wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8 | wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243 | url stringlengths 44 370 | contents stringlengths 53 2.22k | id int64 0 6.14M |
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536691 | John Watts (New York politician) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Watts%20(New%20York%20politician) | John Watts (New York politician)
to 1789 and again from 1791 to 1793, Watts was a member of the New York State Assembly serving as Speaker of the Assembly from 1791 to 1793. He was a member of the commission to build Newgate Prison in New York City, in use between 1797 and 1829.
In 1793, he was elected as a Federalist... | 6,130,600 |
536691 | John Watts (New York politician) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Watts%20(New%20York%20politician) | John Watts (New York politician)
his friend (who was also his sister Margaret's brother-in-law), John George Leake (1752–1827), died with no children or living siblings. Leakes had left his personal property (valued at about $300,000) and real estate (worth an additional $86,000), to Watts' son provided he change his n... | 6,130,601 |
536691 | John Watts (New York politician) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Watts%20(New%20York%20politician) | John Watts (New York politician)
who married Thomas Henry Barclay. The sisters were daughters of Peter DeLancey (who served in the New York Provincial Assembly for many years) and Elizabeth Colden (daughter of Cadwallader Colden), and granddaughters of Stephen Delancey making them first cousins to John.
Together, John... | 6,130,602 |
536691 | John Watts (New York politician) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Watts%20(New%20York%20politician) | John Watts (New York politician)
Robert J. Watts, a Captain in the 41st Infantry to whom John G. Leake left his extensive properties. Robert inherited Leake's estate but died very soon after.
- John Watts III.
- Ann Watts.
- Susan Watts (1795–1823), who married her cousin Philip Kearny (1780–1849).
- Elizabeth Watt... | 6,130,603 |
536691 | John Watts (New York politician) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Watts%20(New%20York%20politician) | John Watts (New York politician)
red in a vault in Trinity Churchyard. In 1839, his family's Rose Hill estate and manor house were purchased by the Catholic Church to establish St. John's College.
## Descendants.
Through his daughter Susan, he was the grandfather of Gen. Philip Kearny (1815–1862), a United States Arm... | 6,130,604 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
Tat people (Caucasus)
The Tat people (also: "Tati", "Parsi", "Daghli", "Lohijon", "Caucasian Persians", "Transcaucasian Persians") are an Iranian people, presently living within Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Russia (mainly Southern Dagestan). The Tats are part of the indigenous peoples of Iranian orig... | 6,130,605 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
section on Demography). They formed nearly one-fifth (18.9%) of the population of the Baku province and over one-quarter (25.3%) of the Kuba Province—both on the Caspian Sea. Either through misrepresentation, data manipulation or simple assimilation, the Tat portion of the population of Azerbaijan... | 6,130,606 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
include Achaemenid architecture, jewelry and ceramics.
There is little information about permanent Persian population in South Caucasus since the Achaemenid period. Likely the ancestors of modern Tats settled in South Caucasus when the Sassanid Empire from the 3rd to 7th centuries built cities an... | 6,130,607 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
century Oghuz tribes, led by Seljuq dynasts started to penetrate into the region. The gradual formation of the Azeri people started. Apparently in this period the Turkic exonym "Tat" or "Tati", which designated settled farmers, was assigned to the South Caucasian dialect of the Persian language.
... | 6,130,608 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
become stronger. In the middle of the 16th century the state of Shirvanshahs was eliminated and South Caucasus joined to Safavid Iran almost completely.
In the late 18th century Russia actively started to contest the hegemony of Iran in the Caucasus. Following the Russo-Persian Wars of 1804-1813 ... | 6,130,609 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
of the city (about 8,000 people) were Tats.
According to the 19th-century "Golestan-e-Eram", written by Abbasqulu Bakikhanov, Tati was widespread in many areas of Shamakhi, Baku, Darband and Guba:
According to the "Calendar of the Caucasus" of 1894 there were 124,693 Tats in South Caucasus., but... | 6,130,610 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
American researchers carried out investigations in several villages of Guba, Devechi, Khizi, Siyazan, Ismailli and Shemakha districts of the Republic of Azerbaijan, indicating 15,553 Tats in these villages.
# Local self-designation.
Although the majority of the Tat population of Azerbaijan and s... | 6,130,611 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
– Persian and Parthian. During the New Persian language period the final consonant was lost and the ethnonym became "Pārsī". Some groups of Persian-speaking populations in Afghanistan together with the Zoroastrians of India (the Parsis) also use the term "Parsi" as a self-designation.
- "Lohijon"... | 6,130,612 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
the village of Gombori in Kakheti, in the east of Georgia. They are registered as Azerbaijanis and speak Azerbaijani as their primary language.
- "Daghli"—The Tats in Khizi district and parts of Devechi and Siyazan districts use another Turkic exonym, "Daghli" (mountaineers) for themselves. As a ... | 6,130,613 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
and folklore pieces were published.
# Culture.
The Persian settlers of South Caucasus have long interacted with the surrounding ethnic groups, exchanging elements of their cultures. Arts like carpet-making, hand-weaving, metal manufacture, embossing and incrustation are highly developed. The art... | 6,130,614 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
many common features in farming, housekeeping and culture have developed. Traditional Tat female clothes are long shirt, wide trousers worn outside, slim line dress, outer unbuttoned dress, headscarf and "Moroccan" stockings. Male clothes are the Circassian coat and high fur-cap.
## Farming.
Tra... | 6,130,615 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
blocks or river shingles and also have blank walls facing the street. The roof is flat with an opening for a stone fireplace chimney. The upper floor is used for habitation and living areas where the family gets together (kitchen etc.) were situated on the ground floor. Typically one of the living... | 6,130,616 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
almost always has a garden. There is a veranda ("ayvan"), a paved drain or a small basin ("tendir"), covered cattle-pan, stable and hen-house.
## Religion.
Originally the Persians were Zoroastrians. After they had been conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, Islam became widespread. Today the Tats ... | 6,130,617 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
are one nation, practicing three different religions.
## Tats and Mountain Jews.
The "Mountain Jews" belong to the community of Persian-speaking Jews. Some groups of this community live in Iran, Israel (especially), North America (especially), Europe, and Central Asia (Bukharan Jews). The Jews o... | 6,130,618 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
the Tats, which had adopted Judaism in Iran and later moved to South Caucasus. The ideas of Anisimov were supported during the Soviet period: the popularization of the idea of the Mountain Jews' Tat origin started in the 1930s. Through efforts of several Mountain Jews, closely connected with the r... | 6,130,619 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
whole cultural heritage (literature, theatre, music) created by Mountain Jews during the Soviet period to be attributed to the Tats.
Comparing physic-anthropological characteristics of Tats and Mountain Jews together with information about their languages suggests no signs of ethnic unity between... | 6,130,620 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
features of Juhuri have are ones typical for Hebrew.
The physical-anthropological types of Caucasian Persians (Tats) and Mountain Jews are also dissimilar.
In 1913 the anthropologist K.M. Kurdov carried out measurements of a large group of Tat population of Lahij village and revealed fundamental... | 6,130,621 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
In 2012 a uniparental genetic markers comparison between Judeo-Tat dialect and Muslim-Tat dialect speakers in Dagestan found independent demographic histories.
Speakers of Mountain-Jew dialect and Tati language are representatives of two different nations, each with its own religion, ethnic consc... | 6,130,622 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
not take into consideration the fact that those citizens identify themselves as Armenians, because conversion to religion is strongly attached to ethnical identity in eastern cultures.
In the Sassanid times and later under Muslim dynasties, Christianity was a very persecuted religion. Zoroastrian... | 6,130,623 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
by Armenian influence.
Although they have lost their language these Armenians managed to preserve their national identity. It has a distinct "us versus them" dichotomy, "Hay" (us) to "Muslims" (Tats and Azeri together).
# Tat people of northern Iran.
Starting from the Middle Ages, the term "Tat... | 6,130,624 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
"Tati" was used not only for the Caucasus but also for northern Iran, where it was extended to almost all of the local Iranian languages except Persian and Kurdish.
Currently the term "Tati" and "Tati language" is used to refer to a particular group of north-western Iranian dialects (Chali, Danes... | 6,130,625 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Yugoslav People's Army
The Yugoslav National Army ( [ЈНА], "Jugoslovenska narodna armija" [JNA], ), also called the Yugoslav People's Army ( [JLA]), was the military of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1992.
# History.
## Origins.
The origins of the JNA can be found in the Yugoslav Partisan units of W... | 6,130,626 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Yugoslavia (SFR Yugoslavia).
In March 1945, the NOVJ was renamed the "Yugoslav Army" (""Jugoslovenska Armija"") and, on its 10th anniversary, on 22 December 1951, received the adjective "People's" (""Narodna"").
## Dissolution.
In January 1990, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was effect... | 6,130,627 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia. In 1990, the Socialist Republic of Slovenia changed its name to Republic of Slovenia and ceased contributing funds to the federal government for a sustained military budget. Soon afterward the Slovene government began a re-organization ... | 6,130,628 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
claimed that there were numerous paramilitary organizations in Yugoslavia sponsored by foreign and domestic enemies of the State. He also stated that YPA was dealing with Ustaše, Chetniks, and other enemies of socialism stemming from World War II conflicts. Kadijević proposed a declaration of mar... | 6,130,629 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
units captured Yugoslav control posts on borders with Italy, Hungary, and Austria. Slovene forces also established border control posts on their border with Croatia.
As a result of these actions, the Yugoslav army attacked; its top commanders citing the constitutional obligation to defend the so... | 6,130,630 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
150 casualties. Many Yugoslav Army soldiers and officers were wounded or captured. After the Brioni Agreement was signed, the Yugoslav Army agreed to withdraw from Slovenia by 10 October 1991, leaving numerous tanks, rifles, trucks and other equipment.
On 27 June 1991, war in Croatia began. The ... | 6,130,631 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Air Force Commander-in-Chief Colonel General Anton Tus.
In August 1991, the battle of Vukovar began. This was the biggest battle in the War in Croatia after operations Storm and Flash. In this battle 90% of the city was destroyed. The Yugoslav army used fighter and attack aircraft, rocket launch... | 6,130,632 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
ground forces, supported by naval and air forces, attacked the city of Dubrovnik and the Konavle area where Croats had strongholds, starting the Siege of Dubrovnik. By 6 December, the Yugoslav Army had neutralized all Croat formations in the Konavle area, but Dubrovnik had not been captured.
Aft... | 6,130,633 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
March 1992. Macedonia was left without any heavy equipment, weapons or aircraft.
In March 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence following a referendum and the Bosnian War started soon thereafter between the country's Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs. The Yugoslav army officially withdrew ... | 6,130,634 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
tasks such as draft registration, mobilization, and construction and maintenance of military facilities. The regions were: Belgrade (responsible for eastern Croatia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina), Zagreb (Slovenia and northern Croatia), Skopje (Macedonia, Southern Serbia and Montenegro) and ... | 6,130,635 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
with integral artillery, air defense and anti-tank regiments. One airborne brigade was organized before 1990. The shift to brigade-level organization provided greater operational flexibility, maneuverability, tactical initiative and reduced the possibility that large army units would be destroyed... | 6,130,636 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
companies in Yugoslavia produced airplanes and specifically combat aircraft, most notably SOKO of Mostar, with the Soko J-22 Orao being its best known product and there was Zastava Arms for firearms and artillery. Another important manufacturer was Utva in Serbia. The Yugoslav military–industrial... | 6,130,637 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
several mountains. The biggest and best known installation was the Željava Air Base, also known as the Bihać Underground Integrated Radar Control and Surveillance Centre and Air Base, in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
# Ground forces.
The ground forces led in number of personnel. In 1991 there were ab... | 6,130,638 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
called up for war exercises.
The ground forces were organised into infantry, armour, artillery, and air defence, as well as signal, engineering and chemical defence corps.
# Air force.
The Yugoslav Air Force had about 32,000 personnel including 4,000 conscripts, and operated over 400 aircraft ... | 6,130,639 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
by the Soviet Union.
The Yugoslav Air Force had twelve squadrons of domestically produced ground attack fighters. The ground attack squadrons provided close air support to ground force operations. They were equipped with 165 new Soko J-22 Orao, Super Galeb and J-21 Jastreb, and older Soko J-20 K... | 6,130,640 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
operations. Four squadrons of seventy Galeb, Jastreb, and Orao-1 fighters were configured for reconnaissance missions.
The Yugoslav Air Force had nine squadrons of 130 Soviet-made MiG-21 interceptors for air defence. First produced in the late 1950s, the MiG-21 design was largely obsolete in 199... | 6,130,641 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
started developing a new domestic multirole fighter called Novi Avion, which was supposed to replace the MiG-21 and J-21 Jastreb fleets entirely. The design of the new aircraft was influenced by both Mirage 2000 and Dassault Rafale fighter types and it was to enter service by the early 2000s. As ... | 6,130,642 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
its own fighter plane, the Novi Avion, the country made a request to licence-build the F-20, but due to unstable relations with the US, the request was rejected. By the late 1980s, the licensed production of Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopters was also envisaged, but due to the dissolution of th... | 6,130,643 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Fighter Squadrons, equipped with MiG-21Bis fighters, and the 352nd Reconnaissance Squadron, equipped with MiG-21R aircraft.
The Air and Air Defence Forces were headquartered at Zemun and had fighter and bomber aircraft, helicopters, and air defence artillery units at air bases throughout the for... | 6,130,644 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
corvettes, submarines, minesweepers, and missile, torpedo, and patrol boats in the Adriatic Fleet. The entire coast of Yugoslavia was part of the naval region headquartered at Split, Croatia.
The Partisans had operated many small boats in raids harassing Italian convoys in the Adriatic Sea durin... | 6,130,645 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
class torpedo boats from the Soviet Union. The Soviets granted a license to build eleven additional Shershen units in Yugoslav shipyards developed for this purpose.
In 1980 and 1982, the Yugoslav navy took delivery of two Soviet Koni class frigates. In 1988 it completed two additional units unde... | 6,130,646 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
533 mm torpedoes. Two smaller Sava class submarines entered service in the late 1970s. Two Sutjeska-class submarines had been relegated mainly to training missions by 1990. At that time the navy had apparently shifted to construction of versatile midget submarines. Four Una-class midgets and four... | 6,130,647 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
boats. The Osa I boats were armed with four P-15 Termit surface-to-surface missile launchers. In 1990, ten domestic "Kobra" missile boats were scheduled to begin replacing the Osa I class. The "Kobra" class was to be armed with eight Swedish RBS-15 anti-ship missiles, and fifteen of them were ord... | 6,130,648 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Yugoslav navy's mine warfare and countermeasures capabilities were considered adequate in 1990. It operated four Vukov Klanac-class coastal minesweepers built on a French design, four British Ham class minesweepers, and six 117-class inshore minesweepers built in domestic shipyards. Larger number... | 6,130,649 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Most of them were also capable of laying mines in rivers and coastal areas.
The Yugoslav Navy had 10,000 sailors (including 4,400 conscripts and 900 marines). This was essentially a coastal defence force with the mission of preventing enemy amphibious landings along the country's rugged 4,000-ki... | 6,130,650 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
River Danube. The strategic islands of Vis and Lastovo were heavily fortified and unauthorised entry was prohibited. The fleet was organized into missile, torpedo, and patrol boat brigades, a submarine division, and minesweeper flotillas. The naval order of battle included four frigates, three co... | 6,130,651 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Army (JNA) had a unique operational military doctrine for a conventional military force. Yugoslavia based its defence doctrine upon the total war concept of "Total People's Defence" (sh. Opštenarodna odbrana / Općenarodna obrana) which drew upon Yugoslavia's successful partisan history during the... | 6,130,652 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
production, and civil defence under this concept. It was believed by the Yugoslav planners to be the best method by which a smaller nation could properly defend itself against a much stronger invader, specifically, NATO or the Warsaw Pact.
# Peacekeeping operations.
- United Nations Emergency F... | 6,130,653 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
United Nations Angola Verification Mission I (1989–1991) – military observers
# Operational experience.
- World War II in Yugoslavia
- Trieste crisis
- Yugoslav wars
- Ten-Day War in Slovenia (1991)
- Croatian War of Independence (1991)
- Bosnian War (1992)
# See also.
- Yugoslav Partisa... | 6,130,654 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
tion Mission I (1989–1991) – military observers
# Operational experience.
- World War II in Yugoslavia
- Trieste crisis
- Yugoslav wars
- Ten-Day War in Slovenia (1991)
- Croatian War of Independence (1991)
- Bosnian War (1992)
# See also.
- Yugoslav Partisans
- OZNA
- KOS
- Organizat... | 6,130,655 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Pacific Fur Company
The Pacific Fur Company (PFC) was an American fur trade venture wholly owned and funded by John Jacob Astor that functioned from 1810 to 1813. It was based in the Pacific Northwest, an area contested over the decades between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the S... | 6,130,656 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Island took with it the majority of the annual trading goods. Commercial competition with the British-Canadian North West Company began soon after the foundation of Fort Astoria. The Canadian competitors maintained several stations in the interior, primarily Spokane House, Kootanae House and Saleesh... | 6,130,657 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Astoria.
A beneficial agreement with the Russian-American Company was also planned through the regular supply of provisions for posts in Russian America. This was planned in part to prevent the rival Montreal based North West Company (NWC) to gain a presence along the Pacific Coast, a prospect neit... | 6,130,658 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
of the South Pass through the Rocky Mountains. This geographic feature would later be used by hundreds of thousands of settlers traveling over the Oregon, California, and Mormon routes, collectively called the Westward Expansion Trails. The emporium envisioned by Astor was a failure for a number of ... | 6,130,659 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
the experience of the traders."
# Formation.
John Jacob Astor was a merchant of New York City and founder of the American Fur Company. To create a chain of trading stations spread across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Northwest, he incorporated an AFC subsidiary, the Pacific Fur Company. The c... | 6,130,660 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and clerks. The chief representative of Astor in the daily operations was Wilson Price Hunt, a St. Louis businessman with no outback experience who received five shares. Each working partner was assigned four shares with the remaining shares held in reserve for hired clerks. Fellow partners in the v... | 6,130,661 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition and navally by sailing around Cape Horn. The venture was planned on methods used in the AFC for the collection of fur pelts. Complements of employees (later called "Astorians") would operate in various parts of the region to complete trapping excursions. O... | 6,130,662 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
north for Russian America to bring much needed provisions. By cooperating with Russian colonial authorities to strengthen their material presence in Russian America, it was hoped by Astor to stop the NWC or any other British presence to be established upon the Pacific Coast. A tentative agreement fo... | 6,130,663 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
the Chinese wares.
# Labor recruitment.
The PFC required a sizable number of laborers, fur trappers and in particular Voyageurs to staff company locations. Recruiting for the company's two expeditions were led by Wilson Hunt and Donald Mackenzie for the overland party and Alexander McKay for the n... | 6,130,664 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
time for free agents to be sent into the interior from Montreal was in May, leaving few men left in the city available for hire. The recruitment effort stalled in part from the bitter treatment by the NWC and Hunt's lack of prior experience as a fur merchant, the source of many issues later on. PFC ... | 6,130,665 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
The majority of the group remained in Montreal until late July, when they given directives to withdraw to New York City. A canoe provided transportation for the trip down the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain. At Whitehall additional men that were employed by McKay joined the southbound party, amon... | 6,130,666 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
stout Canadians, dark as Indians, and as gayly adorned, attracted a crowd upon the wharves to gaze at us as we glided along." While waiting to depart for the Pacific, McKay met with British diplomatic official Francis James Jackson. The official assured McKay that in the event of war between the Uni... | 6,130,667 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and the remaining group left the city for Michilimackinac in July. The party reached Mackinac Island on 28 July 1810. Acting as a major depot for the regional Great Lakes fur trade, the island was where Hunt focused on hiring more men for the company. The veteran fur merchant Ramsay Crooks was convi... | 6,130,668 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
have their contracts purchased from their employers.
After the men were finally gathered in early August, Hunt and the party departed for St. Louis and arrived there on 3 September. The hired voyageurs and fur trappers completed many transactions with various merchants in St. Louis and in the nearb... | 6,130,669 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
unexploited fur regions. Most of the men in the Overland Party were engaged as hunters, interpreters, guides and voyageurs.
# Oceanic component.
The advanced party was sent to create the initial base of operations at the mouth of the Columbia River. Necessary trade goods for deals with Indigenous ... | 6,130,670 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
McKay would head this detachment. In addition, clerks Gabriel Franchère and Alexander Ross would join them on the planned voyage.
## The "Tonquin".
Under the command of Jonathan Thorn the "Tonquin" left New York on September 8, 1810. PFC employees numbered thirty-three men in total on board. The v... | 6,130,671 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
excluded from discussions. Company partners held talks in their ancestral Scottish Gaelic and the laborers used Canadian French. On December 25 the "Tonquin" rounded Cape Horn and sailed north into the Pacific Ocean.
The ship anchored at the Kingdom of Hawaii in February 1811. Due to the possibilit... | 6,130,672 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Honolulu, the crew was greeted by Isaac Davis and Francisco de Paula Marín, the latter acting an interpreter in negotiations with Kamehameha I and prominent government official Kalanimoku. 24 Native Hawaiian Kanakas were hired with the approval of Kamehameha I, who appointed Naukane to oversee their... | 6,130,673 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
urgency for the "Tonquin" to start trading further north along the Pacific Coast as instructed by Astor. After 65 days on the Columbia River, the "Tonquin" departed with a crew of 23 with McKay was aboard the ship as supercargo. At Vancouver Island she was boarded by the Tla-o-qui-aht people of Clay... | 6,130,674 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Astoria, an "emporium of the west", began in the middle of April 1811. It was built upon Point George, the location being about from the Lewis and Clark Expedition winter camp of Fort Clatsop. The terrain and thick forests made clearing a foundation exceedingly difficult. Late in the month, McDougal... | 6,130,675 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
effectively cut a tree, with it taking typically two days for a single tree to be felled. Medical issues quickly became another major issue for the party as there was not a single medical officer among the passengers brought on the "Tonquin". This left treatments rudimentary at best. During the init... | 6,130,676 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and "the Okannaakken River" among the Syilx peoples. It was determined that David Stuart would take a party to with Kaúxuma to the Syilx. Before they left however the inhabitants of Astoria were surprised by the arrival of David Thompson on 15 July. Thompson later stated that his group "set off on a... | 6,130,677 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and Naukane. The group joined David Thompson and his eight men in traveling up the Columbia, staying together until the Dalles. Upon entering Watlala Chinookan territory, Stuart failed establish favorable relations with them. Watlala men performed several military displays and stole a small amount o... | 6,130,678 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Cayuse and Nez Perce welcomed the fur traders. Once the reception was complete, the PFC men continued up the Columbia and passed by the future site of Fort Nez Percés. Towards the end of August the party began to become troubled with Western Rattlesnake populations and rapids, almost losing one cano... | 6,130,679 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and later Methows offered their "abundance of salmon" and "many horses" to the fur trappers for sale.
While at the junction of the Columbia and Okanogan River, a large encampment of Syilx were encountered. Prominent members of the nation entreated the fur traders to resided among their people, proc... | 6,130,680 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
were detailed to inform the progress of inland trade. The party arrived back at the company headquarters on 11 October and gave its favorable report.
Stuart led Montigny and two other men to follow the course of the Okanogan, leaving only Ross at the post. As promised, the Syilx provided security f... | 6,130,681 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Stuart developed cordial relations with them. Finding their areas rich in beaver populations, he promised to return later that year to create a trading post.
# The Lower Chinookan peoples.
Diplomatic relationships with the Chinookan villages near the Columbia were critical for the viability of For... | 6,130,682 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
were instrumental in finding a suitable location for what became Fort Astoria. In early April 1811 McDougall and David Stuart visited Comcomly, who advised them not to return to the Columbia River as it was then quite tumultuous. The two men didn't listen and shortly afterward their canoe capsized i... | 6,130,683 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
was correctly conjectured by PFC employees to be their NWC rivals, later found to be Spokane House. Departing on 2 May, McKay led Robert Stuart, Franchère, Ovide de Montigny and a number of voyaguers up the Columbia, with Clatsop noble Coalpo acting as guide and interpreter. The following day they e... | 6,130,684 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and Wishram, the party went back to Fort Astoria, returning on 14 May.
Despite not finding the NWC post, management at Fort Astoria soon became "anxious to acquire a knowledge of the country & the prospects of trade... within our reach". On 6 June 1811, Robert Stuart went north on a tour of western... | 6,130,685 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
that Alutiiq in Russian America should be recruited to hunt various fur bearing animals at the hypothetical factory.
However, Chinookans were not always willing to help Astorians in visiting distant locations. This was a means of delaying the Astorians from making commercial connections with Indige... | 6,130,686 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
completed with Skilloots near modern Oak Point. Afterwards, the headman cited the seasonal flooding as making the Columbia unsafe to travel further upriver. This forced Pillet to return to Astoria with what pelts he had purchased from the Skilloots.
## Commercial ties.
Consistently small stockpile... | 6,130,687 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
populations active in the Columbia included the Candlefish smelt, White sturgeon, Sockeye salmon and Chinook salmon. This dependence on fish made it a primary food source for the Astorians, which caused some discontent among employees desiring a more familiar diet.
Terrestrial animals like members ... | 6,130,688 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
described the tuber as "a good substitute for potatoes" Purchases of Wapato occurred in such volumes that a small cellar had to be created specifically to house the produce. Other typical purchases from Chinookans included manufactured goods. In particular woven hats were frequently bought for prote... | 6,130,689 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
their valuable middle man position between various neighboring Indigenous peoples and the PFC. Additional tactics involved manipulating the perception neighboring Natives had of the American company. In August 1811, a small party of Chehalis visited Fort Astoria. In dialogue with them McDougall inqu... | 6,130,690 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
or Chinookans in general. His judgment of them, despite eventually marrying a daughter of Comcomly was that they were often ready to attack the fort. In particular Jones noted that he "seems to place implicit faith in any possible hostile actions by the natives."
In June 1812, the number of men at ... | 6,130,691 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
us." According to Jones, this "latent distrust" of Chinookans by Astorians from this incident was probably unfounded, as they entered the post "for an innocent purpose" and were frightened by the drills.
Fears of attack didn't disappear and Astorians kept themselves guarded in dealing with natives.... | 6,130,692 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
a supposed hostile gathering.
# Overland Expedition.
As the leader of the expedition Hunt would make a number of decisions which were disastrous. The movement of Hunt's group has been described as "a company of traders forging westward in [a] haphazard fashion." He ordered the expedition to leave ... | 6,130,693 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
idle season, especially those hired at Michilimackinac. Small items like blue beads, vermilion, brass rings, tobacco "carrots", small axes among others were used in transactions with Missouria neighboring the camp.
On January 1811, Hunt sailed down the Missouri River to complete several pending tra... | 6,130,694 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
two children be brought along as well. Once finalized, he took British naturalists John Bradbury and Thomas Nuttall with him to the Nodaway camp, as previously agreed upon. The party left St. Louis on 12 March and reached Fort Osage on the 8th of April. Early into the travel Dorion physically abused... | 6,130,695 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
at this point amounted to almost sixty men, forty being French-Canadian voyageurs.
## Following the Missouri.
Hunt's expedition broke the Nodaway winter camp on April 21. The Astorians reached a major Omaha village in early May. Active commercial transactions were completed there, with Omaha merch... | 6,130,696 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
from traveling further.
Proceeding further the Missouri River, the Sioux party was encountered on 31 May. The Sioux bands were a conglomeration of Yankton and Lakota and had around six hundred armed men. Tensions quickly arose between the two disparate groups and both took up positions by the Misso... | 6,130,697 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
a parley. Peace talks were held and the Sioux explained that they had formed to prevent the PFC from trading with the neighboring nations they were at war with, the Arikara, Mandan and the Gros Ventre. Hunt explained that the expedition intended to travel to the Pacific Ocean and they had no interes... | 6,130,698 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Brackenridge intervening. After this incident the rival fur companies refrained from interacting and camped on opposite sides of the Missouri River. Despite this, Lisa and Hunt led their parties north towards an Arikara village and reached it on 12 June. In a council with local leadership Lisa decla... | 6,130,699 |
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