linked with the poteau mitan or centrepost in a Vodou peristyle.
He is the husband of loa Ayizan, and just as she is the archetypal Mambo (priestess), so her husband Loco is considered the first Houngan (priest). As the spiritual parents of the priesthood he and his wife are two of the Loa involved in the kanzo initiation rites in which the Priest/ess to be is given the asson (sacred rattle and tool of the priesthood), and are both powerful guardians of "reglemen," or the correct and appropriate form of Vodoun | 24,984 |
1599946 | Loco (loa) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Loco%20(loa) | Loco (loa)
a. Among several other Loa he is linked with the poteau mitan or centrepost in a Vodou peristyle.
He is the husband of loa Ayizan, and just as she is the archetypal Mambo (priestess), so her husband Loco is considered the first Houngan (priest). As the spiritual parents of the priesthood he and his wife are two of the Loa involved in the kanzo initiation rites in which the Priest/ess to be is given the asson (sacred rattle and tool of the priesthood), and are both powerful guardians of "reglemen," or the correct and appropriate form of Vodoun service.
This loa is also known by the Haitians Arawak ancestors. He is similar to the Arawak Deity Louquo, a founding ancestor of the Arawak people. | 24,985 |
1599950 | Inside Dish | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Inside%20Dish | Inside Dish
Inside Dish
Inside Dish with Rachael Ray, hosted by Rachael Ray was a hybrid cooking/talk show on the Food Network. In each episode Ray chats with a celebrity as they cook or eat at a restaurant. Inside Dish is the third of Ray's four shows on Food Network, and premiered on November 5, 2004. It is no longer in production.
# List of celebrity guests.
- Dennis Franz
- Morgan Freeman
- Tony Danza
- Cheech Marin
- Mariel Hemingway
- Brett Ratner
- Mekhi Phifer
- Jill Hennessy
- Raven-Symoné
- Gloria Estefan
- Aisha Tyler
- Adam Carolla
- Joe Perry
- Daisy Fuentes
- Penn & Teller
- Rick Nielsen
- Mario Cantone | 24,986 |
1599973 | Ibo (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibo%20(disambiguation) | Ibo (disambiguation)
Ibo (disambiguation)
The Igbo people are a Nigerian ethnic group formerly referred to as Ibo.
Ibo may also refer to:
- People
- İbrahim Tatlıses, a Kurdish pop-folk singer also known as "Ibo"
- Ibo Bonilla, a Costa Rican sculptor and architect
- Igbo language, also known as "Ibo"
- Places
- Ibo, Mozambique, one of the Quirimbas Islands
- Ibo District, Hyōgo, a district of Hyōgo Prefecture in Japan
- Ibo River, a stream in Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan
- Igboland, the traditional lands of the Igbo people in the south-eastern region and surrounding states in Nigeria
- Aboh, a Nigerian city in Igboland also formerly known as "Ibo"
IBO or I.B.O. can stand for:
- International Baccalaureate | 24,987 |
1599973 | Ibo (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ibo%20(disambiguation) | Ibo (disambiguation)
a district of Hyōgo Prefecture in Japan
- Ibo River, a stream in Hyōgo Prefecture, Japan
- Igboland, the traditional lands of the Igbo people in the south-eastern region and surrounding states in Nigeria
- Aboh, a Nigerian city in Igboland also formerly known as "Ibo"
IBO or I.B.O. can stand for:
- International Baccalaureate Organization, the former name of the International Baccalaureate
- International Biology Olympiad, an annual competition
- International Boxing Organization
- International Radio and Television Organisation (International Broadcasting Organization)
- Intellectual Property Business Organization
- Independent Business Owner
# See also.
- Igbo (disambiguation) | 24,988 |
1599975 | Joe Ruby | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joe%20Ruby | Joe Ruby
Joe Ruby
Joseph Clemens Ruby (born March 30, 1933) is an American animator, television editor, writer, and producer; the co-founder with Ken Spears of television animation production company Ruby-Spears Productions.
# Life and career.
He studied art and began his career in animation at Walt Disney Productions in the inbetweening department, later moving over to editing. He served in the Army and later worked for a short time in live-action television editing before moving to Hanna-Barbera Productions, where he met Ken Spears. The two teamed up to become writers, penning teleplays for several animated and live-action television programs, both freelance and as on-staff writers for Hanna-Barbera, | 24,989 |
1599975 | Joe Ruby | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joe%20Ruby | Joe Ruby
Sid and Marty Krofft Television Productions and DePatie–Freleng Enterprises.
For Hanna-Barbera, Ruby and Spears created "Scooby-Doo", "Dynomutt, Dog Wonder", and "Jabberjaw", among other programs. At Depatie-Freleng, they created "The Barkleys" and "The Houndcats". In the early 1970s, CBS president of children's programming Fred Silverman hired Ruby and Spears to supervise the production of CBS's Saturday morning cartoon lineup, a position they assumed at ABC when Silverman defected to that network.
Wanting to create competition for Hanna-Barbera, ABC set Ruby and Spears up with their own studio in 1977, as a subsidiary of Filmways. Ruby-Spears Productions produced a number of animated series | 24,990 |
1599975 | Joe Ruby | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Joe%20Ruby | Joe Ruby
produced a number of animated series for Saturday morning, among them "Fangface", "The Plastic Man Comedy-Adventure Hour", "Thundarr the Barbarian", "Saturday Supercade", "Mister T", "Alvin and the Chipmunks", and "Superman", among others. Ruby-Spears was bought by Hanna-Barbera's parent company, Taft Entertainment, in 1981, and its back catalog was sold along with the Hanna-Barbera library and studio in 1991 to Turner Broadcasting. Current reissues of Ruby-Spears shows on DVD and digital platforms are therefore copyrighted by Hanna-Barbera Productions.
Ruby continues to work with Spears on the production and development of animated series.
# External links.
- Official Ruby-Spears website | 24,991 |
1599976 | Ken Spears | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ken%20Spears | Ken Spears
Ken Spears
Charles Kenneth "Ken" Spears (born March 12, 1938) is an American television editor, writer, and producer; the co-founder with Joe Ruby of television animation production company Ruby-Spears Productions.
# Career.
Spears grew up in the Los Angeles area, and was a friend of the son of animation producer William Hanna. As an adult, Spears was hired at Hanna's company, Hanna-Barbera Productions, as a sound editor in 1959. He met Ruby in the editing department of Hanna-Barbera, and the two teamed up to become writers. Spears and Ruby wrote teleplays for several animated and live-action television programs, both freelance and as on-staff writers for Hanna-Barbera, Sid and Marty Krofft | 24,992 |
1599976 | Ken Spears | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ken%20Spears | Ken Spears
Television Productions and DePatie–Freleng Enterprises.
For Hanna-Barbera, Spears and Ruby created "Scooby-Doo", "Dynomutt, Dog Wonder", and "Jabberjaw", among other programs. At Depatie-Freleng, they created "The Barkleys" and "The Houndcats". In the early 1970s, CBS president of children's programming Fred Silverman hired Spears and Ruby to supervise the production of CBS's Saturday morning cartoon lineup, a position they assumed at ABC when Silverman defected to that network.
Wanting to create competition for Hanna-Barbera, ABC set Ruby and Spears up with their own studio in 1977, as a subsidiary of Filmways. Ruby-Spears Productions produced a number of animated series for Saturday morning, | 24,993 |
1599976 | Ken Spears | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ken%20Spears | Ken Spears
produced a number of animated series for Saturday morning, among them "Fangface", "The Plastic Man Comedy-Adventure Hour", "Thundarr the Barbarian", "Saturday Supercade", "Mister T", "Alvin and the Chipmunks", and "Superman", among others. Ruby-Spears was bought by Hanna-Barbera's parent company, Taft Entertainment, in 1981, and its back catalog was sold along with the Hanna-Barbera library and studio in 1991 to Turner Broadcasting. Current reissues of Ruby-Spears shows on DVD and digital platforms are therefore copyrighted by Hanna-Barbera Productions.
Spears continues to work with Ruby on the production and development of animated series.
# External links.
- Official Ruby-Spears website | 24,994 |
1599983 | Klickitat Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Klickitat%20Street | Klickitat Street
Klickitat Street
Klickitat Street is a city street located in northeast Portland, Oregon, United States. The main stem of the street is long, and runs east-west parallel to—and one block south of—northeast Fremont Street, from the eastern edge of Irving Park to Northeast 67th Avenue. Additional disconnected segments are east of Rocky Butte from 105th to 117th, 148th to 154th, and 163rd to 165th. A segment named "Klickitat Court" is between 135th and 140th.
The street is one of Portland's most heavily used bicycle throughways and was selected as one of 15 streets slated for improvement as a "next-generation bicycle boulevard" by the city of Portland. Planned improvements included a flashing | 24,995 |
1599983 | Klickitat Street | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Klickitat%20Street | Klickitat Street
. Planned improvements included a flashing beacon at the intersection with NE 33rd, which can be enabled by bicyclists and pedestrians to increase safety and maintain low vehicular traffic.
The street is named after a local Native American tribe, the Klickitat, and was made famous because it is the fictional home of the characters Henry Huggins, Ramona Quimby and Beatrice "Beezus" Quimby in a series of children's novels by Beverly Cleary. Cleary grew up on nearby Hancock Street, and said the name reminded her of "the sound of knitting needles." There are statues of the characters in the Beverly Cleary Sculpture Garden in nearby Grant Park.
# See also.
- List of streets in Portland, Oregon | 24,996 |
1599978 | Cliff Bourland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cliff%20Bourland | Cliff Bourland
Cliff Bourland
Clifford Frederick Bourland (January 1, 1921 – February 1, 2018) was an American athlete who won a gold medal in the 4 × 400 m relay at the 1948 Summer Olympics.
Born in Los Angeles, California, of a German mother and an American father, Bourland ran in a competition for the first time in 1932. Graduating from Venice High School in Los Angeles, Bourland enrolled to University of Southern California and was coached by the famous Dean Cromwell. Bourland won the AAU championships in 400 m and the NCAA championships in 440 yd in 1942 and 1943. During the World War II, Bourland served in the Navy as a captain of a landing craft tank. At the London Olympics, Bourland was fifth in 200 | 24,997 |
1599978 | Cliff Bourland | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Cliff%20Bourland | Cliff Bourland
eles, Bourland enrolled to University of Southern California and was coached by the famous Dean Cromwell. Bourland won the AAU championships in 400 m and the NCAA championships in 440 yd in 1942 and 1943. During the World War II, Bourland served in the Navy as a captain of a landing craft tank. At the London Olympics, Bourland was fifth in 200 m and won the gold medal as a member of American 4 × 400 m relay team, running the second leg in 47.3 seconds.
After the Olympics, Bourland retired from sports. After a failed attempt to start a career in municipal politics, he was hired by an insurance company. In 1984 he was a part owner of the mortgage banking firm called Norris, Biggs and Simpson. | 24,998 |
1600006 | Homer Jacobson | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Homer%20Jacobson | Homer Jacobson
Homer Jacobson
Homer Jacobson is a former chemistry professor at Brooklyn College, New York City.
In the 1950s he illustrated basic self-replication in artificial life with a model train set. A seed "organism" consisting of a "head" and "tail" boxcar could use the simple rules of the system to consistently create new "organisms" identical to itself, so long as there was a random pool of new boxcars to draw from.
In 1955 he published "Information, Reproduction and the Origin of Life," in "American Scientist". In 2007, he retracted two passages of this work after realizing that errors in his paper were being misread as evidence for creationism.
# Articles.
- "Virustat, a Device for Continuous | 24,999 |
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