wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
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206581 | John Blackwood (publisher) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Blackwood%20(publisher) | John Blackwood (publisher)
address was 3 Randolph Crescent on the southern edge of the Moray Estate.
He died at Strathtyrum House near St Andrews on 29 October 1879. He is buried on a small west-facing section of wall on the southern edge of Dean Cemetery in Edinburgh. A secondary memorial to John is within his father... | 4,700 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Elam
Elam (; Elamite: "haltamti"; Sumerian: "NIM.MA"; "ʿÊlām"; "Ūvja") was an ancient Pre-Iranian civilization centered in the far west and southwest of what is now modern-day Iran, stretching from the lowlands of what is now Khuzestan and Ilam Province as well as a small part of southern Iraq. The modern name "E... | 4,701 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
(Copper Age). The emergence of written records from around 3000 BC also parallels Sumerian history, where slightly earlier records have been found. In the Old Elamite period (Middle Bronze Age), Elam consisted of kingdoms on the Iranian plateau, centered in Anshan, and from the mid-2nd millennium BC, it was center... | 4,702 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
argue that the Elamites comprise a large portion of the ancestors of the modern day Lurs, whose language, Luri, split from Middle Persian.
# Etymology.
The Elamite language endonym of Elam as a country appears to have been "Haltamti".
Exonyms included the Sumerian names "NIM.MA"𒉏𒈠𒆠 and "ELAM", the Akkadian "... | 4,703 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Geography.
In geographical terms, Susiana basically represents the Iranian province of Khuzestan around the river Karun. In ancient times, several names were used to describe this area. The great ancient geographer Ptolemy was the earliest to call the area "Susiana", referring to the country around Susa.
Another... | 4,704 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
lowland area. Yet in other ancient sources 'Elam' and 'Susiana' seem equivalent.
The uncertainty in this area extends also to modern scholarship. Since the discovery of ancient Anshan, and the realization of its great importance in Elamite history, the definitions were changed again. Some modern scholars argued t... | 4,705 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
which the peoples of highland Iran had of themselves. They were Anshanites, Marhashians, Shimashkians, Zabshalians, Sherihumians, Awanites, etc. That Anshan played a leading role in the political affairs of the various highland groups inhabiting southwestern Iran is clear. But to argue that Anshan is coterminous w... | 4,706 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
(Sumerian, Akkadian, Assyrian and Babylonian) sources. The history of Elam is conventionally divided into three periods, spanning more than two millennia. The period before the first Elamite period is known as the proto-Elamite period:
- Proto-Elamite: c. 3200 – c. 2700 BC (Proto-Elamite script in Susa)
- Old El... | 4,707 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
civilization grew up east of the Tigris and Euphrates alluvial plains; it was a combination of the lowlands and the immediate highland areas to the north and east. At least three proto-Elamite states merged to form Elam: Anshan (modern Khuzestan Province), Awan (modern Lorestan Province) and Shimashki (modern Kerm... | 4,708 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
such as Warakshe, Sialk (now a suburb of the modern city of Kashan) and Jiroft in Kerman Province. The state of Elam was formed from these lesser states as a response to invasion from Sumer during the Old Elamite period. Elamite strength was based on an ability to hold these various areas together under a coordina... | 4,709 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
submission to Mesopotamian and Elamite power. The earliest levels (22—17 in the excavations conducted by Le Brun, 1978) exhibit pottery that has no equivalent in Mesopotamia, but for the succeeding period, the excavated material allows identification with the culture of Sumer of the Uruk period. Proto-Elamite infl... | 4,710 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
to the Sumerian king list. Elamite history can only be traced from records dating to beginning of the Akkadian Empire (2335–2154 BC) onwards.
The Proto-Elamite states in Jiroft and Zabol (not universally accepted), present a special case because of their great antiquity.
In ancient Luristan, bronze-making tradit... | 4,711 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
period began around 2700 BC. Historical records mention the conquest of Elam by Enmebaragesi, the Sumerian king of Kish in Mesopotamia. Three dynasties ruled during this period. Twelve kings of each of the first two dynasties, those of Awan (or "Avan"; c. 2400 – c. 2100) and Simashki (c. 2100 – c. 1970), are known... | 4,712 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
BC) was partly contemporary with that of the Mesopotamian emperor Sargon of Akkad, who not only defeated the Awan king Luhi-ishan and subjected Susa, but attempted to make the East Semitic Akkadian the official language there. From this time, Mesopotamian sources concerning Elam become more frequent, since the Mes... | 4,713 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
in its place the brief Linear Elamite script. Kutik-Inshushinnak conquered Susa and Anshan, and seems to have achieved some sort of political unity. Following his reign, the Awan dynasty collapsed as Elam was temporarily overrun by the Guti, another pre-Iranic people from what is now north west Iran who also spoke... | 4,714 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
approaches. The Elamite state of Simashki at this time also extended into northern Iran, and possibly even as far as the Caspian Sea. Shu-Sin of Ur gave one of his daughters in marriage to a prince of Anshan. But the power of the Sumerians was waning; Ibbi-Sin in the 21st century did not manage to penetrate far in... | 4,715 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Sukkalmah dynasty.
The succeeding dynasty, often called the Sukkalmah dynasty (c. 1970 – c. 1770) after "Great regents", the title borne by its members, also called the Epartid dynasty after the name of its founder Ebarat/ Eparti, was roughly contemporary with the Old Assyrian Empire, and Old Babylonian period in... | 4,716 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
as Larsa and Isin continually tried to retake the city. Around 1850 BC Kudur-mabuk, apparently king of another Akkadian state to the north of Larsa, managed to install his son, Warad-Sin, on the throne of Larsa, and Warad-Sin's brother, Rim-Sin, succeeded him and conquered much of southern Mesopotamia for Larsa.
... | 4,717 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
of Babylon; and Kudur-Nahhunte, who plundered the temples of southern Mesopotamia, the north being under the control of the Old Assyrian Empire. But Elamite influence in southern Mesopotamia did not last. Around 1760 BC, Hammurabi drove out the Elamites, overthrew Rim-Sin of Larsa, and established a short lived Ba... | 4,718 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
the cities of Mesopotamia and Elam, can be inferred from numerous find of Indus artifacts, particularly in the excavation as Susa. Various objects made with shell species that are characteristic of the Indus coast, particularly "Trubinella Pyrum" and "Fasciolaria Trapezium", have been found in the archaeological s... | 4,719 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
BC, together with the disappearance of the Indus valley civilization.
## Middle Elamite period (c.1500 – c.1100 BC).
### Anshan and Susa.
The Middle Elamite period began with the rise of the Anshanite dynasties around 1500 BC. Their rule was characterized by an "Elamisation" of Susa, and the kings took the titl... | 4,720 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
They are identified by their use of the older title, "king of Susa and of Anshan", and by calling themselves "servant of Kirwashir", an Elamite deity, thereby introducing the pantheon of the highlands to Susiana. The city of Susa itself is one of the oldest in the world dating back to around 4200 BC. Since its fou... | 4,721 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Isolate speaking people from the Zagros Mountains who had taken Babylonia shortly after its sacking by the Hittite Empire in 1595 BC. The Kassite king of Babylon Kurigalzu II who had been installed on the throne by Ashur-uballit I of the Middle Assyrian Empire (1366–1020 BC), temporarily occupied Elam around 1320 ... | 4,722 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Elamite highland gods became firmly established in Susa.
### Elamite Empire.
Under the Shutrukids (c. 1210 – 1100), the Elamite empire reached the height of its power. Shutruk-Nakhkhunte and his three sons, Kutir-Nakhkhunte II, Shilhak-In-Shushinak, and Khutelutush-In-Shushinak were capable of frequent military ... | 4,723 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
the Stele of Hammurabi and the stele of Naram-Sin. In 1158 BC, after much of Babylonia had been annexed by Ashur-Dan I of Assyria and Shutruk-Nakhkhunte, the Elamites defeated the Kassites permanently, killing the Kassite king of Babylon, Zababa-shuma-iddin, and replacing him with his eldest son, Kutir-Nakhkhunte,... | 4,724 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
relation of Kutir-Nakhkhunte's with his own daughter, Nakhkhunte-utu. He was defeated by Nebuchadnezzar I of Babylon, who sacked Susa and returned the statue of Marduk, but who was then himself defeated by the Assyrian king Ashur-resh-ishi I. He fled to Anshan, but later returned to Susa, and his brother Shilhana-... | 4,725 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Anshan was still at least partially Elamite. There appear to have been unsuccessful alliances of Elamites, Babylonians, Chaldeans and other peoples against the powerful Neo Assyrian Empire (911-605 BC); the Babylonian king Mar-biti-apla-ushur (984–979) was of Elamite origin, and Elamites are recorded to have fough... | 4,726 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Medes, Persians, Parthians, Sagartians, Margians, Bactrians, Sogdians etc.. Among these pressuring tribes were the "Parsu", first recorded in 844 BC as living on the southeastern shore of Lake Urmiah, but who by the end of this period would cause the Elamites' original home, the Iranian Plateau, to be renamed Pers... | 4,727 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Merodach-baladan against Sargon II, apparently without success; while his successor, Shutruk-Nakhkhunte II (716–699), was routed by Sargon's troops during an expedition in 710, and another Elamite defeat by Sargon's troops is recorded for 708. The Assyrian dominion over Babylon was underlined by Sargon's son Senna... | 4,728 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
and the city of Babylon in 694 BC. Sennacherib soon responded by invading and ravaging Elam. Khallushu was in turn assassinated by Kutir-Nakhkhunte, who succeeded him but soon abdicated in favor of Khumma-Menanu III (692–689). Khumma-Menanu recruited a new army to help the Babylonians and Chaldeans against the Ass... | 4,729 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
reign in Assyria (681–669), Nabu-zer-kitti-lišir, an ethnically Elamite governor in the south of Babylonia, revolted and besieged Ur, but was routed by the Assyrians and fled to Elam where the king of Elam, fearing Assyrian repercussions, took him prisoner and put him to the sword.
Urtaku (674–664) for some time ... | 4,730 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
the Ulaï in 653 BC; and Susa itself was sacked and occupied by the Assyrians. In this same year the Assyrian vassal Median state to the north fell to the invading Scythians and Cimmerians under Madius, and displacing another Assyrian vassal people, the "Parsu" (Persians) to Anshan which their king Teispes captured... | 4,731 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
civil war between Ashurbanipal and his own brother Shamash-shum-ukin whom their father Esarhaddon had installed as the vassal king of Babylon, the Elamites both gave support to Shamash-shum-ukin, and indulged in fighting among themselves, so weakening the Elamite kingdom that in 646 BC Ashurbanipal devastated Susi... | 4,732 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Ashurbanipal boasts of the destruction he had wrought:
### Neo-Elamite III (646–539 BC).
The devastation was a little less complete than Ashurbanipal boasted, and a weak and fragmented Elamite rule was resurrected soon after with Shuttir-Nakhkhunte, son of Humban-umena III (not to be confused with Shuttir-Nakhkh... | 4,733 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
still called themselves "king of Anzan and of Susa" or "enlarger of the kingdom of Anzan and of Susa", at a time when the Achaemenid Persians were already ruling Anshan under Assyrian dominance.
The various Assyrian Empires, which had been the dominant force in the Near East, Asia Minor, the Caucasus, North Afric... | 4,734 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
around 1000 BC, quietly took full advantage of the anarchy in Assyria, and in 616 BC freed themselves from Assyrian rule.
The Medians took control of Elam during this period. Cyaxares the king of the Medes, Persians, Parthians and Sagartians entered into an alliance with a coalition of fellow former vassals of As... | 4,735 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Libya and the Arabian Peninsula, and from Cyprus and Ephesus to Persia and the Caspian Sea.
The major cities in Assyria itself were gradually taken; Arrapha (modern Kirkuk and Kalhu (modern Nimrud) in 616, Ashur, Dur-Sharrukin and Arbela (modern Erbil) in 613, Nineveh falling in 612, Harran in 608 BC, Carchemish ... | 4,736 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
the status of their power in the 12th year of the Hebrew Babylonian Captivity in 587 BC:
Their successors Khumma-Menanu and Shilhak-In-Shushinak II bore the simple title "king", and the final king Tempti-Khumma-In-Shushinak used no honorific at all. In 540 BC, Achaemenid rule began in Susa.
### Elymais (187 BC- ... | 4,737 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
in 224 AD.
# Art.
## Statuettes.
Dated to approximately the twelfth century BCE, gold and silver figurines of Elamite worshippers are shown carrying a sacrificial goat. These divine and royal statues were meant to assure the king of the enduring protection of the deity, well-being and a long life. Works which s... | 4,738 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
stylistic features can help ground the figures in a specific time period. The hairstyle and costume of the figures which are strewn with dots and hemmed with short fringe at the bottom, and the precious metals point to a date in the latter part of the second millennium BCE rather than to the first millennium.
In ... | 4,739 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
of identification and were often made out of precious stones. Because seals for different time periods had different designs and themes, seals and seal impressions can be used to track the various phases of the Elamite Empire and can teach a lot about the empire in ways which other forms of documentation cannot.
... | 4,740 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Napir-Asu.
This life-size votive offering of Queen Napir-Asu was commissioned around 1300 BCE in Susa, Iran. It is made of copper using the lost-wax casting method and rests on a solid bronze frame that weighs 1750 kg (3760 lb). This statue is different from many other Elamite statues of women because it resemble... | 4,741 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
smitten by the curse of Napirisha, of Kiririsha, and of Inshushinka, that his name shall become extinct, that his offspring be barren, that the forces of Beltiya, the great goddess, shall sweep down on him. This is Napir-Asu's offering."
## Stele of Untash Napirisha.
The stele of the Elamite king, Untash-Napiris... | 4,742 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
of fish and women holding streams of water, and two half-man half-mouflon guardians of the sacred tree. The names of the two priestesses are carved on their arms.
King Untash Napirisha dedicated the stele to the god Ishushinak. Like other forms of art in the ancient Near East, this one portrays a king ceremoniall... | 4,743 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
uttered or was unknown, but also sublime ideas, not to be exactly defined by the human race." Worship also varied between localities.
In the later period, Elam worshipped a supreme triad consisting of Inshushinak (originally the civic protector god of Susa, eventually the leader of the triad and guarantor of the ... | 4,744 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
a language isolate, and completely unrelated to the neighbouring Semitic, Sumerian (also an isolate), and the later Indo-European Iranian languages that came to dominate the region. It was written in a cuneiform adapted from the Semitic Akkadian script of Assyria and Babylonia, although the very earliest documents... | 4,745 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
whether or not this script was used to write Elamite or another language, as it has not yet been deciphered. Several stages of the language are attested; the earliest date back to the third millennium BC, the latest to the Achaemenid Empire.
The Elamite language may have survived as late as the early Islamic peri... | 4,746 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
"Khuz" being the corrupted name for Elam.
## Suggested relations to other language families.
A minority of scholars have proposed that the Elamite language could be related to the Munda language of India, some to Mon–Khmer of Cambodia and some to the Dravidian languages, in contrast to the majority who denote it... | 4,747 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
the Iranian tribes, whose presence around Lake Urmia to the north of Elam is attested from the 9th century BC in Assyrian texts. Some time after that region fell to Madius the Scythian (653 BC), Teispes, son of Achaemenes, conquered Elamite Anshan in the mid 7th century BC, forming a nucleus that would expand into... | 4,748 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
the existence of Elam as an independent political power "but not as a cultural entity" ("Encyclopædia Iranica", Columbia University). Indigenous Elamite traditions, such as the use of the title "king of Anshan" by Cyrus the Great; the "Elamite robe" worn by Cambyses I of Anshan and seen on the famous winged genii ... | 4,749 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
Persian Iran. The Elamites thus became the conduit by which achievements of the Mesopotamian civilizations were introduced to the tribes of the Iranian plateau.
Conversely, remnants of Elamite had "absorbed Iranian influences in both structure and vocabulary" by 500 BC, suggesting a form of cultural continuity or... | 4,750 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
the Pentecost. From 410 onwards Elam (Beth Huzaye) was the senior metropolitan province of the Church of the East, surviving into the 14th century. Indian Carmelite historian John Marshal has proposed that the root of Carmelite history in the Indian subcontinent could be traced to the promise of restoration of Ela... | 4,751 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
2010. Gram Ediciones.
- Khačikjan, Margaret: "The Elamite Language", Documenta Asiana IV, Consiglio Nazionale delle Ricerche Istituto per gli Studi Micenei ed Egeo-Anatolici, 1998
- "Persians: Masters of Empire", Time-Life Books, Alexandria, Virginia (1995)
- D. T. Potts, "Elamites and Kassites in the Persian G... | 4,752 |
206481 | Elam | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Elam | Elam
he History of Elam". The Circle of Ancient Iranian Studies (CAIS)
# External links.
- Lengua e historia elamita, by Enrique Quintana
- History of the Elamite Empire
- Elamite Art
- Stele of King Untash Napirisha
- Statue of Queen Napir Asu
- Elamite Seals
- All Empires – The Elamite Empire
- Elam in Ancie... | 4,753 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
Solar cycle
The solar cycle or solar magnetic activity cycle is a nearly periodic 11-year change in the Sun's activity. Levels of solar radiation and ejection of solar material, the number and size of sunspots, solar flares, and coronal loops all exhibit a synchronized fluctuation, from active to quiet to ... | 4,754 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
an average duration of about 11 years. Solar maximum and solar minimum refer to periods of maximum and minimum sunspot counts. Cycles span from one minimum to the next.
# Observational history.
The solar cycle was discovered in 1843 by Samuel Heinrich Schwabe, who after 17 years of observations noticed a ... | 4,755 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
Wolf compiled and studied these and other observations, reconstructing the cycle back to 1745, eventually pushing these reconstructions to the earliest observations of sunspots by Galileo and contemporaries in the early seventeenth century.
Following Wolf's numbering scheme, the 1755–1766 cycle is traditio... | 4,756 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
noted the phenomena of sunspots appearing at different solar latitudes at different parts of the cycle.
The cycle's physical basis was elucidated by George Ellery Hale and collaborators, who in 1908 showed that sunspots were strongly magnetized (the first detection of magnetic fields beyond the Earth). In ... | 4,757 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
are insensitive to polarity, the "11-year solar cycle" remains the focus of research; however, the two halves of the 22-year cycle are typically not identical: the 11-year cycles usually alternate between higher and lower sums of Wolf's sunspot numbers (the Gnevyshev-Ohl rule).
In 1961 the father-and-son t... | 4,758 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
the Sun's oscillatory magnetic field as having a quasi-steady periodicity of 22 years. It covered the oscillatory exchange of energy between toroidal and poloidal solar magnetic field ingredients.
# Cycle history.
Sunspot numbers over the past 11,400 years have been reconstructed using Carbon-14-based den... | 4,759 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
the Solar cycle has been stable for at least the last 700 million years. For example, the cycle length during the Early Permian is estimated to be 10.62 years and similarly in the Neoproterozoic.
Until 2009 it was thought that 28 cycles had spanned the 309 years between 1699 and 2008, giving an average len... | 4,760 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
Significant amplitude variations also occur.
A list of historical "grand minima" of solar activity exists.
## Recent cycles.
### Cycle 25.
There are many, often mutually contradictory predictions, based on different methods, for the forthcoming solar cycle 25, ranging from very weak to moderate magnitud... | 4,761 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
began on 4 January 2008, with minimal activity until early 2010. It is on track to have the lowest recorded sunspot activity since accurate records began in 1750. The cycle featured a "double-peaked" solar maximum. The first peak reached 99 in 2011 and the second in early 2014 at 101. It appears likely that... | 4,762 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
Phenomena.
Because the solar cycle reflects magnetic activity, various magnetically driven solar phenomena follow the solar cycle, including sunspots and coronal mass ejections.
## Sunspots.
The Sun's apparent surface, the photosphere, radiates more actively when there are more sunspots. Satellite monito... | 4,763 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
today comes from SOHO (a cooperative project of the European Space Agency and NASA), such as the MDI magnetogram, where the solar "surface" magnetic field can be seen.
As each cycle begins, sunspots appear at mid-latitudes, and then move closer and closer to the equator until a solar minimum is reached. Th... | 4,764 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
the entire sun undergoes analogous changes, albeit of smaller magnitude.]
## Coronal mass ejection.
The solar magnetic field structures the corona, giving it its characteristic shape visible at times of solar eclipses. Complex coronal magnetic field structures evolve in response to fluid motions at the so... | 4,765 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
eruptive phenomena can have a significant impact on Earth's upper atmosphere and space environment, and are the primary drivers of what is now called space weather.
The occurrence frequency of coronal mass ejections and flares is strongly modulated by the cycle. Flares of any given size are some 50 times m... | 4,766 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
on Dec 5 stands as one of the brightest on record.
# Patterns.
The Waldmeier effect names the observation that cycles with larger maximum amplitudes tend to take less time to reach their maxima than cycles with smaller amplitudes; maximum amplitudes are negatively correlated to the lengths of earlier cycl... | 4,767 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
a maximum smoothed sunspot number of about 145±30 in 2010 (instead 2010 was just after the cycle's solar minimum) and that the following cycle have a maximum of about 70±30 in 2023.
Associated centennial variations in magnetic fields in the Corona and Heliosphere have been detected using Carbon-14 and bery... | 4,768 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
and observed sunspot numbers to quantify the emergence of magnetic flux from the top of the solar atmosphere and into the Heliosphere, showing that sunspot observations, geomagnetic activity and cosmogenic isotopes offer a convergent understanding of solar activity variations.
## Hypothesized cycles.
Peri... | 4,769 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
in Europe when glaciers advanced) is hypothesized to extend for approximately 2,400 years.
An as yet unnamed cycle may extend over 6,000 years.
In carbon-14 cycles of 105, 131, 232, 385, 504, 805 and 2,241 years have been observed, possibly matching cycles derived from other sources. Damon and Sonett prop... | 4,770 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
all the way through the corona and into the solar wind. Its spatiotemporal variations lead to various measurable solar phenomena. Other solar phenomena are closely related to the cycle, which serves as the energy source and dynamical engine for the former.
# Effects.
## Solar.
### Surface magnetism.
Sun... | 4,771 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
above).
The dipolar component of the solar magnetic field reverses polarity around the time of solar maximum and reaches peak strength at the solar minimum.
## Space.
### Spacecraft.
CMEs (coronal mass ejections) produce a radiation flux of high-energy protons, sometimes known as solar cosmic rays. Thes... | 4,772 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
by the Earth's magnetic field. Future mission designs ("e.g.", for a Mars Mission) therefore incorporate a radiation-shielded "storm shelter" for astronauts to retreat to during such an event.
Gleißberg developed a CME forecasting method that relies on consecutive cycles.
On the positive side, the increas... | 4,773 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
of solar eruptive events is modulated by the cycle, changing the degree of cosmic ray scattering in the outer solar system accordingly. As a consequence, the cosmic ray flux in the inner solar system is anticorrelated with the overall level of solar activity. This anticorrelation is clearly detected in cosm... | 4,774 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
of solar activity levels into the distant past. Such reconstructions indicate that the overall level of solar activity since the middle of the twentieth century stands amongst the highest of the past 10,000 years, and that epochs of suppressed activity, of varying durations have occurred repeatedly over tha... | 4,775 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
One of the satellites, the ACRIMSAT was launched by the ACRIM group. The controversial 1989–1991 "ACRIM gap" between non-overlapping ACRIM satellites was interpolated by the ACRIM group into a composite showing +0.037%/decade rise. Another series based on the ACRIM data is produced by the PMOD group and sho... | 4,776 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
to be the primary cause (96%) of 1996–2013 TSI variation. The ratio of ultraviolet to visible light varies.
TSI varies in phase with the solar magnetic activity cycle with an amplitude of about 0.1% around an average value of about 1361.5 W/m (the "solar constant"). Variations about the average of up to −0... | 4,777 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
such as faculae and active elements of the "bright" network, that are brighter (hotter) than the average photosphere. They collectively overcompensate for the irradiance deficit associated with the cooler, but less numerous sunspots. The primary driver of TSI changes on solar rotational and sunspot cycle ti... | 4,778 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
and to poleward displacements in the stratospheric and tropospheric wind systems.
### Short-wavelength radiation.
With a temperature of 5870 K, the photosphere emits a proportion of radiation in the extreme ultraviolet (EUV) and above. However, hotter upper layers of the Sun's atmosphere (chromosphere and... | 4,779 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
September 6, 2001, at the peak of cycle 23. Similar cycle-related variations are observed in the flux of solar UV or EUV radiation, as observed, for example, by the SOHO or TRACE satellites.
Even though it only accounts for a minuscule fraction of total solar radiation, the impact of solar UV, EUV and X-ra... | 4,780 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
active regions. The F10.7 index is a measure of the solar radio flux per unit frequency at a wavelength of 10.7 cm, near the peak of the observed solar radio emission. F10.7 is often expressed in SFU or solar flux units (1 SFU = 10 W m Hz). It represents a measure of diffuse, nonradiative coronal plasma hea... | 4,781 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
they also increase the levels of solar noise and ionospheric disturbances. These effects are caused by impact of the increased level of solar radiation on the ionosphere.
10.7 cm solar flux could interfere with point-to-point terrestrial communications.
### Clouds.
Speculations about the effects of cosmi... | 4,782 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
and likely to produce less precipitation.
- A change in cosmic rays could cause an increase in certain types of clouds, affecting Earth's albedo.
- It was proposed that, particularly at high latitudes, cosmic ray variation may impact terrestrial low altitude cloud cover (unlike a lack of correlation with ... | 4,783 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
to result in cloud formation; this includes observations after a major solar storm. Observations after Chernobyl do not show any induced clouds.
## Terrestrial.
### Organisms.
The impact of the solar cycle on living organisms has been investigated (see chronobiology). Some researchers claim to have found... | 4,784 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
a decrease in the concentration of ozone, allowing increased UVB to reach the Earth's surface.
### Radio communication.
Skywave modes of radio communication operate by bending (refracting) radio waves (electromagnetic radiation) through the Ionosphere. During the "peaks" of the solar cycle, the ionosphere... | 4,785 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
or 'HF' radio spectrum that are most affected by these solar and ionospheric variances. Changes in solar output affect the maximum usable frequency, a limit on the highest frequency usable for communications.
### Climate.
Both long-term and short-term variations in solar activity are proposed to potential... | 4,786 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
for example, colder winters in the U.S. and northern Europe and warmer winters in Canada and southern Europe during solar minima.
Three proposed mechanisms mediate solar variations' climate impacts:
- Total solar irradiance ("Radiative forcing").
- Ultraviolet irradiance. The UV component varies by more ... | 4,787 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
±0.14 °F) in measured average global temperature between solar maximum and minimum.
Other effects include one study which found a relationship with wheat prices, and another one that found a weak correlation with the flow of water in the Paraná River. Eleven-year cycles have been found in tree-ring thickne... | 4,788 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
than in the 1950s (see above), whereas global warming had risen markedly. Otherwise, the level of understanding of solar impacts on weather is low.
Solar cycle also affects the orbital decay of Low Earth Orbiting (LEO) objects by affecting the density at the upper thermospheric levels.
# Solar dynamo.
Th... | 4,789 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
the tachocline, is near its maximum strength. At this point in the dynamo cycle, buoyant upwelling within the Convection zone forces emergence of the toroidal magnetic field through the photosphere, giving rise to pairs of sunspots, roughly aligned east–west with opposite magnetic polarities. The magnetic p... | 4,790 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
maximum strength. During the next cycle, differential rotation converts magnetic energy back from the poloidal to the toroidal field, with a polarity that is opposite to the previous cycle. The process carries on continuously, and in an idealized, simplified scenario, each 11-year sunspot cycle corresponds ... | 4,791 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
core surrounded by a convective envelope, and at the boundary of these two is the tachocline. However, brown dwarfs lack radiative cores and tachoclines. Their structure consists of a solar-like convective envelope that exists from core to surface. Since they lack a tachocline yet still display solar-like m... | 4,792 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
In 2012 a team led by José Abreu calculated the torque exerted by the planets on a non-spherical tachocline layer deep in the Sun and proposed an explanation of how the tiny tidal force can synchronize the solar dynamo. However, their results were shown to be an artifact of the incorrectly applied smoothing... | 4,793 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
global data bases covering the period through April 1990.
- Recent Total Solar Irradiance data updated every Monday
- N0NBH Solar data and tools
- Satellite Total Solar Irradiance Observations
- SolarCycle24.com
- Solar Physics Web Pages at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center
- Science Briefs: Do Vari... | 4,794 |
206555 | Solar cycle | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Solar%20cycle | Solar cycle
through April 1990.
- Recent Total Solar Irradiance data updated every Monday
- N0NBH Solar data and tools
- Satellite Total Solar Irradiance Observations
- SolarCycle24.com
- Solar Physics Web Pages at NASA's Marshall Space Flight Center
- Science Briefs: Do Variations in the Solar Cycle Affect Our C... | 4,795 |
206578 | Presidential system | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presidential%20system | Presidential system
Presidential system
A presidential system is a democratic and republican system of government where a head of government leads an executive branch that is separate from the legislative branch. This head of government is in most cases also the head of state, which is called "president".
In presiden... | 4,796 |
206578 | Presidential system | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presidential%20system | Presidential system
prior to the executive function being split into a separate branch of government.
A presidential system contrasts with a parliamentary system, where the head of government is elected to power through the legislative. There is also a hybrid system called semi-presidentialism.
Countries that feature... | 4,797 |
206578 | Presidential system | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presidential%20system | Presidential system
19 of its 22 sovereign states being presidential republics. It is also prevalent in Central and southern West Africa and in Central Asia. There are no presidential republics in Europe (except for Belarus) and Oceania.
# Characteristics.
In a full-fledged presidential system, a politician is chosen... | 4,798 |
206578 | Presidential system | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Presidential%20system | Presidential system
and not to the legislature.
The following characteristics apply generally for the numerous presidential governments across the world:
- The executive can veto legislative acts and, in turn, a supermajority of lawmakers may override the veto. The veto is generally derived from the British tradition... | 4,799 |
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