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1055890 | Sustainable energy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable%20energy | Sustainable energy
on the demand side of the energy equation are as rich and diverse as those on the supply side, and often offer significant economic benefits.
Efficiency slows down energy demand growth so that rising clean energy supplies can make deep cuts in fossil fuel use. A recent historical analysis has demonstrated that the rate of energy efficiency improvements has generally been outpaced by the rate of growth in energy demand, which is due to continuing economic and population growth. As a result, despite energy efficiency gains, total energy use and related carbon emissions have continued to increase. Thus, given the thermodynamic and practical limits of energy efficiency improvements, slowing the | 27,400 |
1055890 | Sustainable energy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable%20energy | Sustainable energy
growth in energy demand is essential. However, unless clean energy supplies come online rapidly, slowing demand growth will only begin to reduce total emissions; reducing the carbon content of energy sources is also needed. Any serious vision of a sustainable energy economy thus requires commitments to both renewables and efficiency.
# Clean cookstoves.
In developing countries, an estimated 3 billion people rely on traditional cookstoves and open fires to burn biomass or coal for heating and cooking. This practice causes harmful local air pollution and increases danger from fires, resulting in an estimated 4.3 million deaths annually. Additionally, serious local environmental damage, including | 27,401 |
1055890 | Sustainable energy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable%20energy | Sustainable energy
desertification, can be caused by excessive harvesting of wood and other combustible material. Promoting usage of cleaner fuels and more efficient technologies for cooking is therefore one of the top priorities of the United Nations Sustainable Energy for All initiative. Thus far, efforts to design cookstoves that are inexpensive, powered by sustainable energy sources, and acceptable to users have been mostly disappointing.
# Trends.
Climate change concerns coupled with high oil prices and increasing government support are driving increasing rates of investment in the sustainable energy industries, according to a trend analysis from the United Nations Environment Programme. According to UNEP, | 27,402 |
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global investment in sustainable energy in 2007 was higher than previous levels, with $148 billion of new money raised in 2007, an increase of 60% over 2006. Total financial transactions in sustainable energy, including acquisition activity, was $204 billion.
Investment flows in 2007 broadened and diversified, making the overall picture one of greater breadth and depth of sustainable energy use. The mainstream capital markets are "now fully receptive to sustainable energy companies, supported by a surge in funds destined for clean energy investment".
The increased levels of investment and the fact that much of the capital is coming from more conventional financial actors suggest that sustainable | 27,403 |
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energy options are now becoming mainstream.
# Purchasing green electricity.
In several countries with common carrier arrangements, electricity retailing arrangements make it possible for consumers to purchase "green" electricity from either their utility or a green power provider. Electricity is considered to be green if it is produced from a source that produces relatively little pollution, and the concept is often considered equivalent to renewable energy.
In many countries, green energy currently provides a very small amount of electricity, generally contributing less than 2 to 5% to the overall pool of electricity offered by most utility companies, electric companies, or state power pools. | 27,404 |
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In some U.S. states, local governments have formed regional power purchasing pools using Community Choice Aggregation and Solar Bonds to achieve a 51% renewable mix or higher, such as in the City of San Francisco.
By participating in a green energy program a consumer may be having an effect on the energy sources used and ultimately might be helping to promote and expand the use of green energy. They are also making a statement to policy makers that they are willing to pay a price premium to support renewable energy. Green energy consumers either obligate the utility companies to increase the amount of green energy that they purchase from the pool (so decreasing the amount of non-green energy | 27,405 |
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they purchase), or directly fund the green energy through a green power provider. If insufficient green energy sources are available, the utility must develop new ones or contract with a third party energy supplier to provide green energy, causing more to be built. However, there is no way the consumer can check whether or not the electricity bought is "green" or otherwise.
In some countries such as the Netherlands, electricity companies guarantee to buy an equal amount of 'green power' as is being used by their green power customers. The Dutch government exempts green power from pollution taxes, which means green power is hardly any more expensive than other power.
## Green energy and labeling | 27,406 |
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by region.
### European Union.
Directive 2004/8/EC of the European Parliament and of the Council of 11 February 2004 on the promotion of cogeneration based on a useful heat demand in the internal energy market includes the article 5 ("Guarantee of origin of electricity" from high-efficiency cogeneration).
European environmental NGOs have launched an ecolabel for green power. The ecolabel is called EKOenergy. It sets criteria for sustainability, additionality, consumer information and tracking. Only part of electricity produced by renewables fulfills the EKOenergy criteria.
A Green Energy Supply Certification Scheme was launched in the United Kingdom in February 2010. This implements guidelines | 27,407 |
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from the Energy Regulator, Ofgem, and sets requirements on transparency, the matching of sales by renewable energy supplies, and additionality.
### United States.
The United States Department of Energy (DOE), the Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), and the Center for Resource Solutions (CRS) recognizes the voluntary purchase of electricity from renewable energy sources (also called renewable electricity or green electricity) as green power.
The most popular way to purchase renewable energy as revealed by NREL data is through purchasing Renewable Energy Certificates (RECs). According to a Natural Marketing Institute (NMI) survey 55 percent of American consumers want companies to increase | 27,408 |
1055890 | Sustainable energy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable%20energy | Sustainable energy
their use of renewable energy.
DOE selected six companies for its 2007 Green Power Supplier Awards, including Constellation NewEnergy; 3Degrees; Sterling Planet; SunEdison; Pacific Power and Rocky Mountain Power; and Silicon Valley Power. The combined green power provided by those six winners equals more than 5 billion kilowatt-hours per year, which is enough to power nearly 465,000 average U.S. households. In 2014, Arcadia Power made RECS available to homes and businesses in all 50 states, allowing consumers to use "100% green power" as defined by the EPA's Green Power Partnership.
The U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (USEPA) Green Power Partnership is a voluntary program that supports | 27,409 |
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the organizational procurement of renewable electricity by offering expert advice, technical support, tools and resources. This can help organizations lower the transaction costs of buying renewable power, reduce carbon footprint, and communicate its leadership to key stakeholders.
Throughout the country, more than half of all U.S. electricity customers now have an option to purchase some type of green power product from a retail electricity provider. Roughly one-quarter of the nation's utilities offer green power programs to customers, and voluntary retail sales of renewable energy in the United States totaled more than 12 billion kilowatt-hours in 2006, a 40% increase over the previous year.
In | 27,410 |
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the United States, one of the main problems with purchasing green energy through the electrical grid is the current centralized infrastructure that supplies the consumer’s electricity. This infrastructure has led to increasingly frequent brown outs and black outs, high CO emissions, higher energy costs, and power quality issues. An additional $450 billion will be invested to expand this fledgling system over the next 20 years to meet increasing demand. In addition, this centralized system is now being further overtaxed with the incorporation of renewable energies such as wind, solar, and geothermal energies. Renewable resources, due to the amount of space they require, are often located in remote | 27,411 |
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areas where there is a lower energy demand. The current infrastructure would make transporting this energy to high demand areas, such as urban centers, highly inefficient and in some cases impossible. In addition, despite the amount of renewable energy produced or the economic viability of such technologies only about 20 percent will be able to be incorporated into the grid. To have a more sustainable energy profile, the United States must move towards implementing changes to the electrical grid that will accommodate a mixed-fuel economy.
Several initiatives are being proposed to mitigate distribution problems. First and foremost, the most effective way to reduce USA’s CO emissions and slow | 27,412 |
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global warming is through conservation efforts. Opponents of the current US electrical grid have also advocated for decentralizing the grid. This system would increase efficiency by reducing the amount of energy lost in transmission. It would also be economically viable as it would reduce the amount of power lines that will need to be constructed in the future to keep up with demand. Merging heat and power in this system would create added benefits and help to increase its efficiency by up to 80-90%. This is a significant increase from the current fossil fuel plants which only have an efficiency of 34%.
## Small-scale green energy systems.
Those not satisfied with the third-party grid approach | 27,413 |
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to green energy via the power grid can install their own locally based renewable energy system. Renewable energy electrical systems from solar to wind to even local hydro-power in some cases, are some of the many types of renewable energy systems available locally. Additionally, for those interested in heating and cooling their dwelling via renewable energy, geothermal heat pump systems that tap the constant temperature of the earth, which is around 7 to 15 degrees Celsius a few feet underground and increases dramatically at greater depths, are an option over conventional natural gas and petroleum-fueled heat approaches. Also, in geographic locations where the Earth's Crust is especially thin, | 27,414 |
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or near volcanoes (as is the case in Iceland) there exists the potential to generate even more electricity than would be possible at other sites, thanks to a more significant temperature gradient at these locales.
The advantage of this approach in the United States is that many states offer incentives to offset the cost of installation of a renewable energy system. In California, Massachusetts and several other U.S. states, a new approach to community energy supply called Community Choice Aggregation has provided communities with the means to solicit a competitive electricity supplier and use municipal revenue bonds to finance development of local green energy resources. Individuals are usually | 27,415 |
1055890 | Sustainable energy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable%20energy | Sustainable energy
assured that the electricity they are using is actually produced from a green energy source that they control. Once the system is paid for, the owner of a renewable energy system will be producing their own renewable electricity for essentially no cost and can sell the excess to the local utility at a profit.
In household power systems, organic matter such as cow dung and spoilable organic matter can be converted to biochar. To eliminate emissions, carbon capture and storage is then used.
# Sustainable energy research.
There are numerous organizations within the academic, federal, and commercial sectors conducting large scale advanced research in the field of sustainable energy. Scientific | 27,416 |
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production towards sustainable energy systems is rising exponentially, growing from about 500 English journal papers only about renewable energy in 1992 to almost 9,000 papers in 2011.
## Biofuels.
Cellulosic ethanol has many benefits over traditional corn based-ethanol. It does not take away or directly conflict with the food supply because it is produced from wood, grasses, or non-edible parts of plants. Moreover, some studies have shown cellulosic ethanol to be potentially more cost effective and economically sustainable than corn-based ethanol. As of 2018, efforts to commercialize production of cellulosic ethanol have been mostly disappointing, but new commercial efforts are continuing.
Algae | 27,417 |
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fuel is an alternative to liquid fossil fuels that uses algae as its source of energy-rich oils. During the biofuel production process algae actually consumes the carbon dioxide in the air
and turns it into oxygen through photosynthesis. In addition to its projected high yield, algaculture— unlike food crop-based biofuels — does not entail a decrease in food production, since it requires neither farmland nor fresh water. Between 2005 and 2012, dozens of companies attempted to commercialize production of algae fuel. By 2017, however, most efforts had been abandoned or changed to other applications, with only a few remaining.
## Thorium.
There are potentially two sources of nuclear power. Fission | 27,418 |
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is used in all current nuclear power plants. Fusion is the reaction that exists in stars, including the sun, and remains impractical for use on Earth, as fusion reactors are not yet available. However nuclear power is controversial politically and scientifically due to concerns about radioactive waste disposal, safety, the risks of a severe accident, and technical and economical problems in dismantling of old power plants.
Thorium is a fissionable material used in thorium-based nuclear power. The thorium fuel cycle claims several potential advantages over a uranium fuel cycle, including greater abundance, superior physical and nuclear properties, better resistance to nuclear weapons proliferation | 27,419 |
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and reduced plutonium and actinide production. Therefore, it is sometimes referred as sustainable.
## Solar.
Currently, photovoltaic (PV) panels only have the ability to convert around 24% of the sunlight that hits them into electricity. At this rate, solar energy still holds many challenges for widespread implementation, but steady progress has been made in reducing manufacturing cost and increasing photovoltaic efficiency. In 2008, researchers at Massachusetts Institute of Technology (MIT) developed a method to store solar energy by using it to produce hydrogen fuel from water. Such research is targeted at addressing the obstacle that solar development faces of storing energy for use during | 27,420 |
1055890 | Sustainable energy | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Sustainable%20energy | Sustainable energy
nighttime hours when the sun is not shining.
In February 2012, North Carolina-based Semprius Inc., announced that they had developed the world’s most efficient solar panel. The company claims that the prototype converts 33.9% of the sunlight that hits it to electricity, more than double the previous high-end conversion rate. Major projects on artificial photosynthesis or solar fuels are also under way in many developed nations.
## Wind.
Wind energy research dates back several decades to the 1970s when NASA developed an analytical model to predict wind turbine power generation during high winds.
The Field Laboratory for Optimized Wind Energy (FLOWE) at Caltech was established to research | 27,421 |
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renewable approaches to wind energy farming technology practices that have the potential to reduce the cost, size, and environmental impact of wind energy production. The president of Sky WindPower Corporation thinks that wind turbines will be able to produce electricity at a cent/kWh at an average which in comparison to coal-generated electricity is a fractional of the cost.
A wind farm is a group of wind turbines in the same location used to produce electric power. A large wind farm may consist of several hundred individual wind turbines, and cover an extended area of hundreds of square miles, but the land between the turbines may be used for agricultural or other purposes. A wind farm may | 27,422 |
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also be located offshore.
Many of the largest operational onshore wind farms are located in the USA and China. Europe leads in the use of wind power with almost 66 GW, about 66 percent of the total globally, with Denmark in the lead according to the countries installed per-capita capacity.
Wind power has expanded quickly, its share of worldwide electricity usage at the end of 2014 was 3.1%.
## Geothermal.
Geothermal energy is produced by tapping into the thermal energy created and stored within the earth. It arises from the radioactive decay of an isotope of potassium and other elements found in the Earth's crust. Geothermal energy can be obtained by drilling into the ground, very similar | 27,423 |
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to oil exploration, and then it is carried by a heat-transfer fluid (e.g. water, brine or steam). Geothermal systems that are mainly dominated by water have the potential to provide greater benefits to the system and will generate more power. Within these liquid-dominated systems, there are possible concerns of subsidence and contamination of ground-water resources. Therefore, protection of ground-water resources is necessary in these systems. This means that careful reservoir production and engineering is necessary in liquid-dominated geothermal reservoir systems. Geothermal energy is considered sustainable because that thermal energy is constantly replenished.
## Hydrogen.
Over $1 billion | 27,424 |
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of federal money has been spent on the research and development of hydrogen and a medium for energy storage in the United States. (2012) Hydrogen is useful for energy storage, and for use in airplanes and ships, but is not practical for automobile use, as it is not very efficient, compared to using a battery — for the same cost a person can travel three times as far using a battery electric vehicle. Regardless of that opinion, Japanese car manufacturers Toyota and Honda currently offer hydrogen fuel-cell powered passenger vehicles for sale in Japan and the U.S.A. Experimental hydrogen fuel-cell city buses
are currently operative in two U.S. transit districts, Alameda/Contra Costa county, California, | 27,425 |
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and in Connecticut.. See List of fuel cell vehicles.
# Government promotion of sustainable energy.
Around the world many sub-national governments - regions, states and provinces - have aggressively pursued sustainable energy investments. In the United States, California's leadership in renewable energy was recognised by The Climate Group when it awarded former Governor Arnold Schwarzenegger its inaugural award for international climate leadership in Copenhagen in 2009. In Australia, the state of South Australia - under the leadership of former Premier Mike Rann - has led the way with wind power comprising 26% of its electricity generation by the end of 2011, edging out coal fired generation | 27,426 |
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for the first time. South Australia also has had the highest take-up per capita of household solar panels in Australia following the Rann Government's introduction of solar feed-in laws and educative campaign involving the installation of solar photovoltaic installations on the roofs of prominent public buildings, including the parliament, museum, airport and Adelaide Showgrounds pavilion and schools. Rann, Australia's first climate change minister, passed legislation in 2006 setting targets for renewable energy and emissions cuts, the first legislation in Australia to do so.
Also, in the European Union there is a clear trend of promoting policies encouraging investments and financing for sustainable | 27,427 |
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energy in terms of energy efficiency, innovation in energy exploitation and development of renewable resources, with increased consideration of environmental aspects and sustainability.
In October 2018, the American Council for an Energy-Efficient Economy (ACEEE) released its annual "State Energy Efficiency Scorecard." The scorecard concluded that states and electric utility companies are continuing to expand energy efficiency measures in order to meet clean energy goals. In 2017, the U.S. spent $6.6 billion in electricity efficiency programs. $1.3 billion was spent on natural gas efficiency. These programs resulted in 27.3 million megawatt hours (MWh) of electricity saved.
# Related journals.
Among | 27,428 |
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scientific journals related to the interdisciplinary study of sustainable energy are:
- "Energy and Environmental Science"
- "Energy for Sustainable Development"
- "Energy Policy"
- "Journal of Renewable and Sustainable Energy"
- "Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews"
# See also.
- Ashden Awards for sustainable energy
- Electric vehicle
- Environmental impact of the energy industry
- Energy Globe Award
- Energy hierarchy
- Energy park
- Hydrogen economy
- International Network for Sustainable Energy - INFORSE
- International Renewable Energy Agency
- Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
- Microgrid
- Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership - REEEP
- | 27,429 |
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le and Sustainable Energy"
- "Renewable and Sustainable Energy Reviews"
# See also.
- Ashden Awards for sustainable energy
- Electric vehicle
- Environmental impact of the energy industry
- Energy Globe Award
- Energy hierarchy
- Energy park
- Hydrogen economy
- International Network for Sustainable Energy - INFORSE
- International Renewable Energy Agency
- Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design (LEED)
- Microgrid
- Renewable Energy and Energy Efficiency Partnership - REEEP
- RESCO
- Sustainable Energy for All initiative
- GA Mansoori, N Enayati, LB Agyarko (2016), Energy: Sources, Utilization, Legislation, Sustainability, Illinois as Model State, World Sci. Pub. Co., | 27,430 |
1055984 | SS-Verfügungstruppe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS-Verfügungstruppe | SS-Verfügungstruppe
SS-Verfügungstruppe
SS-"Verfügungstruppe" (SS-VT) ("") was formed in 1934 as combat troops for the Nazi Party (NSDAP). On 17 August 1938 Adolf Hitler decreed that the SS-VT was neither a part of the police nor the German Wehrmacht, but military-trained men at the disposal of the Führer. At the time of war, the SS-VT were to be placed at the disposal of the army.
The SS-VT were involved in the German invasion of Poland in September 1939. By 1940 these military SS units had become the nucleus of the Waffen-SS.
# Formation.
The SS-VT, was formed on 24 September 1934 from a merger of various Nazi and paramilitary formations such as the SS Special Detachments ("SS-Sonderkommandos") and the Headquarters | 27,431 |
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Guard ("SS-Stabswache") units. The SS-VT was to be made up of three regiments modeled on the infantry regiments of the German Army ("Heer") and according to their regulations. Each regiment would contain three battalions, a motorcycle company and mortar company. The unit was officially designated "SS-Verfügungstruppe" ("Dispositional troops", i.e. troops at the personal disposal of the Führer). The men were to be volunteers who had completed their service in the "Reichsarbeitsdienst" (RAD; Reich Labour Service).
The existence of the "SS-Verfügungstruppe" (SS-VT) was publicly declared on 16 March 1935 by Hitler in a speech at the Reichstag. The SS-VT had to depend on the German Army for its | 27,432 |
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supply of weapons and military training, and they had control of the recruiting system through local draft boards responsible for assigning conscripts to the different branches of the Wehrmacht to meet quotas set by the German High Command ("Oberkommando der Wehrmacht" or OKW in German). The SS was given the lowest priority for recruits, thereby limiting its size.
In 1936, Himmler selected former Lieutenant General Paul Hausser to be Inspector of the SS-VT with the rank of "Brigadefuhrer". Hausser worked to transform the SS-VT into a credible military force that was a match for the regular army. The SS-VT trained alongside Hitler's personal body guard the "Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler" (LSSAH), | 27,433 |
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which had also been formed from the "SS-Stabswache" and "SS-Sonderkommando Berlin". The LSSAH under the command of Josef "Sepp" Dietrich continued to serve exclusively as a personal protection unit for Hitler and an honor guard during this timeframe.
By 1937 the SS was divided into three branches: the "Allgemeine-SS" (General SS), the "SS-Verfügungstruppe", and the "SS-Totenkopfverbände" (SS-TV) which administered the concentration camps. On 17 August 1938 Hitler decreed, that the SS military formations were to be placed at the "disposal" of the army in time of war. Hitler stated at Himmler's request, that service in the SS-VT qualified to fulfill military service obligations. Further, units | 27,434 |
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of the SS-TV would, during time of war, be used as reserves for the SS-VT. This would over the course of the war lead to a constant flux of men between the Waffen-SS and the Nazi concentration camps.
The military formations under Himmler's command on 1 September 1939 consisted of several subgroups:
- Hitler's bodyguard unit, the "Leibstandarte SS Adolf Hitler" (LSSAH) under Sepp Dietrich.
- The Inspectorate of "Verfügungstruppe" under Paul Hausser, which commanded the "Deutschland", "Germania" and "Der Führer" regiments.
- The Concentration Camps Inspectorate ("Inspektion der Konzentrationslager") under Theodor Eicke, which fielded four militarized Death's-Head "Standarten" comprising camp | 27,435 |
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guards of the "SS-Totenkopfverbände." The "SS-Totenkopf" Division was initially formed from concentration camp guards of the "Standarten" (regiments) of the SS-TV and the "SS Heimwehr Danzig" in October 1939. It was then folded into the Waffen-SS in August 1940. These troops wore the SS-TV skull and crossbones rather than the SS-VT "SS" runes.
- There were in addition combat-trained non-SS police units of "Obergruppenführer" Kurt Daluege's "Ordnungspolizei" which reported to Himmler in his capacity as Chief of German Police. For the 1940 campaigns these also would be formed into a division, which would be placed under Waffen-SS control in January 1941 and merged into it in February 1942.
# | 27,436 |
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Early operations.
Elements of the SS-VT served with the Wehrmacht during the occupation of the Sudetenland, Austria, and Czechoslovakia. For those operations, the SS-VT was under the command of the army. The SS-VT also formed an Artillery Regiment during this time-frame which was used to fill the gaps in a number of army units for those events. The SS-VT regiments "Deutschland" and "Germania" along with the "Leibstandarte" participated in the invasion of Poland, with "Der Führer" (recruited in Austria after the Anschluss) in reserve at Prague. In September 1939, a combined unit of SS-VT and Heer (army) troops conducted operations jointly as Panzer Division "Kempf" during the invasion of Poland. | 27,437 |
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It fought alongside army units at Rozan, Modlin, Łomża and Kmiczyn. The division was disbanded near the Polish city of Nidzica on 7 October 1939.
In spite of the swift military victory over Poland in September 1939, events during the invasion of Poland raised doubts over the combat effectiveness of the SS-VT. The OKW or "Oberkommando der Wehrmacht" (High Command of the Armed Forces) reported that the SS-VT units took unnecessary risks and had a higher casualty rate than the army. They also stated that the SS-VT was poorly trained and its officers unsuitable for combat command. As an example, OKW noted that the "Leibstandarte" had to be rescued by an army regiment after becoming surrounded at | 27,438 |
1055984 | SS-Verfügungstruppe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS-Verfügungstruppe | SS-Verfügungstruppe
Pabianice by the Poles. In its defence, the SS insisted that it had been hampered by having to fight piecemeal instead of as one formation, and was improperly equipped by the army to carry out its objectives. Himmler insisted that the SS-VT should be allowed to fight in its own formations under its own commanders, while the OKW tried to have the SS-VT disbanded altogether. Hitler was unwilling to upset either the army or Himmler, and chose a third path. He ordered that the SS-VT form its own divisions but that the divisions would be under army command.
In addition, Eicke's SS-TV field forces were not military, and during the invasion of Poland, "[t]heir...capabilities were employed instead | 27,439 |
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in terrorizing the civilian population through acts that included hunting down straggling Polish soldiers, confiscating agricultural produce and livestock, and torturing and murdering large numbers of Polish political leaders, aristocrats, businessmen, priests, intellectuals, and Jews." Further, members of the "Leibstandarte" also committed atrocities in numerous towns, including the murder of 50 Polish Jews in Błonie and the massacre of 200 civilians, including children, who were machine gunned in Złoczew. Shootings also took place in Bolesławiec, Torzeniec, Goworowo, Mława, and Włocławek.
# Development of the Waffen-SS.
In October 1939 the SS-VT regiments, "Deutschland", "Germania" and "Der | 27,440 |
1055984 | SS-Verfügungstruppe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS-Verfügungstruppe | SS-Verfügungstruppe
Führer", were organized into the "SS-Verfügungs-Division" with Paul Hausser as commander. The LSSAH was expanded into a motorized regiment.
In addition, the armed but ill-trained "Totenkopfstandarten", together with "SS Heimwehr Danzig" were organized into the "Totenkopf-Division" under Eicke's command in October 1939. A further division, the "Polizei-Division", was created from the "Ordnungspolizei". These formations took part in combat training while under army commands in preparation for Operation "Fall Gelb" against the Low Countries and France in 1940.
Elements of both the SS-VT and the LSSAH participated in the ground invasion of the Battle of the Netherlands. In the five-day campaign, | 27,441 |
1055984 | SS-Verfügungstruppe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS-Verfügungstruppe | SS-Verfügungstruppe
the LSSAH linked up with army units and airborne troops after a number of clashes with Dutch defenders. After the surrender of Rotterdam, the LSSAH left for the Hague, which they reached on 15 May, after capturing 3,500 Dutch soldiers as prisoners of war.
On 16 May, the SS "Totenkopf" Division was ordered to France and was attached to army divisions which formed the northern "spearhead" of attack. In France, the SS "Totenkopf" was involved in the only Allied tank attack in the Battle of France. On 21 May units of the 1st Army Tank Brigade, supported by the 50th (Northumbrian) Infantry Division, took part in the Battle of Arras. The SS "Totenkopf" was overrun, finding their standard anti-tank | 27,442 |
1055984 | SS-Verfügungstruppe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS-Verfügungstruppe | SS-Verfügungstruppe
gun, the 3.7 cm PaK 36, was no match for the British Matilda tank.
After the Dutch surrender, the LSSAH was moved south to France. On 24 May the LSSAH, along with the SS-VT division were positioned to hold the perimeter around Dunkirk and reduce the size of the pocket containing the encircled British Expeditionary Force and French forces. On 27 May, a unit from the "Totenkopf", the 4 Company, committed the Le Paradis massacre, where 97 captured men of the 2nd Battalion, Royal Norfolk Regiment were machine gunned after surrendering, with survivors finished off with bayonets. Two men survived. By 28 May the "SS-Leibstandarte" had taken the village of Wormhout, from Dunkirk. There, soldiers of | 27,443 |
1055984 | SS-Verfügungstruppe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS-Verfügungstruppe | SS-Verfügungstruppe
the 2nd Battalion were responsible for the Wormhoudt massacre, where 80 British and French soldiers were murdered after they surrendered.
After the close of the Battle of France, the SS-VT was officially renamed the Waffen-SS in a speech made by Adolf Hitler on 19 July 1940. Himmler also gained approval for the Waffen-SS to form its own high command, the "Kommandoamt der Waffen-SS" (Waffen-SS Command Office) within the "SS-Führungshauptamt" (FHA), which was created in August 1940 under "Gruppenführer" Hans Jüttner. The "Totenkopf" Division, together with the independent "Totenkopf-Standarten" were transferred to FHA control. Further that same month, SS chief-of-staff Gottlob Berger approached | 27,444 |
1055984 | SS-Verfügungstruppe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS-Verfügungstruppe | SS-Verfügungstruppe
Himmler with a plan to recruit volunteers in the conquered territories from the ethnic German and Germanic populations. At first Hitler had doubts about recruiting foreigners, but he was persuaded by Himmler and Berger. He gave approval for a new division to be formed from foreign nationals with German officers.
In December 1940 the "Germania" Regiment was removed from the "Verfügungs"-Division and used to form the cadre of a new division, SS-Division "Germania". It was made up of mostly "Nordic" volunteers from the newly conquered territories, Danes, Norwegians, Dutch and Flemings. By the start of 1941, "Germania" was renamed "Wiking" with command given to then "Brigadeführer" Felix Steiner, | 27,445 |
1055984 | SS-Verfügungstruppe | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=SS-Verfügungstruppe | SS-Verfügungstruppe
ade up of mostly "Nordic" volunteers from the newly conquered territories, Danes, Norwegians, Dutch and Flemings. By the start of 1941, "Germania" was renamed "Wiking" with command given to then "Brigadeführer" Felix Steiner, the former commander of the SS-VT regiment "Deutschland". The "Verfügungs-Division" was also renamed "Reich" (in 1942 "Das Reich"). The "Polizei" division was brought under Waffen-SS administration. The "Leibstandarte" was expanded to a division for Operation Barbarossa.
When the Waffen-SS divisions were assigned numbers much later in the war these first formations, "Leibstandarte, Das Reich, Totenkopf, Polizei" and "Wiking" were recognized as SS divisions 1 through 5. | 27,446 |
630 | Ada | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada | Ada
Ada
Ada may refer to:
# Places.
## Africa.
- Ada Foah or Ada, Ghana, a town
- Ada (Ghana parliament constituency)
- Ada, Delta, an Isoka town in Delta State, Nigeria
- Ada, Osun, a town in Osun State, Nigeria
## Asia.
- Adeh, Urmia, also known as Ada, a village in West Azerbaijan Province
- Ada, Karaman, a village in Karaman Province, Turkey
## Australia and New Zealand.
- Ada River (disambiguation), three rivers
## Europe.
- Ada, Croatia, a village
- Ada, Serbia, a town and municipality
- Ada Ciganlija or Ada, a river island artificially turned into a peninsula in Belgrade, Serbia
## North America.
### United States.
- Ada, Alabama, an unincorporated community
- Ada County, | 27,447 |
630 | Ada | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada | Ada
Idaho
- Ada, Kansas, an unincorporated community
- Ada Township, Michigan
- Ada, Minnesota, a city
- Ada Township, Dickey County, North Dakota
- Ada, Ohio, a village
- Ada, Oklahoma, a city
- Ada, Oregon, an unincorporated community
- Ada Township, Perkins County, South Dakota
- Ada, West Virginia, an unincorporated community
- Ada, Wisconsin, an unincorporated community
## Outer space.
- 523 Ada, an asteroid
# Film and television.
- Ada TV, a television channel in the Turkish Republic of Northern Cyprus
- "Ada" (film), a 1961 film by Daniel Mann
- "Ada... A Way of Life", a 2008 Bollywood musical by Tanvir Ahmed
- Ada (dog actor), a dog that played Colin on the sitcom "Spaced"
# | 27,448 |
630 | Ada | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada | Ada
Biology.
- "Ada" (plant), a genus of orchids
- Adenosine deaminase, an enzyme involved in purine metabolism
- Ada (protein), an enzyme induced by treatment of bacterial cells
# Computer science.
- Ada (programming language), programming language based on Pascal
- Ada (computer virus)
# Air travel.
- Ada Air, a regional airline based in Tirana, Albania
- Ada International Airport or Saipan International Airport, Saipan Island, Northern Mariana Islands
- Aerolínea de Antioquia, a Colombian airline
- Airline Deregulation Act, a 1978 US bill removing governmental control from commercial aviation
# Schools.
- Ada, the National College for Digital Skills, a further education college in | 27,449 |
630 | Ada | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada | Ada
Tottenham Hale, London
- Ada High School (Ohio), Ada, Ohio
- Ada High School (Oklahoma), Ada, Oklahoma
# People.
- Ada (name), a feminine given name and a surname, including a list of people and fictional characters
- Kawa Ada (born 1982), a Canadian actor, writer and producer
- Ada Lovelace (1815–1852), a computer scientist sometimes regarded as the first computer programmer
# Other uses.
- List of tropical storms named Ada
- Ada (food), a traditional Kerala delicacy
- Ada Bridge, Belgrade, Serbia
- , a cargo vessel built for the London and South Western Railway
- "Ada" (ship), a wooden ketch, wrecked near Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
- , novel by Vladimir Nabokov
- Dangme | 27,450 |
630 | Ada | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Ada | Ada
amed Ada
- Ada (food), a traditional Kerala delicacy
- Ada Bridge, Belgrade, Serbia
- , a cargo vessel built for the London and South Western Railway
- "Ada" (ship), a wooden ketch, wrecked near Newcastle, New South Wales, Australia
- , novel by Vladimir Nabokov
- Dangme language, spoken in Ghana (ISO 639-2 and 639-3 code "ada")
- Ada Health GmbH, a symptom checker app
# See also.
- ADA (disambiguation)
- Ada regulon, an Escherichia coli adaptive response protein
- Adah (disambiguation)
- Adha (disambiguation)
- Ada'a, a "woreda" in the Oromia Region of Ethiopia
- Ade (disambiguation)
- USS "Little Ada" (1864), a steamer captured by the Union Navy during the American Civil War | 27,451 |
632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aberdeen%20(disambiguation) | Aberdeen (disambiguation)
Aberdeen (disambiguation)
Aberdeen is a city in Scotland, United Kingdom.
Aberdeen may also refer to:
# Places.
## Africa.
- Aberdeen, Sierra Leone
- Aberdeen, Eastern Cape, South Africa
## Asia.
### Hong Kong.
- Aberdeen Channel, a channel between Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island) and Nam Long Shan on the Hong Kong Island in Hong Kong
- Aberdeen floating village, at Aberdeen Harbour, containing approximately 600 junks, which house an estimated 6,000 people
- Aberdeen Harbour, a harbour between Aberdeen, Hong Kong and Ap Lei Chau (Aberdeen Island)
- Aberdeen, Hong Kong, an area and town on southwest Hong Kong Island
- Aberdeen Tunnel, a tunnel in Hong Kong Island
- Ap Lei Chau or Aberdeen | 27,452 |
632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aberdeen%20(disambiguation) | Aberdeen (disambiguation)
Island, an island of Hong Kong
### India.
- Aberdeen Bazaar, a shopping centre in Port Blair, South Andaman Island
### Sri Lanka.
- Aberdeen Falls, a waterfall in Sri Lanka
## Australia.
- Aberdeen, New South Wales
- Aberdeen, South Australia, one of the early townships that merged in 1940 to create the town of Burra
- Aberdeen, Tasmania, a suburb of the City of Devonport
## Caribbean.
- Aberdeen, Jamaica, a town in Saint Elizabeth, Jamaica
## Europe.
- Aberdeen (Parliament of Scotland constituency)
- Aberdeen (UK Parliament constituency) 1832-1885
- Aberdeen Burghs (UK Parliament constituency) 1801-1832
- Aberdeen Central (Scottish Parliament constituency)
- Aberdeen Central | 27,453 |
632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aberdeen%20(disambiguation) | Aberdeen (disambiguation)
(UK Parliament constituency)
- Aberdeen Donside (Scottish Parliament constituency)
- County of Aberdeen, a historic county of Scotland whose county town was Aberdeen
- Old Aberdeen, a part of the city of Aberdeen in Scotland
## North America.
### Canada.
- Aberdeen, community in the township of Champlain, Prescott and Russell County, Ontario
- Aberdeen, Abbotsford, a neighbourhood in the City of Abbotsford, British Columbia
- Aberdeen Centre, a shopping mall in Richmond, British Columbia
- Aberdeen, Grey County, Ontario
- Aberdeen, Kamloops, an area in the City of Kamloops, British Columbia
- Aberdeen Lake (Nunavut), a lake in Kivalliq Region, Nunavut, Canada
- Aberdeen, Nova Scotia, | 27,454 |
632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aberdeen%20(disambiguation) | Aberdeen (disambiguation)
part of the Municipality of Inverness County, Nova Scotia
- Aberdeen Parish, New Brunswick
- Aberdeen, Saskatchewan
- Aberdeen Bay, a bay between southern Baffin Island and north-eastern Hector Island in the Nunavut territory
- Aberdeen Township, Quebec, until 1960 part of Sheen-Esher-Aberdeen-et-Malakoff, now part of Rapides-des-Joachims, Quebec
- New Aberdeen, Nova Scotia
- Rural Municipality of Aberdeen No. 373, Saskatchewan
### United States.
- Aberdeen, Arkansas
- Aberdeen, California
- Aberdeen, Florida
- Aberdeen, Georgia
- Aberdeen, Idaho
- Aberdeen, Ohio County, Indiana
- Aberdeen, Porter County, Indiana
- Aberdeen, Kentucky
- Aberdeen, Maryland
- Aberdeen, Massachusetts, | 27,455 |
632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aberdeen%20(disambiguation) | Aberdeen (disambiguation)
a neighborhood of Brighton, Boston
- Aberdeen, Mississippi
- Aberdeen Township, New Jersey
- Aberdeen, North Carolina
- Aberdeen, Ohio
- Aberdeen, South Dakota
- Aberdeen, Texas
- Aberdeen (Disputanta, Virginia)
- Aberdeen Gardens (Hampton, Virginia)
- Aberdeen, Washington
- Aberdeen, West Virginia
# Business.
- Aberdeen Asset Management
- Standard Life Aberdeen
# Education.
- Aberdeen Business School
- Aberdeen College, formerly one of the largest further education colleges in Scotland, merged with Banff & Buchan College to form North East Scotland College
- Aberdeen Grammar School, Aberdeen, Scotland
- Aberdeen Hall, a university-preparatory school in Kelowna, British Columbia, | 27,456 |
632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aberdeen%20(disambiguation) | Aberdeen (disambiguation)
Canada
- Aberdeen High School (disambiguation)
- King's College, Aberdeen
- University of Aberdeen, a public research university in the city of Aberdeen
# Entertainment.
- "Aberdeen" (2000 film), a 2000 Norwegian-British film directed by Hans Petter Moland, starring Stellan Skarsgård and Lena Headey
- "Aberdeen" (2014 film), a 2014 Hong Kong film starring Louis Koo
- Aberdeen (band), an American rock band
- Aberdeen (song), a song by Cage The Elephant
- Aberdeen City (band), Boston based indie/alternative rock band
# Other transportation.
- Aberdeen Airport (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen Lock and Dam, one of four lock and dam structures on the Tennessee-Tombigbee Waterway
# Rail.
- | 27,457 |
632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aberdeen%20(disambiguation) | Aberdeen (disambiguation)
Aberdeen, Carolina and Western Railway, a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina
- Aberdeen and Rockfish Railroad, a short-line railroad operating in North Carolina
- Aberdeen Corporation Tramways
- Aberdeen Line (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen station (disambiguation)
- Dundee and Perth and Aberdeen Junction Railway, a later name of the Dundee and Perth Railway
# Shipping.
- Aberdeen Line, a British shipping company founded in 1825
- , one of several ships by that name
- , a sloop of the British Royal Navy that served between 1936 and 1948
- , a merchant ship operated during the latter stages of World War II, later commissioned as the USS "Altair"
# Sports.
- Aberdeen Dad Vail | 27,458 |
632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aberdeen%20(disambiguation) | Aberdeen (disambiguation)
Regatta, the largest regular intercollegiate rowing event in the United States, named after its sponsor, Aberdeen Asset Management
- Aberdeen F.C. (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen GSFP RFC, an amateur rugby union club based in Aberdeen
- Aberdeen IronBirds, a minor league baseball team affiliated with the Baltimore Orioles
- Aberdeen L.F.C., a women's football team affiliated with Aberdeen F.C.
# See also.
- Aberdeen Act
- Aberdeen Angus, a Scottish breed of small beef cattle
- Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen Island (disambiguation)
- Battle of Aberdeen | 27,459 |
632 | Aberdeen (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aberdeen%20(disambiguation) | Aberdeen (disambiguation)
ased in Aberdeen
- Aberdeen IronBirds, a minor league baseball team affiliated with the Baltimore Orioles
- Aberdeen L.F.C., a women's football team affiliated with Aberdeen F.C.
# See also.
- Aberdeen Act
- Aberdeen Angus, a Scottish breed of small beef cattle
- Aberdeen Central (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen Gardens (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen Historic District (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen Hospital (disambiguation)
- Aberdeen Island (disambiguation)
- Battle of Aberdeen (disambiguation)
- Diocese of Aberdeen and Orkney, one of the seven dioceses of the Scottish Episcopal Church
- Etymology of Aberdeen
- Marquess of Aberdeen and Temair, a title in the Peerage of the United Kingdom | 27,460 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
Vulcan Iron Works
Vulcan Iron Works was the name of several iron foundries in both England and the United States during the Industrial Revolution and, in one case, lasting until the mid-20th century. Vulcan, the Roman god of fire and smithery, was a popular namesake for these foundries.
# England.
During the Industrial Revolution, numerous entrepreneurs independently founded factories named Vulcan Iron Works in England, notably that of Robinson Thwaites and Edward Carbutt at Bradford, and that of Thomas Clunes at Worcester, England. The largest of all the ironworks of Victorian England, the Cleveland Works of Bolckow Vaughan in Middlesbrough, were on Vulcan Street.
## Thwaites & Carbutt, | 27,461 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
Bradford.
The Vulcan Works at Thornton Road, Bradford was a spacious and handsome factory. It was described in Industries of Yorkshire as
## Ley's, Derby.
The Vulcan Iron Works at Osmaston Road, Derby was founded in 1874 by Francis Ley (1846-1916). On a site occupying 11 acres by the Birmingham and Derby Junction Railway, he manufactured castings for motor cars. The company became the Ley's Malleable Castings Company Ltd. In the London Gazette of April 14, 1876, Ley was granted a patent for "improvements in apparatus for locking and fastening nuts on fish plate and other bolts". The iron foundry was closed and demolished in 1986.
## McKenzie, Clunes & Holland, Worcester.
The Vulcan Iron | 27,462 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
Works at Cromwell Street, Worcester was founded in 1857 by Thomas Clunes (b. 1818, d. 28 September 1879). The firm started out as "Engineers, Millwrights, Iron & Brass Founders, Plumbers etc", according to the listing in "Kelly's Directory". The works had a single tall tapering square chimney, a covered area with open sides, and a handsome main building on a largely open site on the west side of the Worcester and Birmingham Canal.
By 1861, Clunes, a former "Plumber and Brass Founder" from Aberdeen, Scotland living in St Martin's, Worcester, with nine children, was a "Master Engineer employing 104 men and 10 boys"; his son Robert at age 11 was an "Apprentice to Engineer". In 1861, Clunes was | 27,463 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
joined by two former railwaymen, McKenzie and Holland, and the firm moved into railway signalling equipment. Clunes retired to Fowey, Cornwall, and his name was dropped from the company's name in the 1870s. The entry in the Worcestershire Post Office Directory for 1876 is simply "RAILWAY SIGNAL MANFRS. McKenzie & Holland, Vulcan Iron Works, Worcester."
## Vulcan Foundry, Newton-le-Willows.
The Vulcan Foundry at Newton-le-Willows produced ironwork for the Liverpool and Manchester Railway, as well as .
## Vulcan Iron Works, Langley Mill.
The G R Turner company's Vulcan Iron Works at Langley Mill, Derbyshire was built in 1874. GR Turner produced railway rolling stock until the 1960s; at its | 27,464 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
peak it employed 350 men. According to Grace's Guide, G R Turner was established in 1863; it became a Limited Company in 1902, and was registered on 29 January 1903 as acquiring T N Turner's business of "engineer, wheel and wagon maker"; in 1914 it was described as "Colliery Engineers" as well as making rolling stock, with 800 engineers.
## Vulcan Ironworks, Preston.
In 1857 the firm of Baxendale and Gregson was founded in Shepherd Street, Preston, Lancashire. When the works there became too small, the business moved to a new Vulcan Ironworks, built at Salter Street, just off North Road, Preston, under the name Gregson and Monk.
In 1873, James Gregson bought 82 acres of land at Fulwood; in | 27,465 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
1876 he built Highgate Park mansion with the land as its extensive gardens. He owned much property in Preston and was a councillor of Fulwood District. His son George Frederick Gregson ran the firm after him.
When Monk retired in March 1874, James Gregson became sole proprietor. He employed about 400 men, making up to 100 weaving looms per week. Over 25,000 looms made by Gregson were claimed to be at work in or near Preston in 1884.
The machines made by the firm included:
The ironworks was reported in 1884 to have grindstones of 7 ft (2 metre) diameter; "two cupolas blown by fans, one of which is capable of melting twenty tons of metal per day"; cranes and hoists; a brass moulding shop; a | 27,466 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
sand mill (for the mouldings); and a machine for grinding coal to dust. The buildings included a draughtsmen's office; a pattern makers' and joiners' shop; a packing room; an erecting and turning shop; and a smithy. All the machines were driven by rope from a single large wheel; two horizontal steam engines powered the entire ironworks. The journalist noted that "The death rate among grinders is very high indeed, which it is almost impossible to prevent."
# United States.
## Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania.
Vulcan Iron Works, based in Wilkes-Barre, Pennsylvania, manufactured railroad locomotives such as those shown in the illustration. The company was established in 1849 by Richard Jones. It built | 27,467 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
locomotives such as the preserved Berlin Mills Railway 7 (1911), and by 1944 was constructing both steam and diesel locomotives, as illustrated (right). The company ceased operation in 1954.
### War-time service.
In February 1944, before the 'D-Day' Normandy landings, the company claimed
Today, hundreds of Vulcan locomotives are rendering vitally important war-time service, both at home and overseas, and our shops are working at top speed to complete urgent orders for Army, Navy and defense plant requirements. Tomorrow, more and larger Vulcan locomotives will be available to help rebuild a war-torn world. Our manufacturing facilities are being enlarged and improved ...
### Locomotives.
Vulcan | 27,468 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
produced a wide variety of steam locomotives, mostly small but some with up to eight driving wheels. With the advent of internal combustion technology, the firm began producing small locomotives fueled not only with gasoline, but also benzine, alcohol, kerosene and naptha. Vulcan produced its first diesel locomotives in the 1920s; a total of 54 diesel-electric switcher units (each weighing or more) came out of Vulcan's shops between 1938 and 1954. Its largest unit was a B-B unit built for Carnegie Steel Company in 1944. It also constructed the TCDD 56301 Class for the Turkish State Railways in 1947.
Vulcan built a large number of gasoline-powered locomotives with a mechanical drive, such as | 27,469 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
the Maumelle Ordnance Works Locomotive 1, built in 1942.
## Seattle.
The Vulcan Iron Works in Seattle had Jacob Furth as its president. Furth ran the Vulcan Iron Works along with the Puget Sound Electric Railway and street railways on the Puget Sound.
## San Francisco.
A Vulcan Iron Works was established at 135 Fremont Street, San Francisco in 1850 during the California gold rush. The factory occupied the block bounded by Fremont, Mission, Howard, and First Streets. The factory maintained the name through a number of owners building boilers, steam engines, mining machinery, sawmills, and some relatively primitive steam locomotives for 19th century California railroads. It built the Oregon | 27,470 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
Pony in 1861. The factory was destroyed by the 1906 San Francisco earthquake, but steel fabrication activities resumed on the site after the quake.
## Charleston.
There was a Vulcan Iron Works on Cumberland Street, Charleston, South Carolina in 1865.
# See also.
- Vulcan (motor vehicles)
# External links.
- Preserved Vulcan Iron Works steam locomotive list
- Photograph of Vulcan Iron Works Worcester steel at Shrub Hill station
- Photograph of Gregson and Monk Engineers, Salter Street, Preston
- Photograph of a Gregson and Monk power loom
- Photograph of James Gregson's Highgate Park mansion, Preston in 1900
- Photograph of a grate, cast by Vulcan Iron Works San Francisco
- Finding | 27,471 |
1056006 | Vulcan Iron Works | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Vulcan%20Iron%20Works | Vulcan Iron Works
Francisco earthquake, but steel fabrication activities resumed on the site after the quake.
## Charleston.
There was a Vulcan Iron Works on Cumberland Street, Charleston, South Carolina in 1865.
# See also.
- Vulcan (motor vehicles)
# External links.
- Preserved Vulcan Iron Works steam locomotive list
- Photograph of Vulcan Iron Works Worcester steel at Shrub Hill station
- Photograph of Gregson and Monk Engineers, Salter Street, Preston
- Photograph of a Gregson and Monk power loom
- Photograph of James Gregson's Highgate Park mansion, Preston in 1900
- Photograph of a grate, cast by Vulcan Iron Works San Francisco
- Finding Aid for Vulcan Iron Works collection at Hagley Library | 27,472 |
661 | Argument (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argument%20(disambiguation) | Argument (disambiguation)
Argument (disambiguation)
In logic and philosophy, an argument is an attempt to persuade someone of something, or give evidence or reasons for accepting a particular conclusion.
Argument may also refer to:
# Mathematics and computer science.
- Argument (complex analysis), a function which returns the polar angle of a complex number
- Parameter (computer programming), a piece of data provided as input to a subroutine
- Argument principle, a theorem in complex analysis
- An argument of a function, also known as an independent variable
# Language and rhetoric.
- Argument (literature), a brief summary, often in prose, of a poem or section of a poem or other work
- Argument (linguistics), | 27,473 |
661 | Argument (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argument%20(disambiguation) | Argument (disambiguation)
a phrase that appears in a syntactic relationship with the verb in a clause
- Oral argument in the United States, a spoken presentation to a judge or appellate court by a lawyer (or parties when representing themselves) of the legal reasons why they should prevail
- Closing argument, in law, the concluding statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important arguments in a court case
# Other uses.
- Musical argument, a concept in the theory of musical form
- "Argument" (ship), an Australian sloop wrecked in 1809
- "Das Argument", a German academic journal
- Argument Clinic, a Monty Python sketch
- A disagreement between two or more parties or the discussion of the disagreement
- | 27,474 |
661 | Argument (disambiguation) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Argument%20(disambiguation) | Argument (disambiguation)
a clause
- Oral argument in the United States, a spoken presentation to a judge or appellate court by a lawyer (or parties when representing themselves) of the legal reasons why they should prevail
- Closing argument, in law, the concluding statement of each party's counsel reiterating the important arguments in a court case
# Other uses.
- Musical argument, a concept in the theory of musical form
- "Argument" (ship), an Australian sloop wrecked in 1809
- "Das Argument", a German academic journal
- Argument Clinic, a Monty Python sketch
- A disagreement between two or more parties or the discussion of the disagreement
- Argument (horse)
# See also.
- The Argument (disambiguation) | 27,475 |
643 | Appellate court | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20court | Appellate court
Appellate court
An appellate court, commonly called an appeals court, court of appeals (American English), appeal court (British English), court of second instance or second instance court, is any court of law that is empowered to hear an appeal of a trial court or other lower tribunal. In most jurisdictions, the court system is divided into at least three levels: the trial court, which initially hears cases and reviews evidence and testimony to determine the facts of the case; at least one intermediate appellate court; and a supreme court (or court of last resort) which primarily reviews the decisions of the intermediate courts. A jurisdiction's supreme court is that jurisdiction's highest | 27,476 |
643 | Appellate court | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20court | Appellate court
appellate court. Appellate courts nationwide can operate under varying rules.
The authority of appellate courts to review the decisions of lower courts varies widely from one jurisdiction to another. In some areas, the appellate court has limited powers of review. Generally, an appellate court's judgment provides the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified.
# Bifurcation of civil and criminal appeals.
While many appellate courts have jurisdiction over all cases decided by lower courts, some systems have appellate courts divided by | 27,477 |
643 | Appellate court | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20court | Appellate court
the type of jurisdiction they exercise. Some jurisdictions have specialized appellate courts, such as the Texas Court of Criminal Appeals, which only hears appeals raised in criminal cases, and the U.S. Court of Appeals for the Federal Circuit, which has general jurisdiction but derives most of its caseload from patent cases, on one hand, and appeals from the Court of Federal Claims on the other. In the United States, Alabama, Tennessee, and Oklahoma also have separate courts of criminal appeals. Texas and Oklahoma have the final determination of criminal cases vested in their respective courts of criminal appeals, while Alabama and Tennessee allow decisions of its court of criminal appeals | 27,478 |
643 | Appellate court | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20court | Appellate court
to be finally appealed to the state supreme court.
## Courts of criminal appeals.
Court of Criminal Appeals include:
- Civilian
- Court of Criminal Appeal (United Kingdom)
- Court of Criminal Appeal (Ireland)
- U.S. States:
- Alabama Court of Criminal Appeals
- Oklahoma Court of Criminal Appeals
- Tennessee Court of Criminal Appeals
- Texas Court of Criminal Appeals
- Military
- United States Army Court of Criminal Appeals
- Navy-Marine Corps Court of Criminal Appeals (United States)
- Coast Guard Court of Criminal Appeals (United States)
- Air Force Court of Criminal Appeals (United States)
## Courts of civil appeals.
- Alabama Court of Civil Appeals
- Oklahoma Court of Civil | 27,479 |
643 | Appellate court | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20court | Appellate court
Appeals
# Appellate courts by country.
## New Zealand.
The Court of Appeal of New Zealand, located in Wellington, is New Zealand's principal intermediate appellate court. In practice, most appeals are resolved at this intermediate appellate level, rather than in the Supreme Court.
## Sri Lanka.
The Court of Appeal of Sri Lanka, located in Colombo, is the second senior court in the Sri Lankan legal system.
## United States.
In the United States, both state and federal appellate courts are usually restricted to examining whether the lower court made the correct legal determinations, rather than hearing direct evidence and determining what the facts of the case were. Furthermore, U.S. appellate | 27,480 |
643 | Appellate court | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20court | Appellate court
courts are usually restricted to hearing appeals based on matters that were originally brought up before the trial court. Hence, such an appellate court will not consider an appellant's argument if it is based on a theory that is raised for the first time in the appeal.
In most U.S. states, and in U.S. federal courts, parties before the court are allowed one appeal as of right. This means that a party who is unsatisfied with the outcome of a trial may bring an appeal to contest that outcome. However, appeals may be costly, and the appellate court must find an error on the part of the court below that justifies upsetting the verdict. Therefore, only a small proportion of trial court decisions | 27,481 |
643 | Appellate court | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20court | Appellate court
result in appeals. Some appellate courts, particularly supreme courts, have the power of discretionary review, meaning that they can decide whether they will hear an appeal brought in a particular case.
### Institutional titles.
Many U.S. jurisdictions title their appellate court an court of appeal or court of appeals. Historically, others have titled their appellate court a court of errors (or court of errors and appeals), on the premise that it was intended to correct errors made by lower courts. Examples of such courts include the New Jersey Court of Errors and Appeals (which existed from 1844 to 1947), the Connecticut Supreme Court of Errors (which has been renamed the Connecticut Supreme | 27,482 |
643 | Appellate court | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20court | Appellate court
Court), the Kentucky Court of Errors (renamed the Kentucky Supreme Court), and the Mississippi High Court of Errors and Appeals (since renamed the Supreme Court of Mississippi). In some jurisdictions, a court able to hear appeals is known as an appellate division.
The phrase "court of appeals" most often refers to intermediate appellate courts. However, the Maryland and New York systems are different. The Maryland Court of Appeals and the New York Court of Appeals are the highest appellate courts in those states. The New York Supreme Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction. Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of | 27,483 |
643 | Appellate court | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20court | Appellate court
e courts in those states. The New York Supreme Court is a trial court of general jurisdiction. Depending on the system, certain courts may serve as both trial courts and appellate courts, hearing appeals of decisions made by courts with more limited jurisdiction.
# See also.
- Court of Criminal Appeal (disambiguation)
- Court of Appeal (Hong Kong)
- High Court (Hong Kong)
- Court of Appeal (England and Wales)
# References.
- Appeals courts are like second chances in the court systems
- Lax, Jeffrey R. "Constructing Legal Rules on Appellate Courts." American Political Science Review 101.3 (2007): 591-604. Sociological Abstracts; Worldwide Political Science Abstracts. Web. 29 May 2012. | 27,484 |
642 | Answer (law) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Answer%20(law) | Answer (law)
Answer (law)
In law, an Answer was originally a solemn assertion in opposition to someone or something, and thus generally any counter-statement or defense, a reply to a question or response, or objection, or a correct solution of a problem.
In the common law, an Answer is the first pleading by a defendant, usually filed and served upon the plaintiff within a certain strict time limit after a civil complaint or criminal information or indictment has been served upon the defendant. It may have been preceded by an "optional" "pre-answer" motion to dismiss or demurrer; if such a motion is unsuccessful, the defendant "must" file an answer to the complaint or risk an adverse default judgment.
In | 27,485 |
642 | Answer (law) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Answer%20(law) | Answer (law)
a criminal case, there is usually an arraignment or some other kind of appearance before the defendant comes to court. The pleading in the criminal case, which is entered on the record in open court, is usually either guilty or not guilty. Generally speaking in private, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction. Criminal cases may lead to fines or other punishment, such as imprisonment.
The famous Latin "Responsa Prudentium" ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of | 27,486 |
642 | Answer (law) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Answer%20(law) | Answer (law)
rivate, civil cases there is no plea entered of guilt or innocence. There is only a judgment that grants money damages or some other kind of equitable remedy such as restitution or a permanent injunction. Criminal cases may lead to fines or other punishment, such as imprisonment.
The famous Latin "Responsa Prudentium" ("answers of the learned ones") were the accumulated views of many successive generations of Roman lawyers, a body of legal opinion which gradually became authoritative.
During debates of a contentious nature, deflection, colloquially known as 'changing the topic', has been widely observed, and is often seen as a failure to answer a question.
# External links.
- Answers key | 27,487 |
649 | Arraignment | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arraignment | Arraignment
Arraignment
Arraignment is a formal reading of a criminal charging document in the presence of the defendant to inform the defendant of the charges against the defendant. In response to arraignment, the accused is expected to enter a plea. Acceptable pleas vary among jurisdictions, but they generally include "guilty", "not guilty", and the peremptory pleas (or pleas in bar) setting out reasons why a trial cannot proceed. Pleas of "nolo contendere" (no contest) and the ""Alford" plea" are allowed in some circumstances.
# Australia.
In Australia, arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment. The judge will testify | 27,488 |
649 | Arraignment | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arraignment | Arraignment
during the indictment process.
# Canada.
In every province in Canada except British Columbia, defendants are arraigned on the day of their trial. In British Columbia, arraignment takes places in one of the first few court appearances by the defendant or their lawyer. The defendant is asked whether he or she pleads guilty or not guilty to each charge.
# France.
In France, the general rule is that one cannot remain in police custody for more than 24 hours from the time of the arrest. However, police custody can last another 24 hours in specific circumstances, especially if the offence is punishable by at least one year's imprisonment, or if the investigation is deemed to require the extra | 27,489 |
649 | Arraignment | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arraignment | Arraignment
time, and can last up to 96 hours in certain cases involving terrorism, drug trafficking or organised crime. The police needs to have the consent of the prosecutor (in the vast majority of cases, the prosecutor will consent).
# Germany.
In Germany, if one has been arrested and taken into custody by the police one must be brought before a judge as soon as possible and at the latest on the day after the arrest.
# New Zealand.
At the first appearance, the accused is read the charges and asked for a plea. The available pleas are, guilty, not guilty, and no plea. No plea allows the defendant to get legal advice on the plea, which must be made on the second appearance.
# South Africa.
In South | 27,490 |
649 | Arraignment | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arraignment | Arraignment
Africa, arraignment is defined as the calling upon the accused to appear, the informing of the accused of the crime charged against him, the demanding of the accused whether he be guilty or not guilty, and the entering of his plea. His plea having been entered he is said to stand arraigned.
# United Kingdom.
In England, Wales, and Northern Ireland, arraignment is the first of eleven stages in a criminal trial, and involves the clerk of the court reading out the indictment.
In England and Wales, the police cannot legally detain anyone for more than 24 hours without charging them unless an officer with the rank of superintendent (or above) authorises detention for a further 12 hours (36 hours | 27,491 |
649 | Arraignment | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arraignment | Arraignment
total), or a judge (who will be a magistrate) authorises detention by the police before charge for up to a maximum of 96 hours, but for terrorism-related offences people can be held by the police for up to 28 days before charge. If they are not released after being charged, they should be brought before a court as soon as practicable.
# United States.
Under the United States Federal Rules of Criminal Procedure, "arraignment shall [...] [consist of an] open [...] reading [of] the indictment [...] to the defendant [...] and call[] on him to plead thereto. He/she shall be given a copy of the indictment [...] before he/she is called upon to plead."
In federal courts, arraignment takes place in | 27,492 |
649 | Arraignment | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arraignment | Arraignment
two stages. The first is called the initial arraignment and must take place within 48 hours of an individual's arrest, 72 hours if the individual was arrested on the weekend and not able to go before a judge until Monday. During this arraignment the defendant is informed of the pending legal charges and is informed of his or her right to retain counsel. The presiding judge also decides at what amount, if any, to set bail. During the second arraignment, a post-indictment arraignment or PIA, the defendant is allowed to enter a plea.
In New York, most people arrested must be released if they are not arraigned within 24 hours.
In California, arraignments must be conducted without unnecessary delay | 27,493 |
649 | Arraignment | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arraignment | Arraignment
and, in any event, within 48 hours of arrest, excluding weekends and holidays.
# Form of the arraignment.
The wording of the arraignment varies from jurisdiction to jurisdiction. However, it generally conforms with the following principles:
- 1. The accused person (defendant) is addressed by name;
- 2. The charge against the accused person is read, including the alleged date, time, and place of offense (and sometimes the names of the state's witnesses and the range of punishment for the charge(s)); and,
- 3. The accused person is asked formally how he or she pleads.
# Video arraignment.
Video arraignment is the act of conducting the arraignment process using some form of videoconferencing | 27,494 |
649 | Arraignment | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arraignment | Arraignment
technology. Use of video arraignment system allows the courts to conduct the requisite arraignment process without the need to transport the defendant to the courtroom by using an audio-visual link between the location where the defendant is being held and the courtroom.
Use of the video arraignment process addresses the problems associated with having to transport defendants. The transportation of defendants requires time, puts additional demands on the public safety organizations to provide for the safety of the public, court personnel and for the security of the population held in detention. It also addresses the rising costs of transportation.
# Guilty and not-guilty pleas.
If the defendant | 27,495 |
649 | Arraignment | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arraignment | Arraignment
pleads guilty, an evidentiary hearing usually follows. The court is not required to accept a guilty plea. During the hearing, the judge assesses the offense, the mitigating factors, and the defendant's character, and passes sentence.
If the defendant pleads not guilty, a date is set for a preliminary hearing or a trial.
In the past, a defendant who refused to plead (or "stood mute") was subject to peine forte et dure (Law French for "strong and hard punishment"). Today in common-law jurisdictions, the court enters a plea of not guilty for a defendant who refuses to enter a plea. The rationale for this is the defendant's right to silence.
# Pre-trial release.
This is also often the stage | 27,496 |
649 | Arraignment | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Arraignment | Arraignment
mitigating factors, and the defendant's character, and passes sentence.
If the defendant pleads not guilty, a date is set for a preliminary hearing or a trial.
In the past, a defendant who refused to plead (or "stood mute") was subject to peine forte et dure (Law French for "strong and hard punishment"). Today in common-law jurisdictions, the court enters a plea of not guilty for a defendant who refuses to enter a plea. The rationale for this is the defendant's right to silence.
# Pre-trial release.
This is also often the stage at which arguments for or against pre-trial release and bail may be made, depending on the alleged crime and jurisdiction.
# See also.
- Desk appearance ticket | 27,497 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
American National Standards Institute
The American National Standards Institute (ANSI ) is a private non-profit organization that oversees the development of voluntary consensus standards for products, services, processes, systems, and personnel in the United States. The organization also coordinates U.S. standards with international standards so that American products can be used worldwide.
ANSI accredits standards that are developed by representatives of other standards organizations, government agencies, consumer groups, companies, and others. These standards ensure that the characteristics and performance of products are consistent, that people use the same definitions and terms, and that | 27,498 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
products are tested the same way. ANSI also accredits organizations that carry out product or personnel certification in accordance with requirements defined in international standards.
The organization's headquarters are in Washington, D.C. ANSI's operations office is located in New York City. The ANSI annual operating budget is funded by the sale of publications, membership dues and fees, accreditation services, fee-based programs, and international standards programs.
# History.
ANSI was originally formed in 1918, when five engineering societies and three government agencies founded the American Engineering Standards Committee (AESC). In 1928, the AESC became the American Standards Association | 27,499 |
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