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536691 | John Watts (New York politician) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Watts%20(New%20York%20politician) | John Watts (New York politician)
to 1789 and again from 1791 to 1793, Watts was a member of the New York State Assembly serving as Speaker of the Assembly from 1791 to 1793. He was a member of the commission to build Newgate Prison in New York City, in use between 1797 and 1829.
In 1793, he was elected as a Federalist to the 3rd United States Congress succeeding John Laurance to represent New York's 2nd congressional district. He served in the U.S. Congress from March 4, 1793 until March 3, 1795. He was defeated in his run for re-election by Edward Livingston.
He was a judge of Westchester County, New York from 1802 to 1807.
## Leake and Watts Orphan Asylum.
In 1831, Watts organized the Leake and Watts Orphan Asylum after | 6,130,600 |
536691 | John Watts (New York politician) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Watts%20(New%20York%20politician) | John Watts (New York politician)
his friend (who was also his sister Margaret's brother-in-law), John George Leake (1752–1827), died with no children or living siblings. Leakes had left his personal property (valued at about $300,000) and real estate (worth an additional $86,000), to Watts' son provided he change his name to "Robert Leake." While Watts son made the change, he died a few months later, leaving no will. The real estate was escheated to the State because of technical problems of the "will", however, the personal property passed to Watts who used it to found the Orphan Asylum.
# Personal life.
In 1775, Watts married Jane Delancey (1750–1809) in a double wedding, along with her sister, Susannah Delancey (1754–1837), | 6,130,601 |
536691 | John Watts (New York politician) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Watts%20(New%20York%20politician) | John Watts (New York politician)
who married Thomas Henry Barclay. The sisters were daughters of Peter DeLancey (who served in the New York Provincial Assembly for many years) and Elizabeth Colden (daughter of Cadwallader Colden), and granddaughters of Stephen Delancey making them first cousins to John.
Together, John and Jane were the parents of eleven children. His grandson would later write that "Watts was a monument of affliction, in that he had seen his wife, six handsome, gifted, and gallant sons, and four daughters precede him to the grave. One childless daughter survived him and three grandchildren." The children included:
- George Watts, a First Lt. and aide-de-camp to General Winfield Scott from 1814 to 1815.
- | 6,130,602 |
536691 | John Watts (New York politician) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Watts%20(New%20York%20politician) | John Watts (New York politician)
Robert J. Watts, a Captain in the 41st Infantry to whom John G. Leake left his extensive properties. Robert inherited Leake's estate but died very soon after.
- John Watts III.
- Ann Watts.
- Susan Watts (1795–1823), who married her cousin Philip Kearny (1780–1849).
- Elizabeth Watts (d. 1866), who married Henry Laight.
- Mary Justina Watts (1801–1821), who married Frederic de Peyster (1796–1882) in 1820.
John Watts died at his longtime home, 3 Broadway in New York City, on September 3, 1836. He was interred in a vault in Trinity Churchyard. In 1839, his family's Rose Hill estate and manor house were purchased by the Catholic Church to establish St. John's College.
## Descendants.
Through | 6,130,603 |
536691 | John Watts (New York politician) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=John%20Watts%20(New%20York%20politician) | John Watts (New York politician)
red in a vault in Trinity Churchyard. In 1839, his family's Rose Hill estate and manor house were purchased by the Catholic Church to establish St. John's College.
## Descendants.
Through his daughter Susan, he was the grandfather of Gen. Philip Kearny (1815–1862), a United States Army officer notable for his leadership in the Mexican–American War and American Civil War who was killed in action in the 1862 Battle of Chantilly. He was interred in Watts's vault until being removed to Arlington National Cemetery.
Through his daughter Mary, he was the grandfather of John Watts de Peyster (1821–1907), a New York City author and philanthropist who married Estelle Livingston (1819–1898) in 1841. | 6,130,604 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
Tat people (Caucasus)
The Tat people (also: "Tati", "Parsi", "Daghli", "Lohijon", "Caucasian Persians", "Transcaucasian Persians") are an Iranian people, presently living within Azerbaijan, Georgia, and Russia (mainly Southern Dagestan). The Tats are part of the indigenous peoples of Iranian origin in the Caucasus.
Tats use the Tat language, a southwestern Iranian language, somewhat different to Standard Persian, Azerbaijani and Russian are also spoken. Tats are mainly Shia Muslims, with a significant Sunni Muslim minority.
# Demographics.
As late as the turn of the 20th century, the Tat constituted about 11% of the population of the entire eastern half of Azerbaijan (see Baku Governorate, | 6,130,605 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
section on Demography). They formed nearly one-fifth (18.9%) of the population of the Baku province and over one-quarter (25.3%) of the Kuba Province—both on the Caspian Sea. Either through misrepresentation, data manipulation or simple assimilation, the Tat portion of the population of Azerbaijan has shrunk to insignificance, facing assimilation.
# History.
The earliest mention of Persians in the Caucasus is found in the Greek historian Herodotus' account of the Achaemenid expansion of 558–330 BC, during which they annexed Transcaucasia (South Caucasus) as the X, XI, XVIII and XIX satrapies of their empire.
Archaeological material uncovered in present-day Azerbaijan, Armenia and Georgia | 6,130,606 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
include Achaemenid architecture, jewelry and ceramics.
There is little information about permanent Persian population in South Caucasus since the Achaemenid period. Likely the ancestors of modern Tats settled in South Caucasus when the Sassanid Empire from the 3rd to 7th centuries built cities and founded military garrisons to strengthen their positions in this region.
Khosrow I (531–579) presented the title of regent of Shirvan in eastern South Caucasus to a close relative of his, who later became a progenitor of the first Shirvanshah dynasty (about 510 – 1538).
After the region had been conquered by Arabs (7th and 8th centuries) Islamization of the local population began.
Since the 11th | 6,130,607 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
century Oghuz tribes, led by Seljuq dynasts started to penetrate into the region. The gradual formation of the Azeri people started. Apparently in this period the Turkic exonym "Tat" or "Tati", which designated settled farmers, was assigned to the South Caucasian dialect of the Persian language.
The Mongols conquered South Caucasus in the 1230s and the Ilkhanate state was founded in 1250s. Mongol domination lasted until 1360–1370, but that did not stop prominent poets and scientists to emerge.
In the end of the 14th century South Caucasus was invaded by Tamerlane. By the end of the 15th century the state of Shirvanshahs had obtained a considerable power, its diplomatic and economic ties had | 6,130,608 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
become stronger. In the middle of the 16th century the state of Shirvanshahs was eliminated and South Caucasus joined to Safavid Iran almost completely.
In the late 18th century Russia actively started to contest the hegemony of Iran in the Caucasus. Following the Russo-Persian Wars of 1804-1813 and 1826-1828 and the respectively resulting treaties of Gulistan and Turkmenchay, Russia gained most of the South Caucasus and parts of the North Caucasus from Qajar Iran. After that there is data about quantity and settling of the Tats, collected by tsarist authorities. When the city of Baku was occupied in the beginning of the 19th century during the Russo-Persian War (1804–1813), the whole population | 6,130,609 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
of the city (about 8,000 people) were Tats.
According to the 19th-century "Golestan-e-Eram", written by Abbasqulu Bakikhanov, Tati was widespread in many areas of Shamakhi, Baku, Darband and Guba:
According to the "Calendar of the Caucasus" of 1894 there were 124,693 Tats in South Caucasus., but because of the gradual spreading of Azeri Turkic, Tati was passing out of use. During the Soviet period, after the official term "Azerbaijani" had been introduced in the late 1930s, the ethnic self-consciousness of Tats changed greatly and many started to call themselves Azerbaijani. Whereas in 1926 about 28.443 Tats had been counted, in 1989 only 10,239 people recognized themselves as such.
In 2005 | 6,130,610 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
American researchers carried out investigations in several villages of Guba, Devechi, Khizi, Siyazan, Ismailli and Shemakha districts of the Republic of Azerbaijan, indicating 15,553 Tats in these villages.
# Local self-designation.
Although the majority of the Tat population of Azerbaijan and southern Dagestan uses the Turkic exonym "Tati" or "Tat" as a self-designation, there remain some local self-designations:
- "Parsi"—The term "Parsi" has been used until the present day by the Tats of Apsheron as self-designation and "zuvan Parsi" as an indication of Tat language. This term relates to "Pārsīk", the Middle Persian self-designation of Persians, cf. Middle Persian "Pārsīk ut Pahlavīk" | 6,130,611 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
– Persian and Parthian. During the New Persian language period the final consonant was lost and the ethnonym became "Pārsī". Some groups of Persian-speaking populations in Afghanistan together with the Zoroastrians of India (the Parsis) also use the term "Parsi" as a self-designation.
- "Lohijon"—The citizens of the Tat settlement Lahij in the Ismailli district name themselves after their village "Lohuj", plural "Lohijon". Lahij is the largest Tat village (about 10.000). Its isolation has prevented local population from contacts with the outside world which has led their own isolated self-designation. A small community of the Lohijon, descendants of the 1910–20s migrants from Lahij, live in | 6,130,612 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
the village of Gombori in Kakheti, in the east of Georgia. They are registered as Azerbaijanis and speak Azerbaijani as their primary language.
- "Daghli"—The Tats in Khizi district and parts of Devechi and Siyazan districts use another Turkic exonym, "Daghli" (mountaineers) for themselves. As a result of the spread of Azeri Turkic the term "Daghli" has strongly come into use and the local Tats started to use it themselves.
On December 14, 1990, the "Azeri" cultural and educational society for studying and development of Tati language, history and ethnography was founded by the board of the Ministry of justice of the Azerbaijan SSR. A primer and textbook of the Tat language together with literary | 6,130,613 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
and folklore pieces were published.
# Culture.
The Persian settlers of South Caucasus have long interacted with the surrounding ethnic groups, exchanging elements of their cultures. Arts like carpet-making, hand-weaving, metal manufacture, embossing and incrustation are highly developed. The arts of ornamental design and miniature are also very popular.
There is a rich tradition of Tat spoken folk art. Genres of national poetry like ruba’is, ghazals, beits are highly developed. While studying the works of Persian medieval poets of South Caucasus like Khaqani and Nizami some distinctive features of the Tat language have been revealed.
As a result of the long co-existence of Tats and Azerbaijanis | 6,130,614 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
many common features in farming, housekeeping and culture have developed. Traditional Tat female clothes are long shirt, wide trousers worn outside, slim line dress, outer unbuttoned dress, headscarf and "Moroccan" stockings. Male clothes are the Circassian coat and high fur-cap.
## Farming.
Traditional occupations of the Tat population are agriculture, vegetable-growing, gardening and cattle-breeding. The main cultures are barley, rye, wheat, millet, sunflower, maize, potatoes and peas. Large vineyards and fruit gardens are widespread. Sheep, cows, horses, donkeys, buffalos and rarely camels are kept as domestic cattle.
The traditional one or two storeyed houses made of rectangular limestone | 6,130,615 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
blocks or river shingles and also have blank walls facing the street. The roof is flat with an opening for a stone fireplace chimney. The upper floor is used for habitation and living areas where the family gets together (kitchen etc.) were situated on the ground floor. Typically one of the living room walls has several niches for the storage of clothes, bed linens and sometimes crockery. Rooms were illuminated by lamps or by a skylight through an opening in the roof. House furniture consisted of low couches, carpeted floors and mattresses. Fireplaces, braziers and ovens were used for heating the home in winter and cooking year round.
The property usually has a walled or fenced in yard and | 6,130,616 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
almost always has a garden. There is a veranda ("ayvan"), a paved drain or a small basin ("tendir"), covered cattle-pan, stable and hen-house.
## Religion.
Originally the Persians were Zoroastrians. After they had been conquered by the Rashidun Caliphate, Islam became widespread. Today the Tats are mainly Shia Muslims, with a sizeable minority of Sunni Muslims and Jews.
# Other Tat-speaking ethnic groups.
The Tat language was widely spread in Eastern South Caucasus. Up to the 20th century it was also used by non-Muslim groups: Mountain Jews, part of the Armenians and the Udins. This has led some to the idea that Muslim Tats, Tat-speaking Mountain Jews and Tat-speaking Christian Armenians | 6,130,617 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
are one nation, practicing three different religions.
## Tats and Mountain Jews.
The "Mountain Jews" belong to the community of Persian-speaking Jews. Some groups of this community live in Iran, Israel (especially), North America (especially), Europe, and Central Asia (Bukharan Jews). The Jews of Central Asia were classified "Mountain Jews" only in 19th-century official Russian documentation. The Mountain Jews call themselves "Juhuro".
In the year 1888 A. Sh. Anisimov showed the closeness of language of the Mountain Jews and the Caucasian Persians (Tats). In his work "Caucasian Jews-Mountaineers" he came to the conclusion that the Mountain Jews were representatives of the Iranian family of | 6,130,618 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
the Tats, which had adopted Judaism in Iran and later moved to South Caucasus. The ideas of Anisimov were supported during the Soviet period: the popularization of the idea of the Mountain Jews' Tat origin started in the 1930s. Through efforts of several Mountain Jews, closely connected with the regime, the idea of mountain Jews being not really Jews at all but judaized Tats became widely spread. Some Mountain Jews started to register themselves as Tats because of secret pressure from the authorities.
As a result of this the words Tat and Mountain Jew became almost synonymous. The term "Tat" was used in research literature as the second or even first name for Mountain Jews. This caused the | 6,130,619 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
whole cultural heritage (literature, theatre, music) created by Mountain Jews during the Soviet period to be attributed to the Tats.
Comparing physic-anthropological characteristics of Tats and Mountain Jews together with information about their languages suggests no signs of ethnic unity between these two nations.
Like most "Jewish" languages, the grammatical structure of Juhuri retains archaic features of the language it is derived from. At the same time all of these languages are satiated with Hebrew words. The loanwords from Aramaic and Hebrew in Juhuri include words not directly connected with Judaic rituals (e.g. "zoft" resin, "nokumi" envy, "ghuf" body, "keton" linen, etc.) Some syntactical | 6,130,620 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
features of Juhuri have are ones typical for Hebrew.
The physical-anthropological types of Caucasian Persians (Tats) and Mountain Jews are also dissimilar.
In 1913 the anthropologist K.M. Kurdov carried out measurements of a large group of Tat population of Lahij village and revealed fundamental differences of their physical-anthropological type from the Mountain Jews. Measurements of Tats and Mountain Jews were also made by some other researchers. Cephalic index measurements have showed that while for Tats mesocephalia and dolichocephalia are typical, extreme brachycephalia is typical for Mountain Jews. Dermatoglyphic characteristics of the Tats and Mountain Jews also exclude ethnic similarity. | 6,130,621 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
In 2012 a uniparental genetic markers comparison between Judeo-Tat dialect and Muslim-Tat dialect speakers in Dagestan found independent demographic histories.
Speakers of Mountain-Jew dialect and Tati language are representatives of two different nations, each with its own religion, ethnic consciousness, self-designation, way of life, material and spiritual values.
## Tats and Armenians.
Some 19th- and 20th-century publications describe the citizens of several Tat-speaking village of South Caucasus as "Armenian Tats", "Armeno-Tats", "Christian Tats" or "Gregorian Tats". It was suggested that a part of the Persians of Eastern South Caucasus had adopted Armenian Christianity, but this did | 6,130,622 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
not take into consideration the fact that those citizens identify themselves as Armenians, because conversion to religion is strongly attached to ethnical identity in eastern cultures.
In the Sassanid times and later under Muslim dynasties, Christianity was a very persecuted religion. Zoroastrianism dominated in the time of Sassanids, and later did Islam. Conversions to Christianity, was stimulated by stories of martyrhood.
There are traces of an Armenian phonological, lexical, grammatical and calque substratum in the dialect of Tat-speaking Armenians. There are also Armenian affricates (ծ, ց, ձ) in words of Iranian origin, which do not exist in the Tat language. This can only be explained | 6,130,623 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
by Armenian influence.
Although they have lost their language these Armenians managed to preserve their national identity. It has a distinct "us versus them" dichotomy, "Hay" (us) to "Muslims" (Tats and Azeri together).
# Tat people of northern Iran.
Starting from the Middle Ages, the term "Tati" was used not only for the Caucasus but also for northern Iran, where it was extended to almost all of the local Iranian languages except Persian and Kurdish.
Currently the term "Tati" and "Tati language" is used to refer to a particular group of north-western Iranian dialects (Chali, Danesfani, Hiaraji, Hoznini, Esfarvarini, Takestani, Sagzabadi, Ebrahimabadi, Eshtehardi, Hoini, Kajali, Shahroudi, | 6,130,624 |
536663 | Tat people (Caucasus) | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Tat%20people%20(Caucasus) | Tat people (Caucasus)
"Tati" was used not only for the Caucasus but also for northern Iran, where it was extended to almost all of the local Iranian languages except Persian and Kurdish.
Currently the term "Tati" and "Tati language" is used to refer to a particular group of north-western Iranian dialects (Chali, Danesfani, Hiaraji, Hoznini, Esfarvarini, Takestani, Sagzabadi, Ebrahimabadi, Eshtehardi, Hoini, Kajali, Shahroudi, Harzani) in Iranian Azerbaijan, as well as south of it in the provinces of Qazvin and Zanjan. These dialects have a certain affinity to the Talysh language as one of the descendants of the Old Azari language.
# See also.
- Tati language (Iran)
# External links.
- Parsis of Transcaucasia | 6,130,625 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Yugoslav People's Army
The Yugoslav National Army ( [ЈНА], "Jugoslovenska narodna armija" [JNA], ), also called the Yugoslav People's Army ( [JLA]), was the military of Yugoslavia from 1945 to 1992.
# History.
## Origins.
The origins of the JNA can be found in the Yugoslav Partisan units of World War II. As part of the anti-fascist People's Liberation War of Yugoslavia, the People's Liberation Army of Yugoslavia (NOVJ), a predecessor of the JNA, was formed in the town of Rudo in Bosnia and Herzegovina on 22 December 1941. After the Yugoslav Partisans liberated the country from the Axis Powers, that date was officially celebrated as the "Day of the Army" in the Socialist Federal Republic of | 6,130,626 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Yugoslavia (SFR Yugoslavia).
In March 1945, the NOVJ was renamed the "Yugoslav Army" (""Jugoslovenska Armija"") and, on its 10th anniversary, on 22 December 1951, received the adjective "People's" (""Narodna"").
## Dissolution.
In January 1990, the League of Communists of Yugoslavia was effectively dissolved as a national organization following its 14th Congress where the Serbian and Slovene delegations engaged in a public confrontation. The Yugoslav army was left without an ideological support mechanism. 99% of the officers of the Yugoslav army were members of the party.
The dissolution of Yugoslavia began when independent, non-communist governments were established in the Yugoslav republics | 6,130,627 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
of Slovenia, Croatia, Bosnia and Herzegovina, and Macedonia. In 1990, the Socialist Republic of Slovenia changed its name to Republic of Slovenia and ceased contributing funds to the federal government for a sustained military budget. Soon afterward the Slovene government began a re-organization of its territorial defense and the government brought the Territorial Defense Forces under its control.
In March 1991, the Yugoslav defense minister, General Veljko Kadijević organized a meeting at the military complex in Topcider. Present at this meeting were all 6 presidents of the Yugoslav republics, presidents of the autonomous republics, the Yugoslav president and all top military officers. Kadijević | 6,130,628 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
claimed that there were numerous paramilitary organizations in Yugoslavia sponsored by foreign and domestic enemies of the State. He also stated that YPA was dealing with Ustaše, Chetniks, and other enemies of socialism stemming from World War II conflicts. Kadijević proposed a declaration of martial law. A subsequent vote was held on Kadijević's recommendation of martial law, and the suggestion was vetoed.
In April 1991, the government of Croatia formed the Croatian National Guard ("ZNG"), which the Yugoslav People's Army considered to be a paramilitary organization.
On 25 June 1991, Slovenia and Croatia declared their independence from Yugoslavia. On the same day Slovene territorial defense | 6,130,629 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
units captured Yugoslav control posts on borders with Italy, Hungary, and Austria. Slovene forces also established border control posts on their border with Croatia.
As a result of these actions, the Yugoslav army attacked; its top commanders citing the constitutional obligation to defend the sovereignty and territorial integrity of Yugoslavia.
On 27 June 1991, the Yugoslav army attacked the Slovene TO units on borders and also in all other areas which were under Slovene control. The Slovene TO blockaded all the Yugoslav army bases in Slovenia and kept them under siege for 10 days.
A general state of war lasted for 10 days and ended on 6 July 1991. The Yugoslav army suffered approximately | 6,130,630 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
150 casualties. Many Yugoslav Army soldiers and officers were wounded or captured. After the Brioni Agreement was signed, the Yugoslav Army agreed to withdraw from Slovenia by 10 October 1991, leaving numerous tanks, rifles, trucks and other equipment.
On 27 June 1991, war in Croatia began. The belligerents were the Yugoslav army and Serbians on one side and Croatian military units on the other.
Croatia initiated a siege of the Yugoslav army's barracks, leaving its soldiers without food, water or electricity for weeks. Some Croatian citizens deserted from the Yugoslav army and began joining Croatian military forces. Senior officers of the Yugoslav army also defected to the Croatia, including | 6,130,631 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Air Force Commander-in-Chief Colonel General Anton Tus.
In August 1991, the battle of Vukovar began. This was the biggest battle in the War in Croatia after operations Storm and Flash. In this battle 90% of the city was destroyed. The Yugoslav army used fighter and attack aircraft, rocket launchers, large number of tanks and other equipment.
Macedonia declared independence on 8 September 1991, but the Yugoslav army did not militarily respond.
In October Vukovar was captured and 80% of Croatian forces were destroyed or captured. Many atrocities were committed by the Yugoslav army in the city, including the Velepromet concentration camp, Vukovar massacre, etc.
In mid-October 1991, Yugoslav | 6,130,632 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
ground forces, supported by naval and air forces, attacked the city of Dubrovnik and the Konavle area where Croats had strongholds, starting the Siege of Dubrovnik. By 6 December, the Yugoslav Army had neutralized all Croat formations in the Konavle area, but Dubrovnik had not been captured.
After these two operations, the Yugoslav army signed the Sarajevo Agreement with Croatia and began to withdraw.
In January 1992 Veljko Kadijević resigned after the 1992 European Community Monitor Mission helicopter downing.
The last Yugoslav army soldier would leave Croatia in May 1992, when ships of the Yugoslav navy sailed off Vis island to Kumbor in Montenegro.
The Yugoslav army left Macedonia in | 6,130,633 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
March 1992. Macedonia was left without any heavy equipment, weapons or aircraft.
In March 1992 Bosnia and Herzegovina declared independence following a referendum and the Bosnian War started soon thereafter between the country's Bosniaks, Croats, and Serbs. The Yugoslav army officially withdrew from Bosnia and Herzegovina in May 1992.
On 20 May 1992 the Yugoslav People's Army was formally dissolved, the remnants of which reformed into the military of the newly-founded "Federal Republic of Yugoslavia".
# Organization.
The JNA consisted of the ground forces, air force and navy. It was organized into four military regions which were further divided into districts that were responsible for administrative | 6,130,634 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
tasks such as draft registration, mobilization, and construction and maintenance of military facilities. The regions were: Belgrade (responsible for eastern Croatia, Serbia and Bosnia and Herzegovina), Zagreb (Slovenia and northern Croatia), Skopje (Macedonia, Southern Serbia and Montenegro) and Split Naval Region. Of the JNA's 180,000 soldiers, more than 100,000 were conscripts.
In 1990, the army had nearly completed a major overhaul of its basic force structure. It eliminated its old divisional infantry organization and established the brigade as the largest operational unit. The army converted ten of twelve infantry divisions into twenty-nine tank, mechanized and mountain infantry brigades | 6,130,635 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
with integral artillery, air defense and anti-tank regiments. One airborne brigade was organized before 1990. The shift to brigade-level organization provided greater operational flexibility, maneuverability, tactical initiative and reduced the possibility that large army units would be destroyed in set piece engagements with an aggressor. The change created many senior field command positions that would develop relatively young and talented officers. The brigade structure had advantages at a time of declining manpower.
# Industry.
The arms industry was dominant in the Yugoslav economy. With annual exports of $3 billion, it was twice as large as the second largest industry, tourism.
Several | 6,130,636 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
companies in Yugoslavia produced airplanes and specifically combat aircraft, most notably SOKO of Mostar, with the Soko J-22 Orao being its best known product and there was Zastava Arms for firearms and artillery. Another important manufacturer was Utva in Serbia. The Yugoslav military–industrial complex produced tanks (most notably, the M-84), armored vehicles (BOV APC, BVP M-80), various artillery pieces (mortars, multiple rocket launchers, howitzers), anti-aircraft weapons, as well as various types of infantry weapons and other equipment.
# Infrastructure.
JNA had modern infrastructure with many air bases including underground shelters and command and control centers in many locations including | 6,130,637 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
several mountains. The biggest and best known installation was the Željava Air Base, also known as the Bihać Underground Integrated Radar Control and Surveillance Centre and Air Base, in Bosnia and Herzegovina.
# Ground forces.
The ground forces led in number of personnel. In 1991 there were about 140,000 active-duty soldiers (including 90,000 conscripts), and over a million trained reservists could be mobilized in wartime. Each of the Yugoslav constituent republics had its own territorial defence forces which in wartime were subordinate to supreme command as an integral part of the defence system. The territorial defence (reserve force) was made up of former conscripts; they were occasionally | 6,130,638 |
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called up for war exercises.
The ground forces were organised into infantry, armour, artillery, and air defence, as well as signal, engineering and chemical defence corps.
# Air force.
The Yugoslav Air Force had about 32,000 personnel including 4,000 conscripts, and operated over 400 aircraft and 200 helicopters. It was responsible for transport, reconnaissance, and rotary-wing aircraft as well as the national air defence system. The primary air force missions were to contest enemy efforts to establish air supremacy over Yugoslavia and to support the defensive operations of the ground forces and navy. Most aircraft were produced in Yugoslavia. Missiles were produced domestically and supplied | 6,130,639 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
by the Soviet Union.
The Yugoslav Air Force had twelve squadrons of domestically produced ground attack fighters. The ground attack squadrons provided close air support to ground force operations. They were equipped with 165 new Soko J-22 Orao, Super Galeb and J-21 Jastreb, and older Soko J-20 Kraguj fighters. Many ground attack fighters were armed with AGM-65 Maverick air-to-surface missiles purchased from the United States. Others were armed with Soviet Kh-23 and Kh-28 missiles. The air force also had about ninety armed Mi-8 helicopter gunships to provide added mobility and fire support for small ground units. A large number of reconnaissance aircraft were available to support ground forces | 6,130,640 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
operations. Four squadrons of seventy Galeb, Jastreb, and Orao-1 fighters were configured for reconnaissance missions.
The Yugoslav Air Force had nine squadrons of 130 Soviet-made MiG-21 interceptors for air defence. First produced in the late 1950s, the MiG-21 design was largely obsolete in 1990 and represented a potential weakness in Yugoslavia's air defence. However, the bulk of the MiG-21 fleet consisted mainly of the "bis" variant, the latest production MiG-21 model, and was armed with Soviet Vympel K-13 (NATO reporting name: AA-2 "Atoll"), air-to-air missiles and some more modern Molniya R-60 (NATO reporting name: AA-8 "Aphid") missiles as well as twin 23 mm cannons. By 1989, Yugoslavia | 6,130,641 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
started developing a new domestic multirole fighter called Novi Avion, which was supposed to replace the MiG-21 and J-21 Jastreb fleets entirely. The design of the new aircraft was influenced by both Mirage 2000 and Dassault Rafale fighter types and it was to enter service by the early 2000s. As an interim solution, a modernization package was planned for the MiG-21 and it is speculated that India's MiG-21 Bison upgrade was actually intended for Yugoslav aircraft. In 1987, Yugoslavia acquired 16 MiG-29s.
Although not officially known at the time, Yugoslavia was rumoured to have been interested in the purchase of certain numbers of Su-25 attack-aircraft and Mi-24 gunships. Instead of developing | 6,130,642 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
its own fighter plane, the Novi Avion, the country made a request to licence-build the F-20, but due to unstable relations with the US, the request was rejected. By the late 1980s, the licensed production of Aérospatiale SA 330 Puma helicopters was also envisaged, but due to the dissolution of the country, it was never realized.
One of the most impressive structures operated by the JNA Air Force was the underground Željava Air Base near the town of Bihać in NW Bosnia-Herzegovina. The structure was made to withstand a nuclear explosion and was destroyed by the JNA in 1992 to prevent its capture. Željava was home to the 117th Fighter Aviation Regiment, which was composed of the 124th and 125th | 6,130,643 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Fighter Squadrons, equipped with MiG-21Bis fighters, and the 352nd Reconnaissance Squadron, equipped with MiG-21R aircraft.
The Air and Air Defence Forces were headquartered at Zemun and had fighter and bomber aircraft, helicopters, and air defence artillery units at air bases throughout the former Yugoslavia: Batajnica Air Base (Belgrade), Niš Constantine the Great Airport, Slatina Air Base (Priština), Golubovci Airbase (Titograd), Skopski Petrovec, Sarajevo, Mostar, Željava Air Base (Bihać), Pleso (Zagreb), Split Airport, Pula, Zemunik (Zadar), Cerklje ob Krki and many other smaller air bases.
# Navy.
Minor surface combatants operated by the Yugoslav Navy included nearly eighty frigates, | 6,130,644 |
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corvettes, submarines, minesweepers, and missile, torpedo, and patrol boats in the Adriatic Fleet. The entire coast of Yugoslavia was part of the naval region headquartered at Split, Croatia.
The Partisans had operated many small boats in raids harassing Italian convoys in the Adriatic Sea during World War II. After the war, the navy operated numerous German and Italian submarines, destroyers, minesweepers, and tank-landing craft captured during the war or received as war reparations. The United States provided eight torpedo boats in the late 1940s, but most of those units were soon obsolete. The navy was upgraded in the 1960s when it acquired ten Osa-I class missile boats and four Shershen | 6,130,645 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
class torpedo boats from the Soviet Union. The Soviets granted a license to build eleven additional Shershen units in Yugoslav shipyards developed for this purpose.
In 1980 and 1982, the Yugoslav navy took delivery of two Soviet Koni class frigates. In 1988 it completed two additional units under license. The Koni frigates were armed with four Soviet P-15 Termit surface-to-surface missile launchers, twin 9K33 Osa (NATO reporting name: SA-8 "Gecko") surface-to-air missiles, and anti-submarine rocket launchers.
The Yugoslav navy developed its own submarine-building capability during the 1960s. In 1990, the main combat units of the submarine service were three Heroj class submarines armed with | 6,130,646 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
533 mm torpedoes. Two smaller Sava class submarines entered service in the late 1970s. Two Sutjeska-class submarines had been relegated mainly to training missions by 1990. At that time the navy had apparently shifted to construction of versatile midget submarines. Four Una-class midgets and four Mala-class swimmer delivery vehicles were in service in the late 1980s. They were built for use by underwater demolition teams and special forces. The Una-class boats carried five crewmen, eight combat swimmers, four Mala vehicles, and limpet mines. The Mala vehicles carried two swimmers and 250 kilograms of mines.
The Yugoslav navy operated ten Osa class missile boats and six "Končar" class missile | 6,130,647 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
boats. The Osa I boats were armed with four P-15 Termit surface-to-surface missile launchers. In 1990, ten domestic "Kobra" missile boats were scheduled to begin replacing the Osa I class. The "Kobra" class was to be armed with eight Swedish RBS-15 anti-ship missiles, and fifteen of them were ordered in late 1989. Armed with two P-15 Termit launchers, the "Končar" class boats were modeled after the Spica class torpedo boats, and there were plans to upgrade them with Swedish-built missiles. Two "Kobra" missile boats were built by Croatia as the and both are still in service. The navy's fifteen Topčider-class torpedo boats included four former Soviet Shershen-class and eleven Yugoslav built units.
The | 6,130,648 |
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Yugoslav navy's mine warfare and countermeasures capabilities were considered adequate in 1990. It operated four Vukov Klanac-class coastal minesweepers built on a French design, four British Ham class minesweepers, and six 117-class inshore minesweepers built in domestic shipyards. Larger numbers of older and less capable minesweepers were mainly used in riverine operations. Other older units were used as dedicated minelayers. The navy used amphibious landing craft in support of army operations in the area of the Danube, Sava, and Drava rivers. They included both tank and assault landing craft. In 1990, there were four 501-class, ten 211-class, and twenty-five 601-class landing craft in service. | 6,130,649 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Most of them were also capable of laying mines in rivers and coastal areas.
The Yugoslav Navy had 10,000 sailors (including 4,400 conscripts and 900 marines). This was essentially a coastal defence force with the mission of preventing enemy amphibious landings along the country's rugged 4,000-kilometer shoreline and coastal islands, and contesting an enemy blockade or control of the strategic Strait of Otranto. The entire coast of Yugoslavia was part of the naval region headquartered at Split. The naval region was divided into three smaller naval districts and a riverine flotilla with major naval bases located at Split, Šibenik, Pula, Ploče and Kotor on the Adriatic Sea, and Novi Sad on the | 6,130,650 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
River Danube. The strategic islands of Vis and Lastovo were heavily fortified and unauthorised entry was prohibited. The fleet was organized into missile, torpedo, and patrol boat brigades, a submarine division, and minesweeper flotillas. The naval order of battle included four frigates, three corvettes, five patrol submarines, fifty-eight missile, torpedo, and patrol boats, and twenty-eight minesweepers. One antisubmarine warfare helicopter squadron was based at Split on the Adriatic coast. It employed Soviet Ka-25, Ka-28, and Mi-14 helicopters, and domestic Partisan helicopters. Some air force fighter and reconnaissance squadrons supported naval operations.
# Doctrine.
The Yugoslav People's | 6,130,651 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
Army (JNA) had a unique operational military doctrine for a conventional military force. Yugoslavia based its defence doctrine upon the total war concept of "Total People's Defence" (sh. Opštenarodna odbrana / Općenarodna obrana) which drew upon Yugoslavia's successful partisan history during the Yugoslav People's Liberation War during the Second World War. The "Total National Defence" concept gave the JNA the role of defending borders against aggressors with the intention of delaying an invader long enough for Territorial Defence Forces to enter the field and start wearing the invader down with partisan tactics. The entire Yugoslav population was to be engaged in armed resistance, armaments | 6,130,652 |
536643 | Yugoslav People's Army | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Yugoslav%20People's%20Army | Yugoslav People's Army
production, and civil defence under this concept. It was believed by the Yugoslav planners to be the best method by which a smaller nation could properly defend itself against a much stronger invader, specifically, NATO or the Warsaw Pact.
# Peacekeeping operations.
- United Nations Emergency Force (1956–1967) – 14,265 soldiers in 22 rotations, Colonel Lazar Mušicki as commander of mission (August 1964 – January 1965)
- United Nations Yemen Observation Mission (1963–1964) – one squad
- United Nations Iran–Iraq Military Observer Group (1988–1991) – military observers, General Slavko Jović as commander of mission
- United Nations Transition Assistance Group (1989–1990) – military observers
- | 6,130,653 |
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United Nations Angola Verification Mission I (1989–1991) – military observers
# Operational experience.
- World War II in Yugoslavia
- Trieste crisis
- Yugoslav wars
- Ten-Day War in Slovenia (1991)
- Croatian War of Independence (1991)
- Bosnian War (1992)
# See also.
- Yugoslav Partisans
- OZNA
- KOS
- Organization of the League of Communists in the Yugoslav People's Army
Militaries of the former Yugoslavia:
- Military of Bosnia-Herzegovina
- Military of Croatia
- Military of North Macedonia
- Military of Montenegro
- Military of Serbia
- Military of Slovenia
# References.
- Trifunovska, Snezana, "Yugoslavia Through Documents: From Its Creation to Its Dissolution", Martinus | 6,130,654 |
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tion Mission I (1989–1991) – military observers
# Operational experience.
- World War II in Yugoslavia
- Trieste crisis
- Yugoslav wars
- Ten-Day War in Slovenia (1991)
- Croatian War of Independence (1991)
- Bosnian War (1992)
# See also.
- Yugoslav Partisans
- OZNA
- KOS
- Organization of the League of Communists in the Yugoslav People's Army
Militaries of the former Yugoslavia:
- Military of Bosnia-Herzegovina
- Military of Croatia
- Military of North Macedonia
- Military of Montenegro
- Military of Serbia
- Military of Slovenia
# References.
- Trifunovska, Snezana, "Yugoslavia Through Documents: From Its Creation to Its Dissolution", Martinus Nijhoff Publishers, 1994 | 6,130,655 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Pacific Fur Company
The Pacific Fur Company (PFC) was an American fur trade venture wholly owned and funded by John Jacob Astor that functioned from 1810 to 1813. It was based in the Pacific Northwest, an area contested over the decades between the United Kingdom of Great Britain and Ireland, the Spanish Empire, the United States of America and the Russian Empire.
Management, clerks and fur trappers were sent both by land and by sea to the Pacific Coast in the Autumn of 1810. The base of operations was constructed at the mouth of the Columbia River in 1811, Fort Astoria (present-day Astoria, Oregon). The destruction of the company vessel the "Tonquin" later that year off the shore of Vancouver | 6,130,656 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Island took with it the majority of the annual trading goods. Commercial competition with the British-Canadian North West Company began soon after the foundation of Fort Astoria. The Canadian competitors maintained several stations in the interior, primarily Spokane House, Kootanae House and Saleesh House. Fort Okanogan was also opened in 1811, the first of several PFC posts created to counter these locations. The Overland Expedition faced military hostilities from several Indigenous cultures and later had an acute provision crisis leading to starvation. Despite losing men crossing the Great Plains and later at the Snake River, they arrived in groups throughout January and February 1812 at Fort | 6,130,657 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Astoria.
A beneficial agreement with the Russian-American Company was also planned through the regular supply of provisions for posts in Russian America. This was planned in part to prevent the rival Montreal based North West Company (NWC) to gain a presence along the Pacific Coast, a prospect neither Russian colonial authorities nor Astor favored.
The lack of military protection during the War of 1812 forced the sale of PFC assets to the NWC. While the transactions were not finalized until 1814, due to the distance from Fort Astoria to Montreal and New York City, the company was functionally defunct by 1813. A party of Astorians returning overland to St. Louis in 1813 made the important discovery | 6,130,658 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
of the South Pass through the Rocky Mountains. This geographic feature would later be used by hundreds of thousands of settlers traveling over the Oregon, California, and Mormon routes, collectively called the Westward Expansion Trails. The emporium envisioned by Astor was a failure for a number of reasons, including the loss of two supply ships, the material difficulties of crossing the North American continent and competition from the North West Company. Historian Arthur S. Morton concluded that "The misfortunes which befell the Pacific Fur Company were great, but such as might be expected at the initiation of an enterprise in a distant land whose difficulties and whose problems lay beyond | 6,130,659 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
the experience of the traders."
# Formation.
John Jacob Astor was a merchant of New York City and founder of the American Fur Company. To create a chain of trading stations spread across the Rocky Mountains to the Pacific Northwest, he incorporated an AFC subsidiary, the Pacific Fur Company. The commercial venture was originally designed to last for twenty years. Unlike its major competitor the Canadian owned NWC, the Pacific Fur Company was not a Joint-stock company. Capital for the PFC amounted to $200,000 divided into 100 shares individually valued at $2,000 and was funded entirely by Astor. The American Fur Company held half of the stock and the other half divided among prospective management | 6,130,660 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and clerks. The chief representative of Astor in the daily operations was Wilson Price Hunt, a St. Louis businessman with no outback experience who received five shares. Each working partner was assigned four shares with the remaining shares held in reserve for hired clerks. Fellow partners in the venture were recruited from the NWC, the members being Alexander McKay, David Stuart, Duncan McDougall, and Donald Mackenzie. Astor and the partners met in New York on 23 June 1810 to sign the Pacific Fur Company's provisional agreement.
To establish the fledgling PFC trade posts in the distant Oregon Country, Astor's plan called for an extensive movement of large groups of employees overland following | 6,130,661 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
the route of the Lewis and Clark Expedition and navally by sailing around Cape Horn. The venture was planned on methods used in the AFC for the collection of fur pelts. Complements of employees (later called "Astorians") would operate in various parts of the region to complete trapping excursions. Outposts maintained by the PFC would be freighted necessary foodstuffs and supplies by annual cargo ships from New York City. Trade goods for the Pacific Northwest Indigenous such as beads and blankets would be exchanged for fur pelts.
Ongoing supply issues faced by the Russian-American Company were seen as a means to gain more furs. Cargo ships en route from the Columbia were planned to then sail | 6,130,662 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
north for Russian America to bring much needed provisions. By cooperating with Russian colonial authorities to strengthen their material presence in Russian America, it was hoped by Astor to stop the NWC or any other British presence to be established upon the Pacific Coast. A tentative agreement for merchant vessels owned by Astor to ship furs gathered in Russian America into the Qing Empire was signed in 1812. Company ships then were directed to sail to the port of Guangzhou, where furs were then sold for impressive profits. Chinese products like porcelain, nankeens and tea were to be purchased; with the ships then to cross the Indian Ocean and head for European and American markets to sell | 6,130,663 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
the Chinese wares.
# Labor recruitment.
The PFC required a sizable number of laborers, fur trappers and in particular Voyageurs to staff company locations. Recruiting for the company's two expeditions were led by Wilson Hunt and Donald Mackenzie for the overland party and Alexander McKay for the naval bound group. All three men were based out of Montreal throughout May to July 1810. Hunt was designated to lead the Overland Expedition, despite his inexperience in dealing with Indigenous cultures, or residing in the wilderness. It was suggested that Hunt instead trade positions with McKay and travel on the "Tonquin". However, it was determined to keep Hunt in charge of the land party.
The customary | 6,130,664 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
time for free agents to be sent into the interior from Montreal was in May, leaving few men left in the city available for hire. The recruitment effort stalled in part from the bitter treatment by the NWC and Hunt's lack of prior experience as a fur merchant, the source of many issues later on. PFC contracts were atypically favorable for hired men when compared to its Montreal competitors. Terms included a forty percent larger annual salary, double the cash advanced prior to departure and a length of service lasting five years, rather than the more common two or three year employment.
## McKay's efforts.
During the summer of 1810, Alexander McKay hired thirteen French-Canadians for the "Tonquin". | 6,130,665 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
The majority of the group remained in Montreal until late July, when they given directives to withdraw to New York City. A canoe provided transportation for the trip down the Richelieu River and Lake Champlain. At Whitehall additional men that were employed by McKay joined the southbound party, among them Ovide de Montigny. On 3 August they reached New York City, with the group's "hats decorated with parti-colored ribands and feathers..." causing some Americans to believe them to Natives. The following day lodgings at Long Island were reached and the scene was described by clerk Gabriel Franchère:"We sang as we rowed; which, joined to the unusual sight of a birch bark canoe impelled by nine | 6,130,666 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
stout Canadians, dark as Indians, and as gayly adorned, attracted a crowd upon the wharves to gaze at us as we glided along." While waiting to depart for the Pacific, McKay met with British diplomatic official Francis James Jackson. The official assured McKay that in the event of war between the United States and United Kingdom, all PFC employees that were British employees would be treated as such.
## Hunt's efforts.
Thirteen men signed contracts in Montreal to join Hunt on the journey to the Pacific coast by land. Notably only one had previously operated under a contract lasting longer than a year. The generous cash advancements were taken advantage by three men who deserted before Hunt | 6,130,667 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and the remaining group left the city for Michilimackinac in July. The party reached Mackinac Island on 28 July 1810. Acting as a major depot for the regional Great Lakes fur trade, the island was where Hunt focused on hiring more men for the company. The veteran fur merchant Ramsay Crooks was convinced to join the company and assisted in recruiting additional men. Over the sixteen days spent there, a total seventeen men were recruited to the concern with sixteen being French-Canadian. This group of men, unlike those hired in Montreal, had extensive experience working in the fur trade as voyageurs and other roles. Likely suggested by Crooks, interested men already hired by other companies would | 6,130,668 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
have their contracts purchased from their employers.
After the men were finally gathered in early August, Hunt and the party departed for St. Louis and arrived there on 3 September. The hired voyageurs and fur trappers completed many transactions with various merchants in St. Louis and in the nearby French-Canadian settlement of Ste. Genevieve throughout September and October. These were recorded on the company ledger and particular purchases been argued as the men collecting goods to trade with various Indigenous nations they would visit. In particular, these negotiations by the French-Canadians have been thought to be steps towards later establishing themselves as independent traders in relatively | 6,130,669 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
unexploited fur regions. Most of the men in the Overland Party were engaged as hunters, interpreters, guides and voyageurs.
# Oceanic component.
The advanced party was sent to create the initial base of operations at the mouth of the Columbia River. Necessary trade goods for deals with Indigenous and needed supplies to establish the station were shipped on the same vessel In addition to beginning the company headquarters, this party would block any attempts by the NWC to create a station in the area. The ship "Tonquin" was purchased by Astor in 1810 to start commercial operations on the Pacific Ocean. The majority of the company partners. Duncan McDougall, David and Robert Stuart, and Alexander | 6,130,670 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
McKay would head this detachment. In addition, clerks Gabriel Franchère and Alexander Ross would join them on the planned voyage.
## The "Tonquin".
Under the command of Jonathan Thorn the "Tonquin" left New York on September 8, 1810. PFC employees numbered thirty-three men in total on board. The vessel landed at the Falkland Islands on 4 December to make repairs and take on water supplies at Port Egmont. Captain Thorn attempted to abandon eight of the crew still on shore, among them clerks Gabriel Franchère and Alexander Ross. The stranded men were taken on board after Robert Stuart threatened to kill Thorn. Communication between company workers was no longer held in English to keep the captain | 6,130,671 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
excluded from discussions. Company partners held talks in their ancestral Scottish Gaelic and the laborers used Canadian French. On December 25 the "Tonquin" rounded Cape Horn and sailed north into the Pacific Ocean.
The ship anchored at the Kingdom of Hawaii in February 1811. Due to the possibility of men abandoning their posts to live in the tropical islands, Thorn assembled all of the crew and PFC employees to harass them to remain on the ship. Commercial transactions with Hawaiians saw the crew purchasing cabbage, sugar cane, purple yams, taro, coconuts, watermelon, breadfruit, hogs, goats, two sheep, and poultry in return for "glass beads, iron rings, needles, cotton cloth". Upon entering | 6,130,672 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Honolulu, the crew was greeted by Isaac Davis and Francisco de Paula Marín, the latter acting an interpreter in negotiations with Kamehameha I and prominent government official Kalanimoku. 24 Native Hawaiian Kanakas were hired with the approval of Kamehameha I, who appointed Naukane to oversee their interests.
The Columbia River was reached in March 1811. Despite stormy conditions, over several days Thorn ordered two boats dispatched to scout a safe route over the treacherous Columbia Bar. Both boats would capsize and eight men lost their lives. Finally on March 24, the "Tonquin" crossed the bar, passing into the Columbia’s estuary and laid anchor in Baker’s Bay. Captain Thorn stressed the | 6,130,673 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
urgency for the "Tonquin" to start trading further north along the Pacific Coast as instructed by Astor. After 65 days on the Columbia River, the "Tonquin" departed with a crew of 23 with McKay was aboard the ship as supercargo. At Vancouver Island she was boarded by the Tla-o-qui-aht people of Clayoquot Sound, where Thorn caused an uproar by hitting a Tla-o-qui-aht noble with a pelt. In the ensuing conflict all of men brought on the "Tonquin" were killed besides an interpreter from the Quinault nation and the ship was destroyed. This put the occupants of Fort Astoria in a tough position, having no access to seaborne transport until the following year.
## Fort Astoria.
Construction on Fort | 6,130,674 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Astoria, an "emporium of the west", began in the middle of April 1811. It was built upon Point George, the location being about from the Lewis and Clark Expedition winter camp of Fort Clatsop. The terrain and thick forests made clearing a foundation exceedingly difficult. Late in the month, McDougall reported that there was "little progress in clearing, the place being so full of half decayed trunks, large fallen timber & thick brush." No one among the party had previous experience in the logging industry and many hadn't used an axe before in general. Trees had a layer of hardened resin and were of a massive size. Four men worked as a team on platforms at least eight feet above the ground to | 6,130,675 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
effectively cut a tree, with it taking typically two days for a single tree to be felled. Medical issues quickly became another major issue for the party as there was not a single medical officer among the passengers brought on the "Tonquin". This left treatments rudimentary at best. During the initial months on the Columbia River at any time upwards of half of the expedition was unable to perform manual labor due to illness.
## Fort Okanogan.
Kaúxuma Núpika, a Two-Spirit from the Ktunaxa people, and his wife arrived at Fort Astoria on 15 June 1811 with a letter from John Stuart. Kaúxuma offered accounts of the interior and recommended that the station be opened at the confluence of the Columbia | 6,130,676 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and "the Okannaakken River" among the Syilx peoples. It was determined that David Stuart would take a party to with Kaúxuma to the Syilx. Before they left however the inhabitants of Astoria were surprised by the arrival of David Thompson on 15 July. Thompson later stated that his group "set off on a voyage down the Columbia River to explore this river in order to open out a passage for the interior trade with the Pacific Ocean." The competing fur traders were cordially received at Astoria.
A party of eight led by David Stuart departed on 22 July for the Syilx territories. The personnel assigned to join Stuart were eight men, including Alexander Ross, François Benjamin Pillet, Ovide de Montigny, | 6,130,677 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and Naukane. The group joined David Thompson and his eight men in traveling up the Columbia, staying together until the Dalles. Upon entering Watlala Chinookan territory, Stuart failed establish favorable relations with them. Watlala men performed several military displays and stole a small amount of goods. Naukane agreed to join the NWC shortly after this episode and the two parties separated. Stuart was able to secure the protection of Wasco-Wishram leadership in early August. Groups of Chinookan laborers were used to cross the portages of the Columbia in their homeland.
Stuart's party soon began to travel through the Sahaptin nations and on the 12th of August an assembly of Walla Walla, | 6,130,678 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Cayuse and Nez Perce welcomed the fur traders. Once the reception was complete, the PFC men continued up the Columbia and passed by the future site of Fort Nez Percés. Towards the end of August the party began to become troubled with Western Rattlesnake populations and rapids, almost losing one canoe and the men aboard it to a section of swift currents. Stuart and his men were greeted by Wenatchi leadership at the Wenatchee River, who gave two horses to the fur traders as a gift in addition to several more being purchased. While passing through other Indigenous homelands the PFC continued financial dealings for food supplies. Members of the Chelan nation traded "some salmon, roots, and berries" | 6,130,679 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and later Methows offered their "abundance of salmon" and "many horses" to the fur trappers for sale.
While at the junction of the Columbia and Okanogan River, a large encampment of Syilx were encountered. Prominent members of the nation entreated the fur traders to resided among their people, proclaiming "themselves to be always be our friends, to kill us plenty of beavers, to furnish us at all times with provisions, and to ensure our protection and safety." The cargo of the canoes were taken to land on 1 September and work soon began on Fort Okanogan. A residence crafted from driftwood acquired from the Okanogan River. While construction of the post was ongoing, four men that included Pillet | 6,130,680 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
were detailed to inform the progress of inland trade. The party arrived back at the company headquarters on 11 October and gave its favorable report.
Stuart led Montigny and two other men to follow the course of the Okanogan, leaving only Ross at the post. As promised, the Syilx provided security for the station, frequently alerting Ross when intruders from other nations came near. Despite planning on exploring the Okanogan watershed for a month, Stuart and his three men did not return until 22 March 1812. Upon reaching the Okanogan headwaters the party then went over to the Thompson River. Snows in mountain passes made it exceedingly difficult for the party to travel. Detained among the Secwepemc, | 6,130,681 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Stuart developed cordial relations with them. Finding their areas rich in beaver populations, he promised to return later that year to create a trading post.
# The Lower Chinookan peoples.
Diplomatic relationships with the Chinookan villages near the Columbia were critical for the viability of Fort Astoria. Scholars have affirmed that the American company and its "economic success depended on mutually beneficial economic exchanges with Indian groups... who controlled trade." Many of the settlements near the station were under the influence of headman Comcomly.
## Assistance in exploration.
Chinookans were highly important in company explorations of the Pacific Coast. In particular, they | 6,130,682 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
were instrumental in finding a suitable location for what became Fort Astoria. In early April 1811 McDougall and David Stuart visited Comcomly, who advised them not to return to the Columbia River as it was then quite tumultuous. The two men didn't listen and shortly afterward their canoe capsized in the river. The "timely succor" of Comcomly and his villagers ensured the partners were saved before they drowned. After recuperating there for three days, they returned to the PFC camp.
Additional services tendered was the relaying information from more distant peoples to the Astorians. Reports were circulated by them in late April 1811 of a trade post maintained by white men in the interior. This | 6,130,683 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
was correctly conjectured by PFC employees to be their NWC rivals, later found to be Spokane House. Departing on 2 May, McKay led Robert Stuart, Franchère, Ovide de Montigny and a number of voyaguers up the Columbia, with Clatsop noble Coalpo acting as guide and interpreter. The following day they explored the Cowlitz River and soon encountered a large canoe flotilla of Cowlitz warriors. McKay was able to request a parlay, during which the Cowlitz stated they were armed for combat against the nearby Skilloot Chinookan village near the river mouth. Reaching the Dalles on 10 May, no trade station was found at the important fishery. Due to Coalpo's fear of reprisal from his enemies among the Wasco | 6,130,684 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
and Wishram, the party went back to Fort Astoria, returning on 14 May.
Despite not finding the NWC post, management at Fort Astoria soon became "anxious to acquire a knowledge of the country & the prospects of trade... within our reach". On 6 June 1811, Robert Stuart went north on a tour of western Olympic Peninsula with Calpo acting as a guide again. Returning on 24 June, Stuart reported that the Quinault and nearby Quileute nations would kill Sea otters and trade their pelts for the valuable Dentalium shells sold by the Nuu-chah-nulth on Vancouver Island. Stuart felt that a company trade post in Grays Harbor offered the best location to secure these furs. Additionally he gave the opinion | 6,130,685 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
that Alutiiq in Russian America should be recruited to hunt various fur bearing animals at the hypothetical factory.
However, Chinookans were not always willing to help Astorians in visiting distant locations. This was a means of delaying the Astorians from making commercial connections with Indigenous peoples on the Upper Columbia. One particular incident has been described by historian Robert F. Jones as "an effort to keep Comcomly's Chinooks as middlemen between the natives of the upper Columbia and the Astorians." François Benjamin Pillet was ordered to make a trading trip along the Columbia. Accompanied by a Chinook headman, they left Fort Astoria in late June 1811. Small trade deals were | 6,130,686 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
completed with Skilloots near modern Oak Point. Afterwards, the headman cited the seasonal flooding as making the Columbia unsafe to travel further upriver. This forced Pillet to return to Astoria with what pelts he had purchased from the Skilloots.
## Commercial ties.
Consistently small stockpiles of foodstuffs at Fort Astoria created the need for frequent transactions with Chinookans for sustenance. Seasonal fish runs provided the major nutritional sources for the Columbian River-based Natives. After ceremonial rituals during each major fish run, trade for caught fish would begin in earnest with the Astorians. A constant task for Hawaiians would be to perform fisherman duties. Major fish | 6,130,687 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
populations active in the Columbia included the Candlefish smelt, White sturgeon, Sockeye salmon and Chinook salmon. This dependence on fish made it a primary food source for the Astorians, which caused some discontent among employees desiring a more familiar diet.
Terrestrial animals like members of the family Cervidae such as Roosevelt elk and black-tailed deer were not found in large numbers around Fort Astoria. This made them another important source of trade for the Chinookans when visiting the PFC station. Another frequent item sold when fish supplies were low in the winter was the Wapato root. Wapato provided a common source of calories for Chinookans and other nations. The Astorians | 6,130,688 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
described the tuber as "a good substitute for potatoes" Purchases of Wapato occurred in such volumes that a small cellar had to be created specifically to house the produce. Other typical purchases from Chinookans included manufactured goods. In particular woven hats were frequently bought for protection against the seasonal rains. These hats were tightly interwoven, making them essentially waterproof. Of benefit to the Astorians was that they were typically wide enough to cover the shoulders. Ross described the common artwork depicted them as "chequered" with various animal designs that were "not painted, but ingeniously interwoven."
Chinookans near Fort Astoria employed various means of retaining | 6,130,689 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
their valuable middle man position between various neighboring Indigenous peoples and the PFC. Additional tactics involved manipulating the perception neighboring Natives had of the American company. In August 1811, a small party of Chehalis visited Fort Astoria. In dialogue with them McDougall inquired why they would rarely directly trade with the PFC. The Chehalis merchants responded that Chinooks affiliated with Comcomly claimed that the Astorians were "very inveterate against their nation." McDougall concluded this story was used by Comcomly to continue his commercial hegemony over the area.
## Fear of hostilities.
It wasn't always that the Astorians, especially McDougall trusted Comcomly | 6,130,690 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
or Chinookans in general. His judgment of them, despite eventually marrying a daughter of Comcomly was that they were often ready to attack the fort. In particular Jones noted that he "seems to place implicit faith in any possible hostile actions by the natives."
In June 1812, the number of men at Fort Astoria were reduced to 11 Hawaiians and 39 European descendants. Fear of attack by Chinookans was high and drills were directed by McDougall frequently. A delegation of Chinookans visited Fort Astoria on 2 July quickly left after witnessing these military demonstrations. This fear by the natives convinced the Astorians that "they are not friendly disposed towards us..." having "a desire to harm | 6,130,691 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
us." According to Jones, this "latent distrust" of Chinookans by Astorians from this incident was probably unfounded, as they entered the post "for an innocent purpose" and were frightened by the drills.
Fears of attack didn't disappear and Astorians kept themselves guarded in dealing with natives. After the "Beaver" left for Russian America rumors spread of a coming attack on Astoria in August 1812. There were large numbers of Chinookans and Chehalis near Comcomly's village at the time. This expedited construction on two bastions and the fort was "put in readiness for an attack." Jones has pointed out that these movements of Indigenous was very likely a part of seasonal fishing, rather than | 6,130,692 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
a supposed hostile gathering.
# Overland Expedition.
As the leader of the expedition Hunt would make a number of decisions which were disastrous. The movement of Hunt's group has been described as "a company of traders forging westward in [a] haphazard fashion." He ordered the expedition to leave St. Louis just before the winter to reduce company expenses of supporting employees. The group departed on October 21, 1810 for Fort Osage. The expedition traveled up the Missouri River before setting up winter camp on Nodaway Island, at the mouth of Nodaway River in Andrew County, Missouri, just north of St. Joseph. French-Canadian employees made frequent purchases from the company store during the | 6,130,693 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
idle season, especially those hired at Michilimackinac. Small items like blue beads, vermilion, brass rings, tobacco "carrots", small axes among others were used in transactions with Missouria neighboring the camp.
On January 1811, Hunt sailed down the Missouri River to complete several pending transactions at St. Louis. It was during this time he recruited Pierre Dorion Jr., as he was the only qualified speaker of the Sioux languages in St. Louis at the time. Notably he was in debt to Manuel Lisa and the Missouri Fur Company (MFC), something that would lead to tensions between the fur companies later in the year. In the end Hunt was able to secure Dorion, on the condition that Marie and his | 6,130,694 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
two children be brought along as well. Once finalized, he took British naturalists John Bradbury and Thomas Nuttall with him to the Nodaway camp, as previously agreed upon. The party left St. Louis on 12 March and reached Fort Osage on the 8th of April. Early into the travel Dorion physically abused his wife and caused her to flee for a day. At the station Ramsay Crooks was waiting for them and the group recuperated for two days. The group left Fort Osage on the 10th of April and during the day Dorion "severely beat his squaw" as Marie desired to stay with newly made Osage acquaintances rather than continue with the expedition. The group reached the winter camp on the 17th. The overland group | 6,130,695 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
at this point amounted to almost sixty men, forty being French-Canadian voyageurs.
## Following the Missouri.
Hunt's expedition broke the Nodaway winter camp on April 21. The Astorians reached a major Omaha village in early May. Active commercial transactions were completed there, with Omaha merchants offering "jerked buffalo meat, tallow, corn, and marrow" for vermilion, beads and tobacco carrots. Bradbury detailed that the Omaha village had plots of nicotiana rustica, melons, beans, squashes, and corn under cultivation. While at the Omaha settlement, Hunt received information from several visiting Yankton Sioux that a group of Sioux was gathering further up the river to stop the expedition | 6,130,696 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
from traveling further.
Proceeding further the Missouri River, the Sioux party was encountered on 31 May. The Sioux bands were a conglomeration of Yankton and Lakota and had around six hundred armed men. Tensions quickly arose between the two disparate groups and both took up positions by the Missouri River. The two company howitzers and single Swivel gun were loaded with powder and fired to intimidate the Sioux bands. The artillery were then loaded with live ammunition, but the Sioux across the river began to "spread their buffalo robes before them, and moved them side to side." Dorion stopped the firing of the armaments a second time, as he understood this action by the Sioux meant they desired | 6,130,697 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
a parley. Peace talks were held and the Sioux explained that they had formed to prevent the PFC from trading with the neighboring nations they were at war with, the Arikara, Mandan and the Gros Ventre. Hunt explained that the expedition intended to travel to the Pacific Ocean and they had no interest in the neighboring Indigenous groups. This was found to be acceptable by the Sioux leaders, and the PFC was allowed to depart further north.
On 3 June, employees of the Missouri Fur Company under the command of Manuel Lisa were encountered on the Missouri River. Lisa reminded Dorion of his pending debt to the company, and a duel between the two men was narrowly averted by Bradbury and Henry Marie | 6,130,698 |
536622 | Pacific Fur Company | https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Pacific%20Fur%20Company | Pacific Fur Company
Brackenridge intervening. After this incident the rival fur companies refrained from interacting and camped on opposite sides of the Missouri River. Despite this, Lisa and Hunt led their parties north towards an Arikara village and reached it on 12 June. In a council with local leadership Lisa declared that if any of Hunt's party were harmed he'd take it as an offense against him as well. In setting the standard rate for purchasing horses, "carbines, powder, ball, tomahawks knives" were in high demand as the Arikara were planning an attack upon the Sioux. Lisa and Hunt made a deal allowing for Hunt's boats to be exchanged for additional horses, kept at Fort Lisa further up the Missouri River. | 6,130,699 |
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