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wikipedia_id stringlengths 2 8	wikipedia_title stringlengths 1 243	url stringlengths 44 370	contents stringlengths 53 2.22k	id int64 0 6.14M
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth George II Rákóczi and Frederick William, Elector of Brandenburg. The Tatars of the Crimean Khanate and the Nogai Horde conducted almost annual slave-raids in the eastern territories controlled by the Commonwealth. In the late 17th century, the king of the weakened Commonwealth, John III ...	9,100
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth next 16 years, the Great Turkish War would drive the Turks permanently south of the Danube River, never again to threaten central Europe. By the 18th century, destabilization of its political system brought Poland to the brink of civil war. The Commonwealth was facing many internal probl...	9,101
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth king's Saxon army; the Tsar was to serve as guarantor of the agreement. Western Europe's increasing exploitation of resources in the Americas rendered the Commonwealth's supplies less crucial. In 1768, the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth became a protectorate of the Russian Empire. Contro...	9,102
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth were not re-established as independent countries until 1918. # State organization and politics. ## Golden Liberty. The political doctrine of the Commonwealth was "our state is a republic under the presidency of the King". Chancellor Jan Zamoyski summed up this doctrine when he said tha...	9,103
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth new king had to pledge to uphold the Henrician Articles, which were the basis of Poland's political system (and included near-unprecedented guarantees of religious tolerance). Over time, the Henrician Articles were merged with the pacta conventa, specific pledges agreed to by the king-ele...	9,104
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Liberty" (, a term used from 1573 on), included: - election of the king by all nobles wishing to participate, known as "wolna elekcja" (free election); - Sejm, the Commonwealth parliament which the king was required to hold every two years; - "pacta conventa" (Latin), "agreed-to agreem...	9,105
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth by the majority in a Sejm session; the voicing of such a "free veto" nullified all the legislation that had been passed at that session; during the crisis of the second half of the 17th century, Polish nobles could also use the liberum veto in provincial sejmiks; - "konfederacja" (from t...	9,106
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth had its own separate army, treasury and most other official institutions. Golden Liberty created a state that was unusual for its time, although somewhat similar political systems existed in the contemporary city-states like the Republic of Venice. Both states were styled "Serenissima Re...	9,107
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth and over the political system of monarchy. In time, the szlachta accumulated enough privileges (such as those established by the Nihil novi Act of 1505) that no monarch could hope to break the szlachta's grip on power. The Commonwealth's political system is difficult to fit into a simple ...	9,108
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth equal in rights and privileges, and the Sejm could veto the king on important matters, including legislation (the adoption of new laws), foreign affairs, declaration of war, and taxation (changes of existing taxes or the levying of new ones). Also, the 15% of Commonwealth population who e...	9,109
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth was bound by pacta conventa and other laws, and the szlachta could disobey any king's decrees they deemed illegal. ## Shortcomings. The end of the Jagiellon dynasty in 1572after nearly two centuriesdisrupted the fragile equilibrium of the Commonwealth's government. Power increasingly sl...	9,110
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Transylvanian Stefan Batory (1576–86), the kings of foreign origin were inclined to subordinate the interests of the Commonwealth to those of their own country and ruling house. This was especially visible in the policies and actions of the first two elected kings from the Swedish House o...	9,111
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth oligarchy". The Commonwealth's political system was vulnerable to outside interference, as Sejm deputies bribed by foreign powers might use their liberum veto to block attempted reforms. This sapped the Commonwealth and plunged it into political paralysis and anarchy for over a century, f...	9,112
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as a Polish–Lithuanian federal state with a hereditary monarchy and abolished many of the deleterious features of the old system. The new constitution: - abolished the liberum veto and banned the szlachta's confederations; - provided for a separation of p...	9,113
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth from all sides by its neighbors, which had been content to leave the Commonwealth alone as a weak buffer state, but reacted strongly to attempts by king Stanisław August Poniatowski and other reformers to strengthen the country. Russia feared the revolutionary implications of the May 3rd ...	9,114
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Austria used it as a pretext for further territorial expansion. Prussian minister Ewald Friedrich von Hertzberg called the constitution "a blow to the Prussian monarchy", fearing that a strengthened Poland would once again dominate Prussia. In the end, the May 3 Constitution was never ful...	9,115
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth a large farm worked by serfs to produce surpluses for internal and external trade. This economic arrangement worked well for the ruling classes in the early era of the Commonwealth, which was one of the most prosperous eras of the grain trade. The economic strength of Commonwealth grain t...	9,116
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth in a process known as export-led serfdom. Urban population of the Commonwealth was low compared to Western Europe. Exact numbers depend on calculation methods. According to one source, the urban population of the Commonwealth was about 20% of the total in the 17th century, compared to ap...	9,117
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth similar conflicts among social classes may be found all over Europe, nowhere were the nobility as dominant at the time as in the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth. There is, however, much debate among historians as to which processes most affected those developments, since until the wars and...	9,118
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth played a significant role in the supply of 16th century Western Europe by the export of three sorts of goods, notably grain (rye), cattle (oxen) and fur. These three articles amounted to nearly 90% of the country's exports to western markets by overland- and maritime trade. Although the ...	9,119
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth tons, 6% of which was exported, while cities consumed some 19% and the remainder was consumed by the villages. Commonwealth grain achieved far more importance in poor crop years, as in the early 1590s and the 1620s, when governments throughout southern Europe arranged for large grain impo...	9,120
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth The rivers had relatively developed infrastructure, with river ports and granaries. Most of the river shipping moved north, southward transport being less profitable, and barges and rafts were often sold off in Gdańsk for lumber. Hrodna become an important site after formation of a custom...	9,121
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth German lands of the Holy Roman Empire such as the cities of Leipzig and Nuremberg, were used for export of live cattle (herds of around 50,000 head) hides, furs, salt, tobacco, hemp, cotton (mostly from Greater Poland) and linen. The Commonwealth imported wine, fruit, spices, luxury good...	9,122
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth as new ones were created. Poland's importance as a caravan route between Asia and Europe diminished, while new local trading routes were created between the Commonwealth and Russia. Many goods and cultural artifacts continued to pass from one region to another via the Commonwealth. For ex...	9,123
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth commanded by the Hetman. The most unusual formation of the army was the heavy cavalry in the form of the Polish winged hussars. The Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Navy never played a major role in the military structure, and ceased to exist in the mid-17th century. Commonwealth forces we...	9,124
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth funds, it found itself increasingly hard-pressed to defend the country, and inferior in numbers to the growing armies of the Commonwealth's neighbors. The Commonwealth was formed at the Union of Lublin of 1569 from the Kingdom of Poland and the Grand Duchy of Lithuania. The armies of tho...	9,125
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth the core of the military. There was a small standing army, "obrona potoczna" ("continuous defense") about 1,500–3,000 strong, paid for by the king, and primarily stationed at the troubled south and eastern borders. It was supplemented by two formations mobilized in case of war: the pospol...	9,126
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth parliament of Poland) legislated in 1562–1563 the creation of "wojsko kwarciane" (named after "kwarta" tax levied on the royal lands for the purpose of maintaining this formation). This formation was also paid for by the king, and in the peacetime, numbered about 3,500–4,000 men according...	9,127
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Warsaw. # Culture. ## Science and literature. The Commonwealth was an important European center for the development of modern social and political ideas. It was famous for its rare quasi-democratic political system, praised by philosophers, and during the Counter-Reformation was known ...	9,128
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth churches and synagogues.” The Commonwealth gave rise to the famous Christian sect of the Polish Brethren, antecedents of British and American Unitarianism. With its political system, the Commonwealth gave birth to political philosophers such as Andrzej Frycz Modrzewski (1503–1572) ("Pic....	9,129
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth (established in 1579) they were the major scholarly and scientific centers in the Commonwealth. The Komisja Edukacji Narodowej, Polish for "Commission for National Education", formed in 1773, was the world's first national Ministry of Education. Commonwealth scientists included: Martin Kr...	9,130
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth control of Brazil; Kazimierz Siemienowicz (1600–1651), military engineer, artillery specialist and a founder of rocketry; Johannes Hevelius (1611–1687), astronomer, founder of lunar topography; Michał Boym (1612–1659), orientalist, cartographer, naturalist and diplomat in Ming Dynasty's s...	9,131
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth nobility. In 1628 the Czech teacher, scientist, educator, and writer John Amos Comenius took refuge in the Commonwealth, when the Protestants were persecuted under the Counter Reformation. The works of many Commonwealth authors are considered classics, including those of Jan Kochanowski ...	9,132
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth he wrote a diary called "Commentariorum chotinensis belli libri tres" (Diary of the Chocim War), which was published in 1646 in Gdańsk. It was used by Wacław Potocki as a basis for his epic poem, "Transakcja wojny chocimskiej" ("The Progress of the War of Chocim"). He also authored instru...	9,133
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth Church in the predominantly Latin territories of today's Poland (Black Madonna) and Lithuania (Our Lady of the Gate of Dawn). The implementation of post-Renaissance naturalism and the sentimentality of the Polish baroque in Orthodox painting as well as the creation of the Cossack Baroque ...	9,134
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth coffin placed on a high, ornate catafalque. Another characteristic is common usage of black marble. Altars, fonts, portals, balustrades, columns, monuments, tombstones, headstones and whole rooms (e.g. Marble Room at the Royal Castle in Warsaw, St. Casimir Chapel of the Wilno Cathedral a...	9,135
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth of arts which manifested itself in their permanently retained orchestras, at their courts in Wilno. Musical life further flourished during the reign of the Vasas. Both foreign and domestic composers were active in the Commonwealth. King Sigismund III brought in Italian composers and condu...	9,136
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth projects as monuments to themselves: churches, cathedrals, monasteries ("Pic. 14"), and palaces like the present-day Presidential Palace in Warsaw and Pidhirtsi Castle built by Grand Hetman Stanisław Koniecpolski "herbu" Pobóg. The largest projects involved entire towns, although in time ...	9,137
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth surrounded by fortifications. Due to efforts of powerful Radziwiłł family, the town of Nesvizh in today's Belarus came to exercise significant influence in many domains – the Nesvizh manufactures of firearm, carpets, kontusz sashes and tapestries as well as school of painting produced ren...	9,138
343234	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth	https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Polish–Lithuanian%20Commonwealth	Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth are visible in Wilanów Palace in Warsaw ("Pic. 15"), Branicki Palace in Białystok and in Warsaw, Potocki Palace in Radzyń Podlaski and in Krystynopol, Raczyński Palace in Rogalin and Sapieha Palace in Ruzhany. ## "Szlachta" and Sarmatism. The prevalent ideology of the "szlachta" became ...	9,139