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659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
(ASA). In 1966, the ASA was reorganized and became United States of America Standards Institute (USASI). The present name was adopted in 1969.
Prior to 1918, these five founding engineering societies:
- American Institute of Electrical Engineers (AIEE, now IEEE)
- American Society of Mechanical Engineers (ASME)
- American Society of Civil Engineers (ASCE)
- American Institute of Mining Engineers (AIME, now American Institute of Mining, Metallurgical, and Petroleum Engineers)
- American Society for Testing and Materials (now ASTM International)
had been members of the United Engineering Society (UES). At the behest of the AIEE, they invited the U.S. government Departments of War, Navy | 27,500 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
(combined in 1947 to become the Department of Defense or DOD) and Commerce to join in founding a national standards organization.
According to Adam Stanton, the first permanent secretary and head of staff in 1919, AESC started as an ambitious program and little else. Staff for the first year consisted of one executive, Clifford B. LePage, who was on loan from a founding member, ASME. An annual budget of $7,500 was provided by the founding bodies.
In 1931, the organization (renamed ASA in 1928) became affiliated with the U.S. National Committee of the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), which had been formed in 1904 to develop electrical and electronics standards.
# Members.
ANSI's | 27,501 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
members are government agencies, organizations, academic and international bodies, and individuals. In total, the Institute represents the interests of more than 270,000 companies and organizations and 30 million professionals worldwide.
# Process.
Although ANSI itself does not develop standards, the Institute oversees the development and use of standards by accrediting the procedures of standards developing organizations. ANSI accreditation signifies that the procedures used by standards developing organizations meet the Institute's requirements for openness, balance, consensus, and due process.
ANSI also designates specific standards as American National Standards, or ANS, when the Institute | 27,502 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
determines that the standards were developed in an environment that is equitable, accessible and responsive to the requirements of various stakeholders.
Voluntary consensus standards quicken the market acceptance of products while making clear how to improve the safety of those products for the protection of consumers. There are approximately 9,500 American National Standards that carry the ANSI designation.
The American National Standards process involves:
- consensus by a group that is open to representatives from all interested parties
- broad-based public review and comment on draft standards
- consideration of and response to comments
- incorporation of submitted changes that meet | 27,503 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
the same consensus requirements into a draft standard
- availability of an appeal by any participant alleging that these principles were not respected during the standards-development process.
# International activities.
In addition to facilitating the formation of standards in the United States, ANSI promotes the use of U.S. standards internationally, advocates U.S. policy and technical positions in international and regional standards organizations, and encourages the adoption of international standards as national standards where appropriate.
The Institute is the official U.S. representative to the two major international standards organizations, the International Organization for Standardization | 27,504 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
(ISO), as a founding member, and the International Electrotechnical Commission (IEC), via the U.S. National Committee (USNC). ANSI participates in almost the entire technical program of both the ISO and the IEC, and administers many key committees and subgroups. In many instances, U.S. standards are taken forward to ISO and IEC, through ANSI or the USNC, where they are adopted in whole or in part as international standards.
Adoption of ISO and IEC standards as American standards increased from 0.2% in 1986 to 15.5% in May 2012.
## Standards panels.
The Institute administers nine standards panels:
- ANSI Homeland Defense and Security Standardization Collaborative (HDSSC)
- ANSI Nanotechnology | 27,505 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
Standards Panel (ANSI-NSP)
- ID Theft Prevention and ID Management Standards Panel (IDSP)
- ANSI Energy Efficiency Standardization Coordination Collaborative (EESCC)
- Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC)
- Electric Vehicles Standards Panel (EVSP)
- ANSI-NAM Network on Chemical Regulation
- ANSI Biofuels Standards Coordination Panel
- Healthcare Information Technology Standards Panel (HITSP)
Each of the panels works to identify, coordinate, and harmonize voluntary standards relevant to these areas.
In 2009, ANSI and the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) formed the Nuclear Energy Standards Coordination Collaborative (NESCC). NESCC is a joint | 27,506 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
initiative to identify and respond to the current need for standards in the nuclear industry.
## American national standards.
- The ASA (as for American Standards Association) photographic exposure system, originally defined in ASA Z38.2.1 (since 1943) and ASA PH2.5 (since 1954), together with the DIN system (DIN 4512 since 1934), became the basis for the ISO system (since 1974), currently used worldwide (ISO 6, ISO 2240, ISO 5800, ISO 12232).
- A standard for the set of values used to represent characters in digital computers. The ANSI code standard extended the previously created ASCII seven bit code standard (ASA X3.4-1963), with additional codes for European alphabets (see also Extended | 27,507 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
Binary Coded Decimal Interchange Code or EBCDIC). In Microsoft Windows, the phrase "ANSI" refers to the Windows ANSI code pages (even though they are not ANSI standards). Most of these are fixed width, though some characters for ideographic languages are variable width. Since these characters are based on a draft of the ISO-8859 series, some of Microsoft's symbols are visually very similar to the ISO symbols, leading many to falsely assume that they are identical.
- The first computer programming language standard was "American Standard Fortran" (informally known as "FORTRAN 66"), approved in March 1966 and published as ASA X3.9-1966.
- The programming language COBOL had ANSI standards in | 27,508 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
1968, 1974, and 1985. The COBOL 2002 standard was issued by ISO.
- The original standard implementation of the C programming language was standardized as ANSI X3.159-1989, becoming the well-known ANSI C.
- The X3J13 committee was created in 1986 to formalize the ongoing consolidation of Common Lisp, culminating in 1994 with the publication of ANSI's first object-oriented programming standard.
- A popular Unified Thread Standard for nuts and bolts is ANSI/ASME B1.1 which was defined in 1935, 1949, 1989, and 2003.
- The ANSI-NSF International standards used for commercial kitchens, such as restaurants, cafeterias, delis, etc.
- The ANSI/APSP (Association of Pool & Spa Professionals) standards | 27,509 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
used for pools, spas, hot tubs, barriers, and suction entrapment avoidance.
- The ANSI/HI (Hydraulic Institute) standards used for pumps.
- The ANSI for eye protection is Z87.1, which gives a specific impact resistance rating to the eyewear. This standard is commonly used for shop glasses, shooting glasses, and many other examples of protective eyewear.
- The ANSI paper sizes (ANSI/ASME Y14.1).
## Other initiatives.
- In 2008, ANSI, in partnership with Citation Technologies, created the first dynamic, online web library for ISO 14000 standards.
- On June 23, 2009, ANSI announced a product and services agreement with Citation Technologies to deliver all ISO Standards on a web-based platform. | 27,510 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
Through the ANSI-Citation partnership, 17,765 International Standards developed by more than 3,000 ISO technical bodies will be made available on the citation platform, arming subscribers with powerful search tools and collaboration, notification, and change-management functionality.
- ANSI, in partnership with Citation Technologies, AAMI, ASTM, and DIN, created a single, centralized database for medical device standards on September 9, 2009.Medical Device Standards Database Press Release 09/09/09/ref
- In early 2009, ANSI launched a new Certificate Accreditation Program (ANSI-CAP) to provide neutral, third-party attestation that a given certificate program meets the American National Standard | 27,511 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
ASTM E2659-09.
- In 2009, ANSI began accepting applications for certification bodies seeking accreditation according to requirements defined under the Toy Safety Certification Program (TSCP) as the official third-party accreditor of TSCP's product certification bodies.
- In 2006, ANSI launched www.StandardsPortal.org, an online resource for facilitating more open and efficient trade between international markets in the areas of standards, conformity assessment, and technical regulations. The site currently features content for China, India, and Korea, with additional countries and regions planned for future content.
- ANSI design standards have also been incorporated into building codes encompassing | 27,512 |
659 | American National Standards Institute | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=American%20National%20Standards%20Institute | American National Standards Institute
ntent for China, India, and Korea, with additional countries and regions planned for future content.
- ANSI design standards have also been incorporated into building codes encompassing several specific building sub-sets, such as the ANSI/SPRI ES-1, which pertains to "Wind Design Standard for Edge Systems Used With Low Slope Roofing Systems", for example.
# See also.
- Accredited Crane Operator Certification
- ANSI ASC X9
- ANSI ASC X12
- ANSI C
- Institute of Environmental Sciences and Technology (IEST)
- Institute of Nuclear Materials Management (INMM)
- ISO (to which ANSI is the official US representative)
- National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST)
- Open standards | 27,513 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
America the Beautiful
"America the Beautiful" is an American patriotic song. The lyrics were written by Katharine Lee Bates, and the music was composed by church organist and choirmaster Samuel A. Ward at Grace Episcopal Church in Newark, New Jersey. The two never met.
Bates originally wrote the words as a poem, "Pikes Peak", first published in the Fourth of July edition of the church periodical "The Congregationalist" in 1895. At that time, the poem was titled "America" for publication. Ward had originally written the music, "Materna", for the hymn "O Mother dear, Jerusalem" in 1882, though it was not first published until 1892. Ward's music combined with the Bates poem was first published | 27,514 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
in 1910 and titled "America the Beautiful". The song is one of the most popular of the many U.S. patriotic songs.
# History.
In 1893, at the age of 33, Bates, an English professor at Wellesley College, had taken a train trip to Colorado Springs, Colorado, to teach a short summer school session at Colorado College. Several of the sights on her trip inspired her, and they found their way into her poem, including the World's Columbian Exposition in Chicago, the "White City" with its promise of the future contained within its gleaming white buildings; the wheat fields of America's heartland Kansas, through which her train was riding on July 16; and the majestic view of the Great Plains from high | 27,515 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
atop Pikes Peak.
On the pinnacle of that mountain, the words of the poem started to come to her, and she wrote them down upon returning to her hotel room at the original Antlers Hotel. The poem was initially published two years later in "The Congregationalist" to commemorate the Fourth of July. It quickly caught the public's fancy. Amended versions were published in 1904 and 1911.
The first known melody written for the song was sent in by Silas Pratt when the poem was published in "The Congregationalist". By 1900, at least 75 different melodies had been written. A hymn tune composed in 1882 by Samuel A. Ward, the organist and choir director at Grace Church, Newark, was generally considered | 27,516 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
the best music as early as 1910 and is still the popular tune today. Just as Bates had been inspired to write her poem, Ward, too, was inspired. The tune came to him while he was on a ferryboat trip from Coney Island back to his home in New York City after a leisurely summer day and he immediately wrote it down. Supposedly, he was so anxious to capture the tune in his head, he asked fellow passenger friend Harry Martin for his shirt cuff to write the tune on. He composed the tune for the old hymn "O Mother Dear, Jerusalem", retitling the work "Materna". Ward's music combined with Bates's poem were first published together in 1910 and titled "America the Beautiful".
Ward died in 1903, not knowing | 27,517 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
the national stature his music would attain. Bates was more fortunate, since the song's popularity was well established by the time of her death in 1929.
At various times in the more than 100 years that have elapsed since the song was written, particularly during the John F. Kennedy administration, there have been efforts to give "America the Beautiful" legal status either as a national hymn or as a national anthem equal to, or in place of, "The Star-Spangled Banner", but so far this has not yet succeeded. Proponents prefer "America the Beautiful" for various reasons, saying it is easier to sing, more melodic, and more adaptable to new orchestrations while still remaining as easily recognizable | 27,518 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
as "The Star-Spangled Banner". Some prefer "America the Beautiful" over "The Star-Spangled Banner" due to the latter's war-oriented imagery. Others prefer "The Star-Spangled Banner" for the same reason. While that national dichotomy has stymied any effort at changing the tradition of the national anthem, "America the Beautiful" continues to be held in high esteem by a large number of Americans, and was even being considered "before" 1931, as a candidate to become the national anthem of the United States.
This song was used as the background music of the television broadcast of the Tiangong-1 launch.
The song is often included in songbooks in a wide variety of religious congregations in the | 27,519 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
United States.
# Popular versions.
Bing Crosby included the song in a medley on his album "101 Gang Songs" (1961).
Frank Sinatra recorded the song with Nelson Riddle during the sessions for "The Concert Sinatra" in February 1963, for a projected 45 single release. The 45 was not commercially issued however, but the song was later added as a bonus track to the enhanced 2012 CD release of "The Concert Sinatra.
In 1976, while the United States celebrated its bicentennial, a soulful version popularized by Ray Charles peaked at number 98 on the US R&B chart.
Three different renditions of the song have entered the Hot Country Songs charts. The first was by Charlie Rich, which went to number 22 | 27,520 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
in 1976. A second, by Mickey Newbury, peaked at number 82 in 1980. An all-star version of "America the Beautiful" performed by country singers Trace Adkins, Sherrié Austin, Billy Dean, Vince Gill, Carolyn Dawn Johnson, Toby Keith, Brenda Lee, Lonestar, Lyle Lovett, Lila McCann, Lorrie Morgan, Jamie O'Neal, The Oak Ridge Boys, Collin Raye, Kenny Rogers, Keith Urban and Phil Vassar reached number 58 in July 2001. The song re-entered the chart following the September 11 attacks.
Popularity of the song increased greatly following the September 11 attacks; at some sporting events it was sung in addition to the traditional singing of the national anthem. During the first taping of the "Late Show | 27,521 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
with David Letterman" following the attacks, CBS newsman Dan Rather cried briefly as he quoted the fourth verse.
For Super Bowl XLVIII, The Coca-Cola Company aired a multilingual version of the song, sung in several different languages. The commercial received some criticism on social media sites, such as Twitter and Facebook, and from some conservatives, such as Glenn Beck. Despite the controversies, Coca-Cola later reused the Super Bowl ad during Super Bowl LI, the opening ceremonies of the 2014 Winter Olympics and 2016 Summer Olympics and for patriotic holidays.
# Idioms.
"From sea to shining sea", originally used in the charters of some of the English Colonies in North America, is an | 27,522 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
American idiom meaning "from the Atlantic Ocean to the Pacific Ocean" (or vice versa). Other songs that have used this phrase include the American patriotic song "God Bless the U.S.A." and Schoolhouse Rock's "Elbow Room". The phrase and the song are also the namesake of the Shining Sea Bikeway, a bike path in Bates's hometown of Falmouth, Massachusetts. The phrase is similar to the Latin phrase """" ("From sea to sea"), which serves as the official motto of Canada.
"Purple mountain majesties" refers to the shade of the Pikes Peak in Colorado Springs, Colorado, which inspired Bates to write the poem.
# Books.
Lynn Sherr's 2001 book "America the Beautiful" discusses the origins of the song | 27,523 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
and the backgrounds of its authors in depth. The book points out that the poem has the same meter as that of "Auld Lang Syne"; the songs can be sung interchangeably. Additionally, Sherr discusses the evolution of the lyrics, for instance, changes to the original third verse written by Bates.
Melinda M. Ponder, in her 2017 biography "Katharine Lee Bates: From Sea to Shining Sea", draws heavily on Bates's diaries and letters to trace the history of the poem and its place in American culture.
# Controversy.
On Independence Day weekend In 2015, a company called Rumblefish falsely filed a copyright claim on a YouTube video featuring the song as performed by the United States Navy Band (whose performances | 27,524 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
are, as US government publications, all public domain) and placed advertisements over the video. Due in part to online outrage, Rumblefish quickly retracted the false claim on the video.
In 2019, another false copyright claim was filed against the same video, this time by The Orchard. It remains uncertain if this claim has been retracted by either party.
# External links.
- MP3 and RealAudio recordings available at the United States Library of Congress
- Words, sheet music & MIDI file at the Cyber Hymnal
- America the Beautiful Park in Colorado Springs named for Katharine Lee Bates' words.
- Archival collection of America the Beautiful lantern slides from the 1930s.
- Another free sheet | 27,525 |
651 | America the Beautiful | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=America%20the%20Beautiful | America the Beautiful
US government publications, all public domain) and placed advertisements over the video. Due in part to online outrage, Rumblefish quickly retracted the false claim on the video.
In 2019, another false copyright claim was filed against the same video, this time by The Orchard. It remains uncertain if this claim has been retracted by either party.
# External links.
- MP3 and RealAudio recordings available at the United States Library of Congress
- Words, sheet music & MIDI file at the Cyber Hymnal
- America the Beautiful Park in Colorado Springs named for Katharine Lee Bates' words.
- Archival collection of America the Beautiful lantern slides from the 1930s.
- Another free sheet music | 27,526 |
206691 | Zend Engine | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zend%20Engine | Zend Engine
Zend Engine
The Zend Engine is the open source scripting engine that interprets the PHP programming language. It was originally developed by Andi Gutmans and Zeev Suraski while they were students at the Technion – Israel Institute of Technology. They later founded a company called Zend Technologies in Ramat Gan, Israel. The name Zend is a combination of their forenames, Zeev and Andi.
The first version of the Zend Engine appeared in 1999 in PHP version 4. It was written in C as a highly optimized modular back-end, which for the first time could be used in applications outside of PHP. The Zend Engine provides memory and resource management, and other standard services for the PHP language. Its | 27,527 |
206691 | Zend Engine | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zend%20Engine | Zend Engine
performance, reliability and extensibility played a significant role in PHP's increasing popularity.
This was followed by "Zend Engine II" at the heart of PHP 5.
The newest version is "Zend Engine III", originally codenamed phpng, which was developed for PHP 7 and significantly improves performance.
The source code for the Zend Engine has been freely available under the Zend Engine License (although some parts are under the PHP License) since 2001, as part of the official releases from php.net, as well as the official git repository or the GitHub mirror. Various volunteers contribute to the PHP/Zend Engine codebase.
# Architecture.
Zend Engine is used internally by PHP as a compiler and | 27,528 |
206691 | Zend Engine | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zend%20Engine | Zend Engine
Runtime engine.
PHP Scripts are loaded into memory and compiled into Zend opcodes.
These opcodes are executed and the HTML generated is sent to the client.
To implement a Web script interpreter, you need three parts:
- The interpreter part analyzes the input code, translates it, and executes it.
- The functionality part implements the functionality of the language (its functions, etc.).
- The interface part talks to the Web server, etc.
Zend takes part 1 completely and a bit of part 2; PHP takes parts 2 and 3.
Zend itself really forms only the language core, implementing PHP at its very basics with some predefined functions.
# External links.
- Zend Engine License, version 2.00
- | 27,529 |
206691 | Zend Engine | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Zend%20Engine | Zend Engine
and compiled into Zend opcodes.
These opcodes are executed and the HTML generated is sent to the client.
To implement a Web script interpreter, you need three parts:
- The interpreter part analyzes the input code, translates it, and executes it.
- The functionality part implements the functionality of the language (its functions, etc.).
- The interface part talks to the Web server, etc.
Zend takes part 1 completely and a bit of part 2; PHP takes parts 2 and 3.
Zend itself really forms only the language core, implementing PHP at its very basics with some predefined functions.
# External links.
- Zend Engine License, version 2.00
- Official git repository
- Github repository mirror | 27,530 |
206687 | Brett J. Gladman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brett%20J.%20Gladman | Brett J. Gladman
Brett J. Gladman
Brett James Gladman (born 1966) is a Canadian astronomer, discoverer of moons and minor planets, and a full professor at the University of British Columbia's Department of Physics and Astronomy in Vancouver, British Columbia. He holds the Canada Research Chair in planetary astronomy.
# Career.
Gladman is best known for his work in dynamical astronomy in the Solar System. He has studied the
transport of meteorites between planets, the delivery of meteoroids from the main asteroid belt, and
the possibility of the transport of life via this mechanism, known as panspermia. He also studies planet formation, especially the puzzle of how the giant planets came to be.
He is discoverer | 27,531 |
206687 | Brett J. Gladman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brett%20J.%20Gladman | Brett J. Gladman
or co-discoverer of many astronomical bodies in the Solar System, asteroids, Kuiper Belt comets, and many moons of the giant planets:
- Uranus: Caliban, Sycorax, Prospero, Setebos, Stephano, and Ferdinand
- Saturn: A dozen satellites in several groups, each named after a theme of Canadian Inuit gods, French deities, and Norse gods
- Neptune: The satellite Neso
- Jupiter: Discovery and co-discovery of 6 moons
Gladman is a member of the Canada–France Ecliptic Plane Survey (CFEPS), and the Outer Solar System Origins Survey (OSSOS) which has detected and tracked the world's largest sample of well-understood Kuiper belt comets, including unusual objects like 2004 XR190 ("Buffy") and 2008 KV42 | 27,532 |
206687 | Brett J. Gladman | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Brett%20J.%20Gladman | Brett J. Gladman
04 XR190 ("Buffy") and 2008 KV42 ("Drac"), the first trans-Neptunian object on a retrograde orbit around the Sun.
# Honors and awards.
Gladman was awarded the H. C. Urey Prize by the Division of Planetary Sciences of the American Astronomical Society in 2002. The main-belt asteroid 7638 Gladman is named in his honor. During 2008–2011 he served as member and chair of the Science Advisory Council of the Canada-France-Hawaii Telescope on Mauna Kea in Hawaii. He was awarded a Killam Research Fellowship in 2015.
# See also.
- List of minor planet discoverers
# External links.
- Brett Gladman at the Astronomy group of the Dept. of Physics and Astronomy, UBC and Institute of Planetary Science | 27,533 |
640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20procedure%20in%20the%20United%20States | Appellate procedure in the United States
Appellate procedure in the United States
United States appellate procedure involves the rules and regulations for filing appeals in state courts and federal courts. The nature of an appeal can vary greatly depending on the type of case and the rules of the court in the jurisdiction where the case was prosecuted. There are many types of standard of review for appeals, such as "de novo" and abuse of discretion. However, most appeals begin when a party files a petition for review to a higher court for the purpose of overturning the lower court's decision.
An appellate court is a court that hears cases on appeal from another court. Depending on the particular legal rules that apply to each circumstance, | 27,534 |
640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20procedure%20in%20the%20United%20States | Appellate procedure in the United States
a party to a court case who is unhappy with the result might be able to challenge that result in an appellate court on specific grounds. These grounds typically could include errors of law, fact, procedure or due process. In different jurisdictions, appellate courts are also called appeals courts, courts of appeals, superior courts, or supreme courts.
The specific procedures for appealing, including even whether there is a right of appeal from a particular type of decision, can vary greatly from state to state. The right to file an appeal can also vary from state to state; for example, the New Jersey Constitution vests judicial power in a Supreme Court, a Superior Court, and other courts of | 27,535 |
640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20procedure%20in%20the%20United%20States | Appellate procedure in the United States
limited jurisdiction, with an appellate court being part of the Superior Court.
# Access to appellant status.
A party who files an appeal is called an "appellant", "plaintiff in error", "petitioner" or "pursuer", and a party on the other side is called a "appellee". A "cross-appeal" is an appeal brought by the respondent. For example, suppose at trial the judge found for the plaintiff and ordered the defendant to pay $50,000. If the defendant files an appeal arguing that he should not have to pay any money, then the plaintiff might file a cross-appeal arguing that the defendant should have to pay $200,000 instead of $50,000.
The appellant is the party who, having lost part or all their claim | 27,536 |
640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20procedure%20in%20the%20United%20States | Appellate procedure in the United States
in a lower court decision, is appealing to a higher court to have their case reconsidered. This is usually done on the basis that the lower court judge erred in the application of law, but it may also be possible to appeal on the basis of court misconduct, or that a finding of fact was entirely unreasonable to make on the evidence.
The appellant in the new case can be either the plaintiff (or claimant), defendant, third-party intervenor, or respondent (appellee) from the lower case, depending on who was the losing party. The winning party from the lower court, however, is now the respondent. In unusual cases the appellant can be the victor in the court below, but still appeal.
An appellee | 27,537 |
640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20procedure%20in%20the%20United%20States | Appellate procedure in the United States
is the party to an appeal in which the lower court judgment was in its favor. The appellee is required to respond to the petition, oral arguments, and legal briefs of the appellant. In general, the appellee takes the procedural posture that the lower court's decision should be affirmed.
# Ability to appeal.
An appeal "as of right" is one that is guaranteed by statute or some underlying constitutional or legal principle. The appellate court cannot refuse to listen to the appeal. An appeal "by leave" or "permission" requires the appellant to obtain leave to appeal; in such a situation either or both of the lower court and the court may have the discretion to grant or refuse the appellant's demand | 27,538 |
640 | Appellate procedure in the United States | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Appellate%20procedure%20in%20the%20United%20States | Appellate procedure in the United States
to appeal the lower court's decision. In the Supreme Court, review in most cases is available only if the Court exercises its discretion and grants a writ of certiorari.
In tort, equity, or other civil matters either party to a previous case may file an appeal. In criminal matters, however, the state or prosecution generally has no appeal "as of right". And due to the double jeopardy principle, the state or prosecution may never appeal a jury or bench verdict of acquittal. But in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal "as of right" from a trial court's dismissal of an indictment in whole or in part or from a trial court's granting of a defendant's suppression motion. Likewise, | 27,539 |
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in some jurisdictions, the state or prosecution may appeal an issue of law "by leave" from the trial court or the appellate court. The ability of the prosecution to appeal a decision in favor of a defendant varies significantly internationally. All parties must present grounds to appeal, or it will not be heard.
By convention in some law reports, the appellant is named first. This can mean that where it is the defendant who appeals, the name of the case in the law reports reverses (in some cases twice) as the appeals work their way up the court hierarchy. This is not always true, however. In the federal courts, the parties' names always stay in the same order as the lower court when an appeal | 27,540 |
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is taken to the circuit courts of appeals, and are re-ordered only if the appeal reaches the Supreme Court.
## Appealing criminal convictions.
Many jurisdictions recognize two types of appeals, particularly in the criminal context. The first is the traditional "direct" appeal in which the appellant files an appeal with the next higher court of review. The second is the collateral appeal or post-conviction petition, in which the petitioner-appellant files the appeal in a court of first instance—usually the court that tried the case.
The key distinguishing factor between direct and collateral appeals is that the former occurs in state courts, and the latter in federal courts.
Relief in post-conviction | 27,541 |
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is rare and is most often found in capital or violent felony cases. The typical scenario involves an incarcerated defendant locating DNA evidence demonstrating the defendant's actual innocence.
### Appellate review.
"Appellate review" is the general term for the process by which courts with appellate jurisdiction take jurisdiction of matters decided by lower courts. It is distinguished from judicial review, which refers to the court's overriding constitutional or statutory right to determine if a legislative act or administrative decision is defective for jurisdictional or other reasons (which may vary by jurisdiction).
In most jurisdictions the normal and preferred way of seeking appellate | 27,542 |
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review is by filing an appeal of the final judgment. Generally, an appeal of the judgment will also allow appeal of all other orders or rulings made by the trial court in the course of the case. This is because such orders cannot be appealed "as of right". However, certain critical interlocutory court orders, such as the denial of a request for an interim injunction, or an order holding a person in contempt of court, can be appealed immediately although the case may otherwise not have been fully disposed of.
There are two distinct forms of appellate review, "direct" and "collateral". For example, a criminal defendant may be convicted in state court, and lose on "direct appeal" to higher state | 27,543 |
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appellate courts, and if unsuccessful, mount a "collateral" action such as filing for a writ of habeas corpus in the federal courts. Generally speaking, "[d]irect appeal statutes afford defendants the opportunity to challenge the merits of a judgment and allege errors of law or fact. ... [Collateral review], on the other hand, provide[s] an independent and civil inquiry into the validity of a conviction and sentence, and as such are generally limited to challenges to constitutional, jurisdictional, or other fundamental violations that occurred at trial." "Graham v. Borgen", 483 F 3d. 475 (7th Cir. 2007) (no. 04-4103) (slip op. at 7) (citation omitted).
In Anglo-American common law courts, appellate | 27,544 |
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review of lower court decisions may also be obtained by filing a petition for review by prerogative writ in certain cases. There is no corresponding right to a writ in any pure or continental civil law legal systems, though some mixed systems such as Quebec recognize these prerogative writs.
#### Direct appeal.
After exhausting the first appeal as of right, defendants usually petition the highest state court to review the decision. This appeal is known as a direct appeal. The highest state court, generally known as the Supreme Court, exercises discretion over whether it will review the case. On direct appeal, a prisoner challenges the grounds of the conviction based on an error that occurred | 27,545 |
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at trial or some other stage in the adjudicative process.
##### Preservation issues.
An appellant's claim(s) must usually be preserved at trial. This means that the defendant had to object to the error when it occurred in the trial. Because constitutional claims are of great magnitude, appellate courts might be more lenient to review the claim even if it was not preserved. For example, Connecticut applies the following standard to review unpreserved claims: 1.the record is adequate to review the alleged claim of error; 2. the claim is of constitutional magnitude alleging the violation of a fundamental right; 3. the alleged constitutional violation clearly exists and clearly deprived the defendant | 27,546 |
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of a fair trial; 4. if subject to harmless error analysis, the state has failed to demonstrate harmlessness of the alleged constitutional violation beyond a reasonable doubt.
##### collateral appeal.
All States have a post-conviction relief process. Similar to federal post-conviction relief, an appellant can petition the court to correct alleged fundamental errors that were not corrected on direct review. Typical claims might include ineffective assistance of counsel and actual innocence based on new evidence. These proceedings are normally separate from the direct appeal, however some states allow for collateral relief to be sought on direct appeal. After direct appeal, the conviction is | 27,547 |
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considered final. An appeal from the post conviction court proceeds just as a direct appeal. That is, it goes to the intermediate appellate court, followed by the highest court. If the petition is granted the appellant could be released from incarceration, the sentence could be modified, or a new trial could be ordered.
# Notice of appeal.
A "notice of appeal" is a form or document that in many cases is required to begin an appeal. The form is completed by the appellant or by the appellant's legal representative. The nature of this form can vary greatly from country to country and from court to court within a country.
The specific rules of the legal system will dictate exactly how the appeal | 27,548 |
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is officially begun. For example, the appellant might have to file the notice of appeal with the appellate court, or with the court from which the appeal is taken, or both.
Some courts have samples of a notice of appeal on the court's own web site. In New Jersey, for example, the Administrative Office of the Court has promulgated a form of notice of appeal for use by appellants, though using this exact form is not mandatory and the failure to use it is not a jurisdictional defect provided that all pertinent information is set forth in whatever form of notice of appeal is used.
The deadline for beginning an appeal can often be very short: traditionally, it is measured in days, not months. This | 27,549 |
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can vary from country to country, as well as within a country, depending on the specific rules in force. In the U.S. federal court system, criminal defendants must file a notice of appeal within 10 days of the entry of either the judgment or the order being appealed, or the right to appeal is forfeited.
# Appellate procedure.
Generally speaking the appellate court examines the record of evidence presented in the trial court and the law that the lower court applied and decides whether that decision was legally sound or not. The appellate court will typically be deferential to the lower court's findings of fact (such as whether a defendant committed a particular act), unless clearly erroneous, | 27,550 |
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and so will focus on the court's application of the law to those facts (such as whether the act found by the court to have occurred fits a legal definition at issue).
If the appellate court finds no defect, it "affirms" the judgment. If the appellate court does find a legal defect in the decision "below" (i.e., in the lower court), it may "modify" the ruling to correct the defect, or it may nullify ("reverse" or "vacate") the whole decision or any part of it. It may, in addition, send the case back ("remand" or "remit") to the lower court for further proceedings to remedy the defect.
In some cases, an appellate court may review a lower court decision "de novo" (or completely), challenging | 27,551 |
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even the lower court's findings of fact. This might be the proper standard of review, for example, if the lower court resolved the case by granting a pre-trial motion to dismiss or motion for summary judgment which is usually based only upon written submissions to the trial court and not on any trial testimony.
Another situation is where appeal is by way of "re-hearing". Certain jurisdictions permit certain appeals to cause the trial to be heard afresh in the appellate court.
Sometimes, the appellate court finds a defect in the procedure the parties used in filing the appeal and dismisses the appeal without considering its merits, which has the same effect as affirming the judgment below. | 27,552 |
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(This would happen, for example, if the appellant waited too long, under the appellate court's rules, to file the appeal.)
Generally, there is no trial in an appellate court, only consideration of the record of the evidence presented to the trial court and all the pre-trial and trial court proceedings are reviewed—unless the appeal is by way of re-hearing, new evidence will usually only be considered on appeal in "very" rare instances, for example if that material evidence was unavailable to a party for some very significant reason such as prosecutorial misconduct.
In some systems, an appellate court will only consider the written decision of the lower court, together with any written evidence | 27,553 |
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that was before that court and is relevant to the appeal. In other systems, the appellate court will normally consider the record of the lower court. In those cases the record will first be certified by the lower court.
The appellant has the opportunity to present arguments for the granting of the appeal and the appellee (or respondent) can present arguments against it. Arguments of the parties to the appeal are presented through their appellate lawyers, if represented, or "pro se" if the party has not engaged legal representation. Those arguments are presented in written briefs and sometimes in oral argument to the court at a hearing. At such hearings each party is allowed a brief presentation | 27,554 |
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at which the appellate judges ask questions based on their review of the record below and the submitted briefs.
In an adversarial system, appellate courts do not have the power to review lower court decisions unless a party appeals it. Therefore, if a lower court has ruled in an improper manner, or against legal precedent, that judgment will stand if not appealed – even if it might have been overturned on appeal.
The United States legal system generally recognizes two types of appeals: a trial "de novo" or an appeal on the record.
A trial de novo is usually available for review of informal proceedings conducted by some minor judicial tribunals in proceedings that do not provide all the procedural | 27,555 |
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attributes of a formal judicial trial. If unchallenged, these decisions have the power to settle more minor legal disputes once and for all. If a party is dissatisfied with the finding of such a tribunal, one generally has the power to request a trial "de novo" by a court of record. In such a proceeding, all issues and evidence may be developed newly, as though never heard before, and one is not restricted to the evidence heard in the lower proceeding. Sometimes, however, the decision of the lower proceeding is itself admissible as evidence, thus helping to curb frivolous appeals.
In some cases, an application for "trial de novo" effectively erases the prior trial as if it had never taken place. | 27,556 |
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The Supreme Court of Virginia has stated that '"This Court has repeatedly held that the effect of an appeal to circuit court is to "annul the judgment of the inferior tribunal as completely as if there had been no previous trial."' The only exception to this is that if a defendant appeals a conviction for a crime having multiple levels of offenses, where they are convicted on a lesser offense, the appeal is of the lesser offense; the conviction represents an acquittal of the more serious offenses. "[A] trial on the same charges in the circuit court does not violate double jeopardy principles, . . . subject only to the limitation that conviction in [the] district court for an offense lesser included | 27,557 |
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in the one charged constitutes an acquittal of the greater offense,
permitting trial de novo in the circuit court only for the lesser-included offense."
In an appeal on the record from a decision in a judicial proceeding, both appellant and respondent are bound to base their arguments wholly on the proceedings and body of evidence as they were presented in the lower tribunal. Each seeks to prove to the higher court that the result they desired was the just result. Precedent and case law figure prominently in the arguments. In order for the appeal to succeed, the appellant must prove that the lower court committed reversible error, that is, an impermissible action by the court acted to cause | 27,558 |
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a result that was unjust, and which would not have resulted had the court acted properly. Some examples of reversible error would be erroneously instructing the jury on the law applicable to the case, permitting seriously improper argument by an attorney, admitting or excluding evidence improperly, acting outside the court's jurisdiction, injecting bias into the proceeding or appearing to do so, juror misconduct, etc. The failure to formally object at the time, to what one views as improper action in the lower court, may result in the affirmance of the lower court's judgment on the grounds that one did not "preserve the issue for appeal" by objecting.
In cases where a judge rather than a jury | 27,559 |
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decided issues of fact, an appellate court will apply an "abuse of discretion" standard of review. Under this standard, the appellate court gives deference to the lower court's view of the evidence, and reverses its decision only if it were a clear abuse of discretion. This is usually defined as a decision outside the bounds of reasonableness. On the other hand, the appellate court normally gives less deference to a lower court's decision on issues of law, and may reverse if it finds that the lower court applied the wrong legal standard.
In some cases, an appellant may successfully argue that the law under which the lower decision was rendered was unconstitutional or otherwise invalid, or may | 27,560 |
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convince the higher court to order a new trial on the basis that evidence earlier sought was concealed or only recently discovered. In the case of new evidence, there must be a high probability that its presence or absence would have made a material difference in the trial. Another issue suitable for appeal in criminal cases is effective assistance of counsel. If a defendant has been convicted and can prove that his lawyer did not adequately handle his case and that there is a reasonable probability that the result of the trial would have been different had the lawyer given competent representation, he is entitled to a new trial.
A lawyer traditionally starts an oral argument to any appellate | 27,561 |
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court with the words "May it please the court."
After an appeal is heard, the "mandate" is a formal notice of a decision by a court of appeal; this notice is transmitted to the trial court and, when filed by the clerk of the trial court, constitutes the final judgment on the case, unless the appeal court has directed further proceedings in the trial court. The mandate is distinguished from the appeal court's opinion, which sets out the legal reasoning for its decision. In some jurisdictions the mandate is known as the "remittitur".
# Results.
The result of an appeal can be:
There can be multiple outcomes, so that the reviewing court can affirm some rulings, reverse others and remand the | 27,562 |
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case all at the same time. Remand is not required where there is nothing left to do in the case. "Generally speaking, an appellate court's judgment provides 'the final directive of the appeals courts as to the matter appealed, setting out with specificity the court's determination that the action appealed from should be affirmed, reversed, remanded or modified'".
Some reviewing courts who have discretionary review may send a case back without comment other than "review improvidently granted". In other words, after looking at the case, they chose not to say anything. The result for the case of "review improvidently granted" is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court | 27,563 |
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than "review improvidently granted". In other words, after looking at the case, they chose not to say anything. The result for the case of "review improvidently granted" is effectively the same as affirmed, but without that extra higher court stamp of approval.
# See also.
- Appellate court
- Appellee
- Civil procedure
- Court of Appeals
- Courts-martial in the United States
- Criminal procedure
- Defendant
- En banc
- Interlocutory appeal
- List of legal topics
- Petition for stay
- Plaintiff
- Pursuer
- Reversible error
- Supreme Court of the United States
- Writ of Certiorari
- Writ of habeas corpus
- Writ of mandamus
- List of wrongful convictions in the United States | 27,564 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
Helen Chadwick
Helen Chadwick (18 May 1953 – 15 March 1996) was a British sculptor, photographer and installation artist. In 1987, she became one of the first women artists to be nominated for the Turner Prize. Chadwick was known for "challenging stereotypical perceptions of the body in elegant yet unconventional forms. Her work draws from a range of sources, from myths to science, grappling with a plethora of unconventional, visceral materials that included chocolate, lambs tongues and rotting vegetable matter. Her skilled use of traditional fabrication methods and sophisticated technologies transform these unusual materials into complex installations. Maureen Paley noted that "Helen was always | 27,565 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
talking about craftsmanship—a constant fount of information". Binary oppositions was a strong theme in Chadwick's work; seductive/repulsive, male/female, organic/man-made. Her combinations "emphasise yet simultaneously dissolve the contrasts between them". Her gender representations forge a sense of ambiguity and a disquieting sexuality blurring the boundaries of ourselves as singular and stable beings."
# Early life and education.
Helen Chadwick was born May 18 1953 in Croydon, England. Her mother was a Greek refugee and her father from east London. Her parents met in Athens, Greece during World War II and moved to live in Croydon in 1946. After she left Croydon High School she embarked on | 27,566 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
a Fine Art Foundation course at Croydon College then went on to study at Brighton Polytechnic (1973-6). Chadwick recalled, "Traditional media were never dynamic enough… right from early on in art school, I wanted to use the body to create a set of inter-relationships with the audience". Chadwick’s degree show: "Domestic Sanitation" (1976) consisted of her and three other women in latex costumes painted directly on to the skin. The four women engage a satirical feminist round of cleaning and grooming. In 1976 she moved to Hackney and enrolled in a Masters at Chelsea College of Art (1976-7). In 1977 Chadwick and two dozen other artists moved into Beck Road, Hackney, a double strip of Victorian | 27,567 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
terraces that was earmarked for demolition. After squatting for two years they persuaded the Inner London Education Authority to rent, rather than demolish, the houses. Beck Road became a hive of home studios whose residents included Maureen Paley, Ray Walker and Genesis P-Orridge.
# Career.
Chadwick began exhibiting regularly from 1977, gradually building her reputation as an artist. Her rise into the public sphere was marked by the inclusion of her work "Ego Geometria Sum" (1983) in a group exhibition entitled "Summer Show I" (1983) at the Serpentine. In 1985 she began an active teaching career as a visiting lecturer across a number of London art schools. Her posts at Goldsmiths (1985–90), | 27,568 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
Chelsea College of Arts, London (1985–95), Central Saint Martins, London (1987–95) and the Royal College of Art (1990–94) ensured an important influence on contemporary British Art in the late 1980s and ‘90s, specifically on the Young British Artists.
Chadwick’s work really came to prominence with "Of Mutability" (1986-87), a large installation involving sculpture and photography at the Institute of Contemporary Arts, London. This exhibition that toured a number of venues in England, Scotland and Switzerland resulted in her nomination for the Turner Prize in 1987. This was the first year that women were nominated for Britain’s most prestigious contemporary art award.
In 1990 Chadwick was invited | 27,569 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
to exhibit in a photography festival in Houston, Texas, where she met a local artist David Notarius. The following year he moved to Beck Road and they married.
In the summer of 1994, Chadwick's exhibition "Effluvia" opened at the Serpentine, London. This exhibition marked the high point of Chadwick's exposure, receiving widespread critical attention and national press coverage. The exhibition was seen by 54,000 visitors, breaking the record for the gallery. In 1995, Chadwick received her first solo exhibition in the United States at the Museum of Modern Art, New York, entitled "Helen Chadwick: Bad Blooms." In 1995, Chadwick took up an artist residency in the assisted conception unit at King's | 27,570 |
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College Hospital, London, photographing IVF embryos rejected for implantation.[11] She used the photos in Unnatural Selection, a series on which she was working when she died. Chadwick's work is included in the collections at the Victoria and Albert Museum, The Tate and the Museum of Modern Art.
# Gender representation.
Chadwick’s earlier work utilised her naked form, questioning the representation of the female body and addressing what Chadwick called "the issue of the female body as a site of desire". She attempted to complicate the conventional passive objectification of women. "I was looking at a vocabulary for desire where I was the subject and the object and the author" she said; "I | 27,571 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
felt by directly taking all theses roles, the normal situation in which the viewer operated as a kind of voyeur broke down". Her BA graduate performance "Domestic Sanitation" (1976) attempted to highlight the distinction between nudity and nakedness. Her performers wore another latex skin to cover their skin suggesting the imposition of idealised femininity while they carried out stereotypical female activities.
Many critics, including former feminist colleagues, concluded that she reinforced the stereotypes she sought to subvert. As was the case for other women artists that were reclaiming their bodies through their art practice, she was accused of regressive female narcissism. Chadwick declared | 27,572 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
that "I'm disappointed that a false rationalism is used as a stick with which to measure what I'm doing when I am looking to cross the taboos that have been instigated. I hate being hauled up as an example of negative women's work." In 1988 Chadwick made a conscious decision "...not to represent my body... It immediately declares female gender and I wanted to be more deft." Her practice then moved inside the body to flesh in her "Meat Abstracts" (1989) and "Meat Lamps" (1989-91) and to bodily excrement’s in "Piss Flowers" (1991–92). Chadwick commented, "I felt compelled to use materials that were still bodily, that were still a kind of self-portrait, but did not rely on representation of my | 27,573 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
own body"
Through her career Chadwick’s concerns with gender representation moved from the objectification of women to more closely examine what gender is. Working in a time surrounded by debates around the cultural construction of gender, her work was fuelled by writings of Julia Kristeva and Michel Foucault. She would often cite Herculine Barbin, a nineteenth century hermaphrodite, whose memoirs were discovered and printed by Foucault in 1980. Chadwick commented, "Why do we feel compelled to read gender, and automatically wish to sex the body before us so we can orientate our desire and thus gain pleasure or reject what we see?" Chadwick’s "Piss Flowers" (1991–92) questions the singularity | 27,574 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
and specificity of gender through an inversion of gender roles. Chadwick elaborated her interest in deconstructing gender binaries in a lecture she gave in 1991: "in language dual structures are defined as oppositional: where we have self, there must be other; gender is male or female, and most problematic and absurd of all is the split between mind and body"
# Works.
## Ego Geometria Sum (1983).
"Ego Geometria Sum" is an attempt to trace one's body back "through a succession of geometric solids". The work comprises twelve plywood sculptures that reflect the mass of the artist's body at a succession of ages from premature birth to maturity at 30. Each sculpture takes the form of an object | 27,575 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
that symbolises that age, for example an incubator or a pram. The artist in her notebooks described the forms as "objects that a) contained me b) (re)oriented me c) moulded / shaped me". The work is printed with pictures of the object, places that relate to it and Chadwick's naked form, that conforms to the sculptures shape. While this is certainly an autobiographical work, Chadwick makes a purpose of not showing her face to emphasise a universal quality. The overlapping and juxtaposition of images speaks to the connectedness of the self and the world. The artists notes at this time suggest that the work was an attempt to "go back in memory to the origin of symptoms" of a sense of alienation | 27,576 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
that she felt. She attempts to free the ego from the traumas of the past.
The accompanying photographs in this installation entitled "The Labours I-X", show the naked artist bracing as she lifts each of the sculptures. The title refers to the mythical labours of Hercules that he is sentenced to after he kills his own children in a fit of rage. Chadwick's use of it suggests that attempting to encapsulate personal history is a Herculean task, requiring great strength and courage.
## Loop My Loop (1991).
"Loop My Loop" is a back-lit cibachrome photograph of blond hair intertwined with a pig's intestines. The golden locks signify purity and love knotted with the intestines, which signifies the | 27,577 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
raw animalistic side to human nature. This work has links with the ideas of Georges Bataille, a French intellectual and literary figure who worked in fields such as anthropology, sociology, and history of art. Chadwick's "Loop My Loop" is similar to her work from 1990, titled "Nostalgie de la Boue". In this work, two rounded cibachrome transparencies were hung one above the other. The top one contained a ring of earthworms, while the bottom pictured someone's scalp with the center imploding. Both images appear similar, but by placing the worms above the human scalp the distinction upholding the human above the animal is no longer held.
## Piss Flowers (1991–1992).
"Piss Flowers" is a work | 27,578 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
made up of twelve sculptures that Chadwick made while on a residency at the Banff Centre for the Arts in Alberta, Canada, in February 1991. During their stay, she and her partner, David Notarius travelled to different locations, made mounds of snow and laid out a flower shaped metal cutter. They would take turns to urinate in the snow then pour plaster into the cavities. These casts were attached to pedestals that were based on a hyacinth bulb. The whole thing was then cast in bronze and enamelled white. The works are a result of her physical contact with the location, preserving a direct impact of reality. Chadwick describes the flowers as a "metaphysical conceit for the union of two people | 27,579 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
expressing themselves bodily". The work utilises the pleasure of taboo; elevating the medium of urine that is generally regarded as polluting and marginal in a dynamic and playful way. "It may have been mischievous to piss in the snow, but it was damn hard work to end up with the 12 bronzes," Chadwick recalled. "Piss Flowers took two years, largely because I had to find £12,000 to make them". The artist "sold herself" to make a programme about Frida Kahlo for the BBC in order to fund the work.
The use of a flower as the form was significant for Chadwick because they are the bisexual reproductive organs of plants containing both male and female sex organs. The woman's urine is strong and hot | 27,580 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
resulting in a central penile form, the mans is diffuse and cooler and creates the labial circumference. In a poem entitled "Piss Posy ("1991) Chadwick describes the works as "Vaginal towers with male skirt/ Gender bending water sport?". Chadwick plays on sexual difference, reversing gender roles and provoking uncertainty of the singularity and specificity of gender. "Piss Flowers" "synthesise sexual difference through the erotic play both of their making and their forms".
# Exhibitions.
## Of Mutability (1986).
Of Mutability was Chadwick's first major solo exhibition, held at the Institute of Contemporary Arts in 1986. Chadwick utilised the ceremonial character of the elegant neo-classical | 27,581 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
rooms of the upper galleries to house an installation made up of a number of autonomous artworks. One room was at the centre of the exhibition and took the name of The Oval Court (1984–86), an ovoid platform that lay in the middle of the space. The platform presents a twelve-part collage of layered blue toned A4 photocopies made directly of the artist’s naked form, dead animals, plants and drapery suspended in an ovoid pool. The work speaks to the still life, evoking vanitas tradition in its subtle depictions of the transience of the things we surround ourselves with. Twelve figures, according to the artist’s notes, represent the "12 gates to paradise", where she achieves "oneness with all living | 27,582 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
things". Five golden spheres rest atop the platform corresponding to the finger placing’s of a huge hand, alluding to the touch of divine. On the walls of this room were photographs of the artist weeping, a Venetian glass mirror and printouts of computer-rendered drawings of the Baroque columns from the baldacchino of St Peter's in Rome. Chadwick’s use of her own body invokes a human attachment to the world, suggesting that the concept of self is infinitely subject to change.
The second room housed "Carcass" (1986)"," a two-metre-high glass tower of rotting vegetable matter that moves and lives. It begins to compost, generating new organisms over time, Chadwick had to top it up daily to maintain | 27,583 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
its levels. During the exhibition a small leak appeared in the tower and in a state of panic the ICA staff laid the column, splitting a seam. When they attempted to lay it on its side, ten gallons on fermented liquid sloshed and blew off the end of the tower. Newspapers broadcast this accident, bringing attention to Chadwick as an exciting nonconforming artist.
## Effluvia (1994).
"Effluvia" responded to the parkland setting of the Serpentine; the installation was created in the form of a garden, surrounding themes of tamed and untamed nature with such works as "Piss Flowers" (1991–92) and a fountain of molten chocolate entitled "Cacao" (1994). The exhibition also contained a number of Chadwick's | 27,584 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
other important works including "Viral Landscapes", a series of works where the artist combined images of cell groups with visually appropriate parts of the Pembrokeshire coastline in Wales. These works explore the relation between host and virus as a metaphor for that between the individual and the world. In the next room Chadwick exhibited a selection of her "Meat Lamps" (1989–91), large-format Polaroid images of meat slabs, bulbs, drapery and other visceral materials that were displayed on light boxes, often with an aura of light spilling around them. Chadwick set out to deconstruct binary opposition by reducing the work to present flesh as flesh. The exhibition also included new works "Glossolalia" | 27,585 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
(1993) and "I Thee Wed" (1993) that consisted of lamb tongues cast in bronze, fox pelts, and vegetables encircled in rings of fur.
Along with "Piss Flowers" (see Piss Flowers section), "Cacao" attracted the most attention. The work is a fountain of liquid chocolate whose smell permeates the gallery, the form evokes both phallus and flower. Associations with earth, shit and 'base matter' are disturbing and simultaneously liberating, speaking to the pleasures of excess and the subject as a desiring self. When asked the reason for making this work Chadwick explained "my libido demanded it", describing it as "a pool or primal matter, sexually indeterminate, in a perpetual state of flux". On the | 27,586 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
walls that surrounded "Cacao" were Chadwick's "Wreaths of Pleasure" (1992–93), a series of circular luminous photographs framed in enamelled metal that are over a metre in circumference. Combining delicate suspensions of flowers and fruit in household liquids such as hair gel and milk, the work alludes to a fluidity of boundaries. The artist challenges the notions of a centred stable subjectivity, suggesting a constant permeation of self.
# Legacy.
Chadwick died suddenly at age 42 of a heart attack in 1996. Although they declared no proof, pathologists suggested a link between her heart attack and a viral infection causing a myocarditis — an inflammation of the heart muscle that could have | 27,587 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
been triggered anywhere between the last few years of her life and the last weeks.
In 2004–2005 a retrospective of Chadwick’s work organised by the Barbican Art Gallery toured a four major galleries. These included Barbican Art Gallery (London, UK), Liljevalch Konsthall (Stockholm, Sweden), Kunstmuseet Trapholt (Kolding, Denmark) and Manchester Art Gallery (Manchester, UK). In the preface for the catalogue, Marina Warner states that after the shock of Chadwick’s death it took some time for "interest to return and for understanding develop of her critical opus and her place in contemporary art".
Chadwick's impact on the British art scene as an artist and teacher helped pave the way for the | 27,588 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
Young British Artist (YBA) generation. Her expanded use of materials can be seen carried through the work of many these artists. Without Chadwick's Cacao, for example, it is impossible to imagine Anya Gallacio's chocolate and flower installations. Since Chadwick's Barbican organised retrospective, the full measure of her contribution to the trajectory of contemporary British art is starting to be realised. The Richard Saltoun Gallery in London represents the estate of Helen Chadwick and has continued to show the artists work. "Works From The Estate" (2013) marked what would have been the artists 60th birthday, showing some of Chadwick's most famous works. The following year "Bad Blooms" (2014) | 27,589 |
206696 | Helen Chadwick | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Helen%20Chadwick | Helen Chadwick
can organised retrospective, the full measure of her contribution to the trajectory of contemporary British art is starting to be realised. The Richard Saltoun Gallery in London represents the estate of Helen Chadwick and has continued to show the artists work. "Works From The Estate" (2013) marked what would have been the artists 60th birthday, showing some of Chadwick's most famous works. The following year "Bad Blooms" (2014) exhibited Chadwick's "Wreaths of Pleasure" (1992–93).
Eight of Chadwick's notebooks that reveal her ideas and critical practice through the making of a number of her works are available online from The Leeds Museums & Galleries and the Henry Moore Institute Archive. | 27,590 |
206703 | Haji Gilani | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Haji%20Gilani | Haji Gilani
Haji Gilani
Haji Gilani was the first person to give Hamid Karzai shelter in the province of Uruzgan, Afghanistan as Karzai launched his anti-Taliban revolt weeks before the religious militia collapsed under heavy U.S. bombing in late 2001. Gilani and his nephew were shot dead on April 3, 2003 by six gunmen. While initial reports speculated that former Taliban operatives were responsible, a spokesperson for Karzai suggested that a tribal feud may have been the motive. | 27,591 |
206698 | Thérèse Oulton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thérèse%20Oulton | Thérèse Oulton
Thérèse Oulton
Thérèse Oulton (born 1953) is an English painter.
Born in Shropshire, Oulton studied in the late 1970s at Saint Martin's School of Art before going on to the Royal College of Art.
Oulton's work is essentially abstract though her early work often resembles rocky landscapes. Later works, often executed in a thick impasto, are abstract compositions with complicated and carefully worked surfaces.
A number of Oulton's later works use multiple repeated images, often with slight variations between the repetitions.
In 1987, Oulton became one of the first women artists nominated for the Turner Prize. She is represented by the Marlborough Gallery.
Her work is included in several public | 27,592 |
206698 | Thérèse Oulton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Thérèse%20Oulton | Thérèse Oulton
, often executed in a thick impasto, are abstract compositions with complicated and carefully worked surfaces.
A number of Oulton's later works use multiple repeated images, often with slight variations between the repetitions.
In 1987, Oulton became one of the first women artists nominated for the Turner Prize. She is represented by the Marlborough Gallery.
Her work is included in several public collections including Dallas Museum of Art, Metropolitan Museum of Art, Tate Gallery, UK Government Art Collection and the British Council Art Collection.
# External links.
- Archeus biography
- exhibit in Tate Gallery
- Artnet page
- "Undoings" lithographs
- Thérèse Oulton on Artcyclopedia | 27,593 |
628 | Aldous Huxley | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aldous%20Huxley | Aldous Huxley
Aldous Huxley
Aldous Leonard Huxley (26 July 1894 – 22 November 1963) was an English writer and philosopher. He authored nearly fifty books—both novels and non-fiction works—as well as wide-ranging essays, narratives, and poems.
Born into the prominent Huxley family, he graduated from Balliol College, Oxford with an undergraduate degree in English literature. Early in his career, he published short stories and poetry and edited the literary magazine "Oxford Poetry", before going on to publish travel writing, satire, and screenplays. He spent the latter part of his life in the United States, living in Los Angeles from 1937 until his death. By the end of his life, Huxley was widely acknowledged | 27,594 |
628 | Aldous Huxley | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aldous%20Huxley | Aldous Huxley
as one of the foremost intellectuals of his time. He was nominated for the Nobel Prize in Literature seven times and was elected Companion of Literature by the Royal Society of Literature in 1962.
Huxley was a humanist and pacifist. He grew interested in philosophical mysticism and universalism, addressing these subjects with works such as "The Perennial Philosophy" (1945)—which illustrates commonalities between Western and Eastern mysticism—and "The Doors of Perception" (1954)—which interprets his own psychedelic experience with mescaline. In his most famous novel "Brave New World" (1932) and his final novel "Island" (1962), he presented his vision of dystopia and utopia, respectively.
# | 27,595 |
628 | Aldous Huxley | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aldous%20Huxley | Aldous Huxley
Early life.
Huxley was born in Godalming, Surrey, England, in 1894. He was the third son of the writer and schoolmaster Leonard Huxley, who edited "Cornhill Magazine", and his first wife, Julia Arnold, who founded Prior's Field School. Julia was the niece of poet and critic Matthew Arnold and the sister of Mrs. Humphry Ward. Aldous was the grandson of Thomas Henry Huxley, the zoologist, agnostic, and controversialist ("Darwin's Bulldog"). His brother Julian Huxley and half-brother Andrew Huxley also became outstanding biologists. Aldous had another brother, Noel Trevelyan Huxley (1891–1914), who committed suicide after a period of clinical depression.
As a child, Huxley's nickname was "Ogie", | 27,596 |
628 | Aldous Huxley | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aldous%20Huxley | Aldous Huxley
short for "Ogre". He was described by his brother, Julian, as someone who frequently "[contemplated] the strangeness of things". According to his cousin and contemporary, Gervas Huxley, he had an early interest in drawing.
Huxley's education began in his father's well-equipped botanical laboratory, after which he enrolled at Hillside School near Godalming. He was taught there by his own mother for several years until she became terminally ill. After Hillside he went on to Eton College. His mother died in 1908, when he was 14 (his father later remarried). He contracted the eye disease keratitis punctata in 1911; this "left [him] practically blind for two to three years." This "ended his early | 27,597 |
628 | Aldous Huxley | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aldous%20Huxley | Aldous Huxley
dreams of becoming a doctor." In October 1913, Huxley entered Balliol College, Oxford, where he studied English literature. He volunteered for the British Army in January 1916, for the Great War; however, he was rejected on health grounds, being half-blind in one eye. His eyesight later partly recovered. He edited "Oxford Poetry" in 1916, and in June of that year graduated BA with first class honours. His brother Julian wrote:
Following his years at Balliol, Huxley, being financially indebted to his father, decided to find employment. He taught French for a year at Eton College, where Eric Blair (who was to take the pen name George Orwell) and Steven Runciman were among his pupils. He was mainly | 27,598 |
628 | Aldous Huxley | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aldous%20Huxley | Aldous Huxley
remembered as being an incompetent schoolmaster unable to keep order in class. Nevertheless, Blair and others spoke highly of his excellent command of language.
Significantly, Huxley also worked for a time during the 1920s at Brunner and Mond, an advanced chemical plant in Billingham in County Durham, northeast England. According to the introduction to the latest edition of his science fiction novel "Brave New World" (1932), the experience he had there of "an ordered universe in a world of planless incoherence" was an important source for the novel.
# Career.
Huxley completed his first (unpublished) novel at the age of 17 and began writing seriously in his early twenties, establishing himself | 27,599 |
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