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20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
made a patrician in 73–74. Through his grandmother Rupilia, Marcus was a member of the Nerva-Antonine dynasty; the emperor Trajan's sororal niece Salonia Matidia was the mother of Rupilia and her half-sister, Hadrian's wife Sabina.
## Childhood.
Marcus' sister, Annia Cornificia Faustina, was probably ... | 4,100 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
did not spend much time with her son. Instead, Marcus was in the care of 'nurses', and was raised after his father's death by his grandfather Marcus Annius Verus (II), who had always retained the legal authority of "patria potestas" over his son and grandson. Technically this was not an adoption, the cr... | 4,101 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
villas. Marcus' grandfather owned a palace beside the Lateran, where he would spend much of his childhood. Marcus thanks his grandfather for teaching him 'good character and avoidance of bad temper'. He was less fond of the mistress his grandfather took and lived with after the death of his wife Rupilia... | 4,102 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
132, at the behest of Diognetus, Marcus took up the dress and habits of the philosopher: he studied while wearing a rough Greek cloak, and would sleep on the ground until his mother convinced him to sleep on a bed. A new set of tutors – the Homeric scholar Alexander of Cotiaeum along with Trosius Aper a... | 4,103 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
in his villa at Tivoli, he selected Lucius Ceionius Commodus, Marcus' intended father-in-law, as his successor and adopted son, according to the biographer 'against the wishes of everyone'. While his motives are not certain, it would appear that his goal was to eventually place the then-too-young Marcus... | 4,104 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
grew ill, and died of a hemorrhage later in the day.
On 24 January 138, Hadrian selected Aurelius Antoninus, the husband of Marcus' aunt Faustina the Elder, as his new successor. As part of Hadrian's terms, Antoninus in turn adopted Marcus and Lucius Commodus, the son of Lucius Aelius. Marcus became M.... | 4,105 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
in the senate that Marcus be exempt from the law barring him from becoming "quaestor" before his twenty-fourth birthday. The senate complied, and Marcus served under Antoninus, the consul for 139. Marcus' adoption diverted him from the typical career path of his class. If not for his adoption, he probab... | 4,106 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
his character remained unaffected: 'He still showed the same respect to his relations as he had when he was an ordinary citizen, and he was as thrifty and careful of his possessions as he had been when he lived in a private household'.
After a series of suicide attempts, all thwarted by Antoninus, Hadr... | 4,107 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
appeased the senate, respecting its privileges and commuting the death sentences of men charged in Hadrian's last days. For his dutiful behaviour, Antoninus was asked to accept the name 'Pius'.
## Heir to Antoninus Pius (138–145).
Immediately after Hadrian's death, Antoninus approached Marcus and requ... | 4,108 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
one of the knights' six commanders, at the order's annual parade on 15 July 139. As the heir apparent, Marcus became "princeps iuventutis", head of the equestrian order. He now took the name Marcus Aelius Aurelius Verus Caesar. Marcus would later caution himself against taking the name too seriously: 'S... | 4,109 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
the imperial palace on the Palatine, and take up the habits of his new station, the "aulicum fastigium" or 'pomp of the court', against Marcus' objections. Marcus would struggle to reconcile the life of the court with his philosophic yearnings. He told himself it was an attainable goal – 'Where life is ... | 4,110 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
Antoninus was absent, and would do secretarial work for the senators. But he felt drowned in paperwork, and complained to his tutor, Marcus Cornelius Fronto: 'I am so out of breath from dictating nearly thirty letters'. He was being 'fitted for ruling the state', in the words of his biographer. He was r... | 4,111 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
is concerned, I am beginning to get it back; and there is no trace of the pain in my chest. But that ulcer [...] I am having treatment and taking care not to do anything that interferes with it'. Never particularly healthy or strong, Marcus was praised by Cassius Dio, writing of his later years, for beh... | 4,112 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
surviving letters, and only sparing references to Faustina.
## Fronto and further education.
After taking the "toga virilis" in 136, Marcus probably began his training in oratory. He had three tutors in Greek – Aninus Macer, Caninius Celer, and Herodes Atticus – and one in Latin – Fronto. The latter t... | 4,113 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
in Greek.
Atticus was controversial: an enormously rich Athenian (probably the richest man in the eastern half of the empire), he was quick to anger, and resented by his fellow Athenians for his patronizing manner. Atticus was an inveterate opponent of Stoicism and philosophic pretensions. He thought t... | 4,114 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
world of Latin letters, he was thought of as second only to Cicero, perhaps even an alternative to him. He did not care much for Atticus, though Marcus was eventually to put the pair on speaking terms. Fronto exercised a complete mastery of Latin, capable of tracing expressions through the literature, p... | 4,115 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
with Fronto's wife and daughter, both named Cratia, and they enjoyed light conversation.
He wrote Fronto a letter on his birthday, claiming to love him as he loved himself, and calling on the gods to ensure that every word he learnt of literature, he would learn 'from the lips of Fronto'. His prayers f... | 4,116 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
his career as an advocate. One notorious case brought him into conflict with Atticus. Marcus pleaded with Fronto, first with 'advice', then as a 'favour', not to attack Atticus; he had already asked Atticus to refrain from making the first blows. Fronto replied that he was surprised to discover Marcus c... | 4,117 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
him an uneducated little Greek it will not mean war to the death'. The outcome of the trial is unknown.
By the age of twenty-five (between April 146 and April 147), Marcus had grown disaffected with his studies in jurisprudence, and showed some signs of general malaise. His master, he writes to Fronto,... | 4,118 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
good terms, following them devotedly. It 'affected his health adversely', his biographer writes, to have devoted so much effort to his studies. It was the only thing the biographer could find fault with in Marcus' entire boyhood.
Fronto had warned Marcus against the study of philosophy early on: 'It is... | 4,119 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
boring work', Marcus had turned to philosophy to escape the constant exercises of oratorical training. Marcus kept in close touch with Fronto, but would ignore Fronto's scruples.
Apollonius may have introduced Marcus to Stoic philosophy, but Quintus Junius Rusticus would have the strongest influence on... | 4,120 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
one). Marcus thanks Rusticus for teaching him 'not to be led astray into enthusiasm for rhetoric, for writing on speculative themes, for discoursing on moralizing texts... To avoid oratory, poetry, and 'fine writing".
Philostratus describes how even when Marcus was an old man, in the latter part of his... | 4,121 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
to learn what I do not yet know.' And Lucius, raising his hand to heaven, said, ' O Zeus, the king of the Romans in his old age takes up his tablets and goes to school.'
## Births and deaths.
On 30 November 147, Faustina gave birth to a girl named Domitia Faustina. She was the first of at least thirte... | 4,122 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
with Antoninus' on 10 December 147. The first mention of Domitia in Marcus' letters reveals her as a sickly infant. 'Caesar to Fronto. If the gods are willing we seem to have a hope of recovery. The diarrhea has stopped, the little attacks of fever have been driven away. But the emaciation is still extr... | 4,123 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
not survive long. Before the end of the year, another family coin was issued: it shows only a tiny girl, Domitia Faustina, and one boy baby. Then another: the girl alone. The infants were buried in the Mausoleum of Hadrian, where their epitaphs survive. They were called Titus Aurelius Antoninus and Tibe... | 4,124 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
vi.146
Another daughter was born on 7 March 150, Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla. At some time between 155 and 161, probably soon after 155, Marcus' mother Domitia Lucilla died. Faustina probably had another daughter in 151, but the child, Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina, might not have been born until 15... | 4,125 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
dead. Marcus thanked the temple synod, 'even though this turned out otherwise'. The child's name is unknown. In 159 and 160, Faustina gave birth to daughters: Fadilla and Cornificia, named respectively after Faustina's and Marcus' dead sisters.
## Antoninus Pius' last years.
Lucius started his politic... | 4,126 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
turned 70. He found it difficult to keep himself upright without stays. He started nibbling on dry bread to give him the strength to stay awake through his morning receptions. As Antoninus aged, Marcus would take on more administrative duties, more still when he became the praetorian prefect (an office ... | 4,127 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
In the night he vomited; he had a fever the next day. The day after that, 7 March 161, he summoned the imperial council, and passed the state and his daughter to Marcus. The emperor gave the keynote to his life in the last word that he uttered when the tribune of the night-watch came to ask the password... | 4,128 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
grant him the name Augustus and the title "imperator", and he would soon be formally elected as "Pontifex Maximus", chief priest of the official cults. Marcus made some show of resistance: the biographer writes that he was 'compelled' to take imperial power. This may have been a genuine "horror imperii"... | 4,129 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
succession plans. Thus, although the senate planned to confirm Marcus alone, he refused to take office unless Lucius received equal powers. The senate accepted, granting Lucius the "imperium", the tribunician power, and the name Augustus. Marcus became, in official titulature, Imperator Caesar Marcus Au... | 4,130 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
was "Pontifex Maximus". It would have been clear to the public which emperor was the more senior. As the biographer wrote, 'Verus obeyed Marcus...as a lieutenant obeys a proconsul or a governor obeys the emperor'.
Immediately after their senate confirmation, the emperors proceeded to the Castra Praetor... | 4,131 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
pay, the troops swore an oath to protect the emperors. The ceremony was perhaps not entirely necessary, given that Marcus' accession had been peaceful and unopposed, but it was good insurance against later military troubles. Upon his accession he also devalued the Roman currency. He decreased the silver... | 4,132 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
father for deification. In contrast to their behaviour during Antoninus' campaign to deify Hadrian, the senate did not oppose the emperors' wishes. A "flamen", or cultic priest, was appointed to minister the cult of the deified Divus Antoninus. Antoninus' remains were laid to rest in Hadrian's mausoleum... | 4,133 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
estate to his nephew, Ummius Quadratus.) Faustina was three months pregnant at her husband's accession. During the pregnancy she dreamed of giving birth to two serpents, one fiercer than the other. On 31 August she gave birth at Lanuvium to twins: T. Aurelius Fulvus Antoninus and Lucius Aurelius Commodu... | 4,134 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
ceremonies commemorating the event, new provisions were made for the support of poor children, along the lines of earlier imperial foundations. Marcus and Lucius proved popular with the people of Rome, who strongly approved of their "civiliter" ('lacking pomp') behaviour. The emperors permitted free spe... | 4,135 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
the frontier province of Pannonia and had served in the war in Mauretania. Recently, he had served as procurator of five provinces. He was a man suited for a time of military crisis. Lucius Volusius Maecianus, Marcus' former tutor, had been prefectural governor of Egypt at Marcus' accession. Maecianus w... | 4,136 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
Charilas, asking if he could call on the emperors. Fronto would later explain that he had not dared to write the emperors directly. The tutor was immensely proud of his students. Reflecting on the speech he had written on taking his consulship in 143, when he had praised the young Marcus, Fronto was ebu... | 4,137 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
level. Lucius asked Fronto to adjudicate in a dispute he and his friend Calpurnius were having on the relative merits of two actors. Marcus told Fronto of his reading – Coelius and a little Cicero – and his family. His daughters were in Rome with their great-great-aunt Matidia; Marcus thought the evenin... | 4,138 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
philosophy and the pursuit of popular affection. Soon, however, he would find he had many anxieties. It would mean the end of the "felicitas temporum" ('happy times') that the coinage of 161 had proclaimed.
In either autumn 161 or spring 162, the Tiber overflowed its banks, flooding much of Rome. It dr... | 4,139 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
ever been before. He believed Marcus was 'beginning to feel the wish to be eloquent once more, in spite of having for a time lost interest in eloquence'. Fronto would again remind his pupil of the tension between his role and his philosophic pretensions: 'Suppose, Caesar, that you can attain to the wisd... | 4,140 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
had conveyed the drama of the disaster, and the senate had been awed: 'Not more suddenly or violently was the city stirred by the earthquake than the minds of your hearers by your speech'. Fronto was hugely pleased.
## War with Parthia (161–166).
On his deathbed, Antoninus spoke of nothing but the sta... | 4,141 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
much experience in military matters.
Convinced by the prophet Alexander of Abonutichus that he could defeat the Parthians easily and win glory for himself, Severianus led a legion (perhaps the IX Hispana) into Armenia, but was trapped by the great Parthian general Chosrhoes at Elegia, a town just beyon... | 4,142 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
over the "limes". Marcus was unprepared. Antoninus seems to have given him no military experience; the biographer writes that Marcus spent the whole of Antoninus' twenty-three-year reign at his emperor's side and not in the provinces, where most previous emperors had spent their early careers.
More bad... | 4,143 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
II Adiutrix from Aquincum, and V Macedonica from Troesmis.
The northern frontiers were strategically weakened; frontier governors were told to avoid conflict wherever possible. M. Annius Libo, Marcus' first cousin, was sent to replace the Syrian governor. His first consulship was in 161, so he was prob... | 4,144 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
the intention of devoting yourself to games, joking, and complete leisure for four whole days?' He encouraged Marcus to rest, calling on the example of his predecessors (Antoninus had enjoyed exercise in the "palaestra", fishing, and comedy), going so far as to write up a fable about the gods' division ... | 4,145 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
often, but 'this devotion to duty! Who knows better than you how demanding it is!'
Fronto sent Marcus a selection of reading material, and, to settle his unease over the course of the Parthian war, a long and considered letter, full of historical references. In modern editions of Fronto's works, it is ... | 4,146 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
the Parthian war in person. He was stronger and healthier than Marcus, the argument went, and thus more suited to military activity. Lucius' biographer suggests ulterior motives: to restrain Lucius' debaucheries, to make him thrifty, to reform his morals by the terror of war, and to realize that he was ... | 4,147 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
would 'dice the whole night through', and enjoyed the company of actors. Libo died early in the war; perhaps Lucius had murdered him.
In the middle of the war, perhaps in autumn 163 or early 164, Lucius made a trip to Ephesus to be married to Marcus' daughter Lucilla. Marcus moved up the date; perhaps ... | 4,148 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
job Libo had failed at. Marcus may have planned to accompany them all the way to Smyrna (the biographer says he told the senate he would), but this did not happen. He only accompanied the group as far as Brundisium, where they boarded a ship for the east. He returned to Rome immediately thereafter, and ... | 4,149 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
II" with him.
Occupied Armenia was reconstructed on Roman terms. In 164, a new capital, Kaine Polis ('New City'), replaced Artaxata. A new king was installed: a Roman senator of consular rank and Arsacid descent, Gaius Julius Sohaemus. He may not even have been crowned in Armenia; the ceremony may have... | 4,150 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
to cross the Euphrates at a more southerly point. Before the end of 163, however, Roman forces had moved north to occupy Dausara and Nicephorium on the northern, Parthian bank. Soon after the conquest of the north bank of the Euphrates, other Roman forces moved on Osroene from Armenia, taking Anthemusia... | 4,151 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
Dura.
By the end of the year, Cassius' army had reached the twin metropolises of Mesopotamia: Seleucia on the right bank of the Tigris and Ctesiphon on the left. Ctesiphon was taken and its royal palace set to flame. The citizens of Seleucia, still largely Greek (the city had been commissioned and sett... | 4,152 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
in Seleucia, made it back to Roman territory safely. Lucius took the title Parthicus Maximus, and he and Marcus were hailed as "imperatores" again, earning the title 'imp. III'. Cassius' army returned to the field in 166, crossing over the Tigris into Media. Lucius took the title 'Medicus', and the empe... | 4,153 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
with his wife and children (another child had stayed with Fronto and his wife in Rome). The condition on the northern frontier looked grave. A frontier post had been destroyed, and it looked like all the peoples of central and northern Europe were in turmoil. There was corruption among the officers: Vic... | 4,154 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
Maximus was shuffled from Lower Moesia to Upper Moesia when Marcus Iallius Bassus had joined Lucius in Antioch. Lower Moesia was filled by Pontius Laelianus' son. The Dacias were still divided in three, governed by a praetorian senator and two procurators. The peace could not hold long; Lower Pannonia d... | 4,155 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
the Marcomanni of Bohemia, clients of the Roman Empire since 19 AD, crossed the Danube together with the Lombards and other Germanic tribes. Soon thereafter, the Iranian Sarmatian Iazyges attacked between the Danube and the Theiss rivers.
The Costoboci, coming from the Carpathian area, invaded Moesia, ... | 4,156 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
Republic, Slovakia, and Hungary. Some Germanic tribes who settled in Ravenna revolted and managed to seize possession of the city. For this reason, Marcus decided not only against bringing more barbarians into Italy, but even banished those who had previously been brought there.
## Legal and administra... | 4,157 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
conscientiously just emperor'. He showed marked interest in three areas of the law: the manumission of slaves, the guardianship of orphans and minors, and the choice of city councillors ("decuriones").
Marcus showed a great deal of respect to the Roman Senate and routinely asked them for permission to ... | 4,158 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
because of the military crises facing the empire.
### Trade with Han China and outbreak of plague.
A possible contact with Han China occurred in 166 when a Roman traveller visited the Han court, claiming to be an ambassador representing a certain Andun (Chinese: 安 敦), ruler of Daqin, who can be identi... | 4,159 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
described by Ptolemy (c. 150) as being visited by a Greek sailor named Alexander and laying beyond the Golden Chersonese (i.e. Malay Peninsula). Roman coins from the reigns of Tiberius to Aurelian have been found in Xi'an, China (site of the Han capital Chang'an), although the far greater amount of Roma... | 4,160 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
that 'fever, diarrhoea, and inflammation of the pharynx, along with dry or pustular eruptions of the skin after nine days' were among the symptoms. It is believed that the plague was smallpox. In the view of historian Rafe de Crespigny, the plagues afflicting the Eastern Han empire of China during the r... | 4,161 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
to McLaughlin, the disease caused 'irreparable' damage to the Roman maritime trade in the Indian Ocean as proven by the archaeological record spanning from Egypt to India, as well as significantly decreased Roman commercial activity in Southeast Asia.
## Death and succession (180).
Marcus died at the ... | 4,162 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
his death to be the end of the Pax Romana.
Marcus was succeeded by his son Commodus, whom he had named Caesar in 166 and with whom he had jointly ruled since 177. Biological sons of the emperor, if there were any, were considered heirs; however, it was only the second time that a 'non-adoptive' son had... | 4,163 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
with sorrow:
[Marcus] did not meet with the good fortune that he deserved, for he was not strong in body and was involved in a multitude of troubles throughout practically his entire reign. But for my part, I admire him all the more for this very reason, that amid unusual and extraordinary difficulties... | 4,164 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
first days as counsellor to Antoninus to his final days as emperor of Rome, 'he remained the same [person] and did not change in the least.'
Michael Grant, in "The Climax of Rome", writes of Commodus:
The youth turned out to be very erratic, or at least so anti-traditional that disaster was inevitable... | 4,165 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
both Dio and the biographer call him 'the philosopher'. Christians such as Justin Martyr, Athenagoras, and Melito also gave him the title. The last named went so far as to call him 'more philanthropic and philosophic' than Antoninus and Hadrian, and set him against the persecuting emperors Domitian and ... | 4,166 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
so abjectly abandoned by the imperial line he anointed on his death'.
# Attitude towards Christians.
In the first two centuries of the Christian era, it was local Roman officials who were largely responsible for the persecution of Christians. In the second century, the emperors treated Christianity as... | 4,167 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
Apology (written between 140 and 150 A.D.,) a letter from Marcus Aurelius to the Roman senate (prior to his reign) describing a battlefield incident in which Aurelius believed Christian-prayer had saved his army from thirst when ' water poured from heaven,' after which, ' immediately we recognized the p... | 4,168 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
(149)
- Titus Aelius Aurelius (149)
- Annia Aurelia Galeria Lucilla (150–182), married her father's co-ruler Lucius Verus
- Annia Galeria Aurelia Faustina (born 151)
- Tiberius Aelius Antoninus (born 152, died before 156)
- Unknown child (died before 158)
- Annia Aurelia Fadilla (born 159)
- Anni... | 4,169 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
wrote his "Meditations" in Greek as a source for his own guidance and self-improvement. The original title of this work, if it had one, is unknown. 'Meditations' – as well as other titles including 'To Himself' – were adopted later. He had a logical mind and his notes were representative of Stoic philos... | 4,170 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
philosophy.
It is not known how widely Marcus' writings were circulated after his death. There are stray references in the ancient literature to the popularity of his precepts, and Julian the Apostate was well aware of his reputation as a philosopher, though he does not specifically mention "Meditation... | 4,171 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
reportedly lost shortly afterwards. The oldest surviving complete manuscript copy is in the Vatican library and dates to the 14th century.
# Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius.
The Equestrian Statue of Marcus Aurelius in Rome is the only Roman equestrian statue which has survived into the modern per... | 4,172 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
weary facial expression due to the stress of leading Rome into nearly constant battles perhaps represents a break with the classical tradition of sculpture.
# Column of Marcus Aurelius.
Marcus' victory column, established in Rome either in his last few years of life or after his reign and completed in... | 4,173 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
compared by scholars given how they are both Doric in style, had a pedestal at the base, had sculpted friezes depicting their respective military victories, and a statue on top.
# Citations.
All citations to the "Historia Augusta" are to individual biographies, and are marked with a "HA". Citations to... | 4,174 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
Fronto: With Marcus Aurelius Antoninus, Lucius Verus, Antoninus Pius, and Various Friends" (in Latin).
- Gellius, Aulus. "Noctes Atticae" ("Attic Nights").
- Herodian. "Ab Excessu Divi Marci" ("History of the Roman Empire from the Death of Marcus Aurelius", in Latin).
- Lucian.
- Marcus Aurelius Ant... | 4,175 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
New York: Facts on File, 2008. .
- Adams, Geoff W. "Marcus Aurelius in the Historia Augusta and Beyond". Lanham, MD: Lexington Books, 2013. .
- An, Jiayao. 'When Glass Was Treasured in China'. Annette L. Juliano and Judith A. Lerner (eds), "Nomads, Traders, and Holy Men Along China's Silk Road", 79–94... | 4,176 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
against the Christians'. Journal of Roman Studies, Vol. 58 (1968): 32–50. . .
- Barnes, Timothy D. 'Some Persons in the Historia Augusta', "Phoenix" 26:2 (1972): 140–82. . .
- Birley, Anthony R. "Marcus Aurelius: a biography". London: Routledge, 1966, rev. 1987. .
- Birley, Anthony R. 'Hadrian to the... | 4,177 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
the Death of Marcus Aurelius (27 B.C.–180 A.D.)". New York: Harper, 1893. .
- Champlin, Edward. 'The Chronology of Fronto'. "Journal of Roman Studies" 64 (1974): 136–59. . .
- Champlin, Edward. "Fronto and Antonine Rome". Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1980. .
- Collins, Desmond. "Backgroun... | 4,178 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
Gagarin, Michael. "The Oxford encyclopedia of ancient Greece and Rome. Volume 7, Temples – Zoology". Oxford: Oxford University Press, 2010. .
- Giacosa, Giorgio. "Women of the Caesars: their lives and portraits on coins". Translated from Italian by R. Ross Holloway. Milan: Edizioni Arte e Moneta, 1977.... | 4,179 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
de l'Académie Nationale de Médecine". Académie nationale de médecine. 190 (2006): 1093–98. .
- Hadot, Pierre. "The inner citadel: the Meditations of Marcus Aurelius". Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1998. .
- Hays, Gregory. "Meditations". London: Weidenfeld & Nicolson, 2003. .
- Irvine, Will... | 4,180 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
"The Imperial Roman Army". Routledge, 2013. .
- Levick, Barbara M. "Faustina I and II: Imperial Women of the Golden Age". New York: Oxford University Press, 2014. .
- Magill, Frank N. "Dictionary of World Biography". London: Routledge, 2003. .
- Mattingly, Harold; Sydenham, Edward A. "The Roman imper... | 4,181 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
China". London & New York: Continuum, 2010. .
- McLynn, Frank. "Marcus Aurelius: A Life". New York: Da Capo Press, 2009. .
- McLynn, Frank. "Marcus Aurelius: Warrior, Philosopher, Emperor". London: Bodley Head, 2009. .
- Millar, Fergus. "The Roman Near East, 31 B.C.–A.D. 337". Cambridge, MA: Harvard ... | 4,182 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
a Roman Emperor: The Stoic Philosophy of Marcus Aurelius". New York: St. Martin's Press, 2019.
- Sánchez, Jorge Pisa. "Breve historia de Hispania: La fascinante historia de Hispania, desde Viriato hasta el esplendor con los emperadores Trajano y Adriano. Los protagonistas, la cultura, la religión y el ... | 4,183 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
Stephens, William O. "Marcus Aurelius: A Guide for the Perplexed". London: Continuum, 2012. .
- Stertz, Stephen A. 'Marcus Aurelius as Ideal Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. "The Classical World" 70:7 (1977): 433–39. . .
- Syme, Ronald. 'The Ummidii'. "Historia" 17:1 (1968): 72–105. .
- Van Ac... | 4,184 |
20155 | Marcus Aurelius | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Marcus%20Aurelius | Marcus Aurelius
l Emperor in Late-Antique Greek Thought'. "The Classical World" 70:7 (1977): 433–39. . .
- Syme, Ronald. 'The Ummidii'. "Historia" 17:1 (1968): 72–105. .
- Van Ackeren, Marcel. "A Companion to Marcus Aurelius". New York: Malden, MA : Wiley-Blackwell, 2012. . .
- Young, Gary K. "Rome's Eastern Trade: ... | 4,185 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
Frederick Denison Maurice
John Frederick Denison Maurice (1805–1872), known as F. D. Maurice, was an English Anglican theologian, a prolific author, and one of the founders of Christian socialism. Since World War II, interest in Maurice has expanded.
# Early life and education.
John Frederi... | 4,186 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
"of no little learning" and gave his son his early education. The son "appears to have been an exemplary child, responsive to teaching and always dutiful. He read a good deal on his own account, but had little inclination for games. Serious and precocious, he even at this time harboured ambiti... | 4,187 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
to Cambridge where he obtained a first-class degree in civil law in 1827.
During the 1827–1830 break in his higher education, Maurice lived in London and Southampton. While in London, he contributed to the "Westminster Review" and made the acquaintance of John Stuart Mill. With Sterling he al... | 4,188 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
he was very poor and he "kept to himself, toiling at his books". However, "his honesty and intellectual powers" impressed others. In March 1831, Maurice was baptised in the Church of England. After taking a second-class degree in November 1831, he worked as a "private tutor" in Oxford until hi... | 4,189 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
"scarcely paralleled by any of his contemporaries". He was ordained as priest in 1835.
# Career and marriages.
Except for his 1834–1836 first clerical assignment, Maurice's career can be divided between his conflicted years in London (1836–1866) and his peaceful years in Cambridge (1866–1872... | 4,190 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
his death. Also, Maurice's novel "Eustace Conway", begun , was published in 1834 and was praised by Samuel Taylor Coleridge.
In 1836, he was appointed chaplain of Guy's Hospital where he took up residence and "lectured the students on moral philosophy". He continued this post until 1860. Maur... | 4,191 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
and the eucharist, to which must be added the creeds, the liturgy, the episcopate, and the scriptures—in fact, all the marks of catholicity as exemplified in the Church of England." The book was met with criticism when published, a criticism "that lasted throughout Maurice's career."
## Londo... | 4,192 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
elected chaplain of Lincoln's Inn and resigned the chaplaincy at Guy's Hospital.
In 1845, Maurice was made both the Boyle lecturer by the Archbishop of York's nomination and the Warburton lecturer by the Archbishop of Canterbury's nomination. He held these chairs until 1853.
Maurice's wife, ... | 4,193 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
the education of governesses. This committee joined a scheme for establishing a College for Women that resulted in the founding of Queen's College. Maurice was its first principal. The college was "empowered to grant certificates of qualification 'to governesses' and 'to open classes in all br... | 4,194 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
because of the supposed unorthodoxy of his "Theological Essays" (1853)." His work "The Kingdom of Christ" had evoked virulent criticism. The publication of his "Theological Essays" in 1853 evoked even more and precipitated his dismissal from King's College. At the instigation of Richard Willia... | 4,195 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
spiritual teacher." They were devoted to him and wanted to protect Maurice against his opponents.
Working Men's College
Although his relations with King's College and Queen's College had been severed, Maurice continued to work for the education of workers. In February 1854, he developed plan... | 4,196 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
Socialism movement and the Society for Promoting Working Men's Associations.
In July 1860, in spite of controversy, Maurice was appointed to the benefice of the chapel of St. Peter's, Vere Street. He held the position until 1869.
## Cambridge University.
"On 25 October 1866 Maurice was elec... | 4,197 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
was "warmly received" at Cambridge, where "there were no doubts of his sufficient orthodoxy".
While teaching at Cambridge, Maurice continued as the Working Men's College principal, though he was there less often. At first, he retained the Vere Street, London, cure which entailed a weekly rail... | 4,198 |
206518 | Frederick Denison Maurice | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Frederick%20Denison%20Maurice | Frederick Denison Maurice
was a man to whom other men, no matter how much they might differ from him, would listen."
Royal Commissioner
In spite of declining health, in 1870 Maurice agreed to serve on the Royal Commission regarding the Contagious Diseases Act of 1871, and travelled to London for the meetings. "The Co... | 4,199 |
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