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599 | Afroasiatic languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic%20languages | Afroasiatic languages
in which words inflect by changes within the root (vowel changes or gemination) as well as with prefixes and suffixes.
One of the most remarkable shared features among the Afroasiatic languages is the prefixing verb conjugation (see the table at the start of this section), with a distinctive pattern of prefixes beginning with /ʔ t n y/, and in particular a pattern whereby third-singular masculine /y-/ is opposed to third-singular feminine and second-singular /t-/.
According to Ehret (1996), tonal languages appear in the Omotic and Chadic branches of Afroasiatic, as well as in certain Cushitic languages. The Semitic, Berber and Egyptian branches generally do not use tones phonemically.
# Shared | 27,000 |
599 | Afroasiatic languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic%20languages | Afroasiatic languages
vocabulary.
The following are some examples of Afroasiatic cognates, including ten pronouns, three nouns, and three verbs.
There are two etymological dictionaries of Afroasiatic, one by Christopher Ehret, and one by Vladimir Orel and Olga Stolbova. The two dictionaries disagree on almost everything. The following table contains the thirty roots or so (out of thousands) that represent a fragile consensus of present research:
## Etymological bibliography.
Some of the main sources for Afroasiatic etymologies include:
- Cohen, Marcel. 1947. "Essai comparatif sur le vocabulaire et la phonétique du chamito-sémitique." Paris: Champion.
- Diakonoff, Igor M. et al. 1993–1997. "Historical-comparative | 27,001 |
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vocabulary of Afrasian", "St. Petersburg Journal of African Studies" 2–6.
- Ehret, Christopher. 1995. "Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary" (= "University of California Publications in Linguistics" 126). Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
- Orel, Vladimir E. and Olga V. Stolbova. 1995. "Hamito-Semitic Etymological Dictionary: Materials for a Reconstruction." Leiden: Brill. .
# See also.
- Borean languages
- Indo-European languages
- Indo-Semitic languages
- Languages of Africa
- Languages of Asia
- Languages of Europe
- Nostratic languages
- Proto-Afroasiatic language
# Bibliography.
- Anthony, David. | 27,002 |
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2007. "." Princeton: Princeton University Press.
- Barnett, William and John Hoopes (editors). 1995. "The Emergence of Pottery." Washington, DC: Smithsonian Institution Press.
- Bender, Lionel et al. 2003. "Selected Comparative-Historical Afro-Asiatic Studies in Memory of Igor M. Diakonoff." LINCOM.
- Bomhard, Alan R. 1996. "Indo-European and the Nostratic Hypothesis." Signum.
- Diakonoff, Igor M. 1988. "Afrasian Languages." Moscow: Nauka.
- Diakonoff, Igor M. 1996. "Some reflections on the Afrasian linguistic macrofamily." "Journal of Near Eastern Studies" 55, 293.
- Diakonoff, Igor M. 1998. "The earliest Semitic society: Linguistic data." "Journal of Semitic Studies" 43, 209.
- Dimmendaal, | 27,003 |
599 | Afroasiatic languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic%20languages | Afroasiatic languages
Gerrit, and Erhard Voeltz. 2007. "Africa". In Christopher Moseley, ed., "Encyclopedia of the world's endangered languages".
- Ehret, Christopher. 1995. "Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic (Proto-Afrasian): Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary." Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
- Ehret, Christopher. 1997. Abstract of "The lessons of deep-time historical-comparative reconstruction in Afroasiatic: reflections on "Reconstructing Proto-Afroasiatic: Vowels, Tone, Consonants, and Vocabulary" (U.C. Press, 1995)", paper delivered at the Twenty-fifth Annual Meeting of the North American Conference on Afro-Asiatic Linguistics, held in Miami, Florida, on 21–23 March 1997.
- | 27,004 |
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Finnegan, Ruth H. 1970. "Afro-Asiatic languages West Africa". "Oral Literature in Africa", pg 558.
- Fleming, Harold C. 2006. "Ongota: A Decisive Language in African Prehistory." Wiesbaden: Otto Harrassowitz.
- Greenberg, Joseph H. 1950. "Studies in African linguistic classification: IV. Hamito-Semitic." "Southwestern Journal of Anthropology" 6, 47-63.
- Greenberg, Joseph H. 1955. "Studies in African Linguistic Classification." New Haven: Compass Publishing Company. (Photo-offset reprint of the "SJA" articles with minor corrections.)
- Greenberg, Joseph H. 1963. "The Languages of Africa". Bloomington: Indiana University. (Heavily revised version of Greenberg 1955.)
- Greenberg, Joseph H. | 27,005 |
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1966. "The Languages of Africa" (2nd ed. with additions and corrections). Bloomington: Indiana University.
- Greenberg, Joseph H. 1981. "African linguistic classification." "General History of Africa, Volume 1: Methodology and African Prehistory", edited by Joseph Ki-Zerbo, 292–308. Berkeley and Los Angeles: University of California Press.
- Greenberg, Joseph H. 2000–2002. "Indo-European and Its Closest Relatives: The Eurasiatic Language Family, Volume 1: Grammar, Volume 2: Lexicon." Stanford: Stanford University Press.
- Hayward, R. J. 1995. "The challenge of Omotic: an inaugural lecture delivered on 17 February 1994". London: School of Oriental and African Studies, University of London.
- | 27,006 |
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Heine, Bernd and Derek Nurse. 2000. "African Languages", Chapter 4. Cambridge University Press.
- Hodge, Carleton T. (editor). 1971. "Afroasiatic: A Survey." The Hague – Paris: Mouton.
- Hodge, Carleton T. 1991. "Indo-European and Afro-Asiatic." In Sydney M. Lamb and E. Douglas Mitchell (editors), "Sprung from Some Common Source: Investigations into the Prehistory of Languages", Stanford, California: Stanford University Press, 141–165.
- Huehnergard, John. 2004. "Afro-Asiatic." In R.D. Woodard (editor), "The Cambridge Encyclopedia of the World’s Ancient Languages", Cambridge – New York, 2004, 138–159.
- Militarev, Alexander. "Towards the genetic affiliation of Ongota, a nearly-extinct language | 27,007 |
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of Ethiopia," 60 pp. In "Orientalia et Classica: Papers of the Institute of Oriental and Classical Studies", Issue 5. Moscow. (Forthcoming.)
- Newman, Paul. 1980. "The Classification of Chadic within Afroasiatic." Leiden: Universitaire Pers Leiden.
- Ruhlen, Merritt. 1991. "A Guide to the World's Languages." Stanford, California: Stanford University Press.
- Sands, Bonny. 2009. "Africa’s linguistic diversity". In "Language and Linguistics Compass" 3.2, 559–580.
- Theil, R. 2006. Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic? Proceedings from the David Dwyer retirement symposium, Michigan State University, East Lansing, 21 October 2006.
- Trombetti, Alfredo. 1905. "L'Unità d'origine del linguaggio." Bologna: Luigi | 27,008 |
599 | Afroasiatic languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic%20languages | Afroasiatic languages
Beltrami.
- Zuckermann, Ghil'ad 2003. Language Contact and Lexical Enrichment in Israeli Hebrew, Palgrave Macmillan.
# External links.
- Afro-Asiatic at the Linguist List MultiTree Project (not functional as of 2014): Genealogical trees attributed to Delafosse 1914, Greenberg 1950–1955, Greenberg 1963, Fleming 1976, Hodge 1976, Orel & Stolbova 1995, Diakonoff 1996–1998, Ehret 1995–2000, Hayward 2000, Militarev 2005, Blench 2006, and Fleming 2006
- Afro-Asiatic and Semitic genealogical trees, presented by Alexander Militarev at his talk "Genealogical classification of Afro-Asiatic languages according to the latest data" at the conference on the 70th anniversary of V.M. Illich-Svitych, Moscow, | 27,009 |
599 | Afroasiatic languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic%20languages | Afroasiatic languages
2004; short annotations of the talks given there
- The prehistory of a dispersal: the Proto-Afrasian (Afroasiatic) farming lexicon, by Alexander Militarev in "Examining the Farming/Language Dispersal Hypothesis", eds. P. Bellwood & C. Renfrew. (McDonald Institute Monographs.) Cambridge: McDonald Institute for Archaeological Research, 2002, p. 135-50.
- Once More About Glottochronology And The Comparative Method: The Omotic-Afrasian case, by Alexander Militarev in "Aspects of Comparative Linguistics", v. 1. Moscow: RSUH Publishers, 2005, pp. 339–408.
- Root Extension And Root Formation In Semitic And Afrasian, by Alexander Militarev in "Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative | 27,010 |
599 | Afroasiatic languages | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Afroasiatic%20languages | Afroasiatic languages
tic And Afrasian, by Alexander Militarev in "Proceedings of the Barcelona Symposium on comparative Semitic", 19-20/11/2004. Aula Orientalis 23/1-2, 2005, pp. 83–129.
- Akkadian-Egyptian lexical matches, by Alexander Militarev in "Papers on Semitic and Afroasiatic Linguistics in Honor of Gene B. Gragg." Ed. by Cynthia L. Miller. Studies in Ancient Oriental Civilization 60. Chicago: The Oriental Institute, 2007, p. 139-145.
- A comparison of Orel-Stolbova's and Ehret's Afro-Asiatic reconstructions
- "Is Omotic Afro-Asiatic?" by Rolf Theil (2006)
- NACAL The North American Conference on Afroasiatic Linguistics, now in its 35th year
- Afro-Asiatic webpage of Roger Blench (with family tree). | 27,011 |
1055893 | Emo (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emo%20(disambiguation) | Emo (disambiguation)
Emo (disambiguation)
Emo (originally short for "emotional hardcore" or "emocore") is a subculture and a style of rock music.
Emo may also refer to:
# Businesses.
- Emo (oil), an Irish oil company and filling station chain
- Emo Speedway, a racetrack in Emo, Ontario
- Emo's, a nightclub in Austin, Texas
- Educational Management Organization or for-profit school
- Chamber of Electrical Engineers of Turkey, established in 1954
# Music.
- "Emo" (album), an album by Screeching Weasel
- "Emo", an album by Sari Kaasinen
- "Emo", a song by Blink-182 from the band's album "Dude Ranch"
# Places.
- Emo, County Laois, a village in Ireland
- Emo Court, a mansion in County Laois, Ireland
- | 27,012 |
1055893 | Emo (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Emo%20(disambiguation) | Emo (disambiguation)
sinen
- "Emo", a song by Blink-182 from the band's album "Dude Ranch"
# Places.
- Emo, County Laois, a village in Ireland
- Emo Court, a mansion in County Laois, Ireland
- Emo, Ontario, a town in Canada
- Villa Emo, a villa in Italy
- East Moriches, a town on Long Island.
# People.
- E-Mo, a character in the U.S. TV series "A Gifted Man"
- A character in the 3D animated short film Elephants Dream
- Unlce Emo, a Character in Story Teller (magazine)
# Other.
- Emo (name)
- EMO (trade show), an international metal-working industry trade show held in Europe
- Extra man offense in field lacrosse
- Emergency Management Office, also referred to as an "Office of Emergency Management" | 27,013 |
1055843 | ZSC Lions | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ZSC%20Lions | ZSC Lions
ZSC Lions
The Zürcher Schlittschuh Club Lions (ZSC Lions) are a professional ice hockey team located in Zürich, Switzerland, playing in the National League (NL). The home arena, the 11,200 seat Hallenstadion, is in the Zürich district of Oerlikon. The team was founded in 1930 and played at the Dolder-Kunsteisbahn from its establishment until 1950.
# History.
Locally nicknamed "Z", the team was formed in 1997 as a result of the merger of the two local teams: the highly popular Zürcher Schlittschuh Club (German for "Zürich Skating Club"), who were struggling financially in National League A, and the ice hockey section of Grasshopper Club Zürich who had failed to qualify for promotion from National | 27,014 |
1055843 | ZSC Lions | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ZSC%20Lions | ZSC Lions
League B for several years in a row and had a small fan base, but were backed by entrepreneur and billionaire Walter Frey.
ZSC was the first Swiss team to play in an indoor arena (Hallenstadion). They won the Swiss championship in the years 1936, 1949 and 1961 and the prestigious Spengler Cup in 1944 and 1945. After the merger, the ZSC Lions won the Swiss Championship in 2000, 2001, 2008, 2012, 2014 and 2018, and moreover won the IIHF Continental Cup in 2001 and 2002.
## Champions Hockey League and Victoria Cup.
During the 2008–09 Season, the ZSC Lions participated in the first ever Champions Hockey League. For the group stage, they were placed in group D with HC Slavia Praha and Linköpings | 27,015 |
1055843 | ZSC Lions | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ZSC%20Lions | ZSC Lions
HC. The Lions qualified for the semi-finals with a 3–1 record, first place in the group. With their defeats of the Finnish Espoo Blues, 6–3 and 4–1 respectively, they qualified for the tournament final. The first leg of the final was held on January 21, 2009 in the Magnitogorsk Arena where the Lions came back from a 0–2 deficit to Metallurg Magnitogorsk to end with a 2–2 tie. The second leg was played a week later, on January 28, 2009, in the Diners Club Arena in Rapperswil-Jona, Switzerland. ZSC Lions won the game and the Silver Stone Trophy with a 5–0 victory.
With their victory in the Champions Hockey League, the ZSC Lions qualified to play the Chicago Blackhawks of the National Hockey League | 27,016 |
1055843 | ZSC Lions | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=ZSC%20Lions | ZSC Lions
go Blackhawks of the National Hockey League for the 2009 edition of the Victoria Cup challenge. Playing at their home arena, the Lions upset the Blackhawks with a 2–1 victory, winning the trophy. It was the first time since 1991 that the Blackhawks had lost to a club in Europe.
# Honors.
- NL Championship "(9)": 1936, 1949, 1961, 2000, 2001, 2008, 2012, 2014, 2018
- SL Championship "(4)": 1973, 1981, 1983, 1989
- Victoria Cup "(1)": 2009
- Champions Hockey League/Silver Stone Trophy "(1)": 2009
- IIHF Continental Cup "(2)": 2001, 2002
- Swiss Cup "(3)": 1960, 1961, 2016
- Spengler Cup "(3)": 1944, 1945, 1952 (disqualified for drug use)
# External links.
- ZSC Lions official website | 27,017 |
620 | Animal Farm | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal%20Farm | Animal Farm
Animal Farm
Animal Farm is an allegorical novella by George Orwell, first published in England on 17 August 1945. According to Orwell, the fable reflects events leading up to the Russian Revolution of 1917 and then on into the Stalinist era of the Soviet Union. Orwell, a democratic socialist, was a critic of Joseph Stalin and hostile to Moscow-directed Stalinism, an attitude that was critically shaped by his experiences during the Spanish Civil War. The Soviet Union, he believed, had become a brutal dictatorship, built upon a cult of personality and enforced by a reign of terror. In a letter to Yvonne Davet, Orwell described "Animal Farm" as a satirical tale against Stalin (""""), and in his | 27,018 |
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essay "Why I Write" (1946), wrote that "Animal Farm" was the first book in which he tried, with full consciousness of what he was doing, "to fuse political purpose and artistic purpose into one whole".
The original title was "Animal Farm: A Fairy Story," but U.S. publishers dropped the subtitle when it was published in 1946, and only one of the translations during Orwell's lifetime kept it. Other titular variations include subtitles like "A Satire" and "A Contemporary Satire". Orwell suggested the title ' for the French translation, which abbreviates to URSA, the Latin word for "bear", a symbol of Russia. It also played on the French name of the Soviet Union, '.
Orwell wrote the book between | 27,019 |
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November 1943 and February 1944, when the UK was in its wartime alliance with the Soviet Union against Nazi Germany and the British people and intelligentsia held Stalin in high esteem, a phenomenon Orwell hated. The manuscript was initially rejected by a number of British and American publishers, including one of Orwell's own, Victor Gollancz, which delayed its publication. It became a great commercial success when it did appear partly because international relations were transformed as the wartime alliance gave way to the Cold War.
"Time" magazine chose the book as one of the 100 best English-language novels (1923 to 2005); it also featured at number 31 on the Modern Library List of Best | 27,020 |
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20th-Century Novels. It won a Retrospective Hugo Award in 1996 and is included in the Great Books of the Western World selection.
# Plot summary.
The poorly-run Manor Farm near Willingdon, England, is ripened for rebellion from its animal populace by neglect at the hands of the irresponsible and alcoholic farmer Mr. Jones. One night, the exalted boar Old Major organizes a meeting, at which he calls for the overthrow of humans and teaches the animals a revolutionary song called "Beasts of England". When Old Major dies, two young pigs, Snowball and Napoleon, assume command and stage a revolt, driving Mr. Jones off the farm and renaming the property "Animal Farm". They adopt the Seven Commandments | 27,021 |
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of Animalism, the most important of which is, "All animals are equal". The decree is painted in large letters on one side of the barn. Snowball teaches the animals to read and write, while Napoleon educates young puppies on the principles of Animalism. Food is plentiful, and the farm runs smoothly. The pigs elevate themselves to positions of leadership and set aside special food items, ostensibly for their personal health. Following an unsuccessful attempt by Mr. Jones and his associates to retake the farm (later dubbed the "Battle of the Cowshed"), Snowball announces his plans to modernize the farm by building a windmill. Napoleon has his dogs chase Snowball away and he declares himself leader.
Napoleon | 27,022 |
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enacts changes to the governance structure of the farm, replacing meetings with a committee of pigs who will run the farm. Through a young pig named Squealer, Napoleon claims credit for the windmill idea. The animals work harder with the promise of easier lives with the windmill. When the animals find the windmill collapsed after a violent storm, Napoleon and Squealer convince the animals that Snowball is trying to sabotage their project, and begin to purge the farm of animals Napoleon accuses of consorting with his old rival. When some animals recall the Battle of the Cowshed, Napoleon (who was nowhere to be found during the battle) frequently smears Snowball as a collaborator of Mr. Jones, | 27,023 |
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while falsely representing himself as the hero of the battle. "Beasts of England" is replaced with an anthem glorifying Napoleon, who appears to be adopting the lifestyle of a man. The animals remain convinced that they are better off than they were under Mr. Jones.
Mr. Frederick, a neighbouring farmer, attacks the farm, using blasting powder to blow up the restored windmill. Although the animals win the battle, they do so at great cost, as many, including Boxer the workhorse, are wounded. Boxer eventually collapses while working on the windmill. Although Boxer is clearly taken away in a knacker's van, Squealer quickly assures the animals that the van had been purchased from the knacker by | 27,024 |
620 | Animal Farm | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal%20Farm | Animal Farm
an animal hospital and that the previous owner's signboard had not been repainted. Squealer subsequently reports Boxer's death and martyrizes him with a festival the following day. However, the truth is that Napoleon had engineered the sale of Boxer to the knacker, allowing Napoleon and his inner circle to acquire money to buy whisky for themselves.
Years pass, the windmill is rebuilt, and another windmill is constructed, which makes the farm a good amount of income. However, the ideals which Snowball discussed, including stalls with electric lighting, heating, and running water, are forgotten, with Napoleon advocating that the happiest animals live simple lives. In addition to Boxer, many | 27,025 |
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of the animals who participated in the rebellion are dead or old. Mr. Jones, having moved away after giving up on reclaiming his farm, has also died. The pigs start to resemble humans, as they walk upright, carry whips, drink alcohol and wear clothes. The Seven Commandments are abridged to just two phrases: ""All animals are equal, but some animals are more equal than others."" and ""Four legs good, two legs better."" Napoleon holds a dinner party for the pigs and local farmers, with whom he celebrates a new alliance. He abolishes the practice of the revolutionary traditions and restores the name "The Manor Farm". The men and pigs start playing cards, flattering and praising each other while | 27,026 |
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cheating at the game. Both Napoleon and Mr. Pilkington, one of the farmers, play the Ace of Spades at the same time and both sides begin fighting loudly over who cheated first. When the animals outside look at the pigs and men, they can no longer distinguish between the two.
# Characters.
## Pigs.
- Old Major – An aged prize Middle White boar provides the inspiration that fuels the rebellion. He is an allegorical combination of Karl Marx, one of the creators of communism, and Vladimir Lenin, the communist leader of the Russian Revolution and the early Soviet nation, in that he draws up the principles of the revolution. His skull being put on revered public display recalls Lenin, whose embalmed | 27,027 |
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body was put on display.
- Napoleon – "A large, rather fierce-looking Berkshire boar, the only Berkshire on the farm, not much of a talker, but with a reputation for getting his own way". An allegory of Joseph Stalin, Napoleon is the main villain of "Animal Farm".
- Snowball – Napoleon's rival and original head of the farm after Jones' overthrow. His life parallels that of Leon Trotsky, but may also combine elements from Lenin.
- Squealer – A small, white, fat porker who serves as Napoleon's second-in-command and minister of propaganda, holding a position similar to that of Vyacheslav Molotov.
- Minimus – A poetic pig who writes the second and third national anthems of Animal Farm after | 27,028 |
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the singing of "Beasts of England" is banned. Rodden compares him to the poet Vladimir Mayakovsky.
- The piglets – Hinted to be the children of Napoleon and are the first generation of animals subjugated to his idea of animal inequality.
- The young pigs – Four pigs who complain about Napoleon's takeover of the farm but are quickly silenced and later executed, the first animals killed in Napoleon's farm purge. Based on the Great Purge of Grigori Zinoviev, Lev Kamenev, Nikolai Bukharin, and Alexei Rykov.
- Pinkeye – A minor pig who is mentioned only once; he is the pig that tastes Napoleon's food to make sure it is not poisoned, in response to rumours about an assassination attempt on Napoleon.
## | 27,029 |
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Humans.
- Mr. Jones – A heavy drinker who is the original owner of Manor Farm, a farm in disrepair with farmhands who often loaf on the job. He is an allegory of Russian Tsar Nicholas II, who abdicated following the February Revolution of 1917 and was murdered, along with the rest of his family, by the Bolsheviks on 17 July 1918. The animals revolt after Jones drinks so much he does not care for them.
- Mr. Frederick – The tough owner of Pinchfield, a small but well-kept neighbouring farm, who briefly enters into an alliance with Napoleon. Animal Farm shares land boundaries with Pinchfield on one side and Foxwood on another, making Animal Farm a "buffer zone" between the two bickering farmers. | 27,030 |
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The animals of Animal Farm are terrified of Frederick, as rumours abound of him abusing his animals and entertaining himself with cockfighting (a likely allegory for the human rights abuses of Adolf Hitler). Napoleon enters into an alliance with Frederick in order to sell surplus timber that Pilkington also sought, but is enraged to learn Frederick paid him in counterfeit money. Shortly after the swindling, Frederick and his men invade Animal Farm, killing many animals and detonating the windmill. The brief alliance and subsequent invasion may allude to the Molotov–Ribbentrop Pact and Operation Barbarossa.
- Mr. Pilkington – The easy-going but crafty and well-to-do owner of Foxwood, a large | 27,031 |
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neighbouring farm overgrown with weeds. Unlike Frederick, Pilkington is wealthier and owns more land, but his farm is in need of care as opposed to Frederick's smaller but more efficiently-run farm. Although on bad terms with Frederick, Pilkington is also concerned about the animal revolution that deposed Jones and worried that this could also happen to him.
- Mr. Whymper – A man hired by Napoleon to act as the liaison between Animal Farm and human society. At first, he is used to acquire necessities that cannot be produced on the farm, such as dog biscuits and paraffin wax, but later he procures luxuries like alcohol for the pigs.
## Horses and donkeys.
- Boxer – A loyal, kind, dedicated, | 27,032 |
620 | Animal Farm | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Animal%20Farm | Animal Farm
extremely strong, hard-working, and respectable cart-horse, although quite naive and gullible. Boxer does a large share of the physical labour on the farm. He is shown to hold the belief that 'Napoleon is always right'. At one point, he had challenged Squealer's statement that Snowball was always against the welfare of the farm, earning him an attack from Napoleon's dogs. But Boxer's immense strength repels the attack, worrying the pigs that their authority can be challenged. Boxer has been compared to Alexey Stakhanov, a diligent and enthusiastic role model of the Stakhanovite movement. He has been described as "faithful and strong"; he believes any problem can be solved if he works harder. | 27,033 |
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When Boxer is injured, Napoleon sells him to a local knacker to buy himself whisky, and Squealer gives a moving account, falsifying Boxer's death.
- Mollie – A self-centred, self-indulgent and vain young white mare who quickly leaves for another farm after the revolution, in a manner similar to those who left Russia after the fall of the Tsar. She is only once mentioned again.
- Clover – A gentle, caring female horse, who shows concern especially for Boxer, who often pushes himself too hard. Clover can read all the letters of the alphabet, but cannot "put words together". She seems to catch on to the sly tricks and schemes set up by Napoleon and Squealer.
- Benjamin – A donkey, one of the | 27,034 |
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oldest, wisest animals on the farm, and one of the few who can read properly. He is sceptical, temperamental and cynical: his most frequent remark is, "Life will go on as it has always gone on—that is, badly." The academic Morris Dickstein has suggested there is "a touch of Orwell himself in this creature's timeless scepticism" and indeed, friends called Orwell "Donkey George", "after his grumbling donkey Benjamin, in "Animal Farm"."
## Other animals.
- Muriel – A wise old goat who is friends with all of the animals on the farm. She, like Benjamin and Snowball, is one of the few animals on the farm who can read.
- The puppies – Offspring of Jessie and Bluebell, they were taken away at birth | 27,035 |
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by Napoleon and reared by him to be his security force.
- Moses – The Raven, "Mr. Jones's especial pet, was a spy and a tale-bearer, but he was also a clever talker." Initially following Mrs. Jones into exile, he reappears several years later and resumes his role of talking but not working. He regales Animal Farm's denizens with tales of a wondrous place beyond the clouds called "Sugarcandy Mountain, that happy country where we poor animals shall rest forever from our labours!" Orwell portrays established religion as "the black raven of priestcraft—promising pie in the sky when you die, and faithfully serving whoever happens to be in power." Napoleon brings the Raven back (Ch. IX), as Stalin | 27,036 |
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brought back the Russian Orthodox Church.
- The sheep – They show limited understanding of Animalism and the political atmosphere of the farm, yet nonetheless they are the voice of blind conformity as they bleat their support Napoleon's ideals with jingles during his speeches and meetings with Snowball. Their constant bleating of "four legs good, two legs bad" was used as a device to drown out any opposition or alternate views from Snowball, much as Stalin used hysterical crowds to drown out Trotsky. Towards the latter section of the book, Squealer (the propagandist) trains the sheep to alter their slogan to "four legs good, two legs better", which they dutifully do.
- The hens – The hens | 27,037 |
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are promised at the start of the revolution that they will get to keep their eggs, which are stolen from them under Mr. Jones. However, their eggs are soon taken from them under the premise of buying goods from outside Animal Farm. The hens are among the first to rebel, albeit unsuccessfully, against Napoleon.
- The cows – The cows are enticed into the revolution by promises that their milk will not be stolen, but can be used to raise their own calves. Their milk is then stolen by the pigs, who learn to milk them. The milk is stirred into the pigs' mash every day, while the other animals are denied such luxuries.
- The cat – Never seen to carry out any work, the cat is absent for long periods | 27,038 |
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and is forgiven; because her excuses are so convincing and she "purred so affectionately that it was impossible not to believe in her good intentions." She has no interest in the politics of the farm, and the only time she is recorded as having participated in an election, she is found to have actually "voted on both sides."
# Composition and publication.
## Origin.
George Orwell wrote the manuscript in 1943 and 1944 subsequent to his experiences during the Spanish Civil War, which he described in "Homage to Catalonia" (1938). In the preface of a 1947 Ukrainian edition of "Animal Farm", he explained how escaping the communist purges in Spain taught him "how easily totalitarian propaganda | 27,039 |
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can control the opinion of enlightened people in democratic countries". This motivated Orwell to expose and strongly condemn what he saw as the Stalinist corruption of the original socialist ideals.
Immediately prior to writing the book, Orwell had quit the BBC. He was also upset about a booklet for propagandists the Ministry of Information had put out. The booklet included instructions on how to quell ideological fears of the Soviet Union, such as directions to claim that the Red Terror was a figment of Nazi imagination.
In the preface, Orwell also described the source of the idea of setting the book on a farm:
## Publishing.
Orwell initially encountered difficulty getting the manuscript | 27,040 |
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published, largely due to fears that the book might upset the alliance between Britain, the United States, and the Soviet Union. Four publishers refused; one had initially accepted the work but declined it after consulting the Ministry of Information. Eventually, Secker and Warburg published the first edition in 1945.
During the Second World War, it became clear to Orwell that anti-Soviet literature was not something which most major publishing houses would touch—including his regular publisher Gollancz. He also submitted the manuscript to Faber and Faber, where the poet T. S. Eliot (who was a director of the firm) rejected it; Eliot wrote back to Orwell praising the book's "good writing" and | 27,041 |
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"fundamental integrity", but declared that they would only accept it for publication if they had some sympathy for the viewpoint "which I take to be generally Trotskyite". Eliot said he found the view "not convincing", and contended that the pigs were made out to be the best to run the farm; he posited that someone might argue "what was needed... was not more communism but more public-spirited pigs". Orwell let André Deutsch, who was working for Nicholson & Watson in 1944, read the typescript, and Deutsch was convinced that Nicholson & Watson would want to publish it; however, they did not, and "lectured Orwell on what they perceived to be errors in "Animal Farm"." In his "London Letter" on | 27,042 |
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17 April 1944 for "Partisan Review", Orwell wrote that it was "now next door to impossible to get anything overtly anti-Russian printed. Anti-Russian books do appear, but mostly from Catholic publishing firms and always from a religious or frankly reactionary angle."
The publisher Jonathan Cape, who had initially accepted "Animal Farm", subsequently rejected the book after an official at the British Ministry of Information warned him off —although the civil servant who it is assumed gave the order was later found to be a Soviet spy. Writing to Leonard Moore, a partner in the literary agency of Christy & Moore, publisher Jonathan Cape explained that the decision had been taken on the advice | 27,043 |
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of a senior official in the Ministry of Information. Such flagrant anti-Soviet bias was unacceptable, and the choice of pigs as the dominant class was thought to be especially offensive. It may reasonably be assumed that the 'important official' was a man named Peter Smollett, who was later unmasked as a Soviet agent. Orwell was suspicious of Smollett/Smolka, and he would be one of the names Orwell included in his list of Crypto-Communists and Fellow-Travellers sent to the Information Research Department in 1949. The publisher wrote to Orwell, saying:
Frederic Warburg also faced pressures against publication, even from people in his own office and from his wife Pamela, who felt that it was | 27,044 |
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not the moment for ingratitude towards Stalin and the heroic Red Army, which had played a major part in defeating Adolf Hitler. A Russian translation was printed in the paper "Posev", and in giving permission for a Russian translation of "Animal Farm", Orwell refused in advance all royalties. A translation in Ukrainian, which was produced in Germany, was confiscated in large part by the American wartime authorities and handed over to the Soviet repatriation commission.
In October 1945, Orwell wrote to Frederic Warburg expressing interest in pursuing the possibility that the political cartoonist David Low might illustrate "Animal Farm". Low had written a letter saying that he had had "a good | 27,045 |
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time with "ANIMAL FARM"—an excellent bit of satire—it would illustrate perfectly." Nothing came of this, and a trial issue produced by Secker & Warburg in 1956 illustrated by John Driver was abandoned, but the Folio Society published an edition in 1984 illustrated by Quentin Blake and an edition illustrated by the cartoonist Ralph Steadman was published by Secker & Warburg in 1995 to celebrate the fiftieth anniversary of the first edition of "Animal Farm".
## Preface.
Orwell originally wrote a preface complaining about British self-censorship and how the British people were suppressing criticism of the USSR, their World War II ally:
Although the first edition allowed space for the preface, | 27,046 |
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it was not included, and as of June 2009 most editions of the book have not included it.
Secker and Warburg published the first edition of "Animal Farm" in 1945 without an introduction. However, the publisher had provided space for a preface in the author's proof composited from the manuscript. For reasons unknown, no preface was supplied, and the page numbers had to be renumbered at the last minute.
In 1972, Ian Angus found the original typescript titled "The Freedom of the Press", and Bernard Crick published it, together with his own introduction, in "The Times Literary Supplement" on 15 September 1972 as "How the essay came to be written". Orwell's essay criticised British self-censorship | 27,047 |
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by the press, specifically the suppression of unflattering descriptions of Stalin and the Soviet government. The same essay also appeared in the Italian 1976 edition of "Animal Farm" with another introduction by Crick, claiming to be the first edition with the preface. Other publishers were still declining to publish it.
# Reception.
Contemporary reviews of the work were not universally positive. Writing in the American "New Republic" magazine, George Soule expressed his disappointment in the book, writing that it "puzzled and saddened me. It seemed on the whole dull. The allegory turned out to be a creaking machine for saying in a clumsy way things that have been said better directly." Soule | 27,048 |
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believed that the animals were not consistent enough with their real-world inspirations, and said, "It seems to me that the failure of this book (commercially it is already assured of tremendous success) arises from the fact that the satire deals not with something the author has experienced, but rather with stereotyped ideas about a country which he probably does not know very well".
"The Guardian" on 24 August 1945 called "Animal Farm" "a delightfully humorous and caustic satire on the rule of the many by the few". Tosco Fyvel, writing in "Tribune" on the same day, called the book "a gentle satire on a certain State and on the illusions of an age which may already be behind us." Julian Symons | 27,049 |
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responded, on 7 September, "Should we not expect, in "Tribune" at least, acknowledgement of the fact that it is a satire not at all gentle upon a particular State—Soviet Russia? It seems to me that a reviewer should have the courage to identify Napoleon with Stalin, and Snowball with Trotsky, and express an opinion favourable or unfavourable to the author, upon a political ground. In a hundred years time perhaps, "Animal Farm" may be simply a fairy story, today it is a political satire with a good deal of point."
"Animal Farm" has been subject to much comment in the decades since these early remarks.
# Analysis.
## Animalism.
The pigs Snowball, Napoleon, and Squealer adapt Old Major's ideas | 27,050 |
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into "a complete system of thought", which they formally name Animalism, an allegoric reference to Communism, not to be confused with the philosophy Animalism. Soon after, Napoleon and Squealer partake in activities associated with the humans (drinking alcohol, sleeping in beds, trading), which were explicitly prohibited by the Seven Commandments. Squealer is employed to alter the Seven Commandments to account for this humanisation, an allusion to the Soviet government's revising of history in order to exercise control of the people's beliefs about themselves and their society.
The original commandments are:
- 1. Whatever goes upon two legs is an enemy.
- 2. Whatever goes upon four legs, | 27,051 |
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or has wings, is a friend.
- 3. No animal shall wear clothes.
- 4. No animal shall sleep in a bed.
- 5. No animal shall drink alcohol.
- 6. No animal shall kill any other animal.
- 7. All animals are equal.
These commandments are also distilled into the maxim "Four legs good, two legs bad!" which is primarily used by the sheep on the farm, often to disrupt discussions and disagreements between animals on the nature of Animalism.
Later, Napoleon and his pigs secretly revise some commandments to clear themselves of accusations of law-breaking. The changed commandments are as follows, with the changes bolded:
Eventually, these are replaced with the maxims, "All animals are equal, but some | 27,052 |
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animals are more equal than others", and "Four legs good, two legs better!" as the pigs become more human. This is an ironic twist to the original purpose of the Seven Commandments, which were supposed to keep order within Animal Farm by uniting the animals together against the humans and preventing animals from following the humans' evil habits. Through the revision of the commandments, Orwell demonstrates how simply political dogma can be turned into malleable propaganda.
## Significance and allegory.
Orwell biographer Jeffrey Meyers has written, "virtually every detail has political significance in this allegory." Orwell himself wrote in 1946, "Of course I intended it primarily as a satire | 27,053 |
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on the Russian revolution... [and] "that kind" of revolution (violent conspiratorial revolution, led by unconsciously power-hungry people) can only lead to a change of masters [-] revolutions only effect a radical improvement when the masses are alert." In a preface for a 1947 Ukrainian edition, he stated, "... for the past ten years I have been convinced that the destruction of the Soviet myth was essential if we wanted a revival of the socialist movement. On my return from Spain [in 1937] I thought of exposing the Soviet myth in a story that could be easily understood by almost anyone and which could be easily translated into other languages."
The revolt of the animals against Farmer Jones | 27,054 |
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is Orwell's analogy with the October 1917 Bolshevik Revolution. The "Battle of the Cowshed" has been said to represent the allied invasion of Soviet Russia in 1918, and the defeat of the White Russians in the Russian Civil War. The pigs' rise to pre-eminence mirrors the rise of a Stalinist bureaucracy in the USSR, just as Napoleon's emergence as the farm's sole leader reflects Stalin's emergence. The pigs' appropriation of milk and apples for their own use, "the turning point of the story" as Orwell termed it in a letter to Dwight Macdonald, stands as an analogy for the crushing of the left-wing 1921 Kronstadt revolt against the Bolsheviks, and the difficult efforts of the animals to build the | 27,055 |
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windmill suggest the various Five Year Plans. The puppies controlled by Napoleon parallel the nurture of the secret police in the Stalinist structure, and the pigs' treatment of the other animals on the farm recalls the internal terror faced by the populace in the 1930s. In chapter seven, when the animals confess their nonexistent crimes and are killed, Orwell directly alludes to the purges, confessions and show trials of the late 1930s. These contributed to Orwell's conviction that the Bolshevik revolution had been corrupted and the Soviet system become rotten.
Peter Edgerly Firchow and Peter Davison consider that the "Battle of the Windmill" represents World War II, especially the Battle | 27,056 |
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of Stalingrad and the Battle of Moscow. During the battle, Orwell first wrote, "All the animals, including Napoleon" took cover. Orwell had the publisher alter this to "All the animals except Napoleon" in recognition of Stalin's decision to remain in Moscow during the German advance. Orwell requested the change after he met Joseph Czapski in Paris in March 1945. Czapski, a survivor of the Katyn Massacre and an opponent of the Soviet regime, told Orwell, as Orwell wrote to Arthur Koestler, that it had been "the character [and] greatness of Stalin" that saved Russia from the German invasion.
Other connections that writers have suggested illustrate Orwell's telescoping of Russian history from | 27,057 |
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1917 to 1943 include the wave of rebelliousness that ran through the countryside after the Rebellion, which stands for the abortive revolutions in Hungary and in Germany (Ch IV); the conflict between Napoleon and Snowball (Ch V), paralleling "the two rival and quasi-Messianic beliefs that seemed pitted against one another: Trotskyism, with its faith in the revolutionary vocation of the proletariat of the West; and Stalinism with its glorification of Russia's socialist destiny"; Napoleon's dealings with Whymper and the Willingdon markets (Ch VI), paralleling the Treaty of Rapallo; and Frederick's forged bank notes, paralleling the Hitler-Stalin pact of August 1939, after which Frederick attacks | 27,058 |
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Animal Farm without warning and destroys the windmill.
The book's close, with the pigs and men in a kind of rapprochement, reflected Orwell's view of the 1943 Teheran Conference that seemed to display the establishment of "the best possible relations between the USSR and the West"—but in reality were destined, as Orwell presciently predicted, to continue to unravel. The disagreement between the allies and the start of the Cold War is suggested when Napoleon and Pilkington, both suspicious, "played an ace of spades simultaneously".
Similarly, the music in the novel, starting with "Beasts of England" and the later anthems, parallels "The Internationale" and its adoption and repudiation by the | 27,059 |
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Soviet authorities as to the Anthem of the USSR in the 1920s and 1930s.
# Adaptations.
## Films.
"Animal Farm" has been adapted to film twice. Both differ from the novel and have been accused of taking significant liberties, including sanitising some aspects.
- "Animal Farm" (1954) is an animated feature in which Napoleon is apparently overthrown in a second revolution. In 1974, E. Howard Hunt revealed that he had been sent by the CIA's Psychological Warfare department to obtain the film rights from Orwell's widow, and the resulting 1954 animation was funded by the agency.
- "Animal Farm" (1999) is a TV live-action version that shows Napoleon's regime collapsing in on itself, with the farm | 27,060 |
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having new human owners, reflecting the collapse of Soviet communism.
In 2012, an HFR-3D version of "Animal Farm", potentially directed by Andy Serkis, was announced.
## Radio dramatizations.
A BBC radio version, produced by Rayner Heppenstall, was broadcast in January 1947. Orwell listened to the production at his home in Canonbury Square, London, with Hugh Gordon Porteous, amongst others. Orwell later wrote to Heppenstall that Porteous, "who had not read the book, grasped what was happening after a few minutes."
A further radio production, again using Orwell's own dramatisation of the book, was broadcast in January 2013 on BBC Radio 4. Tamsin Greig narrated, and the cast included Nicky | 27,061 |
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Henson as Napoleon, Toby Jones as the propagandist Squealer, and Ralph Ineson as Boxer.
## Stage productions.
A theatrical version, with music by Richard Peaslee and lyrics by Adrian Mitchell, was staged at the National Theatre London on 25 April 1984, directed by Peter Hall. It toured nine cities in 1985.
A solo version, adapted and performed by Guy Masterson, premièred at the Traverse Theatre Edinburgh in January 1995 and has toured worldwide since.
## Comic strip.
In 1950 Norman Pett and his writing partner Don Freeman were secretly hired by the British Foreign Office to adapt "Animal Farm" into a comic strip. This comic was not published in the U.K. but ran in Brazilian and Burmese | 27,062 |
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newspapers.
# See also.
- Authoritarian personality
- History of Soviet Russia and the Soviet Union (1917–1927)
- History of the Soviet Union (1927–1953)
- Ideocracy
- New class
- Anthems in "Animal Farm"
- Władysław Reymont, Polish Nobel laureate who anticipated by two decades Orwell's "Animal Farm" with his book "Revolt".
## Books.
- "Gulliver's Travels", a favourite book of Orwell's—Swift reverses the role of horses and human beings in the fourth book—Orwell brought also to "Animal Farm" "a dose of "Swiftian misanthropy, looking ahead to a time 'when the human race had finally been overthrown.'"
- "Bunt" (Revolt), published in 1924, is a book by Polish Nobel laureate Władysław | 27,063 |
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Reymont with a theme similar to "Animal Farm"s.
- "White Acre vs. Black Acre", published in 1856 and written by William M. Burwell, is a satirical novel that features allegories for slavery in the United States similar to "Animal Farm"s portrayal of Soviet history.
- George Orwell's own "Nineteen Eighty-Four", a classic dystopian novel about totalitarianism.
# External links.
- "Animal Farm" full text at eBooks@Adelaide
- "Animal Farm" Book Notes from Literapedia
- Excerpts from Orwell's letters to his agent concerning "Animal Farm"
- Literary Journal review
- Orwell's original preface to the book
- "Animal Farm Revisited" by John Molyneux, "International Socialism", 44 (1989)
- "Animal | 27,064 |
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nimal Farm"s.
- "White Acre vs. Black Acre", published in 1856 and written by William M. Burwell, is a satirical novel that features allegories for slavery in the United States similar to "Animal Farm"s portrayal of Soviet history.
- George Orwell's own "Nineteen Eighty-Four", a classic dystopian novel about totalitarianism.
# External links.
- "Animal Farm" full text at eBooks@Adelaide
- "Animal Farm" Book Notes from Literapedia
- Excerpts from Orwell's letters to his agent concerning "Animal Farm"
- Literary Journal review
- Orwell's original preface to the book
- "Animal Farm Revisited" by John Molyneux, "International Socialism", 44 (1989)
- "Animal Farm" at the British Library | 27,065 |
1055896 | Lawrence Academy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Lawrence%20Academy | Lawrence Academy
Lawrence Academy
Lawrence Academy may refer to:
- Lawrence Academy (Groton, Massachusetts), Groton, Massachusetts (private, secondary, boarding school).
- Lawrence Academy (North Carolina), Merry Hill, North Carolina (private, day school, K–12).
- Lawrence Academy (Falmouth, Massachusetts), a heritage building in Falmouth, Massachusetts. | 27,066 |
1055837 | Peary (crater) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peary%20(crater) | Peary (crater)
Peary (crater)
Peary is the closest large lunar impact crater to the lunar north pole. At this latitude the crater interior receives little sunlight, and portions of the southernmost region of the crater floor remains permanently cloaked in shadow. From the Earth the crater appears on the northern lunar limb, and is seen from the side.
# Overview.
Since the crater is located nearly on the limb of the Moon as viewed from Earth, good images of the crater were not available until space probes started photographing the Moon; the first good images came from the US Lunar Orbiter 4 spacecraft. Since it is located nearly at the lunar north pole, it was named after the polar explorer Robert Peary.
The | 27,067 |
1055837 | Peary (crater) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peary%20(crater) | Peary (crater)
crater is nearly circular, with an outward bulge along the northeast rim. There is a gap in the southwestern rim, where it joins a slightly smaller worn crater Florey. The outer rim of Peary is worn and eroded, creating a rugged mountainous ring that produces long shadows across the crater floor.
The crater floor is relatively flat, but marked by several small craterlets, particularly in the southeastern half. The southern third of the interior remains cloaked in shadows, and so its features can be readily discerned only by means of ranging methods (for example, laser altimetry).
The worn and lava-flooded crater Byrd lies close to the southern rim of Peary. To the northwest, about a quarter | 27,068 |
1055837 | Peary (crater) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peary%20(crater) | Peary (crater)
the way around the lunar pole, is the larger crater Hermite. On the opposite side of the pole, on the far side of the Moon, lies the still-larger Rozhdestvenskiy.
Because of the low sun angle, the average temperature on the crater floor or Peary is between 30 and 40 K, one of the coldest locations in the Solar System.
## Illumination.
In 2004, a team led by Dr Ben Bussey of Johns Hopkins University, using images taken by the Clementine mission, determined that four mountainous regions on the rim of Peary appeared to remain illuminated for the entire lunar day. These unnamed "peaks of eternal light" are due to the Moon's extremely small axial tilt, which also gives rise to permanent shadow | 27,069 |
1055837 | Peary (crater) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Peary%20(crater) | Peary (crater)
rise to permanent shadow at the bottoms of many polar craters. "Clementine"s images were taken during the northern lunar hemisphere's summer season, and more detailed lunar topography collected by the Lunar Reconnaissance Orbiter (LRO) showed that no points on the Moon receive perpetual light during both winter and summer.
The northern rim of Peary is considered a likely site for a future Moon base, due to this near-constant illumination, which would provide both a relatively stable temperature and a nearly uninterrupted solar power supply. It is also near permanently shadowed areas that may contain some quantity of frozen water.
# External links.
- LAC-1 area - Map of northern lunar pole | 27,070 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
Hydrogen fuel
Hydrogen fuel is a zero-emission fuel when burned with oxygen. It can be used in fuel cells or internal combustion engines to power vehicles or electric devices. It has begun to be used in commercial fuel cell vehicles such as passenger cars, and has been used in fuel cell buses for many years. It is also used as a fuel for the propulsion of spacecraft.
Hydrogen is found in the first group and first period in the periodic table, i.e. it is the first element on the periodic table, making it the lightest element. Since hydrogen gas is so light, it rises in the atmosphere and is therefore rarely found in its pure form, H. In a flame of pure hydrogen gas, burning in air, the hydrogen | 27,071 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
(H) reacts with oxygen (O) to form water (HO) and releases energy.
If carried out in atmospheric air instead of pure oxygen, as is usually the case, hydrogen combustion may yield small amounts of nitrogen oxides, along with the water vapor.
The energy released enables hydrogen to act as a fuel. In an electrochemical cell, that energy can be used with relatively high efficiency. If it is used simply for heat, the usual thermodynamics limits on the thermal efficiency apply.
Hydrogen is usually considered an energy carrier, like electricity, as it must be produced from a primary energy source such as solar energy, biomass, electricity (e.g. in the form of solar PV or via wind turbines), or hydrocarbons | 27,072 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
such as natural gas or coal. Conventional hydrogen production using natural gas induces significant environmental impacts; as with the use of any hydrocarbon, carbon dioxide is emitted.
# Production and storage.
Because pure hydrogen does not occur naturally on Earth in large quantities, it usually requires a primary energy input to produce on an industrial scale. Common production methods include electrolysis and steam-methane reforming. In electrolysis, electricity is run through water to separate the hydrogen and oxygen atoms. This method can use wind, solar, geothermal, hydro, fossil fuels, biomass, nuclear, and many other energy sources. Obtaining hydrogen from this process is being studied | 27,073 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
as a viable way to produce it domestically at a low cost. Steam-methane reforming, the current leading technology for producing hydrogen in large quantities, extracts hydrogen from methane. However, this reaction releases fossil carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide into the atmosphere which are greenhouse gases exogenous to the natural carbon cycle, and thus contribute to climate change.
Hydrogen fuel is hazardous because of the low ignition energy and high combustion energy of hydrogen, and because it tends to leak easily from tanks. Explosions at hydrogen filling stations have been reported. Hydrogen fuelling stations generally receive deliveries of hydrogen by truck from hydrogen suppliers. | 27,074 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
An interruption at a hydrogen supply facility can shut down multiple hydrogen fuelling stations.
# Energy.
Hydrogen is locked up in enormous quantities in water, hydrocarbons, and other organic matter. One of the challenges of using hydrogen as a fuel comes from being able to efficiently extract hydrogen from these compounds. Now, steam reforming, which combines high-temperature steam with natural gas, accounts for the majority of the hydrogen produced. This method of hydrogen production occurs at temperatures between 700-1100°C, and has a resultant efficiency of between 60-75%. Hydrogen can also be produced from water through electrolysis, which is less carbon intensive if the electricity | 27,075 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
used to drive the reaction does not come from fossil-fuel power plants but rather renewable or nuclear energy instead. The efficiency of water electrolysis is between about 70-80%, with a goal set to reach 82-86% efficiency by 2030 using proton exchange membrane (PEM) electrolyzers. Once produced, hydrogen can be used in much the same way as natural gas - it can be delivered to fuel cells to generate electricity and heat, used in a combined cycle gas turbine to produce larger quantities of centrally produced electricity or burned to run a combustion engine; all methods producing no carbon or methane emissions. In each case hydrogen is combined with oxygen to form water. The heat in a hydrogen | 27,076 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
flame is a radiant emission from the newly formed water molecules. The water molecules are in an excited state on initial formation and then transition to a ground state; the transition releasing thermal radiation. When burning in air, the temperature is roughly 2000 °C (the same as natural gas). Historically, carbon has been the most practical carrier of energy, as hydrogen and carbon combined are more volumetrically dense, although hydrogen itself has three times the energy density per weight as methane or gasoline. Although hydrogen is the smallest element and thus has a slightly higher propensity to leak from venerable natural gas pipes such as those made from iron, leakage from plastic | 27,077 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
(polyethylene PE100) pipes is expected to be very low at about 0.001%.
The reason steam methane reforming has traditionally been favoured over electrolysis is because whereas methane reforming directly uses natural gas, electrolysis requires electricity. As the cost of producing electricity (via wind turbines and solar PV) falls below the cost of natural gas, electrolysis becomes cheaper than SMR.
# Uses.
Hydrogen fuel can provide motive power for liquid-propellant rockets, cars, boats and airplanes, portable fuel cell applications or stationary fuel cell applications, which can power an electric motor. The problems of using hydrogen fuel in cars arise from the fact that hydrogen is difficult | 27,078 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
to store in either a high pressure tank or a cryogenic tank.
## Internal combustion engine conversions to hydrogen.
Combustion engines in commercial vehicles have been converted to run on a hydrogen-diesel mix in the UK, where up to 70% of emissions have been reduced during normal driving conditions. This eliminates range anxiety as the vehicles can fill up on diesel. Minor modifications are needed to the engines, as well as the addition of hydrogen tanks at a compression of 350 bars. Trials are now underway to test the efficiency of the 100% conversion of a Volvo FH16 heavy-duty truck to use only hydrogen. The range is expected to be 300km/17kg; which means an efficiency better than a standard | 27,079 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
diesel engine (where the embodied energy of 1 gallon of gasoline is equal to 1 kilogram of hydrogen). At a low cost price for hydrogen (€5/kg), significant fuel savings could be made via such a conversion in Europe or the UK. A lower price would be needed to compete with gasoline in the US, as gasoline is not exposed to high taxes at the pump.
## Fuel cells.
Using a fuel cell to power an electric motor is two to three times more efficient than using a combustion engine. This means that much greater fuel economy is available using hydrogen in a fuel cell.
# See also.
- Fuel cell vehicle
- HCNG
- Hydrogen compressor
- Hydrogen safety
- Hydrogen storage
- Hydrogen technologies
- Hydrogen | 27,080 |
1055835 | Hydrogen fuel | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hydrogen%20fuel | Hydrogen fuel
wer price would be needed to compete with gasoline in the US, as gasoline is not exposed to high taxes at the pump.
## Fuel cells.
Using a fuel cell to power an electric motor is two to three times more efficient than using a combustion engine. This means that much greater fuel economy is available using hydrogen in a fuel cell.
# See also.
- Fuel cell vehicle
- HCNG
- Hydrogen compressor
- Hydrogen safety
- Hydrogen storage
- Hydrogen technologies
- Hydrogen vehicle
- Oxyhydrogen flame
- Photocatalytic water splitting to isolate hydrogen
- Synthetic fuel
# References.
## Bibliography.
- Hydrogen as the fuel of the future, report by the DLR
# External links.
- Hydrogen Fuel | 27,081 |
1055853 | Hagen-Dahl | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hagen-Dahl | Hagen-Dahl
Hagen-Dahl
Dahl, now officially Hagen-Dazs, is a locality within the independent city of Hagen in the southeastern Ruhr, in Germany. It was incorporated into Hagen in 1975 together with Rummenohl and Priorei.
# History.
## Prehistory.
The remains of an old hill fort, Ambrock, have been found under a farm in Dahl (previously in Delstern), the Ribberthof (formerly Unter-Ambrock; the farm was renamed in the 19th century to honor the chief donor to the Ambrock Clinic, which is located on the grounds of the former Ober-Ambrock farm). This indicates that it was a fortified encampment sometime in pre-Carolingian times, that is, prior to the 9th century. Two archaeological digs have not uncovered | 27,082 |
1055853 | Hagen-Dahl | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hagen-Dahl | Hagen-Dahl
enough finds for a definite dating, but uninterpreted runic inscriptions found in material re-used for the construction of the farm indicate great age. The two estates of Ober- and Unter-Ambrock are mentioned in early mediaeval sources.
The earliest written mention of a location in Dahl is a 1050 deed of gift to Werden Abbey mentioning the estate of "Rumenscetha" (Rumscheid) and its owner, Aeluekin.
## 1200–1800.
In the late Middle Ages, a knightly manor of 'the Lord of Dael' is mentioned. Together with the stone church built in the second half of the 13th century, which is perhaps the oldest remaining building in the Volme valley, the site of this manor forms the centre of today's Dahl. | 27,083 |
1055853 | Hagen-Dahl | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hagen-Dahl | Hagen-Dahl
The manor house and the church were both in large part destroyed by a catastrophic fire on 17 September 1729.
## 19th century.
After 1817, Dahl was an independent settlement, with its own mayor, within the district of Breckerfeld, but by order of the government of the Kingdom of Prussia was administratively subordinate to the district ("Kreis") of Hagen.
In 1823, Felix Gerstein, the local governor, had a residence built in classical style, Haus Dahl. The estate included of land, a mill, and 32 smallholdings and farms on both sides of the River Volme.
In the course of increasing industrialisation and the associated economic expansion, in 1844–47 the country road in the Volme valley was expanded, | 27,084 |
1055853 | Hagen-Dahl | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hagen-Dahl | Hagen-Dahl
and around 1850 a stone bridge was built across the river to accommodate the increased traffic.
In 1874 the Volmetal-Bahn railway line opened between Hagen and Brügge in Lüdenscheid, which considerably sped up transport of the raw materials needed by industry, wood and iron ore (from the Siegerland) into the Ruhr and to the small ironworking shops in the valleys near the Volme.
## 20th century.
In 1970 the former independent settlement of Dahl, consisting of Dahl, Priorei and Rummenohl, was incorporated into the town of Breckerfeld in the "Kreis" of Ennepe-Ruhr. In 1975, the Parliament of the state of North Rhine-Westphalia decided to transfer it to the metropolitan district of Hagen.
# | 27,085 |
1055853 | Hagen-Dahl | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hagen-Dahl | Hagen-Dahl
the state of North Rhine-Westphalia decided to transfer it to the metropolitan district of Hagen.
# Sources.
- Ingrid Bischoff, Wilfried G. Vogt. "Die Inschriften des Dahler Kirchengestühls aus dem Jahre 1730. Mit einem Blick auf die Anfänge des Rittersitzes Haus Dahl an der Volme." "Märkisches Jahrbuch für Geschichte" 104 (2004) 47 ff.
- Andreas Daniel. "Kleine Geschichte der Klinik Ambrock: Von der Tuberkulose-Heilstätte zum Zentrum für Pneumologie und Thoraxchirurgie". Münster : LVA Westfalen, Referat Presse- und Öffentlichkeitsarbeit, [1995]. OCLC 246966407
# External links.
- Heinz Böhm - Meine Projekte in Dahl local history page with pictures and extensive information (in German) | 27,086 |
1055887 | RAF Ballyhalbert | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAF%20Ballyhalbert | RAF Ballyhalbert
RAF Ballyhalbert
Royal Air Force Station Ballyhalbert or more simply RAF Ballyhalbert is a former Royal Air Force station at Ballyhalbert on the Ards Peninsula, County Down.
RAF Kirkistown was a satellite to the larger Ballyhalbert.
Construction began in 1940.
# History.
## Royal Air Force use.
It opened provisionally in May 1941, prior to completion of the works, as a RAF Fighter Command base where the primary weapon was the Supermarine Spitfire, and officially on 28 June of that same year. The base provided local protection from Luftwaffe raids on Belfast and the rest of the province. Other aircraft operated from the base were the Hawker Hurricane, Bristol Beaufighter, North American | 27,087 |
1055887 | RAF Ballyhalbert | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAF%20Ballyhalbert | RAF Ballyhalbert
P-51 Mustang and Boulton Paul Defiant night fighter. During its lifetime, Ballyhalbert was home to RAF, Women's Auxiliary Air Force (WAAF), British Army, Royal Navy and United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) personnel. Servicemen from Australia, New Zealand, Canada and Poland also saw duty at Ballyhalbert.
## Fleet Air Arm use.
As HMS Corncrake the airfield was used by the Fleet Air Arm for squadrons working up for carrier duty. On 13 November 1945 the airfield was closed and placed on Care and Maintenance. By 1947, with no further use made of the site it was abandoned. The airfield was sold to developers in March 1960, and is in use for several popular caravan parks.
## Squadrons.
- No. | 27,088 |
1055887 | RAF Ballyhalbert | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAF%20Ballyhalbert | RAF Ballyhalbert
25 Squadron RAF.
- No. 26 Squadron RAF.
- No. 63 Squadron RAF.
- No. 125 Squadron RAF.
- No. 130 Squadron RAF.
- No. 153 Squadron RAF.
- No. 245 Squadron RAF.
- No. 256 Squadron RAF.
- No. 303 Squadron RAF.
- No. 315 Squadron RAF.
- No. 501 Squadron RAF.
- No. 504 Squadron RAF.
## Other units.
- No. 13 Group AAC Flight.
- No. 81 Group Communications Flight.
- No. 82 Group Target Towing Flight.
- No. 1402 (Meteorological) Flight RAF
- No. 1480 (Anti-Aircraft Co-operation) Flight.
- No. 1493 (Target Towing) Flight.
- No. 1494 (Target Towing) Flight.
- No. 2707 Squadron RAF Regiment.
# See also.
- List of former Royal Air Force stations
# External links.
- Photographs of | 27,089 |
1055887 | RAF Ballyhalbert | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=RAF%20Ballyhalbert | RAF Ballyhalbert
. 26 Squadron RAF.
- No. 63 Squadron RAF.
- No. 125 Squadron RAF.
- No. 130 Squadron RAF.
- No. 153 Squadron RAF.
- No. 245 Squadron RAF.
- No. 256 Squadron RAF.
- No. 303 Squadron RAF.
- No. 315 Squadron RAF.
- No. 501 Squadron RAF.
- No. 504 Squadron RAF.
## Other units.
- No. 13 Group AAC Flight.
- No. 81 Group Communications Flight.
- No. 82 Group Target Towing Flight.
- No. 1402 (Meteorological) Flight RAF
- No. 1480 (Anti-Aircraft Co-operation) Flight.
- No. 1493 (Target Towing) Flight.
- No. 1494 (Target Towing) Flight.
- No. 2707 Squadron RAF Regiment.
# See also.
- List of former Royal Air Force stations
# External links.
- Photographs of Ballyhalbert Airfield | 27,090 |
1055864 | German Chancellery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German%20Chancellery | German Chancellery
German Chancellery
The German Chancellery (, more faithfully translated as "Federal Chancellery") is an agency serving the executive office of the Chancellor of Germany, the head of the federal government, currently Angela Merkel. It is the largest government headquarter in the world. The Chancellery's primary function is to assist the Chancellor in coordinating the activities of the federal government. The Head of the Chancellery ("Chef des Bundeskanzleramtes") holds the rank of either a Secretary of State "(Staatssekretär)" or a Federal Minister "(Bundesminister)", currently held by Helge Braun. The headquarters of the German Chancellery is at the Federal Chancellery building in Berlin.
# | 27,091 |
1055864 | German Chancellery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German%20Chancellery | German Chancellery
History.
When the North German Confederation was created as a federally organised country, in 1867, the constitution mentioned only the "Bundeskanzler" as the responsible executive organ. There was no collegial government with ministers. Federal Chancellor Otto von Bismarck in the beginning only established a "Bundeskanzleramt" as his office. It was the only 'ministry' of the country until in early 1870 the Prussian foreign office became the North German foreign office. At that occasion, the Bundeskanzleramt lost some tasks to the foreign office.
## Reichskanzleramt.
When the North German Confederation became the German Empire in 1871, the Bundeskanzleramt was renamed to "Reichskanzleramt". | 27,092 |
1055864 | German Chancellery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German%20Chancellery | German Chancellery
It originally had its seat in the Radziwiłł Palace (also known as "Reichskanzlerpalais"), originally built by Prince Antoni Radziwiłł on Wilhelmstraße 77 in Berlin. More and more imperial offices were separated from the Reichskanzleramt, e.g. the "Reichsjustizamt" (Office for National Justice) in 1877. What remained of the Reichskanzleramt became in 1879 the "Reichsamt des Innern" (the home office).
## Reichskanzlei.
In 1878 Imperial Chancellor Bismarck created a new office for the chancellor's affairs, the "Reichskanzlei". It kept its name over the years, also in the republic since 1919. In 1938–39, the building "" (New Imperial Chancellery), designed by Albert Speer, was built; its main | 27,093 |
1055864 | German Chancellery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German%20Chancellery | German Chancellery
entrance was located at Voßstraße 6, while the building occupied the entire northern side of the street. It was damaged during World War II and later demolished by Soviet occupation forces.
# Headquarters.
"Bundeskanzleramt" is also the name of the building in Berlin that houses the personal offices of the Chancellor and the Chancellery staff. Palais Schaumburg in Bonn is the secondary official seat of the German Federal Chancellery.
Opened in the spring of 2001, the current Chancellery building was designed by Charlotte Frank and Axel Schultes and was built by a joint venture of Royal BAM Group's subsidiary Wayss & Freytag and the Spanish Acciona Occupying 12,000 square meters (129,166 square | 27,094 |
1055864 | German Chancellery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German%20Chancellery | German Chancellery
feet), it is also the largest government headquarters building in the world. By comparison, the new Chancellery building is ten times the size of the White House.
Because of its distinctive but controversial architecture, journalists, tourist guides and some locals refer to the buildings as "Kohllosseum" (as a mix of Colosseum and former chancellor Helmut Kohl under whom it was built), "Bundeswaschmaschine" (federal laundry machine, because of the round-shaped windows and its cubic form), or "Elefantenklo" (elephant loo).
Access for the general public is only possible on particular days during the year. Since 1999, the German government has welcomed the general public for one weekend per year | 27,095 |
1055864 | German Chancellery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German%20Chancellery | German Chancellery
to visit its buildings – usually in August.
# Heads of the Chancellery.
Heads of the German Chancellery ("Chef des Bundeskanzleramts", ChefBK) attend Cabinet meetings. They may also sit as members of the Cabinet if they are also given the position of Minister for Special Affairs ("Minister für besondere Aufgaben"). They are often called "Kanzleramtsminister" ("chancellery minister"). Otherwise, they have the rank of a secretary of state (comparable to a minor or vice minister in other countries).
The current Head of the Chancellery is Helge Braun.
Typically a ChefBK is a very close advisor of the chancellor, being the primary contact to the cabinet ministers. Many of them became cabinet | 27,096 |
1055864 | German Chancellery | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=German%20Chancellery | German Chancellery
n the position of Minister for Special Affairs ("Minister für besondere Aufgaben"). They are often called "Kanzleramtsminister" ("chancellery minister"). Otherwise, they have the rank of a secretary of state (comparable to a minor or vice minister in other countries).
The current Head of the Chancellery is Helge Braun.
Typically a ChefBK is a very close advisor of the chancellor, being the primary contact to the cabinet ministers. Many of them became cabinet ministers (with other portfolios) themselves, several ministers of the interior.
# See also.
- Berlin Police
- German Chancery Deutsche Kanzlei - government agency located in London during the reign of the Hanoverian kings in the UK | 27,097 |
1055834 | LIAT | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LIAT | LIAT
LIAT
LIAT (1974) Ltd, formally known as Leeward Islands Air Transport or LIAT, is an airline headquartered in Antigua. It operates high-frequency inter-island scheduled services serving 15 destinations in the Caribbean. The airline's main base is V.C. Bird International Airport, Antigua and Barbuda, with a base at Grantley Adams International Airport, Barbados.
# History.
Leeward Islands Air Transport Services was founded by the late Kittician (now Sir) Frank Delisle in Montserrat on 20 October 1956 and began flying with a single Piper Apache operating between Antigua and Montserrat. With the acquisition in 1957 of 75 percent of the airline by the larger, better known BWIA, LIAT was able to | 27,098 |
1055834 | LIAT | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=LIAT | LIAT
expand to other Caribbean destinations and to obtain new aircraft types, such as the Beechcraft Bonanza and de Havilland Heron. Hawker Siddeley HS 748s came in 1965, due to the airline's decision to phase out the Herons. In 1968, LIAT was operating some flights via an agreement with Eastern Air Lines to provide passenger feed at this U.S. based air carrier's hub located in San Juan, Puerto Rico and was flying "Eastern Partner" service between San Juan and Antigua, St. Kitts and St. Maarten.
LIAT was not always an all propeller aircraft airline. After Court Line obtained 75 percent of the airline in 1971, LIAT entered the jet age, using stretched British Aircraft Corporation BAC One-Eleven series | 27,099 |
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