wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
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43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
of the wave function to extend over a few to several nanometers along the tube axis, while poor screening in the vacuum or dielectric environment outside of the nanotube allows for large (0.4 to ) binding energies.
Often more than one band can be chosen as source for the electron and the hole, leading to diffe... | 5,600 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
a Wannier exciton has an energy and radius associated with it, called exciton Rydberg energy and exciton Bohr radius respectively. For the energy, we have
where formula_2 is the Rydberg constant, formula_3 is the (static) relative permittivity, formula_4 is the reduced mass of the electron and hole, and formul... | 5,601 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
(CT) excitons" occur when the electron and the hole occupy adjacent molecules. They occur primarily in ionic crystals. Unlike Frenkel and Wannier excitons they display a static electric dipole moment.
# Surface exciton.
At surfaces it is possible for so called "image states" to occur, where the hole is inside... | 5,602 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
one molecular orbital to another molecular orbital, the resulting electronic excited state is also properly described as an exciton. An electron is said to be found in the lowest unoccupied orbital and an electron hole in the highest occupied molecular orbital, and since they are found within the same molecular... | 5,603 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
if a molecular exciton has proper energetic matching to a second molecule's spectral absorbance, then an exciton may transfer ("hop") from one molecule to another. The process is strongly dependent on intermolecular distance between the species in solution, and so the process has found application in sensing an... | 5,604 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
a result, absorption bands are polarized along the symmetry axes of the crystal. Such multiplets were discovered by Antonina Prikhot'ko and their genesis was proposed by Alexander Davydov. It is known as 'Davydov splitting'.
# Giant oscillator strength of bound excitons.
Excitons are lowest excited states of ... | 5,605 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
(Frenkel) excitons. Hence, excitons bound to impurities and defects possess giant oscillator strength.
# Self-trapping of excitons.
In crystals excitons interact with phonons, the lattice vibrations. If this coupling is weak as in typical semiconductors such as GaAs or Si, excitons are scattered by phonons. H... | 5,606 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
compete with the width of the exciton band. Hence, it should be of atomic scale, of about an electron volt.
Self-trapping of excitons is similar to forming strong-coupling polarons but with three essential differences. First, self-trapped exciton states are always of a small radius, of the order of lattice con... | 5,607 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
spectra. While the self-trapped states are of lattice-spacing scale, the barrier has typically much larger scale. Indeed, its spatial scale is about formula_10 where formula_11 is effective mass of the exciton, formula_12 is the exciton-phonon coupling constant, and formula_13 is the characteristic frequency of... | 5,608 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
The height of the barrier formula_17. Because both formula_11 and formula_12 appear in the denominator of formula_20, the barriers are basically low. Therefore, free excitons can be seen in crystals with strong exciton-phonon coupling only in pure samples and at low temperatures. Coexistence of free and self-tr... | 5,609 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
states may be inferred from the absorption of light associated with their excitation. Typically, excitons are observed just below the band gap.
When excitons interact with photons a so-called polariton (or more specifically exciton-polariton) is formed. These excitons are sometimes referred to as "dressed exci... | 5,610 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
in the low-density limit. In some systems, where the interactions are repulsive, a Bose–Einstein condensed state, called excitonium, is predicted to be the ground state. Some evidence of excitonium has existed since the 1970s, but has often been difficult to discern from a Peierls phase. Exciton condensates hav... | 5,611 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
spatially separated quantum wells with an insulating barrier layer in between so called 'spatially indirect' excitons can be created. In contrast to ordinary (spatially direct), these spatially indirect excitons can have large spatial separation between the electron and hole, and thus possess a much longer life... | 5,612 |
43597 | Exciton | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Exciton | Exciton
an be created. In contrast to ordinary (spatially direct), these spatially indirect excitons can have large spatial separation between the electron and hole, and thus possess a much longer lifetime. This is often used to cool excitons to very low temperatures in order to study Bose–Einstein condensation (or rat... | 5,613 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
Fluorite
Fluorite (also called fluorspar) is the mineral form of calcium fluoride, CaF. It belongs to the halide minerals. It crystallizes in isometric cubic habit, although octahedral and more complex isometric forms are not uncommon.
The Mohs scale of mineral hardness, based on scratch hardness comparison,... | 5,614 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
fluorine-containing fine chemicals. Optically clear transparent fluorite lenses have low dispersion, so lenses made from it exhibit less chromatic aberration, making them valuable in microscopes and telescopes. Fluorite optics are also usable in the far-ultraviolet and mid-infrared ranges, where conventional g... | 5,615 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
in print in a 1530 work "Bermannvs sive de re metallica dialogus" [Bermannus; or a dialogue about the nature of metals], by Georgius Agricola, as a mineral noted for its usefulness as a flux. Agricola, a German scientist with expertise in philology, mining, and metallurgy, named fluorspar as a neo-Latinization... | 5,616 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
element fluorine. Presently, the word "fluorspar" is most commonly used for fluorite as the industrial and chemical commodity, while "fluorite" is used mineralogically and in most other senses.
In the context of archeology, gemmology, classical studies, and egyptology, the Latin terms "murrina" and "myrrhina"... | 5,617 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
fragments.
Element substitution for the calcium cation often includes certain rare earth elements (REE), such as yttrium and cerium. Iron, sodium, and barium are also common impurities. Some fluorine may be replaced by the chloride anion.
# Occurrence and mining.
Fluorite is a widely occurring mineral that ... | 5,618 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
a primary mineral in granites and other igneous rocks and as a common minor constituent of dolomite and limestone.
The world reserves of fluorite are estimated at 230 million tonnes (Mt) with the largest deposits being in South Africa (about 41 Mt), Mexico (32 Mt) and China (24 Mt). China is leading the world... | 5,619 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
1843. He noted an occurrence of "galena" or lead ore and fluoride of lime on the west side of St. Lawrence harbour. It is recorded that interest in the commercial mining of fluorspar began in 1928 with the first ore being extracted in 1933. Eventually at Iron Springs Mine, the shafts reached depths of . In the... | 5,620 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
in Asturias, Spain.
## "Blue John".
One of the most famous of the older-known localities of fluorite is Castleton in Derbyshire, England, where, under the name of "Derbyshire Blue John", purple-blue fluorite was extracted from several mines or caves. During the 19th century, this attractive fluorite was mine... | 5,621 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
the phenomenon of "fluorescence" from fluorite, in 1852.
Many samples of fluorite exhibit fluorescence under ultraviolet light, a property that takes its name from fluorite. Many minerals, as well as other substances, fluoresce. Fluorescence involves the elevation of electron energy levels by quanta of ultrav... | 5,622 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
volatile hydrocarbons in the crystal lattice. In particular, the blue fluorescence seen in fluorites from certain parts of Great Britain responsible for the naming of the phenomenon of fluorescence itself, has been attributed to the presence of inclusions of divalent europium in the crystal.
One fluorescent v... | 5,623 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
different places. Neither does all fluorite fluoresce equally brightly, even from the same locality. Therefore, ultraviolet light is not a reliable tool for the identification of specimens, nor for quantifying the mineral in mixtures. For example, among British fluorites, those from Northumberland, County Durh... | 5,624 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
consequently been dubbed "the most colorful mineral in the world". Every color of the rainbow in various shades are represented by fluorite samples, along with white, black, and clear crystals. The most common colors are purple, blue, green, yellow, or colorless. Less common are pink, red, white, brown, and bl... | 5,625 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
the mineral by the action of concentrated sulfuric acid:
The resulting HF is converted into fluorine, fluorocarbons, and diverse fluoride materials. As of the late 1990s, five billion kilograms were mined annually.
There are three principal types of industrial use for natural fluorite, commonly referred to a... | 5,626 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
of opalescent glass, enamels, and cooking utensils. The highest grade, "acid grade fluorite" (97% or more CaF), accounts for about 95% of fluorite consumption in the US where it is used to make hydrogen fluoride and hydrofluoric acid by reacting the fluorite with sulfuric acid.
Internationally, acid-grade flu... | 5,627 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
alumina to form NaAlF.
## Niche uses.
### Lapidary uses.
Natural fluorite mineral has ornamental and lapidary uses. Fluorite may be drilled into beads and used in jewelry, although due to its relative softness it is not widely used as a semiprecious stone. It is also used for ornamental carvings, with exper... | 5,628 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
as short as 157 nm, a common wavelength used for semiconductor stepper manufacture for integrated circuit lithography, the refractive index of calcium fluoride shows some non-linearity at high power densities, which has inhibited its use for this purpose. In the early years of the 21st century, the stepper mar... | 5,629 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
is widely available and was sometimes known by the Eastman Kodak trademarked name "Irtran-3", although this designation is obsolete.
Fluorite glass is a type of low-dispersion glass. Optical groups made with low dispersion glass have a very low dispersion (color spreading), so optical groups made with fluorit... | 5,630 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
of commercially used crown glass elements providing a more uniform dispersion across the spectrum of visible light, therefore keeping colors more closely spaced.
With the advent of synthetically grown fluorite crystals, it could be used instead of glass in some high-performance optical telescope and camera le... | 5,631 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
that are used in their more expensive telephoto lenses.
Exposure tools for the semiconductor industry make use of fluorite optical elements for ultraviolet light at wavelengths of about 157 nanometers. Fluorite has a uniquely high transparency at this wavelength. Fluorite objective lenses are manufactured by ... | 5,632 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
Konica produced a fluorite lens for their SLR cameras – the Hexanon 300 mm f6.3.
# Source of fluorine gas in nature.
In 2012, the first source of naturally occurring fluorine gas was found in fluorite mines in Bavaria, Germany. It was previously thought that fluorine gas did not occur naturally because it is... | 5,633 |
43589 | Fluorite | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fluorite | Fluorite
s within the structure to fluorine that becomes trapped inside the mineral. The color of fetid fluorite is predominantly due to the calcium atoms remaining. Solid state fluorine-19 NMR carried out on the gas contained in the antozonite revealed a peak at 425 ppm, which is consistent with F.
# See also.
- Lis... | 5,634 |
43604 | Bud | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bud | Bud
Bud
In botany, a bud is an undeveloped or embryonic shoot and normally occurs in the axil of a leaf or at the tip of a stem. Once formed, a bud may remain for some time in a dormant condition, or it may form a shoot immediately. Buds may be specialized to develop flowers or short shoots, or may have the potential ... | 5,635 |
43604 | Bud | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bud | Bud
by a gummy substance which serves as added protection. When the bud develops, the scales may enlarge somewhat but usually just drop off, leaving a series of horizontally-elongated scars on the surface of the growing stem. By means of these scars one can determine the age of any young branch, since each year's growt... | 5,636 |
43604 | Bud | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bud | Bud
in such buds are often excessively hairy. Naked buds are found in some shrubs, like some species of the Sumac and Viburnums ("Viburnum alnifolium" and "V. lantana") and in herbaceous plants. In many of the latter, buds are even more reduced, often consisting of undifferentiated masses of cells in the axils of leave... | 5,637 |
43604 | Bud | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bud | Bud
bud at the tip of the stem. In many plants buds appear in unexpected places: these are known as adventitious buds.
Often it is possible to find a bud in a remarkable series of gradations of bud scales. In the buckeye, for example, one may see a complete gradation from the small brown outer scale through larger sca... | 5,638 |
43604 | Bud | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bud | Bud
have fallen. Buds may be classified and described according to different criteria: location, status, morphology, and function.
Botanists commonly use the following terms:
- for location:
- terminal, when located at the tip of a stem (apical is equivalent but rather reserved for the one at the top of the plant);
... | 5,639 |
43604 | Bud | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bud | Bud
buds formed besides a principal bud (axillary or terminal);
- resting, for buds that form at the end of a growth season, which will lie dormant until onset of the next growth season;
- dormant or latent, for buds whose growth has been delayed for a rather long time. The term is usable as a synonym of "resting", b... | 5,640 |
43604 | Bud | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bud | Bud
covered (perulate), when scales, also referred to as a perule (lat. perula, perulaei) (which are in fact transformed and reduced leaves) cover and protect the embryonic parts;
- naked, when not covered by scales;
- hairy, when also protected by hairs (it may apply either to scaly or to naked buds).
- for functio... | 5,641 |
43604 | Bud | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Bud | Bud
tgrowth from the body which develops into a new individual. It is a form of asexual reproduction limited to animals or plants of relatively simple structure. In this process a portion of the wall of the parent cell softens and pushes out. The protuberance thus formed enlarges rapidly while at this time the nucleus ... | 5,642 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
Minstrel show
The minstrel show, or minstrelsy, was an American form of entertainment developed in the early 19th century. Each show consisted of comic skits, variety acts, dancing, and music performances that depicted people specifically of African descent. The shows were performed by white people in ma... | 5,643 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
1830s in the Northeastern states. They were developed into full-fledged form in the next decade. By 1848, blackface minstrel shows were the national artform, translating formal art such as opera into popular terms for a general audience.
By the turn of the 20th century, the minstrel show enjoyed but a sh... | 5,644 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
and gained acceptance, minstrels lost popularity.
The typical minstrel performance followed a three-act structure. The troupe first danced onto stage then exchanged wisecracks and sang songs. The second part featured a variety of entertainments, including the pun-filled stump speech. The final act consis... | 5,645 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
black, although the extent of the black influence remains debated. Spirituals (known as "jubilees") entered the repertoire in the 1870s, marking the first undeniably black music to be used in minstrelsy.
Blackface minstrelsy was the first theatrical form that was distinctly American. During the 1830s and... | 5,646 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
the minstrel shows were extremely popular, being "consistently packed with families from all walks of life and every ethnic group", they were also controversial. Integrationists decried them as falsely showing happy slaves while at the same time making fun of them; segregationists thought such shows were ... | 5,647 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
by nature, in which to make money, and pander to the corrupt taste of their white fellow citizens." Although white theatrical portrayals of black characters date back to as early as 1604, the minstrel show as such has later origins. By the late 18th century, blackface characters began appearing on the Ame... | 5,648 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
as Charles Mathews, George Washington Dixon, and Edwin Forrest began to build reputations as blackface performers. Author Constance Rourke even claimed that Forrest's impression was so good he could fool blacks when he mingled with them in the streets.
Thomas Dartmouth Rice's successful song-and-dance nu... | 5,649 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
of minstrelsy, they performed either solo or in small teams.
Blackface soon found a home in the taverns of New York's less respectable precincts of Lower Broadway, the Bowery, and Chatham Street. It also appeared on more respectable stages, most often as an "entr'acte". Upper-class houses at first limite... | 5,650 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
the Bowery Theatre from staging high drama at all. Typical blackface acts of the period were short burlesques, often with mock Shakespearean titles like "Hamlet the Dainty", "Bad Breath, the Crane of Chowder", "Julius Sneezer" or "Dars-de-Money".
Meanwhile, at least some whites were interested in black s... | 5,651 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
tour with him". Rice responded by adding a "Corn Meal" skit to his act. Meanwhile, there had been several attempts at legitimate black stage performance, the most ambitious probably being New York's African Grove theater, founded and operated by free blacks in 1821, with a repertoire drawing heavily on Sh... | 5,652 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
black performances came to confirm pre-existing racist concepts and to establish new ones. Following a pattern that had been pioneered by Rice, minstrelsy united workers and "class superiors" against a common black enemy, symbolized especially by the character of the black dandy. In this same period, the ... | 5,653 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
presented in minstrelsy, and some songs even suggested the creation of a coalition of working blacks and whites to end the institution.
Among the appeals and racial stereotypes of early blackface performance were the pleasure of the grotesque and its infantilization of blacks. These allowed—by proxy, and... | 5,654 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
four blackface performers led by Dan Emmett combined to stage just such a concert at the New York Bowery Amphitheatre, calling themselves the Virginia Minstrels. The minstrel show as a complete evening's entertainment was born. The show had little structure. The four sat in a semicircle, played songs, and... | 5,655 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
exempt from the vulgarities and other objectionable features, which have hitherto characterized negro extravaganzas." In 1845, the Ethiopian Serenaders purged their show of low humor and surpassed the Virginia Minstrels in popularity. Shortly thereafter, Edwin Pearce Christy founded Christy's Minstrels, c... | 5,656 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
toured the same circuits as opera companies, circuses, and European itinerant entertainers, with venues ranging from lavish opera houses to makeshift tavern stages. Life on the road entailed "endless series of one-nighters, travel on accident-prone railroads, in poor housing subject to fires, in empty roo... | 5,657 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
from Baltimore to New Orleans. Circuits through the Midwest and as far as California followed by the 1860s. As its popularity increased, theaters sprang up specifically for minstrel performance, often with names such as the Ethiopian Opera House and the like. Many amateur troupes performed only a few loca... | 5,658 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
victims of a cruel and inhuman institution. However, in the 1850s, minstrelsy became decidedly mean-spirited and pro-slavery as race replaced class as its main focus. Most minstrels projected a greatly romanticized and exaggerated image of black life with cheerful, simple slaves always ready to sing and d... | 5,659 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
Northern dandy and the homesick ex-slave reinforced the idea that blacks did not belong, nor did they want to belong, in Northern society.
Minstrelsy's reaction to "Uncle Tom's Cabin" is indicative of plantation content at the time. "Tom acts" largely came to replace other plantation narratives, particul... | 5,660 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
Dad's Cabin". Uncle Tom himself was frequently portrayed as a harmless bootlicker to be ridiculed. Troupes known as "Tommer" companies specialized in such burlesques, and theatrical "Tom shows" integrated elements of the minstrel show and competed with it for a time.
Minstrelsy's racism (and sexism) coul... | 5,661 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
more significant than the racist manner in which it did so. Despite these pro-plantation attitudes, minstrelsy was banned in many Southern cities. Its association with the North was such that as secessionist attitudes grew stronger, minstrels on Southern tours became convenient targets of anti-Yankee sent... | 5,662 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
vote", another replied, "No, Mr. Johnson, ladies am supposed to care berry little about polytick, and yet de majority ob em am strongly tached to parties." Minstrel humor was simple and relied heavily on slapstick and wordplay. Performers told nonsense riddles: "The difference between a schoolmaster and a... | 5,663 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
and their weeping widows, and about mourning white mothers. "When This Cruel War Is Over" became the hit of the period, selling over a million copies of sheet music. To balance the somber mood, minstrels put on patriotic numbers like "The Star-Spangled Banner", accompanied by depictions of scenes from Ame... | 5,664 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
pieces that depicted slavery in a negative light. Eventually, direct criticism of the South became more biting.
## Decline.
Minstrelsy lost popularity during the war. New entertainments such as variety shows, musical comedies and vaudeville appeared in the North, backed by master promoters like P. T. Ba... | 5,665 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
United Mastodon Minstrels had over 100 members. Scenery grew lavish and expensive, and specialty acts like Japanese acrobats or circus freaks sometimes appeared. These changes made minstrelsy unprofitable for smaller troupes.
Other minstrel troupes tried to satisfy outlying tastes. Female acts had made a... | 5,666 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
adopted some of these elements in the guise of the female impersonator. A well-played wench character became critical to success in the postwar period.
This new minstrelsy maintained an emphasis on refined music. Most troupes added jubilees, or spirituals, to their repertoire in the 1870s. These were fai... | 5,667 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
whatsoever. Their brand of minstrelsy differed from other entertainments only in name.
Social commentary continued to dominate most performances, with plantation material constituting only a small part of the repertoire. This effect was amplified as minstrelsy featuring black performers took off in its o... | 5,668 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
rights, disrespectful children, low church attendance, and sexual promiscuity became symptoms of decline in family values and of moral decay. Of course, Northern black characters carried these vices even further. African-American members of Congress were one example, pictured as pawns of the Radical Repub... | 5,669 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
minstrelsy's last bastions, as more white actors moved into vaudeville. (Community amateur blackface minstrel shows persisted in northern New York State into the 1960s. The University of Vermont banned the minstrel-like Kake Walk as part of the winter Carnival in 1969.)
## Black minstrels.
In the 1840s ... | 5,670 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
under the guidance of their Northern friends." White curiosity proved a powerful motivator, and the shows were patronized by people who wanted to see blacks acting "spontaneously" and "naturally." Promoters seized on this, one billing his troupe as "THE DARKY AS HE IS AT HOME, DARKY LIFE IN THE CORNFIELD,... | 5,671 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
reviews that favorably compared them to popular white troupes. These black companies often featured female minstrels.
One or two African-American troupes dominated the scene for much of the late 1860s and 1870s. The first of these was Brooker and Clayton's Georgia Minstrels, who played the Northeast arou... | 5,672 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
and "Georgia" came to be synonymous with the institution of black minstrelsy. J. H. Haverly, in turn, purchased Callender's troupe in 1878 and applied his strategy of enlarging troupe size and embellishing sets. When this company went to Europe, Gustave and Charles Frohman took the opportunity to promote ... | 5,673 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
King grew as famous as any featured white performer.
Racism made black minstrelsy a difficult profession. When playing Southern towns, performers had to stay in character off stage, dressed in ragged "slave clothes" and perpetually smiling. Troupes left town quickly after each performance, and some had s... | 5,674 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
earned slightly less than featured white minstrels. Most black troupes did not last long.
In content, early black minstrelsy differed little from its white counterpart. As the white troupes drifted from plantation subjects in the mid-1870s however, black troupes placed a new emphasis on it. The addition ... | 5,675 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
burlesque, a practice adopted after Callender's Minstrels used it in 1875 or 1876. Although black minstrelsy lent credence to racist ideals of blackness, many African-American minstrels worked to subtly alter these stereotypes and to poke fun at white society. One jubilee described heaven as a place "wher... | 5,676 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
relegating black patrons to certain areas. The reasons for the popularity of this openly racist form of entertainment with black audiences have long been debated by historians. Perhaps they felt in on the joke, laughing at the over-the-top characters from a sense of "in-group recognition". Maybe they even... | 5,677 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
black minstrels were largely viewed as celebrities. Formally educated African Americans, on the other hand, either disregarded black minstrelsy or openly disdained it. Still, black minstrelsy was the first large-scale opportunity for African Americans to enter American show business. Black minstrels were ... | 5,678 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
established the basic structure of the minstrel show in the 1840s. A crowd-gathering parade to the theater often preceded the performance. The show itself was divided into three major sections. During the first, the entire troupe danced onto stage singing a popular song. Upon the instruction of the "inter... | 5,679 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
endmen exchanged jokes and performed a variety of humorous songs. Over time, the first act came to include maudlin numbers not always in dialect. One minstrel, usually a tenor, came to specialize in this part; such singers often became celebrities, especially with women. Initially, an upbeat plantation so... | 5,680 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
instruments, did acrobatics, and demonstrated other amusing talents. Troupes offered parodies of European-style entertainments, and European troupes themselves sometimes performed. The highlight was when one actor, typically one of the endmen, delivered a faux-black-dialect "stump speech", a long oration ... | 5,681 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
could deliver biting social criticism without offending the audience, although the focus was usually on sending up unpopular issues and making fun of blacks' ability to make sense of them. Many troupes employed a stump specialist with a trademark style and material.
The "afterpiece" rounded out the produ... | 5,682 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
by slavery, runaways, or even slave uprisings. A few stories highlighted black trickster figures who managed to get the better of their masters. Beginning in the mid-1850s, performers did burlesque renditions of other plays; both Shakespeare and contemporary playwrights were common targets. The humor of t... | 5,683 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
to troupe.
# Characters.
The earliest minstrel characters took as their base popular white stage archetypes—frontiersmen, fishermen, hunters, and riverboatsmen whose depictions drew heavily from the tall tale—and added exaggerated blackface speech and makeup. These Jim Crows and Gumbo Chaffs fought and ... | 5,684 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
1834, Zip Coon made a mockery of free blacks. An arrogant, ostentatious figure, he dressed in high style and spoke in a series of malaprops and puns that undermined his attempts to appear dignified."
The white actors who portrayed these characters spoke an exaggerated form of Black Vernacular English. Th... | 5,685 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
in animalistic terms, with "wool" instead of hair, "bleating" like sheep, and having "darky cubs" instead of children. Other claims were that blacks had to drink ink when they got sick "to restore their color" and that they had to file their hair rather than cut it. They were inherently musical, dancing a... | 5,686 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
quickly adopted Rice's character.
Slave characters in general came to be low-comedy types with names that matched the instruments they played: "Brudder Tambo" (or simply "Tambo") for the tambourine and "Brudder Bones" (or "Bones") for the bone castanets or bones. These "endmen" (for their position in the... | 5,687 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
simple-mindedness and lack of sophistication were highlighted by pairing them with a straight man master of ceremonies called the "interlocutor". This character, although usually in blackface, spoke in aristocratic English and used a much larger vocabulary. The humor of these exchanges came from the misun... | 5,688 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
segment of the show. To this end, he had to be able to gauge the mood of the audience and know when it was time to move on. Accordingly, the actor who played the role was paid very well in comparison to other non-featured performers.
There were many variants on the slave archetype. The "old darky" or "ol... | 5,689 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
the master could die, leaving the old darky to mourn. Stephen Foster's "Old Uncle Ned" was the most popular song on this subject. Less frequently, the old darky might be cast out by a cruel master when he grew too old to work. After the Civil War, this character became the most common figure in plantation... | 5,690 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
Francis Leon and Barney Williams), even though American theater outside minstrelsy was filled with actresses at this time. "Mammy" or the "old auntie" was the old darky's counterpart. She often went by the name of Aunt Dinah Roh after the song of that title. Mammy was lovable to both blacks and whites, ma... | 5,691 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
a common target for male characters, although she usually proved capricious and elusive. After the Civil War, the wench emerged as the most important specialist role in the minstrel troupe; men could alternately be titillated and disgusted, while women could admire the illusion and high fashion. The role ... | 5,692 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
by a large man in motley clothing and large, flapping shoes. The humor she invoked often turned on the male characters' desire for a woman whom the audience would perceive as unattractive.
The counterpart to the slave was the "dandy", a common character in the afterpiece. He was a northern urban black ma... | 5,693 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
white gloves, monocles, fake mustaches, and gaudy watch chains. They spent their time primping and preening, going to parties, dancing and strutting, and wooing women.
The black soldier became another stock type during the Civil War and merged qualities of the slave and the dandy. He was acknowledged for... | 5,694 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
stereotypes played a significant role in minstrelsy, and although still performed in blackface, were distinguished by their lack of black dialect. American Indians before the Civil War were usually depicted as innocent symbols of the pre-industrial world or as pitiable victims whose peaceful existence had... | 5,695 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
American Indians enjoying a communal meal in a frontier setting. As the American Indians became intoxicated, they grew more and more antagonistic, and the army ultimately had to intervene to prevent the massacre of the whites. Even favorably presented American Indian characters usually died tragically.
D... | 5,696 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
Mikado" in the mid-1880s inspired another wave of Asian characterizations.
The few white characters in minstrelsy were stereotypes of immigrant groups like the Irish and Germans. Irish characters first appeared in the 1840s, portrayed as hotheaded, odious drunkards who spoke in a thick brogue. However, b... | 5,697 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
heavy "Dutch" accents. Part of this positive portrayal no doubt came about because some of the actors portraying German characters were German themselves.
# Music and dance.
"Minstrelsy evolved from several different American entertainment traditions; the traveling circus, medicine shows, shivaree, Iris... | 5,698 |
206663 | Minstrel show | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Minstrel%20show | Minstrel show
Americans, who were different from themselves, even if the information was prejudiced. Troupes took advantage of this interest and marketed sheet music of the songs they featured so that viewers could enjoy them at home and other minstrels could adopt them for their act.
How much influence black music ha... | 5,699 |
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