wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
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627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
countries. Synthetic fertilizers are more heavily relied upon for crop production and manure utilization becomes a challenge as well as a source for pollution. Industrialized countries use these operations to produce much of the global supplies of poultry and pork. Scientists estimate that 75% of the growth... | 28,200 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
is the practice of breaking up the soil with tools such as the plow or harrow to prepare for planting, for nutrient incorporation, or for pest control. Tillage varies in intensity from conventional to no-till. It may improve productivity by warming the soil, incorporating fertilizer and controlling weeds, b... | 28,201 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
cover crops, intercropping, composting, avoidance, and resistance. Integrated pest management attempts to use all of these methods to keep pest populations below the number which would cause economic loss, and recommends pesticides as a last resort.
Nutrient management includes both the source of nutrient ... | 28,202 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
in managed intensive rotational grazing, or by spreading either dry or liquid formulations of manure on cropland or pastures.
Water management is needed where rainfall is insufficient or variable, which occurs to some degree in most regions of the world. Some farmers use irrigation to supplement rainfall. ... | 28,203 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
with each other; using a model that assessed how eleven technologies could impact agricultural productivity, food security and trade by 2050, the International Food Policy Research Institute found that the number of people at risk from hunger could be reduced by as much as 40% and food prices could be reduc... | 28,204 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
years, since the beginning of civilization. Altering crops through breeding practices changes the genetic make-up of a plant to develop crops with more beneficial characteristics for humans, for example, larger fruits or seeds, drought-tolerance, or resistance to pests. Significant advances in plant breedin... | 28,205 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
modify the organism.
Domestication of plants has, over the centuries increased yield, improved disease resistance and drought tolerance, eased harvest and improved the taste and nutritional value of crop plants. Careful selection and breeding have had enormous effects on the characteristics of crop plants.... | 28,206 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
increase yield by creating "high-yielding varieties". For example, average yields of corn (maize) in the US have increased from around 2.5 tons per hectare (t/ha) (40 bushels per acre) in 1900 to about 9.4 t/ha (150 bushels per acre) in 2001. Similarly, worldwide average wheat yields have increased from les... | 28,207 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
fertilizers, chemical pest control, growth control to avoid lodging).
## Genetic engineering.
Genetically modified organisms (GMO) are organisms whose genetic material has been altered by genetic engineering techniques generally known as recombinant DNA technology. Genetic engineering has expanded the gen... | 28,208 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
of GMO foods and crops. Currently a global treaty, the Biosafety Protocol, regulates the trade of GMOs. There is ongoing discussion regarding the labeling of foods made from GMOs, and while the EU currently requires all GMO foods to be labeled, the US does not.
Herbicide-resistant seed has a gene implanted... | 28,209 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
sprays. In some areas glyphosate resistant weeds have developed, causing farmers to switch to other herbicides. Some studies also link widespread glyphosate usage to iron deficiencies in some crops, which is both a crop production and a nutritional quality concern, with potential economic and health implica... | 28,210 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
hybridization or cross-pollination with wild species. In some cases, wild species are the primary source of resistance traits; some tomato cultivars that have gained resistance to at least 19 diseases did so through crossing with wild populations of tomatoes.
# Environmental impact.
## Effects and costs.
... | 28,211 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
that cropland imposes approximately $5 to $16 billion ($30 to $96 per hectare), while livestock production imposes $714 million. Both studies, which focused solely on the fiscal impacts, concluded that more should be done to internalize external costs. Neither included subsidies in their analysis, but they ... | 28,212 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
Pesticides kill insects, plants and fungi. These and other measures have cut biodiversity to very low levels on intensively farmed land.
In 2010, the International Resource Panel of the United Nations Environment Programme assessed the environmental impacts of consumption and production. It found that agri... | 28,213 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
changes, produce approximately 13 per cent of anthropogenic global GHG emissions. This includes GHGs emitted by the use of inorganic fertilisers agro-chemical pesticides and herbicides; (GHG emissions resulting from production of these inputs are included in industrial emissions); and fossil fuel-energy inp... | 28,214 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
annual expansion after 2020)."
## Livestock issues.
A senior UN official, Henning Steinfeld, said that "Livestock are one of the most significant contributors to today's most serious environmental problems". Livestock production occupies 70% of all land used for agriculture, or 30% of the land surface of ... | 28,215 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
It also generates 64% of the ammonia emission. Livestock expansion is cited as a key factor driving deforestation; in the Amazon basin 70% of previously forested area is now occupied by pastures and the remainder used for feedcrops. Through deforestation and land degradation, livestock is also driving reduc... | 28,216 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
in the loss of biodiversity. Estimates of the amount of land transformed by humans vary from 39 to 50%. Land degradation, the long-term decline in ecosystem function and productivity, is estimated to be occurring on 24% of land worldwide, with cropland overrepresented. The UN-FAO report cites land managemen... | 28,217 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
renders water unfit for drinking and other industrial uses. Excessive fertilization and manure application to cropland, as well as high livestock stocking densities cause nutrient (mainly nitrogen and phosphorus) runoff and leaching from agricultural land. These nutrients are major nonpoint pollutants contr... | 28,218 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
from aquifers, and currently draws from those underground water sources at an unsustainable rate. It is long known that aquifers in areas as diverse as northern China, the Upper Ganges and the western US are being depleted, and new research extends these problems to aquifers in Iran, Mexico and Saudi Arabia... | 28,219 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
diseases, and land degradation through salinization and waterlogging, when irrigation is performed incorrectly.
## Pesticides.
Pesticide use has increased since 1950 to 2.5million short tons annually worldwide, yet crop loss from pests has remained relatively constant. The World Health Organization estima... | 28,220 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
and intensive high yield farming, a view exemplified by a quote heading the Center for Global Food Issues website: 'Growing more per acre leaves more land for nature'. However, critics argue that a trade-off between the environment and a need for food is not inevitable, and that pesticides simply replace go... | 28,221 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
temperatures, rainfall, and weather extremes (like storms and heat waves); changes in pests and diseases; changes in atmospheric carbon dioxide and ground-level ozone concentrations; changes in the nutritional quality of some foods; and changes in sea level. Global warming is already affecting agriculture, ... | 28,222 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
of and a percentage of the world's methane, and future land infertility, and the displacement of wildlife. Agriculture contributes to climate change by anthropogenic emissions of greenhouse gases, and by the conversion of non-agricultural land such as forest for agricultural use. Agriculture, forestry and l... | 28,223 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
water to continue farming using current practices; therefore how critical water, land, and ecosystem resources are used to boost crop yields must be reconsidered. A solution would be to give value to ecosystems, recognizing environmental and livelihood tradeoffs, and balancing the rights of a variety of use... | 28,224 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
Technology permits innovations like conservation tillage, a farming process which helps prevent land loss to erosion, reduces water pollution, and enhances carbon sequestration.
According to a report by the International Food Policy Research Institute (IFPRI), agricultural technologies will have the greate... | 28,225 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
current climate change predictions, can be satisfied by additional improvement of agricultural methods, expansion of agricultural areas, and a sustainability-oriented consumer mindset.
## Energy dependence.
Since the 1940s, agricultural productivity has increased dramatically, due largely to the increased... | 28,226 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
doubled. Heavy reliance on petrochemicals has raised concerns that oil shortages could increase costs and reduce agricultural output.
Industrialized agriculture depends on fossil fuels in two fundamental ways: direct consumption on the farm and manufacture of inputs used on the farm. Direct consumption inc... | 28,227 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
and indirect energy consumption by U.S. farms peaked in 1979, and has since gradually declined. Food systems encompass not just agriculture but off-farm processing, packaging, transporting, marketing, consumption, and disposal of food and food-related items. Agriculture accounts for less than one-fifth of f... | 28,228 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
Although the study of agricultural economics is relatively recent, major trends in agriculture have significantly affected national and international economies throughout history, ranging from tenant farmers and sharecropping in the post-American Civil War Southern United States to the European feudal syste... | 28,229 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
by the supply chain. Market concentration has increased in the sector as well, and although the total effect of the increased market concentration is likely increased efficiency, the changes redistribute economic surplus from producers (farmers) and consumers, and may have negative implications for rural co... | 28,230 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
developing countries experienced adverse effects from national policies that created artificially low global prices for farm products. Between the mid-1980s and the early 2000s, several international agreements limited agricultural tariffs, subsidies and other trade restrictions.
However, , there was still... | 28,231 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
policy-driven distortions have seen a greater decrease among livestock products than crops during the worldwide reforms in agricultural policy. Despite this progress, certain crops, such as cotton, still see subsidies in developed countries artificially deflating global prices, causing hardship in developin... | 28,232 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
parts of exact, natural, economic and social sciences used in the practice and understanding of agriculture. It covers topics such as agronomy, plant breeding and genetics, plant pathology, crop modelling, soil science, entomology, production techniques and improvement, study of pests and their management, ... | 28,233 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
field experiments at Rothamsted Research Station in England; some of them, such as the Park Grass Experiment, are still running. In America, the Hatch Act of 1887 provided funding for what it was the first to call "agricultural science", driven by farmers' interest in fertilizers. In agricultural entomology... | 28,234 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
and imports of foreign agricultural products. Governments usually implement agricultural policies with the goal of achieving a specific outcome in the domestic agricultural product markets. Some overarching themes include risk management and adjustment (including policies related to climate change, food saf... | 28,235 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
supply is of a consistent and known quality, food security, ensuring that the food supply meets the population's needs, and conservation. Policy programs can range from financial programs, such as subsidies, to encouraging producers to enroll in voluntary quality assurance programs.
There are many influenc... | 28,236 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
individual agricultural commodities. The Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations (FAO) leads international efforts to defeat hunger and provides a forum for the negotiation of global agricultural regulations and agreements. Dr. Samuel Jutzi, director of FAO's animal production and health div... | 28,237 |
627 | Agriculture | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Agriculture | Agriculture
th, and environmental regulations, such as the number of animals an area of land can support without long-term damage, were successfully defeated due to large food company pressure.
# See also.
- Aeroponics
- Agricultural aircraft
- Agricultural engineering
- Agricultural robot
- Agroecology
- Buildi... | 28,238 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
Splendor in the Grass
Splendor in the Grass is a 1961 American Technicolor drama film that tells a story of a teenage girl navigating her feelings of sexual repression, love, and heartbreak. Written by William Inge, who appears briefly as a Protestant clergyman and who won an Oscar for his screen... | 28,239 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
(Pat Hingle) to find another kind of girl with whom to satisfy his desires.
Bud's parents are ashamed of his older sister Ginny (Barbara Loden), a flapper and sexually-promiscuous party girl who smokes, drinks, and has recently been brought back from Chicago, where her parents had a marriage annu... | 28,240 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
sexually involved with him, Bud has a liaison with her. Shortly afterward, depressed that Bud ended their relationship, Deanie attends a party with classmate Toots Tuttle (Gary Lockwood); trying out Ginny Stamper's behavior, she goes outside with Bud and comes on to him. When he rebuffs her, shock... | 28,241 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
Her parents sell their stock to pay for her institutionalization, which actually turns out to be a blessing in disguise, because they make a profit prior to the Crash of 1929 that leads to the Great Depression.
While Deanie is in the institution, she meets another patient, Johnny Masterson (Charl... | 28,242 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
Bud from school; Bud tells the dean he only aspires to own a ranch. The stock market crashes while Ace is in New Haven and he loses everything. He takes Bud to New York for a weekend, including to a cabaret nightclub, then commits suicide and Bud must identify the body.
Deanie returns home from t... | 28,243 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
Deanie's father refuses to coddle his daughter and tells her that Bud has taken up ranching and lives on the old family farm. Her friends drive Deanie to meet Bud, at an old farmhouse. He is now dressed in plain clothes and married to Angelina; they have an infant son named Bud Jr. and another chi... | 28,244 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
by the direction his life has taken. After the others are gone, he reassures Angelina, who has realized that Deanie was once the love of his life. Driving away, Deanie's friends ask her if she is still in love with Bud. She does not answer them, but her voice is heard reciting four lines from Word... | 28,245 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
Stamper
- Zohra Lampert as Angelina
- Warren Beatty as Bud Stamper
- Fred Stewart as Del Loomis
- Joanna Roos as Mrs. Stamper
- John McGovern as Doc Smiley
- Jan Norris as Juanita Howard
- Martine Bartlett as Miss Metcalf
- Gary Lockwood as Allen "Toots" Tuttle
- Sandy Dennis as Kay
- Cr... | 28,246 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
Charles Robinson as Johnny Masterson
# Production.
Filmed in New York City at Filmways Studios, "Splendor in the Grass" is based on people whom screenwriter William Inge knew while growing up in Kansas in the 1920s. He told the story to director Elia Kazan when they were working on a production ... | 28,247 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
the same line of the Wordsworth poem. The play relates the story of two middle-aged, former lovers who meet again briefly at a diner after a long estrangement; they are essentially the same characters as Bud and Deanie, though the names are Bus and Jackie.
Scenes of Kansas and the Loomis home wer... | 28,248 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
(most notably in a recurring role on "The Many Loves of Dobie Gillis"), made his screen debut in this film. He had met Inge the prior year while appearing in Inge's play "A Loss of Roses" on Broadway.
Also making her screen debut in this film, Sandy Dennis appeared in a small role as a classmate ... | 28,249 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
comments on several of the performances:
- Pat Hingle "gives a bruising performance as the oil-wealthy father of the boy, pushing and pounding and preaching, knocking the heart out of the lad"
- Audrey Christie is "relentlessly engulfing as the sticky-sweet mother of the girl"
- Warren Beatty i... | 28,250 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
of this film."
"Variety" stated that Wood and Beatty "deliver convincing, appealing performances" and Christie and Hingle were "truly exceptional," but also found "something awkward about the picture's mechanical rhythm. There are missing links and blind alleys within the story. Several times it ... | 28,251 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
unresolved; nevertheless, it is film-making of the first order and one of the few significant American dramas we have had this year." Richard L. Coe of "The Washington Post" found "beauty and truth" in the story but thought "the parents' incessant nagging and unlistening ears are not convincing" a... | 28,252 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
is not to be found here. Instead, you find a poignantly appealing and warmly touching performance of lovely Natalie Wood that gives the story meaning." Brendan Gill of "The New Yorker" disagreed and slammed the film for being "as phony a picture as I can remember seeing," explaining that Inge and ... | 28,253 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
I can't help hoping they have overplayed their hand."
"Time" magazine said "the script, on the whole, is the weakest element of the picture, but scriptwriter Inge can hardly be blamed for it" because it had been "heavily edited" by Kazan; he called the film a "relatively simple story of adolescen... | 28,254 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
was nominated for Best Actress in a Leading Role, losing to Sophia Loren in "Two Women". Elia Kazan received a nomination for a Directors Guild of America (DGA) award. The film received three nominations in the 1961 Hollywood Foreign Press Association awards: Best Picture - Drama, Best Performance... | 28,255 |
206721 | Splendor in the Grass | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Splendor%20in%20the%20Grass | Splendor in the Grass
ormance by an Actor in a Motion Picture - Drama for Warren Beatty, and Best Performance by an Actress in a Motion Picture - Drama for Natalie Wood. Wood received a nomination for a British Academy of Film and Television Arts (BAFTA) award for Best Foreign Actress.
The film ranked #50 on "Entertai... | 28,256 |
206737 | Deliverance (1919 film) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deliverance%20(1919%20film) | Deliverance (1919 film)
Deliverance (1919 film)
Deliverance is a 1919 silent film which tells the story of the life of Helen Keller and her teacher, Annie Sullivan. It stars Etna Ross, Tula Belle, Edith Lyle, Betty Schade, Sarah Lind, Ann Mason and Jenny Lind. The film also features appearances by Helen Keller, Anne S... | 28,257 |
206737 | Deliverance (1919 film) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Deliverance%20(1919%20film) | Deliverance (1919 film)
tna Ross ... Young Helen Keller
- Tula Belle ... Young Nadja
- Edith Lyle ... Younger Anne Sullivan (as Edythe Lyle)
- Betty Schade ... Mrs. Kate Adams Keller as a young woman
- Jenny Lind ... Martha Washington
- Sarah Lind ... Mammy
- Ann Mason ... Helen Keller as a young woman
- Helen K... | 28,258 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
Apollo 11
Apollo 11 was the spaceflight that first landed humans on the Moon. Commander Neil Armstrong and lunar module pilot Buzz Aldrin formed the American crew that landed the Apollo Lunar Module "Eagle" on July 20, 1969, at 20:17 UTC. Armstrong became the first person to step onto the lunar surface six h... | 28,259 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
on the lunar surface at a site they named Tranquility Base before lifting off to rejoin "Columbia" in lunar orbit.
Apollo 11 was launched by a Saturn V rocket from Kennedy Space Center on Merritt Island, Florida, on July 16 at 13:32 UTC, and it was the fifth crewed mission of NASA's Apollo program. The Apoll... | 28,260 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
being sent to the Moon by the Saturn V's third stage, the astronauts separated the spacecraft from it and traveled for three days until they entered lunar orbit. Armstrong and Aldrin then moved into "Eagle" and landed in the Sea of Tranquility. The astronauts used "Eagle"s ascent stage to lift off from the lu... | 28,261 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
TV to a worldwide audience. He described the event as "one small step for [a] man, one giant leap for mankind." Apollo 11 effectively ended the Space Race and fulfilled a national goal proposed in 1961 by President John F. Kennedy: "before this decade is out, of landing a man on the Moon and returning him saf... | 28,262 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
weapons over intercontinental distances, and challenged American claims of military, economic and technological superiority. This precipitated the Sputnik crisis, and triggered the Space Race. President Dwight D. Eisenhower responded to the Sputnik challenge by creating the National Aeronautics and Space Admi... | 28,263 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
After being recovered from the Atlantic Ocean, he received a congratulatory telephone call from Eisenhower's successor, John F. Kennedy.
Kennedy believed it was in the national interest of the United States to be superior to other nations, and that the perception of American power was at least as important a... | 28,264 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
the US and Soviet Union would be starting from a position of equality; something spectacular, even if it could not be justified on military, economic or scientific grounds. After consulting with his experts and advisors, he chose such a project.
On May 25, 1961, Kennedy addressed the United States Congress o... | 28,265 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
and Earth orbit rendezvous. A space rendezvous is an orbital maneuver in which two spacecraft navigate through space and meet up. In July 1962 NASA head James Webb announced that lunar orbit rendezvous would be used and that the Apollo spacecraft would have three major parts: a command module (CM) with a cabi... | 28,266 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
a single Saturn V rocket that was then under development.
Technologies and techniques required for Apollo were developed by Project Gemini. Project Apollo was abruptly halted by the Apollo 1 fire on January 27, 1967, in which astronauts Gus Grissom, Ed White, and Roger B. Chaffee died, and the subsequent inv... | 28,267 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
with the US in the Space Race, but its early lead was lost through repeated failures in development of the N1 launcher, which was comparable to the Saturn V. The Soviets tried to beat the US to return lunar material to the Earth by means of uncrewed probes. On July 13, three days before Apollo 11's launch, th... | 28,268 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
released in July 2009 for the 40th anniversary of Apollo 11.
# Personnel.
## Prime crew.
The initial crew assignment of Commander Neil Armstrong, Command Module Pilot (CMP) Jim Lovell, and Lunar Module Pilot (LMP) Buzz Aldrin on the backup crew for Apollo 9 was officially announced on November 20, 1967. Lo... | 28,269 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
crew, began experiencing trouble with his legs. Doctors diagnosed the problem as a bony growth between his fifth and sixth vertebrae, requiring surgery. Lovell took his place on the Apollo 8 crew, and when Collins recovered he joined Armstrong's crew as CMP. In the meantime, Fred Haise filled in as backup LMP... | 28,270 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
for a day before declining. He thought Lovell deserved to command his own mission (eventually Apollo 13).
The Apollo 11 prime crew had none of the close cheerful camaraderie characterized by that of Apollo 12. Instead they forged an amiable working relationship. Armstrong in particular was notoriously aloof,... | 28,271 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
Haise as LMP. Anders had flown with Lovell on Apollo 8. In early 1969, he accepted a job with the National Aeronautics and Space Council effective August 1969, and announced he would retire as an astronaut at that time. Ken Mattingly was moved from the support crew into parallel training with Anders as backup... | 28,272 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
the flight plan, checklists and mission ground rules, and ensured the prime and backup crews were apprised of changes. They developed procedures, especially those for emergency situations, so these were ready for when the prime and backup crews came to train in the simulators, allowing them to concentrate on ... | 28,273 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
II, James Lovell, William Anders, Ken Mattingly, Fred Haise, Don L. Lind, Owen K. Garriott and Harrison Schmitt.
## Flight directors.
The flight directors for this mission were:
# Preparations.
## Insignia.
The Apollo 11 mission emblem was designed by Collins, who wanted a symbol for "peaceful lunar land... | 28,274 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
been in the lower part of the Earth instead of the left. Aldrin, Armstrong and Collins decided the Eagle and the Moon would be in their natural colors, and decided on a blue and gold border. Armstrong was concerned that "eleven" would not be understood by non-English speakers, so they went with "Apollo 11", a... | 28,275 |
662 | Apollo 11 | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Apollo%2011 | Apollo 11
was moved to the talons. When the Eisenhower dollar coin was released in 1971, the patch design provided the eagle for its reverse side. The design was also used for the smaller Susan B. Anthony dollar unveiled in 1979.
## Call signs.
After the crew of Apollo 10 named their spacecraft "Charlie Brown" and "S... | 28,276 |
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LM was named "Eagle" after the motif which was featured prominently on the mission insignia. At Scheer's suggestion, the CM was named "Columbia" after "Columbiad", the giant cannon that launched a spacecraft (also from Florida) in Jules Verne's 1865 novel "From the Earth to the Moon". It also referenced Colum... | 28,277 |
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launch, and two on "Eagle".
Neil Armstrong's LM PPK contained a piece of wood from the Wright brothers' 1903 "Wright Flyer"s left propeller and a piece of fabric from its wing, along with a diamond-studded astronaut pin originally given to Slayton by the widows of the Apollo 1 crew. This pin had been intende... | 28,278 |
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photography of the lunar surface by the five uncrewed probes of the Lunar Orbiter program and information about surface conditions provided by the Surveyor program. The best Earth-bound telescopes could not resolve features with the resolution Project Apollo required. The landing site had to be close to the l... | 28,279 |
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site was found. Five sites were considered: Sites 1 and 2 were in the Sea of Tranquility ("Mare Tranquilitatis"); Site 3 was in the Central Bay ("Sinus Medii"); and Sites 4 and 5 were in the Ocean of Storms ("Oceanus Procellarum").
The final site selection was based on seven criteria:
- The site needed to b... | 28,280 |
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the Moon and safely return to Earth without requiring any engine firings should a problem arise on the way to the Moon;
- with good visibility during the landing approach, meaning the Sun would be between 7 and 20 degrees behind the LM; and
- a general slope of less than 2 degrees in the landing area.
The ... | 28,281 |
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2, and reported it was acceptable.
## First-step decision.
During the first press conference after the Apollo 11 crew was announced, the first question was, "Which one of you gentlemen will be the first man to step onto the lunar surface?" Slayton told the reporter it had not been decided, and Armstrong add... | 28,282 |
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George Mueller told reporters he would be first as well. Aldrin heard that Armstrong would be the first because Armstrong was a civilian, which made Aldrin livid. Aldrin attempted to persuade other lunar module pilots he should be first, but they responded cynically about what they perceived as a lobbying cam... | 28,283 |
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to exit the spacecraft was difficult. The crew tried a simulation in which Aldrin left the spacecraft first, but he damaged the simulator while attempting to egress. While this was enough for mission planners to make their decision, Aldrin and Armstrong were left in the dark on the decision until late spring.... | 28,284 |
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first to walk on the Moon. They argued that the first person to walk on the Moon should be like Charles Lindbergh, a calm and quiet person. They made the decision to change the flight plan so the commander was the first to egress from the spacecraft.
## Pre-launch.
The ascent stage of lunar module LM-5 arri... | 28,285 |
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landing gear; and a package of scientific experiments known as the Early Apollo Scientific Experiments Package (EASEP). The only change in the configuration of the command module was the removal of some insulation from the forward hatch. The command and service modules were mated on January 29, and moved from... | 28,286 |
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for Launch Pad 39A, part of Launch Complex 39, while Apollo 10 was still on its way to the Moon. A countdown test commenced on June 26, and concluded on July 2. The launch complex was floodlit on the night of July 15, when the crawler-transporter carried the mobile service structure back to its parking area. ... | 28,287 |
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and eggs with Slayton and the backup crew. They then donned their space suits and began breathing pure oxygen. At 0630, they headed out to Launch Complex 39. Haise entered "Columbia" about three hours and ten minutes before launch time. Along with a technician, he helped Armstrong into the left hand couch at ... | 28,288 |
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at three minutes and twenty seconds before launch time. Over 450 personnel were at the consoles in the firing room.
# Mission.
## Launch and flight to lunar orbit.
An estimated one million spectators watched the launch of Apollo 11 from the highways and beaches in the vicinity of the launch site. Dignitari... | 28,289 |
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the rest came from 55 other countries. The launch was televised live in 33 countries, with an estimated 25 million viewers in the United States alone. Millions more around the world listened to radio broadcasts. President Richard Nixon viewed the launch from his office in the White House with his NASA liaison... | 28,290 |
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The second stage engines then cut-off and separated at about 9 minutes and 8 seconds, allowing the first ignition of the S-IVB engine a few seconds later.
Apollo 11 entered Earth orbit at an altitude of by , twelve minutes into its flight. After one and a half orbits, a second ignition of the S-IVB engine pu... | 28,291 |
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After the LM was extracted, the combined spacecraft headed for the Moon, while the rocket stage flew on a trajectory past the Moon. This was done to avoid the third stage colliding with the spacecraft, the Earth, or the Moon. A slingshot effect from passing around the Moon threw it into an orbit around the Su... | 28,292 |
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Ranger 8 and Surveyor 5 landers and the Lunar Orbiter mapping spacecraft and unlikely to present major landing or EVA challenges. It lay about southeast of the Surveyor 5 landing site, and southwest of Ranger 8's crash site.
## Lunar descent.
At 12:52:00 UTC on July 20, Aldrin and Armstrong entered "Eagle",... | 28,293 |
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on the surface two or three seconds early, and reported that they were "long"; they would land miles west of their target point. "Eagle" was traveling too fast. The problem could have been masconsconcentrations of high mass that could have altered the trajectory. Flight Director Gene Kranz speculated that it ... | 28,294 |
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Officer Steve Bales it was safe to continue the descent, and this was relayed to the crew. The program alarms indicated "executive overflows", meaning the guidance computer could not complete all its tasks in real time and had to postpone some of them. Margaret Hamilton, the Director of Apollo Flight Computer... | 28,295 |
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a hardware design bug previously seen during testing of the first uncrewed LM in Apollo 5. Having the rendezvous radar on (so it was warmed up in case of an emergency landing abort) should have been irrelevant to the computer, but an electrical phasing mismatch between two parts of the rendezvous radar system... | 28,296 |
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area just north and east of a crater (later determined to be West crater), so he took semi-automatic control. Armstrong considered landing short of the boulder field so they could collect geological samples from it, but could not since their horizontal velocity was too high. Throughout the descent, Aldrin cal... | 28,297 |
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cleared the crater and found another patch of level ground. They were now from the surface, with only 90 seconds of propellant remaining. Lunar dust kicked up by the LM's engine began to impair his ability to determine the spacecraft's motion. Some large rocks jutted out of the dust cloud, and Armstrong focus... | 28,298 |
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off the lunar surface could make it explode, but he forgot. Three seconds later, "Eagle" landed and Armstrong shut the engine down. Aldrin immediately said "Okay, engine stop. ACA – out of detent." Armstrong acknowledged: "Out of detent. Auto." Aldrin continued: "Mode control – both auto. Descent engine comma... | 28,299 |
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