wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
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1055577 | Black Hole Sun | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black%20Hole%20Sun | Black Hole Sun
Ben Shepherd, Thayil) – 7:19
- Recorded live on August 11, 1993 at Rushmore Plaza Civic Center in Rapid City, South Dakota.
- 3. "My Wave" (live) (Cornell, Thayil) – 4:34
- Recorded live on August 20, 1993 at Jones Beach Amphitheater in Wantagh, New York.
- 4. "Spoonman" (Steve Fisk remix) – 6:55
Box Set (UK)
- 1. "Black Hole Sun" – 5:18
- 2. "Beyond the Wheel" (live) – 5:56
- Recorded live on August 18, 1993 at Exhibition Stadium in Toronto, Canada.
- 3. "Fell on Black Days" (live) – 4:45
- Recorded live on August 16, 1993 at Pine Knob Music Theatre in Clarkston, Michigan.
- 4. "Birth Ritual" (demo) (Cornell, Cameron, Thayil) – 5:50
CD (Australia and Germany)
- 1. "Black | 26,300 |
1055577 | Black Hole Sun | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black%20Hole%20Sun | Black Hole Sun
Hole Sun" – 5:18
- 2. "Jesus Christ Pose" (live) (Cameron, Cornell, Shepherd, Thayil) – 7:19
- 3. "Beyond the Wheel" (live) – 5:54
- Recorded live on August 18, 1993 at Exhibition Stadium in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Promotional CD (US)
- 1. "Black Hole Sun" – 5:18
- 2. "Beyond the Wheel" (live) – 5:53
- Recorded live on August 18, 1993 at Exhibition Stadium in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
- 3. "Spoonman" (Steve Fisk remix) – 6:55
7" vinyl (UK) and cassette (UK)
- 1. "Black Hole Sun" – 5:18
- 2. "My Wave" (live) (Cornell, Thayil) – 4:34
- Recorded live on August 20, 1993 at Jones Beach Amphitheater in Wantagh, New York.
- 3. "Beyond the Wheel" (live) – 5:54
- Recorded live | 26,301 |
1055577 | Black Hole Sun | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black%20Hole%20Sun | Black Hole Sun
on August 18, 1993 at Exhibition Stadium in Toronto, Ontario, Canada.
Promotional 12" vinyl (France)
- 1. "Black Hole Sun" – 5:18
Jukebox 7" vinyl (US)
- 1. "Black Hole Sun" – 5:18
- 2. "Spoonman" – 4:06
# Cover versions.
"Black Hole Sun" has been covered by numerous artists.
- Possibly the first commercially released cover was by Japanese duo Cibo Matto whose 1995 French-language version evoked the era of Jane Birkin and Serge Gainsbourg.
- "Weird Al" Yankovic included the song in "The Alternative Polka", a polka medley entirely made up of alternative rock songs, from the 1996 album "Bad Hair Day".
- In 1997, a cover version orchestrated and sung by Steve Lawrence and Eydie Gorme | 26,302 |
1055577 | Black Hole Sun | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black%20Hole%20Sun | Black Hole Sun
was included in Lounge-A-Palooza, a compilation album by Hollywood Records
- In 2002, Bob Rivers wrote a parody called "Ass Hole Son".
- Peter Frampton covered the song on his 2006 instrumental album "Fingerprints", joined on the track by Pearl Jam/Soundgarden drummer Matt Cameron and Pearl Jam guitarist Mike McCready.
- In 2008, a 23-minute arrangement of the song was covered by the Brad Mehldau Trio in their album "Brad Mehldau Trio Live".
- In 2011, Mateo Messina's arrangement appeared on the soundtrack to the film "Young Adult".
- The trailer and end credits for the 2014 film "A Walk Among the Tombstones" features a cover recorded by Swann, featuring singer Nouela.
- The American deathcore | 26,303 |
1055577 | Black Hole Sun | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black%20Hole%20Sun | Black Hole Sun
band The Acacia Strain covered this song on the 2016 split EP "The Depression Sessions".
- Christian parody band Apologetix parodied a version of the song titled "God's Own Son" on the 2014 album, Apoplectic.
- In 2016, Scott Bradlee's Postmodern Jukebox released a vintage-themed cover on their YouTube channel, featuring singer Haley Reinhart.
- Also in 2016, a player piano cover version is featured in the pilot episode of the HBO's television series "Westworld".
- Five days after Cornell's death on May 18, 2017 following a Soundgarden concert at Detroit's Fox Theater, on May 23, Norah Jones performed a jazz-tinged solo version at the Fox Theater.
- After Cornell's death, Ann Wilson also | 26,304 |
1055577 | Black Hole Sun | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black%20Hole%20Sun | Black Hole Sun
performed the song as a tribute to him on "Jimmy Kimmel Live!", Choir! Choir! Choir! recorded a version of the song, Ryan Adams, Cody Jinks, Metallica, Guns N' Roses and more performed the song in concert in tribute of Cornell.
# In popular culture.
"Black Hole Sun" is a playable song in the 2007 video game "Rock Band". The song is also available in the 2008 video games "Karaoke Revolution Presents: American Idol Encore" and "SingStar 90s", for the PlayStation 2. "" features the song in its downloadable content library, and it is a playable track in the TV mode of Guitar Hero Live. Also, a section of the Nintendo DS 2008 role-playing video game "" is titled "Black Hole Sun", a very likely | 26,305 |
1055577 | Black Hole Sun | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Black%20Hole%20Sun | Black Hole Sun
formed the song in concert in tribute of Cornell.
# In popular culture.
"Black Hole Sun" is a playable song in the 2007 video game "Rock Band". The song is also available in the 2008 video games "Karaoke Revolution Presents: American Idol Encore" and "SingStar 90s", for the PlayStation 2. "" features the song in its downloadable content library, and it is a playable track in the TV mode of Guitar Hero Live. Also, a section of the Nintendo DS 2008 role-playing video game "" is titled "Black Hole Sun", a very likely reference to the song.
The video is also featured in season 5 episode 1, "Held Back", of "Beavis and Butt-Head", in which Butt-Head gives a succinct description of a black hole. | 26,306 |
1055610 | Waterloo Tunnel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waterloo%20Tunnel | Waterloo Tunnel
Waterloo Tunnel
The Waterloo Tunnel in Liverpool, England, is a former railway tunnel, long, which opened in 1849. Its western end was at 53.414829, -2.994385, underneath Pall Mall. From here the line continued under Great Howard Street to Waterloo Goods railway station, now the site of the Kingsway Tunnel Ventilation Shaft, after 1895 continuing beyond to the dock railway system and on to Liverpool Riverside at the Pier Head for direct connection to the passenger liners. The eastern end opens into a short () cutting, four tracks wide between Byrom Street and Fontenoy Street, which connects to the Victoria Tunnel, which emerges at Edge Hill station. It is effectively one long tunnel from Edge | 26,307 |
1055610 | Waterloo Tunnel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waterloo%20Tunnel | Waterloo Tunnel
Hill to Liverpool Waterloo Dock with two names along its route. The tunnels were given two different names because initially trains in the Victoria Tunnel were cable hauled and in the Waterloo Tunnel locomotive hauled. Both tunnels closed on 19 November 1972.
In May 2007 it was reported that chief executive of Merseytravel, Neil Scales, had prepared a report outlining the possibilities for reuse of the Victoria/Waterloo and Wapping tunnels. Merseytravel safeguard the tunnel for future use.
In 2016, work began on replacing the road bridge on Great Howard Street that crosses over the dock entrance to the tunnel. Whilst it would have been cheaper to remove the existing bridge and in fill the | 26,308 |
1055610 | Waterloo Tunnel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Waterloo%20Tunnel | Waterloo Tunnel
ities for reuse of the Victoria/Waterloo and Wapping tunnels. Merseytravel safeguard the tunnel for future use.
In 2016, work began on replacing the road bridge on Great Howard Street that crosses over the dock entrance to the tunnel. Whilst it would have been cheaper to remove the existing bridge and in fill the resulting gap, the Department for Transport insisted the bridge was replaced at a cost of £9.7 million in order to preserve the tunnel for future use.
# Further reading.
- Moore, Jim (1998) "Underground Liverpool", Liverpool : Bluecoat Press,
# External links.
- Euston to New York via Liverpool 3,248 Miles — Steam powered all the way
- Subterranea Britannica
- Victoria Tunnel | 26,309 |
1055619 | Living Room Suite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Living%20Room%20Suite | Living Room Suite
Living Room Suite
Living Room Suite is the eighth studio album by the American singer-songwriter Harry Chapin, released in 1978.
# Personnel.
- Harry Chapin - guitar, vocals
- George Bohanon - trombone
- David Burgen - harmonica
- Stephen Chapin - keyboards
- Tom Chapin - banjo, guitar
- The Cowsills - vocals
- Bob Cowsill - guitar
- Dixie Hummingbirds - vocals
- Howie Fields - drums, percussion
- Chuck Findley - trumpet
- Steve Forman - percussion
- Dennis Frick - bassoon
- Richard Hyde - trombone
- Neil Jason - bass
- Jackie Kelso - baritone saxophone
- Jim Keltner - drums
- Steve Madaio - trumpet
- Andy Newmark - drums
- Bill Payne - organ
- Herbert Rhoad - vocals
- | 26,310 |
1055619 | Living Room Suite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Living%20Room%20Suite | Living Room Suite
Stephen Chapin - keyboards
- Tom Chapin - banjo, guitar
- The Cowsills - vocals
- Bob Cowsill - guitar
- Dixie Hummingbirds - vocals
- Howie Fields - drums, percussion
- Chuck Findley - trumpet
- Steve Forman - percussion
- Dennis Frick - bassoon
- Richard Hyde - trombone
- Neil Jason - bass
- Jackie Kelso - baritone saxophone
- Jim Keltner - drums
- Steve Madaio - trumpet
- Andy Newmark - drums
- Bill Payne - organ
- Herbert Rhoad - vocals
- Joe Russell - vocals
- Kim Scholes - cello
- Lou Volpe - guitar
- Doug Walker - guitar
- John Wallace - bass, vocals
- Ernie Watts - clarinet, flute, oboe, saxophone
- Sarah Jessica Parker - vocals (uncredited), "Flowers are Red" | 26,311 |
1055612 | Alexander Wetmore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander%20Wetmore | Alexander Wetmore
Alexander Wetmore
Frank Alexander Wetmore (June 18, 1886 – December 7, 1978) was an American ornithologist and avian paleontologist. He was the sixth Secretary of the Smithsonian Institution.
# Life.
Wetmore studied at the University of Kansas. He later studied at George Washington University, receiving his master's degree and doctorate. Wetmore began federal service in 1910, working for the Biological Survey of the Department of Agriculture. In 1915, he researched the use of lead shot in causing death in waterfowl. His paleontological research led to his work on the fossil birds "Palaeochenoides mioceanus" and "Nesotrochis debooyi".
From April 1923 to July 1924, Wetmore was the lead scientist | 26,312 |
1055612 | Alexander Wetmore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander%20Wetmore | Alexander Wetmore
of the Tanager Expedition, a series of five biological surveys to study the flora, fauna and geology of the Northwestern Hawaiian Islands, Johnston Atoll and Wake Island. In 1924, Wetmore joined the Smithsonian Institution as the superintendent of the National Zoo in Washington, D.C. In 1925, Wetmore was appointed assistant secretary of the Smithsonian Institution, becoming secretary between 1945 and 1952. In 1929 he participated in the Pinchot South Sea Expedition. In 1939 he was elected a Corresponding Member of the Royal Australasian Ornithologists Union
He wrote "A Systematic Classification for the Birds of the World" (1930, revised in 1951 and 1960). This Wetmore Order received widespread | 26,313 |
1055612 | Alexander Wetmore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander%20Wetmore | Alexander Wetmore
acceptance, remaining popular until the end of the twentieth century. From 1944 to 1946 Wetmore served as the 15th president of The Explorers Club. Between 1946 and 1966 Wetmore made annual trips to Panama to study and collect specimens of the birds of the Isthmus. His 4-volume magnum opus, "Birds of the Republic of Panama", was published by the Smithsonian between 1965 and 1984, the last volume appearing posthumously. He also served on the boards of trustees of Science Service, now known as Society for Science & the Public, from 1946 to 1953, and of the National Geographic Society, where he served successively as vice chairman, acting chairman, and chairman emeritus of the Committee for Research | 26,314 |
1055612 | Alexander Wetmore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander%20Wetmore | Alexander Wetmore
and Exploration, from 1933 until his death, in his final years as a trustee emeritus.
Several taxa of birds have been named in his honor, including the Cretaceous genus "Alexornis" and the tanagers "Wetmorethraupis sterrhopteron" and "Buthraupis wetmorei". Insects, mammals, amphibians, mollusks, and one plant (an Argentinian cactus), as well as a bridge in Panama and the Wetmore Glacier in the Antarctic, have also been named after him. Wetmore is commemorated in the scientific names of one species and two subspecies of reptiles: "Ameiva wetmorei", "Uromacer frenatus wetmorei", and "Anolis brevirostris wetmorei".
In 1953 he married Annie Beatrice van der Biest Thielan, who became guarantor | 26,315 |
1055612 | Alexander Wetmore | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Alexander%20Wetmore | Alexander Wetmore
een named after him. Wetmore is commemorated in the scientific names of one species and two subspecies of reptiles: "Ameiva wetmorei", "Uromacer frenatus wetmorei", and "Anolis brevirostris wetmorei".
In 1953 he married Annie Beatrice van der Biest Thielan, who became guarantor of the American Ornithologists' Union after his death in 1978. His papers and an oral history interview are held at the Smithsonian Institution.
# External links.
- Biography at Smithsonian's National Museum of Natural History
- Alexander Wetmore from the Smithsonian Institution Archives
- Wetmore, Alexander materials at Internet Archive
- Wetmore Oral History Interviews from the Smithsonian Institution Archives | 26,316 |
1055615 | Ralph Sandwich | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph%20Sandwich | Ralph Sandwich
Ralph Sandwich
Sir Ralph Sandwich (1235–1308) (also known as Rauf de Sanduiz, Ralph de Sandwich and Ralph of Sandwich), of Dene (in Margate), Ham, and Ripple, Kent, Winchfield, Hampshire, etc., was an English administrator and justice. He was Steward of the King's Demesne, Constable of Canterbury (1278), and Royal Warden (Lord Mayor) of London (1286, 1288-1293).
He was the son of Simon of Sandwich, the brother of clergyman Henry of Sandwich, and Gillian Sandwich. His family had close connections with Simon de Montfort, and his uncle's links with Montfort's administration is most likely what brought Ralph into government. By September 1264 he had become part of the captive King's household, | 26,317 |
1055615 | Ralph Sandwich | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph%20Sandwich | Ralph Sandwich
and on 1 January 1265 he became Master of the Great Wardrobe. On 7 May he was made Keeper of the Great Seal, although without the governmental position which accompanied it. He was only allowed to use it for routine writs, otherwise the presence of Peter de Montfort and two others was required.
On 4 August 1265, Sandwich was captured at the Battle of Evesham fighting on the losing side for de Montfort. His lands were confiscated and given to Roger de Leybourne and his father's lands awarded to Leybourne's son William, who also married Juliana de Sandwich (1245-1327) on 16 October 1265; she was the daughter of Sir Henry de Sandwich (died c. 1249). After his pardon in 1266, Sandwich maintained | 26,318 |
1055615 | Ralph Sandwich | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph%20Sandwich | Ralph Sandwich
a relationship with the Leybourne family, acting as a lawyer to Roger's widow in 1272 and executing her will in 1276. After the death of his uncle Henry of Sandwich in 1273, he was made administrator of the See of London, having already acted as their administrator during Henry's exile in Rome. In November 1273 he was appointed to audit the accounts of the Constable of Dover Castle, and in 1274 was summoned to attend the coronation of Edward I. In November 1275 he was one of three men appointed as a Steward of the King's Demesne, with his responsibilities being the counties of the south and west. The post, which involved large amounts of travel, handling of huge sums of money (over £7000 between | 26,319 |
1055615 | Ralph Sandwich | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph%20Sandwich | Ralph Sandwich
1277 and 1279) and the supervision of large building works at Devizes, Banstead, and Odiham, completely exhausted one of his colleagues.
He also acted as Keeper of the Port of Dover, Keeper of the Forest of Dean and administrator of the See of Canterbury during the 1278–1279 vacancy. In 1280 he was appointed to negotiate for the site of New Winchelsea. A member of the King's council, Sandwich was in 1278 appointed justice "coram rege" (in the presence of the King) for when the king was in Kent, and was with the judges when Alexander III of Scotland paid homage in Westminster in October. In 1285 Edward took direct control of London, appointing Sandwich as Warden of London on 1 July and Constable | 26,320 |
1055615 | Ralph Sandwich | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph%20Sandwich | Ralph Sandwich
of the Tower on 10 September. Until 1293 Sandwich was the effective Mayor of London, and presided over the city's Court of Hustings. He was appointed Chief Justice of the Court of Common Pleas in 1289 after the previous holder, Sir Thomas Weyland, became a fugitive ‘until the king makes further provision’, and stepped down in 1290 after a replacement was found. Between 1286 and 1307 he sat every year as a justice at the original Old Bailey, and sat as a justice at the trial of William Wallace at Westminster Hall in 1305.
He attended Edward II's coronation in February 1308, and on 24 March turned the custody of the Tower of London over to John Cromwell. He died before 20 August and was buried | 26,321 |
1055615 | Ralph Sandwich | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ralph%20Sandwich | Ralph Sandwich
ronation in February 1308, and on 24 March turned the custody of the Tower of London over to John Cromwell. He died before 20 August and was buried in Greyfriars Church. In 1309 Henry de Eynesford, Nicholas de Sandwich, Thomas de Boynton, and William de Berton, clerk, executors of the will of Ralph de Sandwich, deceased were summoned to answer William de Carleton, Baron of the Exchequer, and his associates, executors of the will of William, Bishop of Norwich, deceased regarding a debt of £40. By an unknown first wife, he appears to have had a daughter, Desirée (or Desiderata) (living 1330-1), wife of Geoffrey de Lucy, Knt. He married (2nd) Maud, widow of Thomas de Belhouse, who survived him. | 26,322 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
Economy of Africa
The economy of Africa consists of the trade, industry, agriculture, and human resources of the continent. , approximately 1.3 billion people were living in 54 different countries in Africa. Africa is a resource-rich continent. Recent growth has been due to growth in sales in commodities, services, and manufacturing. West Africa, East Africa, Central Africa and Southern Africa in particular, are expected to reach a combined GDP of $29 trillion by 2050.
In March 2013, Africa was identified as the world's poorest inhabited continent: Africa's entire combined GDP is barely a third of the United States' GDP; however, the World Bank expects that most African countries will reach | 26,323 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
"middle income" status (defined as at least US$1,000 per person a year) by 2025 if current growth rates continue. In 2013, Africa was the world’s fastest-growing continent at 5.6% a year, and GDP is expected to rise by an average of over 6% a year between 2013 and 2023. In 2017, the African Development Bank reported Africa to be the world’s second-fastest growing economy, and estimates that average growth will rebound to 3.4% in 2017, while growth is expected to increase by 4.3% in 2018.
Growth has been present throughout the continent, with over one-third of African countries posting 6% or higher growth rates, and another 40% growing between 4% to 6% per year. Several international business | 26,324 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
observers have also named Africa as the future economic growth engine of the world.
# History.
Africa's economy was diverse, driven by extensive trade routes that developed between cities and kingdoms. Some trade routes were overland, some involved navigating rivers, still others developed around port cities. Large African empires became wealthy due to their trade networks, for example Ancient Egypt, Nubia, Mali, Ashanti, and the Oyo Empire.
Some parts of Africa had close trade relationships with Arab kingdoms, and by the time of the Ottoman Empire, Africans had begun converting to Islam in large numbers. This development, along with the economic potential in finding a trade route to the | 26,325 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
Indian Ocean, brought the Portuguese to sub-Saharan Africa as an imperial force. Colonial interests created new industries to feed European appetites for goods such as palm oil, rubber, cotton, precious metals, spices, cash crops other goods, and integrated especially the coastal areas with the Atlantic economy.
Following the independence of African countries during the 20th century, economic, political and social upheaval consumed much of the continent. An economic rebound among some countries has been evident in recent years, however.
The dawn of the African economic boom (which is in place since the 2000s) has been compared to the Chinese economic boom that had emerged in Asia since late | 26,326 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
1970's. In 2013, Africa was home to seven of the world's fastest-growing economies.
As of 2018, Nigeria is the biggest economy in terms of nominal GDP, followed by South Africa; in terms of PPP, Egypt is second biggest after Nigeria.. Equatorial Guinea possessed Africa's highest GDP per capita albeit allegations of human rights violations. Oil-rich countries such as Algeria, Libya and Gabon, and mineral-rich Botswana emerged among the top economies since the 21st century, while Zimbabwe and the Democratic Republic of Congo, potentially among the world's richest nations, have sunk into the list of the world's poorest nations due to pervasive political corruption, warfare and braindrain of workforce. | 26,327 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
Botswana remains the site of Africa's longest and one of the world's longest periods of economic boom (1966–1999).
# Current conditions.
The United Nations predicts Africa’s economic growth will reach 3.5% in 2018 and 3.7% in 2019. As of 2007, growth in Africa had surpassed that of East Asia. Data suggest parts of the continent are now experiencing fast growth, thanks to their resources and increasing political stability and 'has steadily increased levels of peacefulness since 2007'. The World Bank reports the economy of Sub-Saharan African countries grew at rates that match or surpass global rates. According to the United Nations Department of Economic and Social Affairs, the improvement | 26,328 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
in the region’s aggregate growth is largely attributable to a recovery in Egypt, Nigeria and South Africa, three of Africa’s largest economies.
The economies of the fastest growing African nations experienced growth significantly above the global average rates. The top nations in 2007 include Mauritania with growth at 19.8%, Angola at 17.6%, Sudan at 9.6%, Mozambique at 7.9% and Malawi at 7.8%. Other fast growers include Rwanda, Mozambique, Chad, Niger, Burkina Faso, Ethiopia. Nonetheless, growth has been dismal, negative or sluggish in many parts of Africa including Zimbabwe, the Democratic Republic of the Congo, the Republic of the Congo and Burundi. Many international agencies are increasingly | 26,329 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
interested in investing in emerging African economies. especially as Africa continues to maintain high economic growth despite current global economic recession.
The rate of return on investment in Africa is currently the highest in the developing world.
Debt relief is being addressed by some international institutions in the interests of supporting economic development in Africa. In 1996, the UN sponsored the Heavily Indebted Poor Countries (HIPC) initiative, subsequently taken up by the IMF, World Bank and the African Development Fund (AfDF) in the form of the Multilateral Debt Relief Initiative (MDRI). As of 2013, the initiative has given partial debt relief to 30 African countries.
## | 26,330 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
Trade growth.
Trade has driven much of the growth in Africa's economy in the early 21st century. China and India are increasingly important trade partners; 12.5% of Africa's exports are to China, and 4% are to India, which accounts for 5% of China's imports and 8% of India's. The Group of Five (Indonesia, Malaysia, Saudi Arabia, Thailand, and the United Arab Emirates) are another increasingly important market for Africa's exports.
## Future.
Africa's economy—with expanding trade, English language skills (official in many Sub-Saharan countries), improving literacy and education, availability of splendid resources and cheaper labour force—is expected to continue to perform better into the future. | 26,331 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
Trade between Africa and China stood at US$166 billion in 2011.
Africa will only experience a "demographic dividend" by 2035, when its young and growing labour force will have fewer children and retired people as dependents as a proportion of the population, making it more demographically comparable to the US and Europe. It is becoming a more educated labour force, with nearly half expected to have some secondary-level education by 2020. A consumer class is also emerging in Africa and is expected to keep booming. Africa has around 90 million people with household incomes exceeding $5,000, meaning that they can direct more than half of their income towards discretionary spending rather than | 26,332 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
necessities. This number could reach a projected 128 million by 2020.
During the President of the United States Barack Obama's visit to Africa in July 2013, he announced a US$7 billion plan to further develop infrastructure and work more intensively with African heads of state. A new program named Trade Africa, designed to boost trade within the continent as well as between Africa and the U.S., was also unveiled by Obama.
With the introduction of the new economic growth and development plan introduced by the African Union members pricely about 27 of it members who are averagely some of the most developinmm economies of the continent it will further boost economic social and political integrations | 26,333 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
of the continent. The African Continental Free Trade Agreement (AfCFTA) will boost business activities between member states and within the continent. This will further reduce too much reliance on importation of finished products and raw materials in to the continent.
# Causes of the economic underdevelopment over the years.
The seemingly intractable nature of Africa's poverty has led to debate concerning its root causes. Endemic warfare and unrest, widespread corruption, and despotic regimes are both causes and effects of the continued economic problems. The decolonization of Africa was fraught with instability aggravated by cold war conflict. Since the mid-20th century, the Cold War and | 26,334 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
increased corruption and despotism have also contributed to Africa's poor economy.
## Infrastructure.
According to the researchers at the Overseas Development Institute, the lack of infrastructure in many developing countries represents one of the most significant limitations to economic growth and achievement of the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). Infrastructure investments and maintenance can be very expensive, especially in such areas as landlocked, rural and sparsely populated countries in Africa.
It has been argued that infrastructure investments contributed to more than half of Africa's improved growth performance between 1990 and 2005 and increased investment is necessary to maintain | 26,335 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
growth and tackle poverty. The returns to investment in infrastructure are very significant, with on average 30–40% returns for telecommunications (ICT) investments, over 40% for electricity generation, and 80% for roads.
In Africa, it is argued that to meet the MDGs by 2015, infrastructure investments would need to reach about 15% of GDP (around $93 billion a year). Currently, the source of financing varies significantly across sectors. Some sectors are dominated by state spending, others by overseas development aid (ODA) and yet others by private investors. In sub-Saharan Africa, the state spends around $9.4 billion out of a total of $24.9 billion.
In irrigation, SSA states represent almost | 26,336 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
all spending; in transport and energy a majority of investment is state spending; in Information and communication technologies and water supply and sanitation, the private sector represents the majority of capital expenditure. Overall, aid, the private sector and non-OECD financiers between them exceed state spending. The private sector spending alone equals state capital expenditure, though the majority is focused on ICT infrastructure investments. External financing increased from $7 billion (2002) to $27 billion (2009). China, in particular, has emerged as an important investor.
## Colonialism.
The economic impact of the colonization of Africa has been debated. In this matter, the opinions | 26,337 |
1055517 | Economy of Africa | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Economy%20of%20Africa | Economy of Africa
are biased between
researchers, some of them consider that Europeans had a positive impact on Africa; others affirm that Africa's development was slowed down by colonial rule. The principal aim of colonial rule in Africa by European colonial powers was to exploit natural wealth in the African continent at a low cost. Some writers, such as Walter Rodney in his book "How Europe Underdeveloped Africa", argue that these colonial policies are directly responsible for many of Africa's modern problems. Critics of colonialism charge colonial rule with injuring African pride, self-worth and belief in themselves. Other post-colonial scholars, most notably Frantz Fanon continuing along this line, have | 26,338 |
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argued that the true effects of colonialism are psychological and that domination by a foreign power creates a lasting sense of inferiority and subjugation that creates a barrier to growth and innovation. Such arguments posit that a new generation of Africans free of colonial thought and mindset is emerging and that this is driving economic transformation.
Historians L. H. Gann and Peter Duignan have argued that Africa probably benefited from colonialism on balance. Although it had its faults, colonialism was probably "one of the most efficacious engines for cultural diffusion in world history". These views, however, are controversial and are rejected by some who, on balance, see colonialism | 26,339 |
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as bad. The economic historian David Kenneth Fieldhouse has taken a kind of middle position, arguing that the effects of colonialism were actually limited and their main weakness wasn't in deliberate underdevelopment but in what it failed to do. Niall Ferguson agrees with his last point, arguing that colonialism's main weaknesses were "sins of omission". Analysis of the economies of African states finds that independent states such as Liberia and Ethiopia did not have better economic performance than their post-colonial counterparts. In particular the economic performance of former British colonies was better than both independent states and former French colonies.
Africa's relative poverty | 26,340 |
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predates colonialism. Jared Diamond argues in Guns, Germs, and Steel that Africa has always been poor due to a number of ecological factors affecting historical development. These factors include low population density, lack of domesticated livestock and plants and the North-South orientation of Africa's geography. However Diamond's theories have been criticized by some including James Morris Blaut as a form of environmental determinism. Historian John K. Thornton argues that sub-Saharan Africa was relatively wealthy and technologically advanced until at least the seventeenth century. Some scholars who believe that Africa was generally poorer than the rest of the world throughout its history | 26,341 |
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make exceptions for certain parts of Africa. Acemoglue and Robinson, for example, argue that most of Africa has always been relatively poor, but "Aksum, Ghana, Songhay, Mali, [and] Great Zimbabwe... were probably as developed as their contemporaries anywhere in the world." A number of people including Rodney and Joseph E. Inikori have argued that the poverty of Africa at the onset of the colonial period was principally due to the demographic loss associated with the slave trade as well as other related societal shifts. Others such as J. D. Fage and David Eltis have rejected this view.
## Language diversity.
African countries suffer from communication difficulties caused by language diversity. | 26,342 |
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Greenberg's diversity index is the chance that two randomly selected people would have different mother tongues. Out of the most diverse 25 countries according to this index, 18 (72%) are African. This includes 12 countries for which Greenberg's diversity index exceeds 0.9, meaning that a pair of randomly selected people will have less than 10% chance of having the same mother tongue. However, the primary language of government, political debate, academic discourse, and administration is often the language of the former colonial powers; English, French, or Portuguese.
## Trade based theories.
Dependency theory asserts that the wealth and prosperity of the superpowers and their allies in Europe, | 26,343 |
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North America and East Asia is dependent upon the poverty of the rest of the world, including Africa. Economists who subscribe to this theory believe that poorer regions must break their trading ties with the developed world in order to prosper.
Less radical theories suggest that economic protectionism in developed countries hampers Africa's growth. When developing countries have harvested agricultural produce at low cost, they generally do not export as much as would be expected. Abundant farm subsidies and high import tariffs in the developed world, most notably those set by Japan, the European Union's Common Agricultural Policy, and the United States Department of Agriculture, are thought | 26,344 |
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to be the cause. Although these subsidies and tariffs have been gradually reduced, they remain high.
Local conditions also affect exports; state over-regulation in several African nations can prevent their own exports from becoming competitive. Research in Public Choice economics such as that of Jane Shaw suggest that protectionism operates in tandem with heavy State intervention combining to depress economic development. Farmers subject to import and export restrictions cater to localized markets, exposing them to higher market volatility and fewer opportunities. When subject to uncertain market conditions, farmers press for governmental intervention to suppress competition in their markets, | 26,345 |
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resulting in competition being driven out of the market. As competition is driven out of the market, farmers innovate less and grow less food further undermining economic performance.
## Governance.
Although Africa and Asia had similar levels of income in the 1960s, Asia has since outpaced Africa, with the exception of a few extremely poor and war-torn countries like Afghanistan and Yemen. One school of economists argues that Asia's superior economic development lies in local investment. Corruption in Africa consists primarily of extracting economic rent and moving the resulting financial capital overseas instead of investing at home; the stereotype of African dictators with Swiss bank accounts | 26,346 |
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is often accurate. University of Massachusetts Amherst researchers estimate that from 1970 to 1996, capital flight from 30 sub-Saharan countries totalled $187bn, exceeding those nations' external debts. Authors Leonce Ndikumana and James K. Boyce estimate that from 1970 to 2008, capital flight from 33 sub-Saharan countries totalled $700bn. This disparity in development is consistent with the model theorized by economist Mancur Olson. Because governments were politically unstable and new governments often confiscated their predecessors' assets, officials would stash their wealth abroad, out of reach of any future expropriation.
Congolese dictator Mobutu Sese Seko became notorious for corruption, | 26,347 |
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nepotism, and the embezzlement of between US$4 billion and $15 billion during his reign. Socialist governments influenced by Marxism, and the land reform they have enacted, have also contributed to economic stagnation in Africa. For example, the regime of Robert Mugabe in Zimbabwe, particularly the land seizures from white farmers, led to the collapse of the country's agricultural economy, which had formerly been one of Africa's strongest; Mugabe had been previously supported by the USSR and China during the Zimbabwe War of Liberation. In Tanzania, socialist President Julius Nyerere resigned in 1985 after his policies of agricultural collectivisation in 1971 led to economic collapse, with famine | 26,348 |
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only being averted by generous aid from the IMF and other foreign entities. Tanzania was left as one of the world's poorest and most aid-dependent nations, and has taken decades to recover. Since the abolition of the socialist one-party state in 1992 and the transition to democracy, Tanzania has experienced rapid economic growth, with growth of 6.5% in 2017.
## Foreign aid.
Food shipments in case of dire local shortage are generally uncontroversial; but as Amartya Sen has shown, most famines involve a local lack of income rather than of food. In such situations, food aid—as opposed to financial aid—has the effect of destroying local agriculture and serves mainly to benefit Western agribusiness | 26,349 |
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which are vastly overproducing food as a result of agricultural subsidies.
Historically, food aid is more highly correlated with excess supply in Western countries than with the needs of developing countries. Foreign aid has been an integral part of African economic development since the 1980s.
The aid model has been criticized for supplanting trade initiatives. Growing evidence shows that foreign aid has made the continent poorer. One of the biggest critics of the aid development model is economist Dambisa Moyo (a Zambian economist based in the US), who introduced the Dead Aid model, which highlights how foreign aid has been a deterrent for local development.
Today, Africa faces the problem | 26,350 |
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of attracting foreign aid in areas where there is potential for high income from demand. It is in need of more economic policies and active participation in the world economy. As globalization has heightened the competition for foreign aid among developing countries, Africa has been trying to improve its struggle to receive foreign aid by taking more responsibility at the regional and international level. In addition, Africa has created the ‘Africa Action Plan’ in order to obtain new relationships with development partners to share responsibilities regarding discovering ways to receive aid from foreign investors.
# Trade blocks and multilateral organizations.
The African Union is the largest | 26,351 |
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international economic grouping on the continent. The confederation's goals include the creation of a free trade area, a customs union, a single market, a central bank, and a common currency (see African Monetary Union), thereby establishing economic and monetary union. The current plan is to establish an African Economic Community with a single currency by 2023. The African Investment Bank is meant to stimulate development. The AU plans also include a transitional African Monetary Fund leading to an African Central Bank. Some parties support development of an even more unified United States of Africa.
International monetary and banking unions include:
- Central Bank of West African States
- | 26,352 |
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Bank of Central African States
- Common Monetary Area
Major economic unions are shown in the chart below.
# Economic variants and indicators.
After an initial rebound from the 2009 world economic crisis, Africa’s economy was undermined in the year 2011 by the Arab uprisings. The continent’s growth fell back from 5% in 2010 to 3.4% in 2011. With the recovery of North African economies and sustained improvement in other regions, growth across the continent is expected to accelerate to 4.5% in 2012 and 4.8% in 2013. Short-term problems for the world economy remain as Europe confronts its debt crisis. Commodity prices—crucial for Africa—have declined from their peak due to weaker demand and | 26,353 |
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increased supply, and some could fall further. But prices are expected to remain at levels favourable for African exporter.
## Regions.
Economic activity has rebounded across Africa. However, the pace of recovery was uneven among groups of countries and subregions. Oil-exporting countries generally expanded more strongly than oil-importing countries. West Africa and East Africa were the two best-performing subregions in 2010.
Intra-African trade has been slowed by protectionist policies among countries and regions. Despite this, trade between countries belonging to the Common Market for Eastern and Southern Africa (COMESA), a particularly strong economic region, grew six-fold over the past | 26,354 |
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decade up to 2012. Ghana and Kenya, for example, have developed markets within the region for construction materials, machinery, and finished products, quite different from the mining and agriculture products that make up the bulk of their international exports.
The African Ministers of Trade agreed in 2010 to create a Pan-Africa Free Trade Zone. This would reduce countries' tariffs on imports and increase intra-African trade, and it is hoped, the diversification of the economy overall.
# Economic sectors and industries.
Because Africa’s export portfolio remains predominantly based on raw material, its export earnings are contingent on commodity price fluctuations. This exacerbates the continent’s | 26,355 |
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susceptibility to external shocks and bolsters the need for export diversification. Trade in services, mainly travel and tourism, continued to rise in year 2012, underscoring the continent’s strong potential in this sphere.
## Agriculture.
The situation whereby African nations export crops to the West while millions on the continent starve has been blamed on developed countries including Japan, the European Union and the United States. These countries protect their own agricultural sectors with high import tariffs and offer subsidies to their farmers, which many contend leads the overproduction of such commodities as grain, cotton and milk. The result of this is that the global price of such | 26,356 |
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products is continually reduced until Africans are unable to compete, except for cash crops that do not grow easily in a northern climate.
In recent years countries such as Brazil, which has experienced progress in agricultural production, have agreed to share technology with Africa to increase agricultural production in the continent to make it a more viable trade partner. Increased investment in African agricultural technology in general has the potential to reduce poverty in Africa. The demand market for African cocoa has experienced a price boom in 2008. The Nigerian, South African and Ugandan governments have targeted policies to take advantage of the increased demand for certain agricultural | 26,357 |
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products and plan to stimulate agricultural sectors. The African Union has plans to heavily invest in African agriculture and the situation is closely monitored by the UN.
## Energy.
Africa has significant resources for generating energy in several forms (hydroelectric, reserves of petroleum and gas, coal production, uranium production, renewable energy such as solar, wind and geothermal). The lack of development and infrastructure means that little of this potential is actually in use today. The largest consumers of electric power in Africa are South Africa, Libya, Namibia, Egypt, Tunisia, and Zimbabwe, which each consume between 1000 and 5000 KWh/m per person, in contrast with African states | 26,358 |
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such as Ethiopia, Eritrea, and Tanzania, where electricity consumption per person is negligible.
Petroleum and petroleum products are the main export of 14 African countries. Petroleum and petroleum products accounted for a 46.6% share of Africa's total exports in 2010; the second largest export of Africa as a whole is natural gas, in its gaseous state and as liquified natural gas, accounting for a 6.3% share of Africa's exports.
## Infrastructure.
Lack of infrastructure creates barriers for African businesses. Although it has many ports, a lack of supporting transportation infrastructure adds 30–40% to costs, in contrast to Asian ports. Many large infrastructure projects are underway across | 26,359 |
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Africa. By far, most of these projects are in the production and transportation of electric power. Many other projects include paved highways, railways, airports, and other construction.
Telecommunications infrastructure is also a growth area in Africa. Although Internet penetration lags other continents, it has still reached 9%. As of 2011, it was estimated that 500,000,000 mobile phones of all types were in use in Africa, including 15,000,000 "smart phones".
## Mining and drilling.
The mineral industry of Africa is one of the largest mineral industries in the world. Africa is the second biggest continent, with 30 million km² of land, which implies large quantities of resources. For many | 26,360 |
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African countries, mineral exploration and production constitute significant parts of their economies and remain keys to future economic growth. Africa is richly endowed with mineral reserves and ranks first or second in quantity of world reserves of bauxite, cobalt, industrial diamond, phosphate rock, platinum-group metals (PGM), vermiculite, and zirconium. Gold mining is Africa's main mining resource.
African mineral reserves rank first or second for bauxite, cobalt, diamonds, phosphate rocks, platinum-group metals (PGM), vermiculite, and zirconium. Many other minerals are also present in quantity. The 2005 share of world production from African soil is the following: bauxite 9%; aluminium | 26,361 |
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5%; chromite 44%; cobalt 57%; copper 5%; gold 21%; iron ore 4%; steel 2%; lead (Pb) 3%; manganese 39%; zinc 2%; cement 4%; natural diamond 46%; graphite 2%; phosphate rock 31%; coal 5%; mineral fuels (including coal) & petroleum 13%; uranium 16%.
## Manufacturing.
Both the African Union and the United Nations have outlined plans in modern years on how Africa can help itself industrialize and develop significant manufacturing sectors to levels proportional to the African economy in the 1960s with 21st-century technology. This focus on growth and diversification of manufacturing and industrial production, as well as diversification of agricultural production, has fueled hopes that the 21st century | 26,362 |
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will prove to be a century of economic and technological growth for Africa. This hope, coupled with the rise of new leaders in Africa in the future, inspired the term "the African Century", referring to the 21st century potentially being the century when Africa's vast untapped labor, capital, and resource potentials might become a world player.
This hope in manufacturing and industry is helped by the boom in communications technology and local mining industry in much of sub-Saharan Africa. Namibia has attracted industrial investments in recent years and South Africa has begun offering tax incentives to attract foreign direct investment projects in manufacturing.
Countries such as Mauritius | 26,363 |
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have plans for developing new "green technology" for manufacturing. Developments such as this have huge potential to open new markets for African countries as the demand for alternative "green" and clean technology is predicted to soar in the future as global oil reserves dry up and fossil fuel-based technology becomes less economically viable.
Nigeria in recent years has been embracing industrialization, It currently has an indigenous vehicle manufacturing company, "Innoson Vehicle Manufacturing (IVM)" which manufactures Rapid Transit Buses, Trucks and SUVs with an upcoming introduction of Cars. Their various brands of vehicle are currently available in Nigeria, Ghana and other West African | 26,364 |
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Nations. Nigeria also has few Electronic manufacturers like Zinox, the first Branded Nigerian Computer and Electronic gadgets (like tablet PCs) manufacturers. In 2013, Nigeria introduced a policy regarding import duty on vehicles to encourage local manufacturing companies in the country. In this regard, some foreign vehicle manufacturing companies like Nissan have made known their plans to have manufacturing plants in Nigeria. Apart from Electronics and vehicles, most consumer, pharmaceutical and cosmetic products, building materials, textiles, home tools, plastics and so on are also manufactured in the country and exported to other west African and African countries. Nigeria is currently the | 26,365 |
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largest manufacturer of cement in Sub-saharan Africa. and Dangote Cement Factory, Obajana is the largest cement factory in sub-saharan Africa. Ogun is considered to be Nigeria's industrial hub (as most factories are located in Ogun and even more companies are moving there), followed by Lagos.
The manufacturing sector is small but growing in East Africa. The main industries are textile and clothing, leather processing, agribusiness, chemical products, electronics and vehicles. East African countries like Uganda also produce motorcycles for the domestic market.
## Investment and banking.
Africa's US$107 billion financial services industry will log impressive growth for the rest of the decade | 26,366 |
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as more banks target the continent's emerging middle class. The banking sector has been experiencing record growth, among others due to various technological innovations.
China and India have showed increasing interest in emerging African economies in the 21st century. Reciprocal investment between Africa and China increased dramatically in recent years amidst the current world financial crisis.
The increased investment in Africa by China has attracted the attention of the European Union and has provoked talks of competitive investment by the EU. Members of the African diaspora abroad, especially in the EU and the United States, have increased efforts to use their businesses to invest in Africa | 26,367 |
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and encourage African investment abroad in the European economy.
Remittances from the African diaspora and rising interest in investment from the West will be especially helpful for Africa's least developed and most devastated economies, such as Burundi, Togo and Comoros. However, experts lament the high fees involved in sending remittances to Africa due to a duopoly of Western Union and MoneyGram that is controlling Africa’s remittance market, making Africa is the most expensive cash transfer market in the world. According to some experts, the high processing fees involved in sending money to Africa are hampering African countries’ development.
Angola has announced interests in investing | 26,368 |
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in the EU, Portugal in particular. South Africa has attracted increasing attention from the United States as a new frontier of investment in manufacture, financial markets and small business, as has Liberia in recent years under their new leadership.
There are two African currency unions: the West African Banque Centrale des États de l'Afrique de l'Ouest (BCEAO) and the Central African Banque des États de l'Afrique Centrale (BEAC). Both use the CFA franc as their legal tender. The idea of a single currency union across Africa has been floated, and plans exist to have it established by 2020, though many issues, such as bringing continental inflation rates below 5 percent, remain hurdles in its | 26,369 |
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finalization.
### Stock exchanges.
As of 2012, Africa has 23 stock exchanges, twice as many as it had 20 years earlier. Nonetheless, African stock exchanges still account for less than 1% of the world's stock exchange activity. The top ten stock exchanges in Africa by stock capital are (amounts are given in billions of United States dollars):
- South Africa (82.88)(2014)
- Egypt ($73.04 billion (30 November 2014 est.))
- Morocco (5.18)
- Nigeria (5.11) (Actually has a market capitalisation value of $39.27Bln)
- Kenya (1.33)
- Tunisia (0.88)
- BRVM (regional stock exchange whose members include Benin, Burkina Faso, Guinea-Bissau, Ivory Coast, Mali, Niger, Senegal and Togo: 6.6)
- Mauritius | 26,370 |
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(0.55)
- Botswana (0.43)
- Ghana (.38)
Between 2009 and 2012, a total of 72 companies were launched on the stock exchanges of 13 African countries.
# Trade blocs and multilateral organizations.
The African Union is the largest international economic grouping on the continent. The confederation's goals include the creation of a free trade area, a customs union, a single market, a central bank, and a common currency (see African Monetary Union), thereby establishing economic and monetary union. The current plan is to establish an African Economic Community with a single currency by 2023. The African Investment Bank is meant to stimulate development. The AU plans also include a transitional | 26,371 |
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African Monetary Fund leading to an African Central Bank. Some parties support development of an even more unified United States of Africa.
International monetary and banking unions include:
- Central Bank of West African States
- Bank of Central African States
- Common Monetary Area
Major economic unions are shown in the chart below.
## Regional economic organizations.
During the 1960s, Ghanaian politician Kwame Nkrumah promoted economic and political union of African countries, with the goal of independence. Since then, objectives, and organizations, have multiplied. Recent decades have brought efforts at various degrees of regional economic integration. Trade between African states | 26,372 |
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accounts for only 11% of Africa's total commerce as of 2012, around five times less than in Asia. Most of this intra-Africa trade originates from South Africa and most of the trade exports coming out of South Africa goes to abutting countries in Southern Africa.
There are currently eight regional organizations that assist with economic development in Africa:
# See also.
- Africa–China economic relations
- African Economic Community
- African Economic Outlook
- Demographics of Africa
- Economic history of Africa
- Land grabbing
- Languages of Africa
# References.
- Goldsmith, Arthur A. "Foreign Aid and Statehood in Africa". The MIT Press 55.1 (2001): 123–48. JSTOR. Web. 25 March 2012.
- | 26,373 |
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Fage, J. D. "A History of Africa" (Routledge, 4th edition, 2001 ) (Hutchinson, 1978, ) (Knopf 1st American edition, 1978, )
- Kayizzi-Mugerwa, Steve "The African Economy: Policy, Institutions and the Future" (Routledge, 1999, )
- Moshomba, Richard E. "Africa in the Global Economy" (Lynne Rienner, 2000, )
- OECD. "African Economic Outlook 2006/2007" (OECD, 2007, )
- Rodney, Walter. "How Europe Underdeveloped Africa". (Washington: Howard UP, 1982, )
- Sahn, David E., Paul A. Dorosh, Stephen D. Younger, "Structural Adjustment Reconsidered: Economic Policy and Poverty in Africa" (Cambridge University Press, 1997, )
- Laouisset, Djamel (2009). A Retrospective Study of the Algerian Iron and | 26,374 |
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Steel Industry. New York City: Nova Publishers.
# External links.
- The Age of the Dragon: China's Conquest of Africa
- Howard W. French’s book "China’s Second Continent" – On China’s increasing African presence
- Holding the door open for multinationals to extract Africa's wealth, "Foreign Policy in Focus"
- Africa in the World Economy: the national, regional and international challenges by Jan Joost Teunissen and Age Akkerman
- Africa: Living on the Fringe, "Monthly Review." Samir Amin offers a Marxist analysis of Africa's continued economic crisis
- BBC: Africa's Economy
- OECD work on African economy
- Africa Economic Analysis
- World Economic Forum – Africa
- African Development | 26,375 |
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- OECD work on African economy
- Africa Economic Analysis
- World Economic Forum – Africa
- African Development Bank Group
- IMF World Economic Outlook (WEO) – September 2003 – Public Debt in Emerging Markets
- Language and Africa
- Africa's economy: A glimmer of light at last? – The Economist
- Africa and the Knowledge Economy – World Bank Institute report.
- Economic analysis of Middle Africa
- From Aid to Trade with Africa News and analysis by Inter Press Service
- African Development Hindered by Vast US Corporate Interests in Continent’s Resources – video report by "Democracy Now!"
- Africa: Going Forward or Backward? from the Dean Peter Krogh Foreign Affairs Digital Archives | 26,376 |
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Gun Fight
Gun Fight, known as Western Gun in Japan and Europe, is a 1975 arcade shooter game designed by Tomohiro Nishikado, and released by Taito in Japan and Europe and by Midway in North America. It was the first video game to depict human-to-human combat, while the Midway version was also the first video game to use a microprocessor. Following its November 1975 release in North America, it went on to sell over 8,000 arcade cabinets in the United States. It was ported to the Bally Astrocade video game console as a built-in game in 1977 as well as several home computer platforms.
The theme of the game involves two Old West cowboys armed with revolvers and squaring off in a duel. Whoever shoots | 26,377 |
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the other cowboy first wins the duel. Unlike in a real-life duel, however, both cowboys get numerous opportunities to duel in order to score points (one point per successful draw). The game was included in GameSpy's "Hall of Fame" in 2002.
# Gameplay.
"Western Gun" was a fixed screen shooter where two players could compete in an old west gun fight. It was the first video game to depict human-to-human combat. When shot, the characters in the game fell to the ground and the words "GOT ME!" appeared above the body. The game had two distinct joystick controls per player, with one eight-way joystick for moving the computerized cowboy around on the screen and the other for changing the shooting | 26,378 |
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direction. Unlike other dual joystick games, "Western Gun" has the main joystick on the right instead of the left.
Other features of the game included obstacles between the characters which block shots, such as a cactus, and (in later levels) stagecoaches. The guns have limited ammunition, with each player given six bullets; a round ends if both players run out of ammo. Gunshots can also ricochet off the top or bottom edges of the playfield, allowing for indirect hits to be used as a possible strategy.
# Development and technology.
Taito gave "Western Gun" artwork of cowboys in the Wild West on the video game arcade cabinet which matched the in-game graphics featuring cacti, covered wagons, | 26,379 |
1055604 | Gun Fight | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gun%20Fight | Gun Fight
rocks, and human characters. In contrast to earlier games which used miniature shapes to represent abstract blocks or spaceships, "Western Gun" featured cartoon-like human characters. The game use bitmapped framebuffer technology to display animated human-like characters, using Fujitsu's MB14241 video shifter chip, which was also later used by "Sea Wolf" and "Space Invaders". Tiles are also used to display text.
Taito licensed its game "Western Gun" to Midway for release in North America, one of the first such licenses, after the 1974 scrolling racing game "Speed Race", also designed by Tomohiro Nishikado, and the 1974 sports game "Basketball". The title "Western Gun", while making perfect | 26,380 |
1055604 | Gun Fight | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gun%20Fight | Gun Fight
sense for Japanese audiences in that it conveys the setting and theme as simply as possible, was considered to have sounded odd to American audiences, so it was renamed "Gun Fight" instead for its American localization.
Tomohiro Nishikado's original "Western Gun" design was based on discrete logic, like most video arcade games of the time. When Dave Nutting adapted it for Midway, he decided to base it on the Intel 8080, which made "Gun Fight" the first video game to use a microprocessor, since his company Dave Nutting Associates had already licensed the technology for the first arcade pinball machine to include a microprocessor, The Spirit of '76. Nishikado believed that his original version | 26,381 |
1055604 | Gun Fight | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gun%20Fight | Gun Fight
was more fun, but was impressed with the improved graphics and smoother animation of Midway's version. This led him to design microprocessors into his subsequent games, including the blockbuster 1978 shoot 'em up hit "Space Invaders". "Gun Fight" uses a black-and-white raster monitor and a yellow screen overlay.
# Ports.
In 1978, the game was introduced to the home market with its port to the Bally Astrocade console, which included a color version of the game within the system's ROM.
In 1983, Epyx ported "Gun Fight" and another Midway game, "Sea Wolf II", to the Atari 8-bit family, and released them in an "Arcade Classics" compilation. In 1987, Interceptor Software ported "Gun Fight" to the | 26,382 |
1055604 | Gun Fight | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Gun%20Fight | Gun Fight
port to the Bally Astrocade console, which included a color version of the game within the system's ROM.
In 1983, Epyx ported "Gun Fight" and another Midway game, "Sea Wolf II", to the Atari 8-bit family, and released them in an "Arcade Classics" compilation. In 1987, Interceptor Software ported "Gun Fight" to the Commodore 64 and Commodore 128 computers.
# Legacy.
Atari, Inc. released a similar arcade game in 1976 titled "Outlaw".
In 1982, the clone "Gunfight" was released for the Atari 8-bit family by Hofacker / Elcomp Publishing. "The Duel" for the Commodore 64 is a clone released in 1985.
# Related games.
- "Boot Hill" (1977)
# External links.
- Arcade-History.com Gun Fight page | 26,383 |
1055635 | Trikont-Verlag | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Trikont-Verlag | Trikont-Verlag
Trikont-Verlag
The leftist publishing house Trikont was founded in 1967 in Munich.
# See also.
- List of record labels
# External links.
- Official site (English)
- Official site (German)
- (German article) | 26,384 |
1055629 | VEB Deutsche Schallplatten | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VEB%20Deutsche%20Schallplatten | VEB Deutsche Schallplatten
VEB Deutsche Schallplatten
From the 1950s until the 1980s the VEB Deutsche Schallplatten was the monopolistic music publisher in the German Democratic Republic.
On August 12, 1946, the German singer and actor Ernst Busch got permission by Soviet military administration to institute a publishing house for music.
On February 3, 1947, Busch started the company "Lied Der Zeit GmbH" with the music labels Amiga, Eterna and Lied Der Zeit.
On April 1, 1953, the private GmbH-company had to change to a state-controlled VEB (Volkseigener Betrieb, "People-owned enterprise").
On March 18, 1955, the "VEB Lied Der Zeit" was renamed to "VEB Deutsche Schallplatten Berlin".
In 1990, it became Deutsche Schallplatten | 26,385 |
1055629 | VEB Deutsche Schallplatten | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=VEB%20Deutsche%20Schallplatten | VEB Deutsche Schallplatten
r Betrieb, "People-owned enterprise").
On March 18, 1955, the "VEB Lied Der Zeit" was renamed to "VEB Deutsche Schallplatten Berlin".
In 1990, it became Deutsche Schallplatten GmbH Berlin (DSB).
Labels of VEB Deutsche Schallplatten:
- Amiga for contemporary pop and rock music
- Eterna for classical music, operas, operettas and jazz
- Litera for radio plays, poetry readings
- Nova for contemporary art music
- Aurora for workers' songs and productions by Ernst Busch
- Schola for educational material
After 1990, some of these labels were sold to other music companies.
# See also.
- List of record labels
# External links.
- http://www.discogs.com/label/Deutsche+Schallplatten+Berlin | 26,386 |
1055608 | ZF Sachs | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ZF%20Sachs | ZF Sachs
ZF Sachs
ZF Sachs AG was a German manufacturer of automotive parts, producing powertrain and suspension components. It was formerly known as "Fichtel & Sachs", "Mannesmann Sachs" and "Sachs". In the past the company also produced ball bearings, motorcycle engines, bicycle parts and – via its subsidiary Sachs Motorcycles – motorcycles, mopeds, motorised bicycles and all-terrain vehicles (ATVs).
# History.
On 1 August 1895, the "Schweinfurter Präzisions-Kugellagerwerke Fichtel & Sachs" general partnership (oHG) was founded in Schweinfurt by inventors Ernst Sachs (1867-1932) and Karl Fichtel, to produce ball bearings and bicycle hubs. In 1897, the company introduced its freewheel for bicycles, | 26,387 |
1055608 | ZF Sachs | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ZF%20Sachs | ZF Sachs
which became widely popular.
By 1911, the year Fichtel died, the company had approximately 7,000 employees. In 1923, the oHG partnership was changed to a stock corporation, and the ball bearing division was sold to the SKF, a Swedish ball bearing corporation, with the condition that the production remain in Schweinfurt permanently.
From 1929 to 1996, F&S also produced motors, first for bicycles, and later for motorbikes, two-stroke snowmobiles, and small cars. (The Messerschmitt KR175 and Messerschmitt KR 200 used Sachs engines (1955 to 1964)) In 1929, F&S started production of automobile components, mainly clutches and shock absorbers. Ernst Sachs died in 1932, and, in 1936, his son Willy | 26,388 |
1055608 | ZF Sachs | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ZF%20Sachs | ZF Sachs
Sachs donated the Willy-Sachs-Stadion sporting arena to the City of Schweinfurt.
In the 1960s and early 1980s, F&S purchased several traditional bike parts companies and brands like Hercules, Rabeneick, Huret, Maillard and Sedis.
In the early 1970s, Sachs produced the revolutionary Wankel-engine-powered Hercules motorcycle.
In 1987, the German Mannesmann AG acquired the majority of F&S stock, and in 1997 F&S was renamed to "Mannesmann Sachs AG".
In 2001, Sachs was sold to ZF Friedrichshafen AG, and renamed to "ZF Sachs AG". The bicycle division was sold to a US-company, the Chicago-based SRAM Corporation, leaving the Sachs division of ZF to focus on the production of automobile components | 26,389 |
1055608 | ZF Sachs | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ZF%20Sachs | ZF Sachs
the majority of F&S stock, and in 1997 F&S was renamed to "Mannesmann Sachs AG".
In 2001, Sachs was sold to ZF Friedrichshafen AG, and renamed to "ZF Sachs AG". The bicycle division was sold to a US-company, the Chicago-based SRAM Corporation, leaving the Sachs division of ZF to focus on the production of automobile components for drivetrains and chassis. As of 2003, ZF Sachs AG had 16,511 employees in 19 countries, and a sales volume of 2.1 billion euros. The sales volume has since dropped to 1.8 billion euros in 2011.
In 2011 ZF Sachs was incorporated to ZF Friedrichshafen AG.
# See also.
- Sachs Motorcycles
- Rotax
- Gunter Sachs
# External links.
- ZF Friedrichshafen AG Homepage | 26,390 |
1055623 | Stern (magazine) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stern%20(magazine) | Stern (magazine)
Stern (magazine)
Stern (, German for "Star") is a weekly news magazine published in Hamburg, Germany, by Gruner + Jahr, a subsidiary of Bertelsmann.
# History and profile.
Henri Nannen created the magazine out of the youth paper "Zick Zack", and the first issue appeared on 1 August 1948. This was possible after obtaining a licence from the British military government to rename "Zick-Zack" to "Stern", for which Nannen had taken over the licence a few months before. The first issue had 16 pages, with the cover showing actress Hildegard Knef. Nannen also edited the magazine of which headquarters is in Hamburg.
In the 1960s the magazine became the founding member of the European Car of the Year. | 26,391 |
1055623 | Stern (magazine) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stern%20(magazine) | Stern (magazine)
In 1965 the magazine was sold to Gruner + Jahr. In 1968, "Stern" and "Die Zeit" began publishing the "Stern-Zeit" bi-weekly paper for the blind, which stopped publication in mid-2007 due to financial problems.
"Stern" is published on a weekly basis and has a leftist stance. In the 2013 elections the magazine was among the supporters of the SPD.
# Circulation.
In 1999 the circulation of "Stern" was 1,124,400 copies. In 2000 the magazine had a circulation of 1,082,000 copies. Its average circulation was 1,186,000 copies in 2003. In the fourth quarter of 2006 its circulation was 1,019,300 copies. It slightly rose to 1,042,000 copies for 2006 as a whole. Its circulation went down to 895,962 copies | 26,392 |
1055623 | Stern (magazine) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stern%20(magazine) | Stern (magazine)
in 2010 and to 750,810 copies in 2014.
# Incidents.
In 1950, "Stern" published an article that criticized the Allies for wasting money and resources during their occupation of Germany. British military authorities responded and had its publication shut down for a week.
It is notorious internationally for publishing the so-called Hitler Diaries in its 28 April 1983 edition. Scientific examination soon proved them forgeries committed by Konrad Kujau, who had created the journals between 1981 and 1983. A British broadsheet newspaper, "The Sunday Times", had begun a serialization of the diaries, but after the hoax was uncovered, cancelled it and issued an official apology. The fiasco led to the | 26,393 |
1055623 | Stern (magazine) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stern%20(magazine) | Stern (magazine)
resignation of the magazine's editors and a major scandal that is still regarded as a low point in German journalism. The incident caused a major crisis for the magazine. Its credibility was severely damaged and it had to rebuild its reputation from an abysmal level. It took the magazine ten years to regain its pre-scandal status and reputation.
In Germany, it is also remembered for the publication in 1971 of "We've had abortions!", a public declaration by several hundred women provoked by Alice Schwarzer to defy its illegality at that time in West Germany.
In 1990, "Stern" published the title story "I am a masochist" in which author Sina-Aline Geißler discussed her literary coming-out as | 26,394 |
1055623 | Stern (magazine) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stern%20(magazine) | Stern (magazine)
a member of the BDSM scene. This caused an intense public debate, and radical feminists occupied the editorial office of "Stern".
Four "Stern" journalists have been killed while reporting. In January 1995, Jochen Piest was killed by a sniper near the Chechen capital of Grozny. Gabriel Grüner and Volker Krämer were killed near Dulje, Kosovo. In November 2001 Volker Handloik was killed in an ambush in northern Afghanistan.
# Editors-in-chief.
- 1948–1980: Henri Nannen
- 1980–1983: Rolf Gillhausen, Peter Koch and Felix Schmidt
- 1983–1984: Rolf Gillhausen with Peter Scholl-Latour
- 1984–1986: Rolf Winter
- 1986–1989: Heiner Bremer, Michael Jürgs and Klaus Liedtke
- 1989–1990: Michael Jürgs | 26,395 |
1055623 | Stern (magazine) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Stern%20(magazine) | Stern (magazine)
Dulje, Kosovo. In November 2001 Volker Handloik was killed in an ambush in northern Afghanistan.
# Editors-in-chief.
- 1948–1980: Henri Nannen
- 1980–1983: Rolf Gillhausen, Peter Koch and Felix Schmidt
- 1983–1984: Rolf Gillhausen with Peter Scholl-Latour
- 1984–1986: Rolf Winter
- 1986–1989: Heiner Bremer, Michael Jürgs and Klaus Liedtke
- 1989–1990: Michael Jürgs with Herbert Riehl-Heyse
- 1990–1994: Rolf Schmidt-Holtz
- 1994–1998: Werner Funk
- 1999–1999: Michael Maier
- 1999–2013: Thomas Osterkorn and Andreas Petzold
- 2013–2014: Dominik Wichmann
- 2014–2018: Christian Krug
- 2019–present: Florian Gless and Anna-Beeke Gretemeier
# See also.
- List of magazines in Germany | 26,396 |
1055641 | West Bengal Socialist Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West%20Bengal%20Socialist%20Party | West Bengal Socialist Party
West Bengal Socialist Party
West Bengal Socialist Party (WBSP) was a political party in the Indian state of West Bengal. WBSP was formed when the Bengali socialists in the then Janata Party split in the beginning of the 1980s (the other faction became the Democratic Socialist Party). WBSP was a part of Left Front. The party leader Kiranmoy Nanda was the Fisheries Minister in the West Bengal government.
The party upheld in the ideals of Jayaprakash Narayan, Ram Manohar Lohia and Narendra Dev.
In 1990s, the party merged with the Samajwadi Party of Mulayam Singh Yadav. Kiranmoy Nanda became one of the national secretaries of SP. But due to the differences between SP and the Communists in April, | 26,397 |
1055641 | West Bengal Socialist Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West%20Bengal%20Socialist%20Party | West Bengal Socialist Party
1999 over supporting Congress in forming a government after the defeat of the Vajpayee government in the trust vote, WBSP was resurrected once again.
In the state assembly elections 2001 WBSP launched four candidates, supported by Left Front. All four got elected. In total the party received 246 407 votes. In 2005 municipal polls in Kolkata, WBSP contested 2 seats (ward no. 55 and 63) as a part of LF. It lost in both seats.
In the 2006 West Bengal state assembly election, WBSP retained its four seats.
Senor leaders of the party included Moni Pal and Jonmejay Ojha. The party has influences in parts of East Midnapore, Malda, Nadia and Murshidabad.
In 2008 Panchayat Elections, it has secured | 26,398 |
1055641 | West Bengal Socialist Party | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=West%20Bengal%20Socialist%20Party | West Bengal Socialist Party
ront. All four got elected. In total the party received 246 407 votes. In 2005 municipal polls in Kolkata, WBSP contested 2 seats (ward no. 55 and 63) as a part of LF. It lost in both seats.
In the 2006 West Bengal state assembly election, WBSP retained its four seats.
Senor leaders of the party included Moni Pal and Jonmejay Ojha. The party has influences in parts of East Midnapore, Malda, Nadia and Murshidabad.
In 2008 Panchayat Elections, it has secured a zilla parishad seat in Malda.
It has won 2 municipality seats in the Krishnagar municipality in 2008.
In April 2010, WBSP merged with the Samajwadi Party of Mulayam Singh Yadav. Kiranmoy Nanda again became a general secretary of SP. | 26,399 |
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