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441222 | 5th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=5th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 5th Armored Division (United States)
d 1 August 1944 – 25 March 1945, 28 March 1945 – 9 May 1945)
- 202d Field Artillery Battalion (attached 2 August 1944 – 25 August 1944)
The division's losses included 570 killed in action, 2,442 wounded in action, and 140 who died of wounds.
# Commanders.
- MG Jack W. Heard (1941 - 1942)
- BG Sereno E. Brett (1942 - February 1943)
- MG Lunsford E. Oliver (February 1943 - May 1945)
# Further reading.
- Richard S. Gardner "Paths of Armor", Battery Press, 4300 Dale Ave, Nashville TN 37204, 615-298-1401
# External links.
- Fact Sheet of the 5th Armored Division from http://www.battleofthebulge.org
- La libération de Quierzy
- The Road to Germany: The Story of the 5th Armored Division | 6,128,400 |
441228 | Electrical synapse | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical%20synapse | Electrical synapse
Electrical synapse
An electrical synapse is a mechanical and electrically conductive link between two neighboring neurons that is formed at a narrow gap between the pre- and postsynaptic neurons known as a gap junction. At gap junctions, such cells approach within about 3.8 nm of each other, a much shorter distance than the 20- to 40-nanometer distance that separates cells at chemical synapse. In many animals, electrical synapse-based systems co-exist with chemical synapses.
Compared to chemical synapses, electrical synapses conduct nerve impulses faster, but, unlike chemical synapses, they lack gain—the signal in the postsynaptic neuron is the same or smaller than that of the originating neuron. | 6,128,401 |
441228 | Electrical synapse | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical%20synapse | Electrical synapse
The fundamental bases for perceiving electrical synapses comes down to the connexons that are located in the gap junction between two neurons. Electrical synapses are often found in neural systems that require the fastest possible response, such as defensive reflexes. An important characteristic of electrical synapses is that they are mostly bidirectional (allow impulse transmission in either direction).
# Structure.
Each gap junction (aka nexus junction) contains numerous gap junction channels that cross the membranes of both cells. With a lumen diameter of about 1.2 to 2.0 nm, the pore of a gap junction channel is wide enough to allow ions and even medium-size molecules like signaling molecules | 6,128,402 |
441228 | Electrical synapse | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical%20synapse | Electrical synapse
to flow from one cell to the next, thereby connecting the two cells' cytoplasm. Thus when the membrane potential of one cell changes, ions may move through from one cell to the next, carrying positive charge with them and depolarizing the postsynaptic cell.
Gap junction funnels are composed of two hemi-channels called connexons in vertebrates, one contributed by each cell at the synapse. Connexons are formed by six 7.5 nm long, four-pass membrane-spanning protein subunits called connexins, which may be identical or slightly different from one another.
An autapse is an electrical (or chemical) synapse formed when the axon of one neuron synapses with its own dendrites.
# Effects.
The simplicity | 6,128,403 |
441228 | Electrical synapse | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical%20synapse | Electrical synapse
of electrical synapses results in synapses that are fast, but can produce only simple behaviors compared to the more complex chemical synapses.
- Without the need for receptors to recognize chemical messengers, signal transmission at electrical synapses is more rapid than that which occurs across chemical synapses, the predominant kind of junctions between neurons. Chemical transmission exhibits synaptic delay—recordings from squid synapses and neuromuscular junctions of the frog reveal a delay of 0.5 to 4.0 milliseconds—whereas electrical transmission takes place with almost no delay. However, the difference in speed between chemical and electrical synapses is not as marked in mammals as it | 6,128,404 |
441228 | Electrical synapse | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical%20synapse | Electrical synapse
is in cold-blooded animals.
- Because electrical synapses do not involve neurotransmitters, electrical neurotransmission is less modifiable than chemical neurotransmission
- The response is always the same sign as the source. For example, depolarization of the pre-synaptic membrane will always induce a depolarization in the post-synaptic membrane, and vice versa for hyperpolarization.
- The response in the postsynaptic neuron is in general smaller in amplitude than the source. The amount of attenuation of the signal is due to the membrane resistance of the presynaptic and postsynaptic neurons.
- Long-term changes can be seen in electrical synapses. For example, changes in electrical synapses | 6,128,405 |
441228 | Electrical synapse | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical%20synapse | Electrical synapse
in the retina are seen during light and dark adaptations of the retina.
The relative speed of electrical synapses also allows for many neurons to fire synchronously. Because of the speed of transmission, electrical synapses are found in escape mechanisms and other processes that require quick responses, such as the response to danger of the sea hare "Aplysia", which quickly releases large quantities of ink to obscure enemies' vision.
Normally, current carried by ions could travel in either direction through this type of synapse. However, sometimes the junctions are rectifying synapses, containing voltage-gated ion channels that open in response to depolarization of an axon's plasma membrane, | 6,128,406 |
441228 | Electrical synapse | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical%20synapse | Electrical synapse
and prevent current from traveling in one of the two directions. Some channels may also close in response to increased calcium () or hydrogen () ion concentration, so as not to spread damage from one cell to another.
There is also evidence for "plasticity" at some of these synapses—that is, that the electrical connection they establish can strengthen or weaken as a result of activity, or during changes in the intracellular concentration of magnesium.
Electrical synapses are present throughout the central nervous system and have been studied specifically in the neocortex, hippocampus, thalamic reticular nucleus, locus coeruleus, inferior olivary nucleus, mesencephalic nucleus of the trigeminal | 6,128,407 |
441228 | Electrical synapse | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical%20synapse | Electrical synapse
nerve, olfactory bulb, retina, and spinal cord of vertebrates. Other examples of functional gap junctions detected "in vivo" are in the striatum, cerebellum, and suprachiasmatic nucleus.
# History.
The model of a reticular network of directly interconnected cells was one of the early hypotheses for the organization of the nervous system at the beginning of the 20th century. This reticular hypothesis was considered to conflict directly with the now predominant "neuron doctrine", a model in which isolated, individual neurons signal to each other chemically across synaptic gaps. These two models came into sharp contrast at the award ceremony for the 1906 Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine, | 6,128,408 |
441228 | Electrical synapse | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical%20synapse | Electrical synapse
in which the award went jointly to Camillo Golgi, a reticularist and widely recognized cell biologist, and Santiago Ramón y Cajal, the champion of the neuron doctrine and the father of modern neuroscience. Golgi delivered his Nobel lecture first, in part detailing evidence for a reticular model of the nervous system. Ramón y Cajal then took the podium and refuted Golgi's conclusions in his lecture. Modern understanding of the coexistence of chemical and electrical synapses, however, suggests that both models are physiologically significant; it could be said that the Nobel committee acted with great foresight in awarding the Prize jointly.
There was substantial debate on whether the transmission | 6,128,409 |
441228 | Electrical synapse | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Electrical%20synapse | Electrical synapse
y significant; it could be said that the Nobel committee acted with great foresight in awarding the Prize jointly.
There was substantial debate on whether the transmission of information between neurons was chemical or electrical in the first decades of the twentieth century, but chemical synaptic transmission was seen as the only answer after Otto Loewi's demonstration of chemical communication between neurons and heart muscle. Thus, the discovery of electrical communication was surprising.
Electrical synapses were first demonstrated between escape-related giant neurons in crayfish in the late 1950s, and were later found in vertebrates.
# See also.
- Junctional complex
- Cardiac muscle | 6,128,410 |
441233 | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%204th%20Earl%20of%20March | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
Roger de Mortimer, 4th Earl of March (11 April 137420 July 1398) was an English nobleman. He was considered the heir presumptive to his cousin King Richard II.
Roger Mortimer's father, the 3rd Earl of March, died in 1381, leaving the six-year-old Roger to succeed to his father's title. Roger was placed under the wardship of Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent and eventually married Holland's daughter Alianore. During his lifetime, Mortimer spent much time in Ireland; he served several tenures as Lord Lieutenant of Ireland and died during a battle at Kellistown, Co. Carlow. He was succeeded by his young son, Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March.
# Early life.
Roger | 6,128,411 |
441233 | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%204th%20Earl%20of%20March | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
Mortimer was born 11 April 1374 at Usk in Monmouthshire. He was the eldest son of Edmund Mortimer, 3rd Earl of March, by his wife Philippa of Clarence, who was the daughter of Lionel of Antwerp, 1st Duke of Clarence, and granddaughter of King Edward III. Philippa passed on a strong claim to the English crown to her children. Roger had a younger brother, Edmund Mortimer, and two sisters, Elizabeth, who married Henry 'Hotspur' Percy, and Philippa, who first married John Hastings, 3rd Earl of Pembroke, secondly Richard de Arundel, 11th Earl of Arundel, and thirdly Sir Thomas Poynings.
## Wardship.
According to R. R. Davies, the wardship of such an important heir was an "issue of political moment | 6,128,412 |
441233 | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%204th%20Earl%20of%20March | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
in the years 1382–4". Eventually, on 16 December 1383, Mortimer's estates in England and Wales were granted for £4000 per annum to a consortium consisting of Mortimer himself, the Earls of Arundel, Northumberland, and Warwick, and John, Lord Neville. The guardianship of Mortimer's person was initially granted to Arundel, but at the behest of King Richard's mother Joan of Kent, Mortimer's wardship and marriage were granted, for 6000 marks, to Joan's son (and Richard's half-brother) Thomas Holland, 2nd Earl of Kent, in August 1384. On or about 7 October 1388, Mortimer married the Earl of Kent's daughter Eleanor Holland, who was Richard's half-niece. Mortimer did homage and was granted livery of | 6,128,413 |
441233 | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%204th%20Earl%20of%20March | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
his lands in Ireland on 18 June 1393, and of those in England and Wales on 25 February 1394.
King Richard had no issue, thus Mortimer, a lineal descendant of Edward III, was next in line to the throne and married to his half-niece. G. E. Cokayne states that in October 1385 Mortimer was proclaimed by the king as heir presumptive to the crown. However, according to R. R. Davies, the story that Richard publicly proclaimed Mortimer as heir presumptive in Parliament in October 1385 is baseless, although contemporary records indicate that his claim was openly discussed at the time. He was knighted by the King on 23 April 1390.
# Career.
After he came of age, Mortimer spent much of his time in Ireland. | 6,128,414 |
441233 | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%204th%20Earl%20of%20March | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
King Richard had first made Mortimer his Lord Lieutenant of Ireland on 24 January 1382 when he was a child of seven, with his uncle, Sir Thomas Mortimer, acting as his deputy. The king reappointed Roger Mortimer as his lieutenant in Ireland on 23 July 1392, and in September 1394, Although he was nominally the king's lieutenant, he made little headway against the native Irish chieftains. On 25 April 1396, the king appointed him lieutenant in Ulster, Connacht, and Meath, and Mortimer was in Ireland for most of the following three years. In April 1397, the king reappointed him lieutenant for a further three years.
Mortimer's residence in Ireland ensured that his political role in England was a | 6,128,415 |
441233 | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%204th%20Earl%20of%20March | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
minor one. His closest relationships in England appear to have been with family members, including his brother, Edmund, to whom he granted lands and annuities; the Percy family, into which his elder sister, Elizabeth had married; and the Earl of Arundel, who had married his younger sister, Philippa.
As Davies points out, Mortimer's "wealth and lineage meant that, sooner or later, he would be caught up in the political turmoil of Richard II's last years." On 4 September 1397, he was ordered to arrest his uncle, Sir Thomas Mortimer for treason regarding his actions at the Battle of Radcot Bridge, but made no real attempt to do so. Even more inauspiciously, when summoned to a Parliament at Shrewsbury | 6,128,416 |
441233 | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%204th%20Earl%20of%20March | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
in January 1398, he was 'rapturously received', according to Adam Usk and the Wigmore chronicler, by a vast crowd of supporters wearing his colours. These events excited the king's suspicions, and on Mortimer's return to Ireland after the Parliament in January 1398, 'his enemy, the Duke of Surrey, his brother-in-law, was ordered to follow and capture him'.
## Death.
On 20 July 1398, at the age of 24, Mortimer was slain in a skirmish at either Kells, County Meath or Kellistown, County Carlow. The Wigmore chronicler says that he was riding in front of his army, unattended and wearing Irish garb, possibly illegally, and that those who slew him did not know who he was. He was interred at Wigmore | 6,128,417 |
441233 | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%204th%20Earl%20of%20March | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
Abbey. The King went to Ireland in the following year to avenge Mortimer's death.
Mortimer's young son, Edmund, succeeded him in the title and claim to the throne. The Wigmore chronicler, while criticising Mortimer for lust and remissness in his duty to God, extols him as 'of approved honesty, active in knightly exercises, glorious in pleasantry, affable and merry in conversation, excelling his contemporaries in beauty of appearance, sumptuous in his feasting, and liberal in his gifts'.
# Marriage and children.
By his wife Alianore Holland he had two sons and two daughters:
- Anne, who married Richard, Earl of Cambridge (born 1390executed 1415)
- Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March (1391–1425)
- | 6,128,418 |
441233 | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%204th%20Earl%20of%20March | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
Roger (23 April 1393c. 1413)
- Eleanor (born 1395-1422), who married Sir Edward de Courtenay (died 1418), and had no issue. Married secondly John Harpeden.
In June 1399 Roger Mortimer's widow, Alianor, married Edward Charleton, 5th Baron Cherleton, by whom she had two daughters:
- Joan, who married John Grey, 1st Earl of Tankerville, brother of Sir Thomas Grey, executed for his part in the Southampton Plot which aimed to replace King Henry V with Eleanor's son, Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March. Joan was co-heiress in 1425 to her stepbrother, Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March.
- Joyce, who married John Tiptoft, 1st Baron Tiptoft.
Alianor died 6 or 18 October 1405.
# External links.
- | 6,128,419 |
441233 | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%204th%20Earl%20of%20March | Roger Mortimer, 4th Earl of March
3c. 1413)
- Eleanor (born 1395-1422), who married Sir Edward de Courtenay (died 1418), and had no issue. Married secondly John Harpeden.
In June 1399 Roger Mortimer's widow, Alianor, married Edward Charleton, 5th Baron Cherleton, by whom she had two daughters:
- Joan, who married John Grey, 1st Earl of Tankerville, brother of Sir Thomas Grey, executed for his part in the Southampton Plot which aimed to replace King Henry V with Eleanor's son, Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March. Joan was co-heiress in 1425 to her stepbrother, Edmund Mortimer, 5th Earl of March.
- Joyce, who married John Tiptoft, 1st Baron Tiptoft.
Alianor died 6 or 18 October 1405.
# External links.
- Wigmore Chronicle | 6,128,420 |
441229 | 6th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 6th Armored Division (United States)
6th Armored Division (United States)
The 6th Armored Division ("Super Sixth") was an armored division of the United States Army during World War II. It was formed with a cadre from the 2nd Armored Division. 6th AD was formed under the 1942 Table of Organization and Equipment.
# History.
The division was activated on 15 February 1942 at Fort Knox out of "surplus" elements of the reorganized 1st and 2nd Armored Divisions, with Brig. Gen. Carlos Brewer assigned as its first commanding general. It moved to Camp Chaffee on 15 March 1942 to make way for other Armored units, and then completed its assembly and unit training. The division then participated in the VIII Corps Louisiana Maneuvers from | 6,128,421 |
441229 | 6th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 6th Armored Division (United States)
25 August 1942, and then returned to Camp Chaffee on 21 September 1942. The 6th AD then moved to Camp Young at the Desert Training Center on 10 October 1942, and participated in the first California Maneuvers. The 6th AD then moved to Camp Cooke to continue its training. The 6th AD then staged at Camp Shanks on 3 February 1944, departed the New York Port of Embarkation on 11 February 1944, and arrived in England on 23 February 1944. Maj. Gen. Robert W. Grow assumed command of the Division at Camp Cooke, California in May 1943 and commanded the division through the war until July 30, 1945.
After continuing its training in England, 6th AD landed on Utah Beach in Normandy on 19 July 1944 as a | 6,128,422 |
441229 | 6th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 6th Armored Division (United States)
follow-on unit, and went on the offensive as separate combat commands in the Cotentin Peninsula in support of the Normandy Campaign.
## Order of battle.
- Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 6th Armored Division
- Headquarters and Headquarters Company, Combat Command A
- Headquarters and Headquarters Company, Combat Command B
- Headquarters, Reserve Command
- 15th Tank Battalion
- 68th Tank Battalion
- 69th Tank Battalion
- 9th Armored Infantry Battalion
- 44th Armored Infantry Battalion
- 50th Armored Infantry Battalion
- Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 6th Armored Division Artillery
- 128th Field Artillery Battalion
- 212th Field Artillery Battalion
- 231st Field Artillery | 6,128,423 |
441229 | 6th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 6th Armored Division (United States)
Battalion
- 86th Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron (Mechanized)
- 25th Armored Engineer Battalion
- 146th Armored Signal Company
- Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 6th Armored Division Trains
- 128th Ordnance Maintenance Battalion
- 76th Armored Medical Battalion
- Military Police Platoon
- Band
## Combat chronicle.
At the end of the Normandy Campaign, 6th AD assembled at Le Mesnil on 25 July 1944. 6th AD then passed through 8th Infantry Division to clear the heights near Le Bingard on 27 July 1944, and Combat Command A secured a bridgehead across the near Pont de la Roque on 29 July 1944, and overran Granville on 31 July 1944. 6th AD then returned to Avranches, where it relieved | 6,128,424 |
441229 | 6th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 6th Armored Division (United States)
4th AD and secured the area bridges.
In mid-August in Europe, the 6th Armored Division moved down to Lorient, where it was relieved by the 94th Infantry Division in September. Elements of the division participated in the Battle for Brest (7 August - 19 September, 1944).
The 6th then turned east and cut across France, reaching the Saar in November. It crossed the Nied River on 11–12 November, against strong opposition, reaching the German border on 6 December, and established and maintained defensive positions in the vicinity of Saarbrücken.
On 23 December, the division was ordered north of Metz to take part in the Battle of the Bulge, and took over a sector along the south bank of the Sauer. | 6,128,425 |
441229 | 6th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 6th Armored Division (United States)
The 6th was heavily engaged in the battle for Bastogne, finally driving the enemy back across the Our River into Germany by late January 1945.
After a short period of rehabilitation, the division resumed the offensive, penetrated the Siegfried Line, crossed the Prum, reached the Rhine River at Worms on 21 March, and set up a counterreconnaissance screen along its west bank. The 6th crossed the Rhine at Oppenheim on 25 March, drove on to Frankfurt, crossed the Main, captured Bad Nauheim, and continued to advance eastward, and surrounded and captured Mühlhausen on 4–5 April. After repulsing a light counterattack, it moved forward 60 miles to cross the Saale River and assisted in freeing Allied | 6,128,426 |
441229 | 6th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 6th Armored Division (United States)
prisoners of war and the German concentration camp at Buchenwald. The division raced on, took Leipzig, crossed the RiverZwickau Mulde at Rochlitz on 15 April 1945, and stopped, pending the arrival of the Red Army. Defensive positions along the Mulde River were held until the end of hostilities in Europe.
Elements of the 6th AD also participated in the Pacific Theater seeing action in major engagements in that area of the war. The battalions were amphibious units, and thus used different variants of the LVT. The 69th Armor Regiment was composed, for the majority, of these amphibious battalions and was sent over to the Pacific. These units, such as the 773rd Amphibian Tractor Battalion, 776th | 6,128,427 |
441229 | 6th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 6th Armored Division (United States)
Amphibian Tank Battalion, and 708th Amphibian Tank Battalion, saw action in the Mariana Islands (1944) at the battles of Saipan and Tinian, in the Marshall Islands (1943–44), the Ryukyu Islands (1945), and in the Philippine Islands as well as the Liberation of the Philippines. Some were also stationed in Japan during its occupation following the war's end.
The division was deactivated on 18 September 1945 at Camp Shanks, New York.
## Casualties.
- Total battle casualties: 4,670
- Killed in action: 833
- Wounded in action: 3,667
- Missing in action: 88
- Prisoner of war: 83
# Official history.
At the end of World War II, two 6th Armored Division G3 officers, Majors Paul L. Bogen and | 6,128,428 |
441229 | 6th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 6th Armored Division (United States)
Clyde J. Burke along with Aide-de-Camp Captain Cyrus R. Shockey, compiled a "Combat Record of the Sixth Armored Division in the European Theatre of Operations 18 July 1944-8 May 1945". The official history by George F. Hofmann, "The Super Sixth: History of the 6th Armored Division in World War II" (1975, reprinted 2000) has been called by World War II scholar Martin Blumenson, a "first-rate military history." He also noted that General Patton called the 6th AD one of the two best divisions in his Third Army.
# External links.
- Super Sixth: The story of Patton's 6th Armored Division in WW II
- Brest to Bastogne: The Story of the 6th Armored Division
- Army Amphibian and Tank Battalions in | 6,128,429 |
441229 | 6th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=6th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 6th Armored Division (United States)
ann, "The Super Sixth: History of the 6th Armored Division in World War II" (1975, reprinted 2000) has been called by World War II scholar Martin Blumenson, a "first-rate military history." He also noted that General Patton called the 6th AD one of the two best divisions in his Third Army.
# External links.
- Super Sixth: The story of Patton's 6th Armored Division in WW II
- Brest to Bastogne: The Story of the 6th Armored Division
- Army Amphibian and Tank Battalions in the Battle of Saipan 15 June-9 July 1944
- Saipan: The Beginning of the End (773rd Amphibian Tractor Battalion and 708th Amphibian Tank Battalion are discussed in citation number 55 under "Yellow Beach and Agingan Point) | 6,128,430 |
441245 | Prince Gustaf of Sweden | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Prince%20Gustaf%20of%20Sweden | Prince Gustaf of Sweden
Prince Gustaf of Sweden
Several Swedish Princes have been named Gustaf. This list does not include those who eventually became Kings of Sweden.
- Gustaf Gustafsson of Vasa, later known as "Gustaf Gustafsson of Vasa" (1799-1877)
- Prince Gustaf, Duke of Uppland (1827-1852) ("The Singer Prince") | 6,128,431 |
441244 | Aimeric de Peguilhan | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aimeric%20de%20Peguilhan | Aimeric de Peguilhan
Aimeric de Peguilhan
Aimeric or Aimery de Peguilhan, Peguillan, or Pégulhan (c. 1170 – c. 1230) was a troubadour (fl. 1190–1221) born in Peguilhan (near Saint-Gaudens) the son of a cloth merchant.
Aimeric's first patron was Raimon V of Toulouse, followed by his son Raimon VI. However, he fled the region at the threat of the Albigensian Crusade and spent some time in Spain and ten years in Lombardy. It is said that he had secretly loved a neighbour while living in Toulouse, and that it was for her that he returned.
Aimeric is known to have composed at least fifty works, the music for six of which survives:
- "Atressi·m pren com fai al jogador"
- "Cel que s'irais ni guerrej' ab amor"
- "En | 6,128,432 |
441244 | Aimeric de Peguilhan | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Aimeric%20de%20Peguilhan | Aimeric de Peguilhan
ain and ten years in Lombardy. It is said that he had secretly loved a neighbour while living in Toulouse, and that it was for her that he returned.
Aimeric is known to have composed at least fifty works, the music for six of which survives:
- "Atressi·m pren com fai al jogador"
- "Cel que s'irais ni guerrej' ab amor"
- "En Amor trop alques en que·m refraing"
- "En greu pantais m'a tengut longamen"
- "Per solatz d'autrui chan soven"
- "Qui la vi, en ditz"
Most of his works were bland "cansos" with a few "tensos" (with Sordello and Albertet de Sestaro).
# Sources.
- Gaunt, Simon, and Kay, Sarah (edd.) "The Troubadours: An Introduction". Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1999. . | 6,128,433 |
441192 | 2nd New Zealand Division | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2nd%20New%20Zealand%20Division | 2nd New Zealand Division
2nd New Zealand Division
The 2nd New Zealand Division, initially the New Zealand Division, was an infantry division of the New Zealand Military Forces (New Zealand's army) during the Second World War. The division was commanded for most of its existence by Lieutenant-General Bernard C. Freyberg. It fought in Greece, Crete, the Western Desert and Italy. In the Western Desert Campaign, the division played a prominent role in the defeat of German and Italian forces in the Second Battle of El Alamein and the British Eighth Army's advance to Tunisia.
In late 1943, the division was moved to Italy, taking part in the Eighth Army's campaign on Italy's Adriatic coast, which ground to a halt at the end | 6,128,434 |
441192 | 2nd New Zealand Division | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2nd%20New%20Zealand%20Division | 2nd New Zealand Division
of the year. In early 1944, the division formed the nucleus of the New Zealand Corps, fighting two battles attempting unsuccessfully to penetrate the Gustav Line at Monte Cassino. The division saw further action on the Gothic Line in Italy in 1944 and took part in the Allied 1945 Spring offensive, which led to the surrender of German forces in Italy in May. After returning to New Zealand, reorganised elements of the division formed part of the occupational forces in Japan from 1945.
# Outbreak of war.
At the outbreak of the Second World War in September 1939, it was decided that New Zealand should provide an Expeditionary Force of one division, under then Major-General Bernard C. Freyberg. | 6,128,435 |
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This force became known as 2nd New Zealand Expeditionary Force and the division, initially, as the New Zealand Division. The first echelon, 2NZEF Headquarters and a Brigade Group, left NZ shores in January and landed in Egypt on 12 February 1940. The second echelon, also a Brigade Group, was diverted to Britain on Italy's entry into the war, joining the British VII Corps. Composite elements were formed into an extra brigade, 7th Brigade, to strengthen the invasion defences. The second echelon did not reach Egypt until March 1941. The third echelon arrived in Egypt on 27 October 1940 and concentration of the division was completed just before it was deployed to northern Greece in March 1941.
The | 6,128,436 |
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division remained as part of the British Eighth Army to the end of World War II in 1945, during which it fought in the Battle of Greece (March–April 1941), the Battle of Crete (May 1941), Operation "Crusader" (November–December 1941), Minqar Qaim (June 1942), First Battle of El Alamein (July 1942), Second Battle of El Alamein (October–November 1942), Libya and Tunisia (December 1942 – May 1943), the Sangro (October–December 1943), Battle of Monte Cassino (February–March 1944), Central Italy (May–December 1944), and the Adriatic Coast (April–May 1945).
# Defence of Greece.
In April 1941, the Division was deployed to Greece to assist British and Australian forces in defending the country from | 6,128,437 |
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the invading Germans. (The Second Echelon of the 2 NZEF had been diverted to the United Kingdom between June 1940 and January 1941, and had had an anti-invasion role with British VII Corps.) The New Zealanders were combined with Australian and British forces as 'W' Force under Lieutenant-General Sir Henry Maitland Wilson. The immediate operational commander was Australian Lieutenant-General Thomas Blamey with his I Australian Corps headquarters, which was briefly renamed Anzac Corps. The Germans soon joined what became the Battle of Greece, overwhelming the British and Commonwealth forces and forcing them to retreat to Crete and Egypt by 6 April. The last New Zealand troops had evacuated Greece | 6,128,438 |
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by 25 April 1941, having sustained losses of 291 men killed, 387 seriously wounded, and 1,826 men captured in this campaign.
# Battle of Crete.
Since most 2nd New Zealand Division troops had evacuated to Crete from Greece, they were very much involved in the defence of Crete against further German attacks. As Freyberg was judged to have performed extremely well during the evacuation of Greece, he was given command of all Allied forces for the defence of the island. Consequently, the New Zealand Division temporarily lost him as its commander. However, the attempt to defend Crete was as doomed as that to defend Greece had been.
The German paratroopers landed in May 1941. While suffering many | 6,128,439 |
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casualties, the Germans gradually gained the upper hand over the Allied forces in the Battle of Crete. By the end of the month, German soldiers had once again overwhelmed British and Commonwealth forces, and it was decided to evacuate the Division from the island, again without its heavy weapons. This evacuation was to Egypt, with the forces landing in Alexandria in June. The unit's ability to help itself to enemy—and Allied—heavy weapons and transport led to it being nicknamed "Freyberg's Forty Thousand Thieves" . In the Battle for Crete, 671 New Zealanders were killed, 967 wounded and 2,180 captured. During the battle, Charles Upham was awarded the first of his two Victoria Crosses.
# North | 6,128,440 |
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Africa.
## Operation "Crusader".
Following the disasters in Europe, the division was then integrated into the regular order of battle of the British Eighth Army. It fought in many of the critical battles in the North African Campaign over the next year and a half. On 18 November 1941, the division took part in Operation Crusader. The New Zealand troops crossed the Libyan frontier into Cyrenaica, and linked up with the British 70th Infantry Division of the Tobruk Garrison on 26 November. Operation "Crusader" was an overall success for the British and the New Zealand troops withdrew to Syria to recover. The Operation "Crusader" campaign was the most costly that the 2nd New Zealand Division fought | 6,128,441 |
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during the Second World War, with 879 men killed, and 1,700 wounded.
Originally known as the 'New Zealand Division', the division became known as 2nd New Zealand Division from June 1942 onward as part of the Operation Cascade deception scheme and the 'formation' of Maadi Camp, the division's base area in Egypt, as "6th NZ Division".
## Mersa Matruh.
After the Eighth Army's defeat in the Gazala battles, fresh forces were brought up to check the Axis forces in their drive into Egypt. The 2nd New Zealand Division was transported from Syria to Mersa Matruh. In the ensuing battle, the division's retreat was cut off on 27 June when the 21st Panzer Division got to the east of the division. That | 6,128,442 |
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night, the division's 4th Brigade broke through the German positions, and the division retired to El Alamein.
## El Alamein.
The division played a prominent role in both Battles of El Alamein. During the First Battle of El Alamein, in July 1942, the division put in a night attack against the Afrika Korps, commanded by Erwin Rommel. As no armoured support was available to the Division after their night attack against the Germans at Ruweisat Ridge, the 4th New Zealand Brigade was shattered, with the loss of around 3,000 men, during the fighting that resulted when German Panzers counter-attacked the New Zealand infantry the following morning. It was for his actions in this battle that Charles | 6,128,443 |
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Upham was awarded the Bar to his VC, becoming only the third man to be awarded the VC twice and the first soldier in a combatant role. Also at Ruweisat, Sergeant Keith Elliott of 22nd Battalion was awarded the VC for continuing to lead his company, despite wounds, in assaults which led to the destruction of five machine guns plus an anti-tank gun and the capture of 130 prisoners.
During the Second Battle of El Alamein, the division broke through the German positions and got behind Rommel's flank. During the night of 1–2 November 1942, the British 9th Armoured Brigade was to have advanced in support of an attack by the Division. However, it was stopped in the minefield lanes by the 15th Panzer | 6,128,444 |
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and 90th Light Divisions; the following morning, the armour continued to be attacked, suffering heavy losses. However, the 9th Armoured Brigade's sacrifice had made the follow-up successes possible.
## Tunisia.
Following the victory at Alamein, the Eighth Army advanced west through Libya to El Agheila. For much of this time, Lieutenant General Bernard Montgomery, the Eighth Army commander since August 1942, was obliged to maintain a relatively small forward force because of the difficulties caused by a very extended supply line and the New Zealand Division was therefore held in reserve at Bardia. At the Battle of El Agheila, the New Zealand Division was brought forward with supporting tanks | 6,128,445 |
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to conduct an outflanking movement while two divisions made a frontal attack. The battle started on the night of 11 December. Looking to preserve his forces, Rommel commenced a withdrawal to Buerat on the 12th.
The division then formed the left flank of the advancing Eighth Army and on 16 December had an opportunity to trap the retreating Axis forces. However, the division's troops were strung out and without anti-tank guns. The 15th Panzer Division was therefore able to punch through and secure the line of retreat.
A further unsuccessful attempt to get to the rear of the withdrawing Axis forces took place at Nofaliya. The division then remained in reserve in the Nofaliya area until early | 6,128,446 |
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January, when it was ordered forward to take part in the final push through Buerat and advance the remaining to Tripoli. The operation began on 15 January; by 21 January, Tripoli was less than ahead. However, skilful delaying tactics allowed the Axis forces to withdraw in good order and when leading elements of Eighth Army entered Tripoli in the early morning of 23 January its defenders had left.
The Eighth Army arrived on the Mareth defensive line on the border with Tunisia shortly after the fall of Tripoli. After an unsuccessful attempt to break through the Axis defenses at Mareth, the New Zealand Division was reinforced to form a New Zealand Corps to execute a left hook around the main Axis | 6,128,447 |
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defenses through the Tebaga Gap. The attack was launched on 21 March and the entrance to the gap had been secured after four days fighting but no break through made. Further reinforcements from British X Corps were sent to the Tebaga Gap and overall control of the operation transferred to X Corps commander Brian Horrocks. Operation "Supercharge II" was launched on 26 March and by 28 March the main Axis forces on the Mareth Line had been forced to withdraw by the flanking threat from the advancing British 1st Armoured and New Zealand Divisions.
At the end of "Supercharge II", the New Zealand Corps was broken up and its elements allocated between X and XXX Corps. On 30 March, Montgomery sent | 6,128,448 |
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the following message to Freyberg:
The division continued to fight in Tunisia with Eighth Army until Tunis fell to First Army on 7 May, prompting the surrender of the remaining Axis forces.
# Italian Campaign.
Following the Axis surrender in Tunisia the 2nd New Zealand Division was withdrawn to refit and therefore took no part in the Allied invasion of Sicily. The refit included the conversion of the 4th Infantry Brigade into the 4th Armoured Brigade. The division returned to battle in the Italian Campaign in late 1943, rejoining the Eighth Army. The division came into the front line in November and took part in the advance across the Sangro at the end of the month. During December the division | 6,128,449 |
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was involved in very heavy fighting during the Moro River Campaign at Orsogna. By the end of the year the deteriorating winter weather made movement of even tracked vehicles impossible except on metaled roads and severely impeded vital close air support operations. This, together with the failure to capture Orsogna led the Allies to call off the Adriatic coast offensive until spring brought better conditions in the skies and under foot.
## Monte Cassino.
Meanwhile, to the west of the Eighth Army on the other side of the Apennine Mountains, Italy's central mountain spine, the U.S. Fifth Army had also been fighting its way north. By the end of January 1944, the Fifth Army's attacks against the | 6,128,450 |
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Cassino massif had ground to a halt and the "Battle for Rome" had stalled. The 15th Army Group commander General Sir Harold Alexander and Fifth Army commander Lieutenant General Mark W. Clark looked around for solutions to penetrate the defences, as their careers and reputations were irrevocably linked with success on this front, particularly due to Winston Churchill's insistence at this time, that Italy was the key to the ultimate success in the war. As part of the solution, Alexander withdrew the 2nd New Zealand Division from the Eighth Army line to establish a small Army Group Reserve with a view to reinforcing the Fifth Army front. Clark was initially apprehensive of making use of an ex-British | 6,128,451 |
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Eighth Army Division. As an American, he was even more apprehensive of having Freyberg, whom he considered a "prima donna" who "had to be handled with kid gloves" leading the Army Reserve. Clark feared that, due to Freyberg's extensive experience, he would question or dispute his orders. What concerned him most was that he feared that General Alexander might decide to use the New Zealand Corps to replace Major General Geoffrey Keyes' U.S. II Corps and "snatch the victory which the Americans had so dearly bought". The failure of the New Zealand Corps to capture Cassino reduced these fears and eventually made Clark more amenable towards the New Zealand Corps. Alexander also withdrew the 4th Indian | 6,128,452 |
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Infantry Division as well as the British 78th Infantry Division from Eighth Army to join this strategic reserve. This formation was initially known as "Spadger Force" to confuse German intelligence, with the commander, General Freyberg being known as "Spadger". The Corps later became known as the New Zealand Corps under command of the U.S. Fifth Army. The "New Zealand Corps" was not, however, a truly of corps size, since it lacked a full staff and set of corps troops. It was more a temporary extension of the division - New Zealand simply did not have the resources to fully man a corps level formation.
### Second Battle for Cassino.
On 8 February, Clark conceded to Alexander that U.S. II Corps | 6,128,453 |
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would not succeed with any further attacks and he "allowed" the British (and Dominions) to attempt to strike the final blow against the Axis line at Cassino. By this time, U.S. VI Corps had already landed at Anzio and were under heavy threat from the reinforcing Germans. An outright destruction of the Anzio beachhead was a possibility, given the relentless enemy air, artillery, and ground assaults against VI Corps. General Alexander advised Freyberg to ready the NZ Corps to take over from U.S. II Corps, under Major General Geoffrey Keyes, also advising him that enemy reinforcements had arrived and that even greater resistance could be expected.
Freyberg's plan initially included a wide flanking | 6,128,454 |
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attack—differentiating it from the approach previously used by Keyes' II Corps. This flanking movement was eventually excluded from the final plan and Freyberg dictated that the attack be along the same unsuccessful lines as used by the Americans the month before. Major-General Francis Tuker, commander of the 4th Indian Division, voiced strong disapproval regarding the plan to Freyberg, his new Corps Commander—as his division was to lead the now, frontal assault. Tuker also expressed his concern over Freyberg's apparent obsession with reducing the monastery on Monte Cassino, arguing that (supported by General Juin, commanding the French Expeditionary Corps) they were attempting to breach the | 6,128,455 |
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strongest and most fortified point of the Gustav Line. As part of his plan, and encouraged by the complaints from Tucker, Freyberg insisted to Clark that the monastery should be flattened by bombing in the preparatory stage of the attack. General Alexander, although expressing the opinion that it would be regrettable to destroy the Benedictine Order monastery-built around AD 529—supported Freyberg's insistence that reducing the monastery be considered a military necessity.
The Allied planes dropped 442 tons of bombs on the Abbey and its immediate environs in two separate attacks on 15 February, one between 09:30 and 10:00 and the other between 10:30 and 13:30, but the infantry attack, which | 6,128,456 |
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was to commence directly after the second bombing mission, was delayed due to differences regarding H-Hour between Freyberg and his 7th Indian Brigade. Also, the division commanders were insisting that a preliminary high-point (Point 593) was to be captured as a prelude to the main attack.
The 4th Indian Division was to attack in an arc towards the south and south west, taking Point 593 and then moving south east, up the heights towards the Abbey. The 4th Indian Division would only advance on the Abbey, once the NZ Division had attacked south and south east taking the town of Cassino. The main attack eventually commenced just after last light with the 28th (Maori) Battalion tasked to cross | 6,128,457 |
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the Rapido River and to seize the station south of Cassino town, to establish a bridgehead for the corps armour to move into the town and to the foot of the Cassino massif—the attack starting at 21:30. By dawn, German 10th Army artillery had stopped the 28th Battalion advance on the Rapido River bridgehead and the NZ Division were forced to use all their guns to fire smoke onto the bridge and railway station areas to mask the withdrawal of the 28th Battalion. The attack had failed, and so had the 4th Indian Division attack on Point 593.
### The Third Battle.
On the evening of 14 March, the battalions of the NZ Corps were alerted that Operation "Bradman", the bombing of Cassino, was approved | 6,128,458 |
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for the next day. In a third attempt to penetrate the Gustav Line, the Corps was again launched against Cassino town and the monastery on top of the massif. By this time, U.S. VI Corps, which had landed at Anzio some two months before, had still not been able to break out of its beachhead, though pressure on the beachhead had significantly decreased since the beginning of the month. This third assault on Cassino was intended to not only penetrate the Gustav Line, but to draw away the German forces to further alleviate the pressure on the VI Corps at Anzio.
The bombing started at 08:00 and continued till 12:00—dropping an equivalent of four tons per acre. By 12:30, an 890 gun artillery bombardment | 6,128,459 |
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started, which would continue for eight hours. The 6th NZ Brigade lead the attack, assaulting Cassino town, supported by the tanks of the 19th Armoured Regiment and at the same time, the 4th Indian Division was to advance on Hangman's Hill after which they were to assault the Monastery. The next morning, the 4th NZ Armoured Brigade was to take over from American tanks in the Liri Valley while the 7th Indian Infantry Brigade and small NZ tank groups were to advance up the Cavendish Road (built by Indian engineers) to clear any pockets of resistance on the Cassino slopes.
The advance into Cassino town by the 6th NZ Brigade went wrong from the start as the 19th Armoured tanks were unable to pass | 6,128,460 |
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through the badly damaged roads, covered in rubble and bomb craters. The infantry, advancing without tanks came under severe fire from German paratroopers in the town, their fire further preventing armoured engineer bulldozers from clearing access routes for the tanks. Although the armour had been stopped, the NZ Infantry still held some parts of the town, including the strategic Castle Hill. Freyberg's orders had defined that the 4th Indian Division would only commence their advance on the Abbey, once Castle Hill had been secured, as they were to pass through the NZ lines on the hill as they progressed up the mountain. It took two hours to pass the message that the hill had been secured and | 6,128,461 |
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as it was already dark, further delays were encountered by the Indian Division struggling to find Castle Hill. The Indian advance on Hangman's Hill only commenced after midnight, further compounded by heavy rain.
The next morning, while concentrated German artillery fire and house to house fighting pinned the 2nd New Zealand Division in that portion of the town which they held, the 4th Indian Division was making no progress up the mountain. The 20th Armoured Regiment which was to have supported them, considered the road too risky, as numerous hairpin bends had not been secured. German reinforcements continued to arrive, bolstering the defences in town, as well as on the Cassino massif. Attempts | 6,128,462 |
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by the NZ Division to expand their perimeter in town continued on 16 March—XIV Panzer Corps reported in this regard "... south of the town, the enemy [the NZ Division] fought our foremost posts to a standstill by weight of fire and then occupied the station after hand-to-hand fighting ... [but] the centre of the town is still in our hands."
By the afternoon of 19 March, it was evident that no further progress would be made by the NZ Division in Cassino town—the German paratrooper line held firm, with machine gun, mortar and sniper fire and continued counter-attacks to reduce the NZ perimeter. By 20 March a company of Gurkhas overran Point 435 on Hangman's Hill, 500 yards from the Abbey, but | 6,128,463 |
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were again driven back by German fire from unassailable positions. The NZ Division re-occupied the railway station and the botanical gardens in the town and the process of attack and counterattack continued until 23 March when Alexander decided to call off the offensive. The Monte Cassino Abbey, although totally destroyed by now, remained firmly in German hands.
## Advance to the Gothic Line.
Following the two assaults at Monte Cassino, the New Zealand Division was withdrawn and when redeployed found itself in the high Apennine sector north east of Cassino under the British Eighth Army's X Corps, commanded by Lieutenant-General Richard L. McCreery. When in May 1944 the Allies launched their | 6,128,464 |
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final and successful offensive on the Cassino front, X Corps was employed in a holding role making diversionary feints and anchoring the right flank of the Eighth Army attack. Some of the division's armoured elements were detached, however, and placed under command of the British 4th Infantry Division and 8th Indian Infantry Division to take part in XIII Corps attack in the centre of the front. When the New Zealand tanks returned from 8th Indian Division in early June, Major-General Dudley Russell, the 8th Indian Division's commander wrote to Freyberg saying: As the main attack advanced, X Corps with the New Zealand Division moved forward to maintain protection of Eighth Army's right flank. | 6,128,465 |
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After the fall of Rome in early June X Corps formed a pursuit force comprising 2nd New Zealand and 8th and 10th Indian Infantry Divisions. On 10 June elements of the division entered Avezzano and the division passed into army reserve to spend a period of rest and training.
In mid July, the division joined British XIII Corps, under Lieutenant-General Sidney C. Kirkman, at the Trasimene Line as reinforcements ahead of a set piece offensive planned to carry an advance to Arezzo. The New Zealand Division acted as guard to the right flank of the corps. Arezzo was captured on 16 July and the advance was continued towards the River Arno and Florence. The New Zealand Division's capture of the eastern | 6,128,466 |
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crests of the Pian dei Cerri hills at the start of August was the turning point of the battle for Florence. Florence was declared an open city and Allied troops entered on 4 August. Lieutenant-General Oliver Leese, the Eighth Army commander wrote:
Kirkman, the Corps commander also wrote:
## Gothic Line and the race to Trieste.
In the autumn of 1944, the division fought as part of I Canadian Corps during Operation "Olive", the offensive on the Gothic Line. In November 1944 it was then transferred to British V Corps. With one armoured and two infantry brigades, the division was well organized for mobile warfare as experienced in North Africa. In the mountainous terrain and difficult conditions | 6,128,467 |
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underfoot found in Italy, however, tank mobility was very restricted and the division always found itself short of infantry. During the winter of 1944–45 the Divisional Cavalry Regiment and 22nd (Motor) Battalion were converted to infantry, giving each infantry brigade a fourth battalion. By the spring of 1945 the machine-gun battalion had also been converted to infantry and the division's infantry reorganized into three brigades each with three battalions. Manpower shortages in the division were also eased when the 3rd New Zealand Division, then fighting in the Pacific War against the Japanese, had been disbanded in October 1944 and 4,000 of its officers and men then transferred to the 2nd | 6,128,468 |
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NZ Division.
In April 1945, the division, still as part of British V Corps with 8th Indian Division, was performing assault crossings of first the Senio stream and then the river Santerno, marking the start of the Allied spring 1945 offensive in Italy (Operation "Grapeshot"). The division was subsequently transferred to XIII Corps and the closing days of the Second World War saw the 2nd New Zealand Division race to Trieste in northern Italy to confront Josip Broz Tito's partisans, and prevent that city's forced absorption into greater Yugoslavia.
# Aftermath.
By the end of the war, the New Zealand Division had a reputation as a tough formation with good troops. This opinion had earlier been | 6,128,469 |
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expressed by Rommel in his report to the Oberkommando der Wehrmacht on 21 July 1942 (at the end of the First Battle of El Alamein) in which he highly rated the New Zealand Division. This view was repeated within the German 5th Panzer Division intelligence reports. Rommel also paid tribute to the division in his memoirs:
General Bernard Montgomery, who commanded the British Eighth Army and who would later command the Allied land forces in the invasion of Normandy, recommended that the division should be used in the invasion of Normandy but the New Zealand government did not approve the move. This was because the division was fighting at Monte Cassino at the time.
Captain Charles Upham, VC and | 6,128,470 |
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Bar, of the New Zealand Division, was the only person to be awarded the Victoria Cross twice during the Second World War. Other Victoria Crosses were awarded to John 'Jack' Hinton, Alfred Hulme, Keith Elliott, and Moana-Nui-a-Kiwa Ngarimu. Lance Sergeant Haane Manahi of the Māori Battalion was posthumously honoured in 2007 by representatives of the Queen after it was decided that his Distinguished Conduct Medal, awarded for actions at Takrouna, was not to be upgraded to a Victoria Cross, despite recommendations from senior officers, including Lieutenant-General Brian Horrocks.
Elements of the division, the 9th Brigade, were reorganized as the division disbanded to become J Force, (Japan), the | 6,128,471 |
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New Zealand contribution to the British Commonwealth Occupation Force in Japan.
# Order of battle.
## Initial composition, 1940–41.
Headquarters New Zealand Division
- Divisional Cavalry Regiment
- HQ Divisional Artillery
- 4 Field Regiment
- 5 Field Regiment
- 6 Field Regiment
- 7 Anti-Tank Regiment
- 1 Survey Troop
- 14 Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment
- HQ Divisional Engineers
- 5,6,7,8 Companies
- Divisional Signals
- HQ 4 Infantry Brigade — 4th New Zealand Armoured Brigade from 1943
- 18th Battalion
- 19th Battalion
- 20th Battalion
- HQ 5th Infantry Brigade
- 21st Battalion
- 22nd Battalion
- 23rd Battalion
- HQ 6th Infantry Brigade
- 24th Battalion
- 25th Battalion
- | 6,128,472 |
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26th Battalion
- 27th Machine-Gun Battalion
- 28th (Māori) Battalion
- HQ Divisional Army Service Corps
- Divisional Ammunition Company
- Divisional Petrol Company
- Divisional Supply Column
- Reserve MT Company
- 4, 5, 6 Field Ambulances
- 4 Field Hygiene Section
- Divisional Provost Company
- Divisional Intelligence Section
- Divisional Postal Unit
- Divisional Employment Platoon
- Divisional Salvage Unit
- Divisional Mobile Bath Unit
- Divisional Mobile Laundry and Decontamination Unit
- Divisional Ordnance Field Park
## Order of Battle as at 11 May 1944.
Order of battle taken from the New Zealand Official History.
- HQ 2 NZ Division
- 2 NZ Divisional Cavalry
- HQ 4 | 6,128,473 |
441192 | 2nd New Zealand Division | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2nd%20New%20Zealand%20Division | 2nd New Zealand Division
Armoured Brigade
- 4 Squadron, 2 NZ Divisional Signals
- 18 Armoured Regiment
- 19 Armoured Regiment
- 20 Armoured Regiment
- 22 (Motor) Battalion
- HQ 2 NZ Divisional Artillery
- 4 Field Regiment
- 5 Field Regiment
- 6 Field Regiment
- 7 Anti-Tank Regiment
- 14 Light Anti-Aircraft Regiment
- 36 Survey Battery
- HQ 2 NZ Divisional Engineers
- 5 Field Park Company
- 6 Field Company
- 7 Field Company
- HQ 5 Infantry Brigade
- 5 Infantry Brigade Defence Platoon
- 21 Battalion
- 23 Battalion
- 28 (Maori) Battalion
- HQ 6 Infantry Brigade
- 6 Infantry Brigade Defence Platoon
- 24 Battalion
- 25 Battalion
- 26 Battalion
- 27 (Machine Gun) Battalion
- HQ Command NZ Army | 6,128,474 |
441192 | 2nd New Zealand Division | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2nd%20New%20Zealand%20Division | 2nd New Zealand Division
Service Corps
- 1 Ammunition Company
- 2 Ammunition Company
- 1 Petrol Company
- 1 Supply Company
- 4 Reserve Mechanical Transport Company
- 6 Reserve Mechanical Transport Company
- 18 Tank Transporter Company
- Water Issue Section
- NZ Section, Motor Ambulance Convoy
- Medical
- 4 Field Ambulance
- 5 Field Ambulance
- 6 Field Ambulance
- 4 Field Hygiene Section
- 1 Mobile Casualty Clearing Station
- 2 Field Transfusion Unit
- 1 Field Surgical Unit
- 2 Anti-Malarial Control Unit
- 3 Anti-Malarial Control Unit
- 102 Mobile Venereal Disease Treatment Centre
- Dental
- 1 Mobile Dental Unit
- Ordnance
- 2 NZ Divisional Ordnance Field Park
- Mobile Laundry and Bath Unit
- | 6,128,475 |
441192 | 2nd New Zealand Division | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=2nd%20New%20Zealand%20Division | 2nd New Zealand Division
urgical Unit
- 2 Anti-Malarial Control Unit
- 3 Anti-Malarial Control Unit
- 102 Mobile Venereal Disease Treatment Centre
- Dental
- 1 Mobile Dental Unit
- Ordnance
- 2 NZ Divisional Ordnance Field Park
- Mobile Laundry and Bath Unit
- Electrical and Mechanical Engineers
- 2 NZ Divisional Workshops
- 4 Armoured Brigade Workshops
- 5 Infantry Brigade Workshop Section
- 6 Infantry Brigade Workshop Section
- 1 Armoured Troops Recovery Unit
- 2 NZ Divisional Provost Company
- 1 Field Cash Office
- 2 NZ Divisional Postal Unit
- Reinforcement Transit Unit
# See also.
- Military history of New Zealand during World War II
- Official History of New Zealand in the Second World War | 6,128,476 |
441237 | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%201st%20Baron%20Mortimer | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer
Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer
Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer (1231 – 27 October 1282), of Wigmore Castle in Herefordshire, was a marcher lord who was a loyal ally of King Henry III of England and at times an enemy, at times an ally, of Llywelyn ap Gruffudd, Prince of Wales.
# Early career.
Born in 1231, Roger was the son of Ralph de Mortimer and his Welsh wife, Gwladys Ddu, daughter of Llywelyn ab Iorwerth and Joan Plantagenet, daughter of John, King of England.
In 1256 Roger went to war with Llywelyn ap Gruffudd when the latter invaded his lordship of Gwrtheyrnion or Rhayader. This war would continue intermittently until the deaths of both Roger and Llywelyn in 1282. They were both | 6,128,477 |
441237 | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%201st%20Baron%20Mortimer | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer
grandsons of Llywelyn ab Iorwerth.
Mortimer fought for the King against the rebel Simon de Montfort, 6th Earl of Leicester, and almost lost his life in 1264 at the Battle of Lewes fighting Montfort's men. In 1265 Mortimer's wife, Maud de Braose helped rescue Prince Edward; and Mortimer and the Prince made an alliance against de Montfort.
# Victor at Evesham.
In August 1265, de Montfort's army was surrounded by the River Avon on three sides, and Prince Edward's army on the fourth. Mortimer had sent his men to block the only possible escape route, at the Bengeworth bridge. The Battle of Evesham began in earnest. A storm roared above the battle field. Montfort's Welsh soldiers broke and ran | 6,128,478 |
441237 | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%201st%20Baron%20Mortimer | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer
for the bridge, where they were slaughtered by Mortimer's men. Mortimer himself killed Hugh Despencer and Montfort, and crushed Montfort's army. Mortimer was awarded Montfort's severed head and other parts of his anatomy, which he sent home to Wigmore Castle as a gift for his wife, Lady Mortimer.
# Welsh wars and death.
Mortimer took part in Edward I's 1282 campaign against Llewelyn the Last, and was put in charge of operations in mid-Wales. It was a major setback for Edward when Mortimer died in October 1282.
# Marriage and children.
His wife was Maud de Braose, daughter of William de Braose, Lord of Abergavenny by Eva Marshal. Roger Mortimer had married her in 1247. She was, like him, | 6,128,479 |
441237 | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%201st%20Baron%20Mortimer | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer
a scion of a Welsh Marches family. Their six known children were:
- 1. Ralph Mortimer, died 10 August 1274, Sheriff of Shropshire and Staffordshire.
- 2. Edmund Mortimer, 2nd Baron Mortimer (1251–1304), married Margaret de Fiennes, the daughter of William II de Fiennes and Blanche de Brienne. Had issue, including Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March
- 3. Isabella Mortimer, died 1292. She married (1) John Fitzalan, 7th Earl of Arundel, (2) Ralph d'Arderne and (3) Robert de Hastang;
- 4. Margaret Mortimer, died 1297. She married Robert de Vere, 6th Earl of Oxford
- 5. Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer of Chirk, died 1326.
- 6. Geoffrey Mortimer, died 1273.
- 7. William Mortimer, died before | 6,128,480 |
441237 | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%201st%20Baron%20Mortimer | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer
June 1297, a knight, married Hawise, daughter and heir of Robert de Mucegros. Died childless.
Their eldest son, Ralph, died in his youth. The second son, Edmund, was recalled from Oxford University and appointed his father's heir.
# Epitaph.
Roger Mortimer died on 27 October 1282 at Kingsland, Herefordshire, and was buried at Wigmore Abbey, where his tombstone read:
# Sources.
- Mortimer, Ian. "The Greatest Traitor: The Life of Sir Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, Ruler of England 1327-1330", Jonathan Cape, London, 2003.
- Remfry, P.M., "Wigmore Castle Tourist Guide and the Family of Mortimer" ()
- Remfry, P.M., "Brampton Bryan Castle, 1066 to 1646" ()
- Dugdale, Sir William "The Baronage | 6,128,481 |
441237 | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Roger%20Mortimer,%201st%20Baron%20Mortimer | Roger Mortimer, 1st Baron Mortimer
e, daughter and heir of Robert de Mucegros. Died childless.
Their eldest son, Ralph, died in his youth. The second son, Edmund, was recalled from Oxford University and appointed his father's heir.
# Epitaph.
Roger Mortimer died on 27 October 1282 at Kingsland, Herefordshire, and was buried at Wigmore Abbey, where his tombstone read:
# Sources.
- Mortimer, Ian. "The Greatest Traitor: The Life of Sir Roger Mortimer, 1st Earl of March, Ruler of England 1327-1330", Jonathan Cape, London, 2003.
- Remfry, P.M., "Wigmore Castle Tourist Guide and the Family of Mortimer" ()
- Remfry, P.M., "Brampton Bryan Castle, 1066 to 1646" ()
- Dugdale, Sir William "The Baronage of England, Vol. 1", 1661. | 6,128,482 |
441240 | Fritz Hartjenstein | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fritz%20Hartjenstein | Fritz Hartjenstein
Fritz Hartjenstein
Friedrich Hartjenstein (3 July 1905 – 20 October 1954) was a German SS functionary during the Nazi era. A member of the SS-Totenkopfverbände, he served at various Nazi concentration camps such as Auschwitz and Sachsenhausen. After the Second World War, Hartjenstein was tried and found guilty for murder and crimes against humanity.
# Camp officer.
Hartjenstein, who was born in Peine, began his SS work at Sachsenhausen in 1938. The following year he was transferred to Niederhagen. In 1941 Hartjenstein served for a year with the 3rd SS Division Totenkopf, a Waffen SS combat division.
In 1942, he was appointed the commandant of Birkenau. This was the main camp at Auschwitz, | 6,128,483 |
441240 | Fritz Hartjenstein | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fritz%20Hartjenstein | Fritz Hartjenstein
which contained the extermination facilities and crematoria. In 1944 Hartjenstein was appointed commandant of Natzweiler concentration camp in France. In 1945 he went to work at Flossenbürg concentration camp.
# Post war trials.
Hartjenstein was arrested by the British and sentenced to life imprisonment on 6 June 1946 at Wuppertal for executing four French Resistance members. He was tried by the British for hanging a Royal Air Force POW. He was sentenced to death by firing squad.
Hartjenstein was then extradited to France where he was tried for his crimes at Natzweiler and sentenced to death. He died of a heart attack while awaiting execution on 20 October 1954, aged 49, in Paris.
# References.
- | 6,128,484 |
441240 | Fritz Hartjenstein | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fritz%20Hartjenstein | Fritz Hartjenstein
Karin Orth: "Die Konzentrationslager-SS. Sozialstrukturelle Analysen und biographische Studien." ungek. Ausg. München 2004,
- Staatliches Museum Auschwitz-Birkenau (Hrsg.): "Auschwitz in den Augen der SS." Oświęcim 1998,
- Tom Segev: "Die Soldaten des Bösen. Zur Geschichte der KZ-Kommandanten". Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1995, .
- Ernst Klee: "Das Personenlexikon zum Dritten Reich: Wer war was vor und nach 1945." Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, .
- Wacław Długoborski, Franciszek Piper (Hrsg.): "Auschwitz 1940-1945. Studien zur Geschichte des Konzentrations- und Vernichtungslagers Auschwitz.", Verlag Staatliches Museum Auschwitz-Birkenau, Oswiecim 1999, 5 Bände: I. Aufbau | 6,128,485 |
441240 | Fritz Hartjenstein | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Fritz%20Hartjenstein | Fritz Hartjenstein
es Museum Auschwitz-Birkenau (Hrsg.): "Auschwitz in den Augen der SS." Oświęcim 1998,
- Tom Segev: "Die Soldaten des Bösen. Zur Geschichte der KZ-Kommandanten". Rowohlt, Reinbek bei Hamburg 1995, .
- Ernst Klee: "Das Personenlexikon zum Dritten Reich: Wer war was vor und nach 1945." Fischer-Taschenbuch-Verlag, Frankfurt am Main 2005, .
- Wacław Długoborski, Franciszek Piper (Hrsg.): "Auschwitz 1940-1945. Studien zur Geschichte des Konzentrations- und Vernichtungslagers Auschwitz.", Verlag Staatliches Museum Auschwitz-Birkenau, Oswiecim 1999, 5 Bände: I. Aufbau und Struktur des Lagers. II. Die Häftlinge - Existentzbedingungen, Arbeit und Tod. III. Vernichtung. IV. Widerstand. V. Epilog., . | 6,128,486 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
9th Armored Division (United States)
The 9th Armored Division (the "Phantom Division") was an armored division of the United States Army during World War II. In honor of their World War II service, the 9th was officially nicknamed the "Phantom Division."
The 9th Armored Division was cited for extraordinary heroism and gallantry in combat in the vicinity of Waldbillig and Savelborn, Luxembourg from 16–22 December 1944 during which they repulsed constant and determined attacks by an entire German division. Outnumbered five to one, with its infantry rifle companies surrounded for most of the time, clerks, cooks, mechanics, drivers and others manned the final defensive line. Supported by the outstandingly | 6,128,487 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
responsive and accurate fire of its artillery battalion, this widely dispersed force stopped every attack for six days until its surrounded infantry were ordered to fight their way back to them. This staunch defense disrupted the precise German attack schedule and thus gave time for the United States III and XII Corps to assemble unhindered and then launch the coordinated attack which raised the siege of Bastogne and contributed to saving much of Luxembourg and its capital from another German invasion. They were awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for their heroism.
# History.
The division, under the command of Major General Geoffrey Keyes, was activated on 15 July 1942 at Fort Riley, Kansas, | 6,128,488 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
by reorganizing and redesignating the white elements of the 2nd Cavalry Division. This was only seven months after the Japanese attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1941, which was followed just four days later by the German declaration of war on the United States, thus bringing the United States into World War II. After over two years of training throughout the country the 9th Armored Division, now commanded by Major General John W. Leonard, reached the United Kingdom in September 1944.
## Fortitude.
The 9th Armored Division was one of several real U.S. Army divisions that participated in Operation Fortitude, the deception operation mounted by the Allies to deceive the Germans about the | 6,128,489 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
real landing site for Operation Neptune, the amphibious invasion of Northern France. The 9th was assigned to a camp on the British coastline opposite of the German defenses in Pas-de-Calais, ostensibly as part of the "First US Army Group" (FUSAG) under Major General John W. Leonard.
## Combat chronicle.
Activated: 15 July 1942.
Overseas: 26 August 1944.
Campaigns: Rhineland, Ardennes-Alsace, Central Europe.
Days of Combat: 91.
Distinguished Unit Citations: 11.
Awards:
Medal of Honor: 1
Distinguished Service Cross: 1
Distinguished Service Medal: 2
Silver Star: 191
Legion of Merit: 13
Soldier's Medal: 11
Bronze Star: 1,263
Air Medal: 28
Commanders:
Maj. Gen. Geoffrey Keyes (June | 6,128,490 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
to September 1942)
Maj. Gen. John W. Leonard (October 1942 to inactivation).
Returned to U.S.: 10 October 1945.
Inactivated: 13 October 1945.
The 9th Armored Division landed in Normandy late in September 1944, and first went into line, 23 October 1944, on patrol duty in a quiet sector along the Luxembourg-German frontier. When the Germans launched their winter offensive on 16 December 1944, the 9th, with no real combat experience, suddenly found itself engaged in heavy fighting. The Division saw its severest action at St. Vith, Echternach, and Bastogne, its units fighting in widely separated areas.
Its stand at Bastogne held off the Germans long enough to enable the 101st Airborne Division | 6,128,491 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
to dig in for a defense of the city. After a rest period in January 1945, the Division prepared to drive across the Roer River. The offensive was launched on 28 February 1945 and the 9th crossed the Roer to Rheinbach, sending patrols into Remagen. On 7 March 1945, elements of the 9th Armored found that the Ludendorff Bridge was still standing. When German demolition charges failed to bring the bridge down, they crossed it, disarming and removing the remaining charges, which could have exploded at any time.
The Division exploited the bridgehead, moving south and east across the Lahn River toward Limburg, where thousands of Allied prisoners were liberated from Stalag XIIA. The Division drove | 6,128,492 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
on to Frankfurt and then turned to assist in the closing of the Ruhr Pocket. In April it continued east, encircling Leipzig and securing a line along the Mulde River. The Division was shifting south to Czechoslovakia when the war in Europe ended on 9 May 1945.
## Casualties.
- Total battle casualties: 3,845
- Killed in action: 570
- Wounded in action: 2,280
- Missing in action: 87
- Prisoner of war: 908
# Awards for valor.
All units of CCB/9 AIB of the 9th Armored Division were awarded the Presidential Unit Citation for their actions in taking and defending the Ludendorff Bridge during the Battle of Remagen in World War II.
# Units.
- Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 9th Armored | 6,128,493 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
Division
- Headquarters and Headquarters Company, Combat Command A
- Headquarters and Headquarters Company, Combat Command B
- Headquarters, Reserve Command
- 2nd Tank Battalion
- 14th Tank Battalion
- 19th Tank Battalion
- 27th Armored Infantry Battalion
- 52nd Armored Infantry Battalion
- 60th Armored Infantry Battalion
- Headquarters and Headquarters Battery, 9th Armored Division Artillery
- 3rd Armored Field Artillery Battalion
- 16th Armored Field Artillery Battalion
- 73rd Armored Field Artillery Battalion
- 89th Cavalry Reconnaissance Squadron (Mechanized)
- 9th Armored Engineer Battalion
- 149th Armored Signal Company
- Headquarters and Headquarters Company, 9th Armored | 6,128,494 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
Division Trains
- 131st Armored Ordnance Maintenance Battalion
- 2nd Armored Medical Battalion
- Military Police Platoon
- Band
- 509th Counter Intelligence Corps Detachment
- 656th Tank Destroyer Battalion (attached 22 February 1945 past 9 May 1945)
- 811th Tank Destroyer Battalion (attached 14 November 1944 to 8 January 1945)
- 482nd AAA Automatic Weapons Battalion (attached 22 November 1945 to 9 January 1945; 22 February 1945 to 9 May 1945)
# Ancestor units.
The 3rd Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division, was constituted on 29 August 1917 and organized as Headquarters, 3rd Brigade, 15th Cavalry Division in December. The 3rd Brigade demobilized on 15 July 1919 and reconstituted on 10 August | 6,128,495 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
1921, within the newly constituted 1st Cavalry Division. Although never officially reorganized, the Brigade was inactive until its 15 October 1940 activation and redesignation and conversion to HHC, 9th Armored Division Trains, and deployed to Europe, receiving campaign-participation credit for operations in the Rhineland, the Ardennes-Alsace, and the Central Europe theatres of war, and awarded two Meritorious Unit Commendations, with embroidered streamers reading: "Europe 1944" and "Europe 1945".
# Inactivation.
After World War II, the unit returned state-side. The division was inactivated on October 13, 1945, and reactivated on 15 July 1963, when it was reassigned from the 9th Armored Division, | 6,128,496 |
441242 | 9th Armored Division (United States) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=9th%20Armored%20Division%20(United%20States) | 9th Armored Division (United States)
the Central Europe theatres of war, and awarded two Meritorious Unit Commendations, with embroidered streamers reading: "Europe 1944" and "Europe 1945".
# Inactivation.
After World War II, the unit returned state-side. The division was inactivated on October 13, 1945, and reactivated on 15 July 1963, when it was reassigned from the 9th Armored Division, and converted and redesignated as HHC, 3rd Brigade, 1st Cavalry Division (United States).
# External links.
- The 9th: The Story of the 9th Armored Division (World War II unit history booklet)
- "Official 3d Brigade Combat Team, 1st Cavalry Division Homepage"
- Fact Sheet of the 9th Armored Division from http://www.battleofthebulge.org | 6,128,497 |
441201 | Hazing | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hazing | Hazing
Hazing
Hazing (US English), initiation ceremonies (British English), bastardisation (Australian English), ragging (South Asia), or deposition, refers to the practice of rituals, challenges, and other activities involving harassment, abuse or humiliation used as a way of initiating a person into a group including a new fraternity, sorority, team, or club.
Hazing is seen in many different types of social groups, including gangs, sports teams, schools, military units, and fraternities and sororities. The initiation rites can range from relatively benign pranks to protracted patterns of behavior that rise to the level of abuse or criminal misconduct. Hazing is often prohibited by law or prohibited | 6,128,498 |
441201 | Hazing | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Hazing | Hazing
by institutions such as colleges and universities because it may include either physical or psychological abuse, such as humiliation, nudity, or sexual abuse.
# Terms.
In some languages, terms with a religious theme or etymology are preferred, such as baptism or purgatory (e.g. in Belgian French, in Belgian Dutch) or variations on a theme of naïveté and the rite of passage such as a derivation from a term for freshman, for example in French French, (de-green[horn]ing) in Netherlandic Dutch and Afrikaans (South Africa and Namibia), in Spanish, from , meaning newcomer or rookie or a combination of both, such as in the Finnish (literally "moped baptism", "moped" being the nickname for newcomers, | 6,128,499 |
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