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The Ancoratus is a catechetical work by Epiphanius of Salamis that examines some dogmatic themes in light of the heresies of the fourth century. He does not devote much space to developing heretical doctrines or their confutation as in the Panarion, but he explains the Christian dogma from Bible and tradition.
This work also includes two professions of faith. One of them composed by Epiphanius himself and the other is the one normally used at that time during the rite of baptism by the church of Salamis. It was later adopted by the Council of Constantinople in 381.
References
Works by Epiphanius of Salamis
4th-century Christian texts
4th-century books
Texts in Koine Greek
Christian anti-Gnosticism | wiki |
Leapp or LEAPP may refer to:
Land Environment Air Picture Provision, a British military air traffic technology
Leapp (software), an open-source tool for upgrading, migrating, and containerizing Red Hat Linux-based computer systems | wiki |
American comedian Bill Cosby has received 72 honorary degrees in recognition of his career in acting and comedy. 62 of these have since been revoked due to his now-overturned conviction on sexual assault charges. These include (listed in order of original awarding of degree):
References
Honorary degrees
Lists of honorary degree recipients | wiki |
Palmarès
2 volte All-BAA Second Team (1947, 1948)
2 volte NBA All-Star (1952, 1953)
Miglior tiratore di liberi BAA (1947)
Note
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
Childermass can refer to:
the feast of the Holy Innocents on December 28
the first part (1928) of The Human Age, a trilogy by Wyndham Lewis
Professor Roderick Random Childermass, a character in several books by John Bellairs
John Childermass, Norrell's cunning and surly servant in the novel Jonathan Strange & Mr Norrell by Susanna Clarke | wiki |
The Dominica Football Association is the governing body of football in Dominica.
The Dominica national football team is the national team of Dominica and is controlled by the Dominica Football Association. The national league of Dominica is the Dominica Championship.
In June 2012, the President of the DFA was removed from his role by the association's members until the end of his term in 2015 for his part in the Caribbean Football Union corruption scandal.
Association staff
External links
Dominica at the FIFA website
Dominica at CONCACAF site
Official site
References
CONCACAF member associations
Football in Dominica
Football
1970 establishments in Dominica
Sports organizations established in 1970 | wiki |
Hot Pants can refer to:
Hotpants or hot pants, an item of clothing
"Hot Pants" (James Brown song)
"Hot Pants" (Gene Summers song)
Hot Pants Patrol, a promotional group for the Philadelphia Phillies
Hot Pants (band), a French band formed by singer Manu Chao prior to the establishment of Mano Negra
Hot Pants (album)
Hot Pants, a side character in Hirohiko Araki's manga series Steel Ball Run | wiki |
William Cranstoun may refer to:
William Cranstoun, 1st Lord Cranstoun, Scottish Lord of Parliament
William Cranstoun, 3rd Lord Cranstoun, Scottish Lord of Parliament | wiki |
Morgan Scott Grim (born 7 November 1988) is an American professional basketball player who currently plays for the Uni Baskets Paderborn of the German ProA League.
References
External links
Profile at Paderborn Baskets Website
Eurobasket.com Profile
Utah State Bio
1988 births
Living people
Utah State Aggies men's basketball players
Centers (basketball)
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Salt Lake City | wiki |
Cinema
The Looters – cortometraggio statunitense del 1928 diretto da Bruce M. Mitchell
Gli sciacalli (The Looters) – film statunitense del 1955 diretto da Abner Biberman
I trasgressori (The Looters) – film statunitense del 1992 diretto da Walter Hill
Televisione
The Looters – episodio della terza stagione della serie televisiva statunitense Ricercato: vivo o morto trasmesso il 12 ottobre 1960 | wiki |
Julius Tisdale was an American Negro league outfielder who played in the 1940s.
Tisdale played for the New York Black Yankees in 1943. In three recorded games, he posted one hit in four plate appearances.
References
External links
and Seamheads
Possibly living people
Year of birth missing
Place of birth missing
New York Black Yankees players
Baseball outfielders | wiki |
Cornelian tree may refer to:
Cornus florida
Cornus mas | wiki |
Fort Baxter may refer to:
Fort Baxter (Kansas) a former US Army fort near Baxter Springs, also called Fort Blair
A fictional military base which was the setting of the first three seasons of The Phil Silvers Show, and the comedy film Sgt Bilko (1996)
A military base in Vice City, a fictional city in the Grand Theft Auto video game series. | wiki |
Lagunas (Spanish: lagoons) may refer to:
Lagunas de Ruidera, park
Lagunas de Nisibón, city in the Dominican Republic
Lagunas District, Alto Amazonas, Peru
Lagunas District, Chiclayo, Peru
Lagunas de Mejia National Sanctuary, Peru
Lagunas de Chacahua National Park, Oaxaca, Mexico
San Bernardino Lagunas, Puebla, Mexico
See also
Las Lagunas (disambiguation)
Laguna (disambiguation)
Lagunitas (disambiguation) | wiki |
The Nippon Professional Baseball season
Standings
See also
Japanese Baseball League
1949 All-American Girls Professional Baseball League season
1949 Major League Baseball season
References
Nippon | wiki |
Comair Limited — companhia sul-africana
Comair Inc. — companhia americana, filial da Delta Air Lines
Desambiguações de transporte | wiki |
Palmarès
Club
Competizioni nazionali
Schalke 04: 2000-2001, 2001-2002
Schalke 04: 2005
Competizioni internazionali
Schalke 04: 1996-1997
Collegamenti esterni | wiki |
Assumption reinsurance is a form of reinsurance whereby the reinsurer is substituted for the ceding insurer and becomes directly
liable for policy claims. This ordinarily requires a notice and release from affected policyholders. In the more typical reinsurance arrangement, the reinsurer has an obligation to indemnify the ceding insurer, which remains liable for claims on policies it has issued, and policyholders' approval is not required.
Types of insurance
Reinsurance | wiki |
The team all-around is an artistic gymnastics event held at the Summer Olympics. The event was first held for men at the third modern Olympics in 1904 but was only contested by teams from the United States. In 1908 and onwards it was contested by multiple different nations. The women's competition was added in 1928, skipped in 1932, and was re-added in 1936. It has been contested at every Olympic Games since.
Medalists
Men
Team medal counts
Women
Team medal counts
Individuals with multiple team medals
References
Team all-around
Olympics | wiki |
The 1905 Tour de France was the third edition of the Tour de France, held from 9 to 30 July, organised by the newspaper L'Auto. Following the disqualifications after the 1904 Tour de France, there were changes in the rules, the most important one being the general classification not made by time but by points. The race saw the introduction of mountains in the Tour de France, and René Pottier excelled in the first mountain, although he could not finish the race.
Due in part to some of the rule changes, the 1905 Tour de France had less cheating and sabotage than in previous years, though they were not completely eliminated. It was won by Louis Trousselier, who also won four of the eleven stages.
Innovations and changes
After the 1904 Tour de France, some cyclists were disqualified, most notably the top four cyclists of the original overall classification, Maurice Garin, Lucien Pothier, César Garin and Hippolyte Aucouturier. Maurice Garin was originally banned for two years and Pothier for life, so they were ineligible to start the 1905 Tour de France. Of these four, only Aucouturier (who had been "warned" and had a "reprimand inflicted" on him), started the 1905 Tour. They were disqualified by the Union Vélocipédique Française, based on accusations of cheating when there were no race officials around. In 1904 Tour, it was difficult to observe the cyclists continuously, as significant portions of the race were run overnight, and the long stages made it difficult to have officials everywhere.
Because these disqualifications had almost put an end to the Tour de France, the 1905 event had been changed in important ways, to make the race easier to supervise:
The stages were shortened so that no night riding occurred.
The number of stages increased to 11 stages, almost double from the previous year.
The winner was selected on points, not time.
The first cyclist to cross the finish line received 1 point. Other cyclists received one point more than the cyclist who passed the line directly before him, plus an additional point for every five minutes between them, with a maximum of ten points. In this way, a cyclist could not get more than 11 points more than the cyclist that crossed the finish line just before him.
As an example for this point system, the result for the first seven cyclists in the first stage is in this table:
The other important introduction were the mountains. One of Desgrange's staffers, Alphonse Steinès, took Desgrange for a trip over the Col Bayard at and the Ballon d'Alsace at , that had an average gradient of 5.2% with 10% at some places, to convince Desgrange to use these climbs in the route. Desgrange accepted it, saying that Steinès would take the blame if the mountains would be too hard to climb. In the two previous editions, the highest point was the Col de la République at . In 1905, Desgrange chose to overlook this, and focused instead on the introduction of the Ballon d'Alsace, because he saw that he had missed the opportunity for publicity previously.
There were two categories of riders, the coureurs de vitesse and the coureurs sur machines poinçonnées. The riders in the first category were allowed to change bicycles, which could be an advantage in the mountains, where they could use a bicycle with lower gears. The riders in the machines poinçonnées category had to use the same bicycle in the entire race, and to verify this, their bicycles were marked.
Participants
Before the race started, 77 riders had signed up for the race. Seventeen of those did not start the race, so the Tour began with 60 riders, including former winner Henri Cornet and future winners René Pottier and Lucien Petit-Breton. The riders were not grouped in teams, but most of them rode with an individual sponsor. Two of the cyclists—Catteau and Lootens—were Belgian, all other cyclists were French. Leading up to the start of the Tour, Wattelier, Trousselier, Pottier and Augereau were all considered the most likely contenders to win the event.
Race overview
Despite the rule changes, there were still protesters among the spectators; in the first stage all riders except Jean-Baptiste Dortignacq punctured due to 125 kg of nails spread along the road. The first stage was won by Louis Trousselier. Trousselier was serving in the army, and had requested from his commander leave for the Tour de France; this was allowed for 24 hours. After he won the first stage and led the classification, his leave was extended until the end of the Tour. From 60 starting cyclists, only 15 cyclists reached the finish line within the time limit; 15 more reached the finish after the limit and the rest took the train.
The Tour organiser Desgrange wanted to stop the race, but was persuaded by the cyclists not to do so, and allowed all cyclists to continue with 75 points.
In the second stage, the first major climb, the Ballon d'Alsace, made its debut. Four riders were the fastest climbers: Trousselier, René Pottier, Cornet and Aucouturier. Of those four, Trousselier and Aucouturier were the first to be dropped, and Cornet had to drop in the final kilometers. The top was therefore reached first by René Pottier, without dismounting, at an average speed of 20 km/h. Cornet, who reached the top second, had to wait 20 minutes for his bicycle with higher gear, because his support car had broken down.
Later Aucouturier caught Pottier, and dropped him, and won the stage. Pottier became second in the stage and led the classification. Seven cyclists did not reach the finish in time, but they were again allowed to start the next stage.
In the third stage, Pottier had to abandon due to tendinitis. The lead was back with Trousselier, who also won the stage.
In the fourth stage, the Côte de Laffrey and the Col Bayard were climbed, the second and third mountains of the Tour de France. Julien Maitron reached both tops first, but Aucouturier won the stage. Trousselier finished in second place, still leading the overall classification, although with the same number of points as Aucouturier.
In the fifth stage, Trousselier won, and because Aucouturier finished in twelfth place, Trousselier had a big lead in the general classification. After the fifth stage, Aucouturier could no longer challenge Trousselier for the lead.
In the seventh stage to Bordeaux, Trousselier punctured after only a few kilometers. The rest of the cyclists quickly sped away from him, and Trousselier had to follow them alone for 200 km. A few kilometers before Bordeaux, Trousselier caught up with the rest, and even managed to win the sprint. Louis Trousselier kept his lead until the end of the race, winning five stages. Trousselier was accused of bad sportsmanship: he reportedly smashed the inkstands of a control post to prevent his opponents from signing. Unlike the 1904 Tour de France, no stage winners, nor anyone from the top ten of the general classification, were disqualified.
Results
Stage results
In the first and last stage, the cyclists were allowed to use pacers. All the 11 stages were won by only three cyclists:
General classification
The cyclists officially were not grouped in teams; some cyclists had the same sponsor, even though they were not allowed to work together.
Other classifications
Pautrat was the winner of the coureurs sur machines poinçonnées category, having used the same bicycle through the whole event.
The organising newspaper L'Auto named René Pottier the meilleur grimpeur. This unofficial title is the precursor to the mountains classification.
Aftermath
The tour organisers liked the effect of the points system, and it remained active until the 1912 Tour de France, after which it was reverted to the time system. In 1953, for the 50-years anniversary of the Tour de France, the points system was reintroduced as the points classification, and the winner was given a green jersey. This points classification has been active ever since.
The introduction of mountains in the Tour de France had also been successful. After the introduction of the Vosges in the 1905 Tour de France, in 1906 the Massif Central were climbed, followed by the Pyrenees in 1910 and the Alps in 1911.
The winner Trousselier received 6950 Francs for his victory. The night after he won, he drank and gambled with friends, and lost all the money. In later years, Trousselier would not win a Tour de France again, but he still won eight more stages and finished on the podium in the next year.
The unofficial mountain champion of the 1905 Tour de France, Pottier, would be more successful in the next year, when he won the overall classification and five stages.
For L'Auto, the newspaper that organised the Tour de France, the race was a success; the circulation had increased to 100,000.
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Tour de France
Tour de France by year
Tour de France
Tour de France | wiki |
William Forwood may refer to:
William Bower Forwood, English merchant, shipowner and politician
William H. Forwood, United States Army surgeon general
Bill Forwood, Australian politician | wiki |
The name Mastercraft may refer to any of the following:
MasterCraft, brand and manufacturer of recreational boats
Mastercraft (tool brand), line of tools sold by Canadian Tire
MasterCraft, brand of home improvement products sold by Menards stores in the United States
Mastercraft, Australian brand and manufacturer of chocolates, later absorbed by Nestlé
MSTRKRFT, electronic music group
Mastercraft Homes, a Phoenix, Arizona-based home builder acquired by Lennar in 1973 | wiki |
This is a list of ants in the genus Brachymyrmex. , Brachymyrmex contains 44 species and 17 subspecies.
Species
References
Brachymyrmex | wiki |
A cholecystoenterostomy is a surgical procedure in which the gall bladder is joined to the small intestine. It is performed in order to allow bile to pass from the liver to the intestine when the common bile duct is obstructed by an irremovable cause.
References
Abdominal surgical procedures
Colorectal surgery
Accessory digestive gland surgery | wiki |
Sunbird may refer to:
The bird family Nectariniidae
The Pontiac Sunbird, one of two kinds of car made by General Motors
The Holden Sunbird, a mid-sized sedan automobile
Sunbird, a person, especially an older person, who moves to a more desirable climate
Mozilla Sunbird, a calendar and scheduling program
The Sunbird, a book by Wilbur Smith
Sunbird, a children's imprint of Penguin Group
Three-legged crow, a Chinese mythological bird with association to the sun
Sunbird, a spell in the MMORPG Wizard101
Sunbird (album)
Sunbird, a short story by Neil Gaiman
See also
"Sun Bird", a 1908 intermezzo
Golden Sun Bird, an ancient Chinese artifact | wiki |
Granatin may refer to:
Granatin A, an ellagitannin found in pomegranate
Granatin B, an ellagitannin found in pomegranate | wiki |
Mining Journal may mean:
The Mining Journal, the predominant daily newspaper of Marquette, Michigan, in the Upper Peninsula of Michigan.
The Mining Journal (trade magazine), founded in 1835 | wiki |
A royal warrant is a document issued by a monarch which confers rights or privileges on the recipient, or has the effect of law.
Royal warrant may refer to:
Royal warrant of appointment, warrant to tradespeople who supply goods or services to a royal court
Royal warrant of appointment (Spain), issued to those who supplied goods or services to the King of Spain
Royal warrant of appointment (Thailand), issued to companies and businesses that have shown exceptional services
Royal warrant of appointment (United Kingdom), granted by senior members of the British royal family
List of royal warrant holders of the British royal family
List of royal warrant holders of the Swedish court, granted by the king or the queen
Royal warrant of precedence, a warrant issued by the monarch of the United Kingdom to determine precedence amongst individuals or organisations
Royal charter, a formal document issued by a monarch to establish an organization
Warrant (law), a specific type of authorization
Warrant officer, an officer in a military organisation designated an officer by a warrant
See also
Letters patent, a type of legal instrument granting rights or privileges
Royal commission, a major ad-hoc formal public inquiry into a defined issue in some monarchies, often established by royal warrant
Royal sign-manual, a monarch's signature which confirms an order, commission, or warrant
Warrant of appointment, the official document presented by the President of Ireland to persons upon appointment to certain high offices of state
Warrant (disambiguation) | wiki |
A Triparty Required Value (RQV) is the value of collateral required by a securities lending lender in exchange for the outstanding loans that they have made to their borrower. An RQV will be satisfied through a combination of collateral types, such as equities, government bonds, convertible bonds, cash, or other products. RQV collateral requirements can be very complicated, involving instrument attributes such as how heavily traded they are, their minimum price, specific indexes, redemption dates, and other fields.
Vendors providing RQV services
BNY Mellon
Clearstream
Euroclear
JPMorgan Chase
Pirum
SIX Swiss Exchange
References
Securities (finance)
Financial markets | wiki |
Rarity may refer to:
Concepts
Economic rarity, or scarcity, the economic problem of human want exceeding limited resources
Species rarity, the position of species organisms being very uncommon or infrequently encountered
People
John Rarity, an English physicist
Fictional characters
Rarity, a character in My Little Pony Crystal Princess: The Runaway Rainbow
Rarity, a character in My Little Pony: Friendship Is Magic
Music
Rarity (band), a Canadian rock band
See also
Rarities (disambiguation)
Rare (disambiguation) | wiki |
The atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki were the detonation of two atomic bombs over the Japanese cities of Hiroshima and Nagasaki on 6 and 9 August 1945 by the United States. The two bombings killed between 129,000 and 226,000 people, most of whom were civilians, and remain the only use of nuclear weapons in an armed conflict. Japan surrendered to the Allies on 15 August, six days after the bombing of Nagasaki and the Soviet Union's declaration of war against Japan. The Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender on 2 September, effectively ending the war.
In the final year of World War II, the Allies prepared for a costly invasion of the Japanese mainland. This undertaking was preceded by a conventional and firebombing campaign that devastated 64 Japanese cities. The war in the European theatre concluded when Germany surrendered on 8 May 1945, and the Allies turned their full attention to the Pacific War. By July 1945, the Allies' Manhattan Project had produced two types of atomic bombs: "Fat Man", a plutonium implosion-type nuclear weapon; and "Little Boy", an enriched uranium gun-type fission weapon. The 509th Composite Group of the United States Army Air Forces was trained and equipped with the specialized Silverplate version of the Boeing B-29 Superfortress, and deployed to Tinian in the Mariana Islands. The Allies called for the unconditional surrender of the Imperial Japanese armed forces in the Potsdam Declaration on 26 July 1945, the alternative being "prompt and utter destruction". The Japanese government ignored the ultimatum.
The consent of the United Kingdom was obtained for the bombing, as was required by the Quebec Agreement, and orders were issued on 25 July by General Thomas Handy, the acting Chief of Staff of the United States Army, for atomic bombs to be used against Hiroshima, Kokura, Niigata, and Nagasaki. These targets were chosen because they were large urban areas that also held militarily significant facilities. On 6 August, a Little Boy was dropped on Hiroshima, to which Prime Minister Suzuki reiterated the Japanese government's commitment to ignore the Allies' demands and fight on. Three days later, a Fat Man was dropped on Nagasaki. Over the next two to four months, the effects of the atomic bombings killed between 90,000 and 146,000 people in Hiroshima and 60,000 and 80,000 people in Nagasaki; roughly half occurred on the first day. For months afterward, many people continued to die from the effects of burns, radiation sickness, and injuries, compounded by illness and malnutrition. Though Hiroshima had a sizable military garrison, most of the dead were civilians.
Japan surrendered to the Allies on 15 August, six days after the Soviet Union's declaration of war and the bombing of Nagasaki. The Japanese government signed the instrument of surrender on 2 September, effectively ending the war. Scholars have extensively studied the effects of the bombings on the social and political character of subsequent world history and popular culture, and there is still much debate concerning the ethical and legal justification for the bombings. Supporters claim that the atomic bombings were necessary to bring an end to the war with minimal American casualties; critics believe that the bombings were unnecessary and a war crime, and highlight the moral and ethical implications of the intentional nuclear attack on civilians.
Background
Pacific War
In 1945, the Pacific War between the Empire of Japan and the Allies entered its fourth year. Most Japanese military units fought fiercely, ensuring that the Allied victory would come at an enormous cost. The 1.25 million battle casualties incurred in total by the United States in World War II included both military personnel killed in action and wounded in action. Nearly one million of the casualties occurred during the last year of the war, from June 1944 to June 1945. In December 1944, American battle casualties hit an all-time monthly high of 88,000 as a result of the German Ardennes Offensive. America's reserves of manpower were running out. Deferments for groups such as agricultural workers were tightened, and there was consideration of drafting women. At the same time, the public was becoming war-weary, and demanding that long-serving servicemen be sent home.
In the Pacific, the Allies returned to the Philippines, recaptured Burma, and invaded Borneo. Offensives were undertaken to reduce the Japanese forces remaining in Bougainville, New Guinea and the Philippines. In April 1945, American forces landed on Okinawa, where heavy fighting continued until June. Along the way, the ratio of Japanese to American casualties dropped from five to one in the Philippines to two to one on Okinawa. Although some Japanese soldiers were taken prisoner, most fought until they were killed or committed suicide. Nearly 99 percent of the 21,000 defenders of Iwo Jima were killed. Of the 117,000 Okinawan and Japanese troops defending Okinawa in April to June 1945, 94 percent were killed; 7,401 Japanese soldiers surrendered, an unprecedentedly large number.
As the Allies advanced towards Japan, conditions became steadily worse for the Japanese people. Japan's merchant fleet declined from 5,250,000 gross tons in 1941 to 1,560,000 tons in March 1945, and 557,000 tons in August 1945. Lack of raw materials forced the Japanese war economy into a steep decline after the middle of 1944. The civilian economy, which had slowly deteriorated throughout the war, reached disastrous levels by the middle of 1945. The loss of shipping also affected the fishing fleet, and the 1945 catch was only 22 percent of that in 1941. The 1945 rice harvest was the worst since 1909, and hunger and malnutrition became widespread. U.S. industrial production was overwhelmingly superior to Japan's. By 1943, the U.S. produced almost 100,000 aircraft a year, compared to Japan's production of 70,000 for the entire war. In February 1945, Prince Fumimaro Konoe advised Emperor Hirohito that defeat was inevitable, and urged him to abdicate.
Preparations to invade Japan
Even before the surrender of Nazi Germany on 8 May 1945, plans were underway for the largest operation of the Pacific War, Operation Downfall, the Allied invasion of Japan. The operation had two parts: Operation Olympic and Operation Coronet. Set to begin in October 1945, Olympic involved a series of landings by the U.S. Sixth Army intended to capture the southern third of the southernmost main Japanese island, Kyūshū. Operation Olympic was to be followed in March 1946 by Operation Coronet, the capture of the Kantō Plain, near Tokyo on the main Japanese island of Honshū by the U.S. First, Eighth and Tenth Armies, as well as a Commonwealth Corps made up of Australian, British and Canadian divisions. The target date was chosen to allow for Olympic to complete its objectives, for troops to be redeployed from Europe, and the Japanese winter to pass.
Japan's geography made this invasion plan obvious to the Japanese; they were able to predict the Allied invasion plans accurately and thus adjust their defensive plan, Operation Ketsugō, accordingly. The Japanese planned an all-out defense of Kyūshū, with little left in reserve for any subsequent defense operations. Four veteran divisions were withdrawn from the Kwantung Army in Manchuria in March 1945 to strengthen the forces in Japan, and 45 new divisions were activated between February and May 1945. Most were immobile formations for coastal defense, but 16 were high quality mobile divisions. In all, there were 2.3 million Japanese Army troops prepared to defend the home islands, backed by a civilian militia of 28 million men and women. Casualty predictions varied widely, but were extremely high. The Vice Chief of the Imperial Japanese Navy General Staff, Vice Admiral Takijirō Ōnishi, predicted up to 20 million Japanese deaths.
On 15 June 1945, a study by the Joint War Plans Committee, who provided planning information to the Joint Chiefs of Staff, estimated that Olympic would result in 130,000 to 220,000 U.S. casualties, with U.S. dead in the range from 25,000 to 46,000. Delivered on 15 June 1945, after insight gained from the Battle of Okinawa, the study noted Japan's inadequate defenses due to the very effective sea blockade and the American firebombing campaign. The Chief of Staff of the United States Army, General of the Army George Marshall, and the Army Commander in Chief in the Pacific, General of the Army Douglas MacArthur, signed documents agreeing with the Joint War Plans Committee estimate.
The Americans were alarmed by the Japanese buildup, which was accurately tracked through Ultra intelligence. Secretary of War Henry L. Stimson was sufficiently concerned about high American estimates of probable casualties to commission his own study by Quincy Wright and William Shockley. Wright and Shockley spoke with Colonels James McCormack and Dean Rusk, and examined casualty forecasts by Michael E. DeBakey and Gilbert Beebe. Wright and Shockley estimated the invading Allies would suffer between 1.7 and 4 million casualties in such a scenario, of whom between 400,000 and 800,000 would be dead, while Japanese fatalities would have been around 5 to 10 million.
Marshall began contemplating the use of a weapon that was "readily available and which assuredly can decrease the cost in American lives": poison gas. Quantities of phosgene, mustard gas, tear gas and cyanogen chloride were moved to Luzon from stockpiles in Australia and New Guinea in preparation for Operation Olympic, and MacArthur ensured that Chemical Warfare Service units were trained in their use. Consideration was also given to using biological weapons against Japan.
Air raids on Japan
While the United States had developed plans for an air campaign against Japan prior to the Pacific War, the capture of Allied bases in the western Pacific in the first weeks of the conflict meant that this offensive did not begin until mid-1944 when the long-ranged Boeing B-29 Superfortress became ready for use in combat. Operation Matterhorn involved India-based B-29s staging through bases around Chengdu in China to make a series of raids on strategic targets in Japan. This effort failed to achieve the strategic objectives that its planners had intended, largely because of logistical problems, the bomber's mechanical difficulties, the vulnerability of Chinese staging bases, and the extreme range required to reach key Japanese cities.
Brigadier General Haywood S. Hansell determined that Guam, Tinian, and Saipan in the Mariana Islands would better serve as B-29 bases, but they were in Japanese hands. Strategies were shifted to accommodate the air war, and the islands were captured between June and August 1944. Air bases were developed, and B-29 operations commenced from the Marianas in October 1944. These bases were easily resupplied by cargo ships. The XXI Bomber Command began missions against Japan on 18 November 1944. The early attempts to bomb Japan from the Marianas proved just as ineffective as the China-based B-29s had been. Hansell continued the practice of conducting so-called high-altitude precision bombing, aimed at key industries and transportation networks, even after these tactics had not produced acceptable results. These efforts proved unsuccessful due to logistical difficulties with the remote location, technical problems with the new and advanced aircraft, unfavorable weather conditions, and enemy action.
Hansell's successor, Major General Curtis LeMay, assumed command in January 1945 and initially continued to use the same precision bombing tactics, with equally unsatisfactory results. The attacks initially targeted key industrial facilities but much of the Japanese manufacturing process was carried out in small workshops and private homes. Under pressure from United States Army Air Forces (USAAF) headquarters in Washington, LeMay changed tactics and decided that low-level incendiary raids against Japanese cities were the only way to destroy their production capabilities, shifting from precision bombing to area bombardment with incendiaries. Like most strategic bombing during World War II, the aim of the air offensive against Japan was to destroy the enemy's war industries, kill or disable civilian employees of these industries, and undermine civilian morale.
Over the next six months, the XXI Bomber Command under LeMay firebombed 64 Japanese cities. The firebombing of Tokyo, codenamed Operation Meetinghouse, on 9–10 March killed an estimated 100,000 people and destroyed of the city and 267,000 buildings in a single night. It was the deadliest bombing raid of the war, at a cost of 20 B-29s shot down by flak and fighters. By May, 75 percent of bombs dropped were incendiaries designed to burn down Japan's "paper cities". By mid-June, Japan's six largest cities had been devastated. The end of the fighting on Okinawa that month provided airfields even closer to the Japanese mainland, allowing the bombing campaign to be further escalated. Aircraft flying from Allied aircraft carriers and the Ryukyu Islands also regularly struck targets in Japan during 1945 in preparation for Operation Downfall. Firebombing switched to smaller cities, with populations ranging from 60,000 to 350,000. According to Yuki Tanaka, the U.S. fire-bombed over a hundred Japanese towns and cities. These raids were devastating.
The Japanese military was unable to stop the Allied attacks and the country's civil defense preparations proved inadequate. Japanese fighters and anti-aircraft guns had difficulty engaging bombers flying at high altitude. From April 1945, the Japanese interceptors also had to face American fighter escorts based on Iwo Jima and Okinawa. That month, the Imperial Japanese Army Air Service and Imperial Japanese Navy Air Service stopped attempting to intercept the air raids to preserve fighter aircraft to counter the expected invasion. By mid-1945 the Japanese only occasionally scrambled aircraft to intercept individual B-29s conducting reconnaissance sorties over the country, to conserve supplies of fuel. In July 1945, the Japanese had of avgas stockpiled for the invasion of Japan. About had been consumed in the home islands area in April, May and June 1945. While the Japanese military decided to resume attacks on Allied bombers from late June, by this time there were too few operational fighters available for this change of tactics to hinder the Allied air raids.
Atomic bomb development
The discovery of nuclear fission by German chemists Otto Hahn and Fritz Strassmann in 1938, and its theoretical explanation by Lise Meitner and Otto Frisch, made the development of an atomic bomb a theoretical possibility. Fears that a German atomic bomb project would develop atomic weapons first, especially among scientists who were refugees from Nazi Germany and other fascist countries, were expressed in the Einstein–Szilard letter in 1939. This prompted preliminary research in the United States in late 1939. Progress was slow until the arrival of the British MAUD Committee report in late 1941, which indicated that only 5 to 10 kilograms of isotopically enriched uranium-235 were needed for a bomb instead of tons of natural uranium and a neutron moderator like heavy water.
The 1943 Quebec Agreement merged the nuclear weapons projects of the United Kingdom and Canada, Tube Alloys and the Montreal Laboratory, with the Manhattan Project, under the direction of Major General Leslie R. Groves, Jr., of the U.S. Army Corps of Engineers. Groves appointed J. Robert Oppenheimer to organize and head the project's Los Alamos Laboratory in New Mexico, where bomb design work was carried out. Two types of bombs were eventually developed, both named by Robert Serber. Little Boy was a gun-type fission weapon that used uranium-235, a rare isotope of uranium separated at the Clinton Engineer Works at Oak Ridge, Tennessee. The other, known as a Fat Man device, was a more powerful and efficient, but more complicated, implosion-type nuclear weapon that used plutonium created in nuclear reactors at Hanford, Washington.
There was a Japanese nuclear weapon program, but it lacked the human, mineral and financial resources of the Manhattan Project, and never made much progress towards developing an atomic bomb.
Preparations
Organization and training
The 509th Composite Group was constituted on 9 December 1944, and activated on 17 December 1944, at Wendover Army Air Field, Utah, commanded by Colonel Paul Tibbets. Tibbets was assigned to organize and command a combat group to develop the means of delivering an atomic weapon against targets in Germany and Japan. Because the flying squadrons of the group consisted of both bomber and transport aircraft, the group was designated as a "composite" rather than a "bombardment" unit. Working with the Manhattan Project at Los Alamos, Tibbets selected Wendover for his training base over Great Bend, Kansas, and Mountain Home, Idaho, because of its remoteness. Each bombardier completed at least 50 practice drops of inert or conventional explosive pumpkin bombs and Tibbets declared his group combat-ready. On 5 April 1945, the code name Operation Centerboard was assigned. The officer responsible for its allocation in the War Department's Operations Division was not cleared to know any details of it. The first bombing was later codenamed Operation Centerboard I, and the second, Operation Centerboard II.
The 509th Composite Group had an authorized strength of 225 officers and 1,542 enlisted men, almost all of whom eventually deployed to Tinian. In addition to its authorized strength, the 509th had attached to it on Tinian 51 civilian and military personnel from Project Alberta, known as the 1st Technical Detachment. The 509th Composite Group's 393d Bombardment Squadron was equipped with 15 Silverplate B-29s. These aircraft were specially adapted to carry nuclear weapons, and were equipped with fuel-injected engines, Curtiss Electric reversible-pitch propellers, pneumatic actuators for rapid opening and closing of bomb bay doors and other improvements.
The ground support echelon of the 509th Composite Group moved by rail on 26 April 1945, to its port of embarkation at Seattle, Washington. On 6 May the support elements sailed on the SS Cape Victory for the Marianas, while group materiel was shipped on the SS Emile Berliner. The Cape Victory made brief port calls at Honolulu and Eniwetok but the passengers were not permitted to leave the dock area. An advance party of the air echelon, consisting of 29 officers and 61 enlisted men, flew by C-54 to North Field on Tinian, between 15 and 22 May. There were also two representatives from Washington, D.C., Brigadier General Thomas Farrell, the deputy commander of the Manhattan Project, and Rear Admiral William R. Purnell of the Military Policy Committee, who were on hand to decide higher policy matters on the spot. Along with Captain William S. Parsons, the commander of Project Alberta, they became known as the "Tinian Joint Chiefs".
Choice of targets
In April 1945, Marshall asked Groves to nominate specific targets for bombing for final approval by himself and Stimson. Groves formed a Target Committee, chaired by himself, that included Farrell, Major John A. Derry, Colonel William P. Fisher, Joyce C. Stearns and David M. Dennison from the USAAF; and scientists John von Neumann, Robert R. Wilson and William Penney from the Manhattan Project. The Target Committee met in Washington on 27 April; at Los Alamos on 10 May, where it was able to talk to the scientists and technicians there; and finally in Washington on 28 May, where it was briefed by Tibbets and Commander Frederick Ashworth from Project Alberta, and the Manhattan Project's scientific advisor, Richard C. Tolman.
The Target Committee nominated five targets: Kokura (now Kitakyushu), the site of one of Japan's largest munitions plants; Hiroshima, an embarkation port and industrial center that was the site of a major military headquarters; Yokohama, an urban center for aircraft manufacture, machine tools, docks, electrical equipment and oil refineries; Niigata, a port with industrial facilities including steel and aluminum plants and an oil refinery; and Kyoto, a major industrial center. The target selection was subject to the following criteria:
The target was larger than in diameter and was an important target in a large city.
The blast wave would create effective damage.
The target was unlikely to be attacked by August 1945.
These cities were largely untouched during the nightly bombing raids, and the Army Air Forces agreed to leave them off the target list so accurate assessment of the damage caused by the atomic bombs could be made. Hiroshima was described as "an important army depot and port of embarkation in the middle of an urban industrial area. It is a good radar target and it is such a size that a large part of the city could be extensively damaged. There are adjacent hills which are likely to produce a focusing effect which would considerably increase the blast damage. Due to rivers it is not a good incendiary target."
The Target Committee stated that "It was agreed that psychological factors in the target selection were of great importance. Two aspects of this are (1) obtaining the greatest psychological effect against Japan and (2) making the initial use sufficiently spectacular for the importance of the weapon to be internationally recognized when publicity on it is released.... Kyoto has the advantage of the people being more highly intelligent and hence better able to appreciate the significance of the weapon. Hiroshima has the advantage of being such a size and with possible focussing from nearby mountains that a large fraction of the city may be destroyed. The Emperor's palace in Tokyo has a greater fame than any other target but is of least strategic value."
Edwin O. Reischauer, a Japan expert for the U.S. Army Intelligence Service, was incorrectly said to have prevented the bombing of Kyoto. In his autobiography, Reischauer specifically refuted this claim:
On 30 May, Stimson asked Groves to remove Kyoto from the target list due to its historical, religious and cultural significance, but Groves pointed to its military and industrial significance. Stimson then approached President Harry S. Truman about the matter. Truman agreed with Stimson, and Kyoto was temporarily removed from the target list. Groves attempted to restore Kyoto to the target list in July, but Stimson remained adamant. On 25 July, Nagasaki was put on the target list in place of Kyoto. It was a major military port, one of Japan's largest shipbuilding and repair centers, and an important producer of naval ordnance.
Proposed demonstration
In early May 1945, the Interim Committee was created by Stimson at the urging of leaders of the Manhattan Project and with the approval of Truman to advise on matters pertaining to nuclear energy. During the meetings on 31 May and 1 June, scientist Ernest Lawrence had suggested giving the Japanese a non-combat demonstration. Arthur Compton later recalled that:
The possibility of a demonstration was raised again in the Franck Report issued by physicist James Franck on 11 June and the Scientific Advisory Panel rejected his report on 16 June, saying that "we can propose no technical demonstration likely to bring an end to the war; we see no acceptable alternative to direct military use." Franck then took the report to Washington, D.C., where the Interim Committee met on 21 June to re-examine its earlier conclusions; but it reaffirmed that there was no alternative to the use of the bomb on a military target.
Like Compton, many U.S. officials and scientists argued that a demonstration would sacrifice the shock value of the atomic attack, and the Japanese could deny the atomic bomb was lethal, making the mission less likely to produce surrender. Allied prisoners of war might be moved to the demonstration site and be killed by the bomb. They also worried that the bomb might be a failure, as the Trinity test was that of a stationary device, not an air-dropped bomb. In addition, although more bombs were in production, only two would be available at the start of August, and they cost billions of dollars, so using one for a demonstration would be expensive.
Leaflets
For several months, the U.S. had warned civilians of potential air raids by dropping more than 63 million leaflets across Japan. Many Japanese cities suffered terrible damage from aerial bombings; some were as much as 97 percent destroyed. LeMay thought that leaflets would increase the psychological impact of bombing, and reduce the international stigma of area-bombing cities. Even with the warnings, Japanese opposition to the war remained ineffective. In general, the Japanese regarded the leaflet messages as truthful, with many Japanese choosing to leave major cities. The leaflets caused such concern that the government ordered the arrest of anyone caught in possession of a leaflet. Leaflet texts were prepared by recent Japanese prisoners of war because they were thought to be the best choice "to appeal to their compatriots".
In preparation for dropping an atomic bomb on Hiroshima, the Oppenheimer-led Scientific Panel of the Interim Committee decided against a demonstration bomb and against a special leaflet warning. Those decisions were implemented because of the uncertainty of a successful detonation and also because of the wish to maximize shock in the leadership. No warning was given to Hiroshima that a new and much more destructive bomb was going to be dropped. Various sources gave conflicting information about when the last leaflets were dropped on Hiroshima prior to the atomic bomb. Robert Jay Lifton wrote that it was 27 July, and Theodore H. McNelly wrote that it was 30 July. The USAAF history noted that eleven cities were targeted with leaflets on 27 July, but Hiroshima was not one of them, and there were no leaflet sorties on 30 July. Leaflet sorties were undertaken on 1 and 4 August. Hiroshima may have been leafleted in late July or early August, as survivor accounts talk about a delivery of leaflets a few days before the atomic bomb was dropped. Three versions were printed of a leaflet listing 11 or 12 cities targeted for firebombing; a total of 33 cities listed. With the text of this leaflet reading in Japanese "...we cannot promise that only these cities will be among those attacked..." Hiroshima was not listed.
Consultation with Britain and Canada
In 1943, the United States and the United Kingdom signed the Quebec Agreement, which stipulated that nuclear weapons would not be used against another country without mutual consent. Stimson therefore had to obtain British permission. A meeting of the Combined Policy Committee, which included one Canadian representative, was held at the Pentagon on 4 July 1945. Field Marshal Sir Henry Maitland Wilson announced that the British government concurred with the use of nuclear weapons against Japan, which would be officially recorded as a decision of the Combined Policy Committee. As the release of information to third parties was also controlled by the Quebec Agreement, discussion then turned to what scientific details would be revealed in the press announcement of the bombing. The meeting also considered what Truman could reveal to Joseph Stalin, the leader of the Soviet Union, at the upcoming Potsdam Conference, as this also required British concurrence.
Orders for the attack were issued to General Carl Spaatz on 25 July under the signature of General Thomas T. Handy, the acting chief of staff, since Marshall was at the Potsdam Conference with Truman. It read:
That day, Truman noted in his diary that:
Potsdam Declaration
The 16 July success of the Trinity Test in the New Mexico desert exceeded expectations. On 26 July, Allied leaders issued the Potsdam Declaration, which outlined the terms of surrender for Japan. The declaration was presented as an ultimatum and stated that without a surrender, the Allies would attack Japan, resulting in "the inevitable and complete destruction of the Japanese armed forces and just as inevitably the utter devastation of the Japanese homeland". The atomic bomb was not mentioned in the communiqué.
On 28 July, Japanese papers reported that the declaration had been rejected by the Japanese government. That afternoon, Prime Minister Kantarō Suzuki declared at a press conference that the Potsdam Declaration was no more than a rehash (yakinaoshi) of the Cairo Declaration, that the government intended to ignore it (mokusatsu, "kill by silence"), and that Japan would fight to the end. The statement was taken by both Japanese and foreign papers as a clear rejection of the declaration. Emperor Hirohito, who was waiting for a Soviet reply to non-committal Japanese peace feelers, made no move to change the government position. Japan's willingness to surrender remained conditional on the preservation of the kokutai (Imperial institution and national polity), assumption by the Imperial Headquarters of responsibility for disarmament and demobilization, no occupation of the Japanese Home Islands, Korea or Formosa, and delegation of the punishment of war criminals to the Japanese government.
At Potsdam, Truman agreed to a request from Winston Churchill that Britain be represented when the atomic bomb was dropped. William Penney and Group Captain Leonard Cheshire were sent to Tinian, but found that LeMay would not let them accompany the mission. All they could do was send a strongly worded signal to Wilson.
Bombs
The Little Boy bomb, except for the uranium payload, was ready at the beginning of May 1945. There were two uranium-235 components, a hollow cylindrical projectile and a cylindrical target insert. The projectile was completed on 15 June, and the target insert on 24 July. The projectile and eight bomb pre-assemblies (partly assembled bombs without the powder charge and fissile components) left Hunters Point Naval Shipyard, California, on 16 July aboard the cruiser , and arrived on Tinian on 26 July. The target insert followed by air on 30 July, accompanied by Commander Francis Birch from Project Alberta. Responding to concerns expressed by the 509th Composite Group about the possibility of a B-29 crashing on takeoff, Birch had modified the Little Boy design to incorporate a removable breech plug that would permit the bomb to be armed in flight.
The first plutonium core, along with its polonium-beryllium urchin initiator, was transported in the custody of Project Alberta courier Raemer Schreiber in a magnesium field carrying case designed for the purpose by Philip Morrison. Magnesium was chosen because it does not act as a neutron reflector. The core departed from Kirtland Army Air Field on a C-54 transport aircraft of the 509th Composite Group's 320th Troop Carrier Squadron on 26 July, and arrived at North Field 28 July. Three Fat Man high-explosive pre-assemblies, designated F31, F32, and F33, were picked up at Kirtland on 28 July by three B-29s, two from the 393d Bombardment Squadron plus one from the 216th Army Air Force Base Unit, and transported to North Field, arriving on 2 August.
Hiroshima
Hiroshima during World War II
At the time of its bombing, Hiroshima was a city of industrial and military significance. A number of military units were located nearby, the most important of which was the headquarters of Field Marshal Shunroku Hata's Second General Army, which commanded the defense of all of southern Japan, and was located in Hiroshima Castle. Hata's command consisted of some 400,000 men, most of whom were on Kyushu where an Allied invasion was correctly anticipated. Also present in Hiroshima were the headquarters of the 59th Army, the 5th Division and the 224th Division, a recently formed mobile unit. The city was defended by five batteries of 70 mm and 80 mm (2.8 and 3.1 inch) anti-aircraft guns of the 3rd Anti-Aircraft Division, including units from the 121st and 122nd Anti-Aircraft Regiments and the 22nd and 45th Separate Anti-Aircraft Battalions. In total, an estimated 40,000 Japanese military personnel were stationed in the city.
Hiroshima was a supply and logistics base for the Japanese military. The city was a communications center, a key port for shipping, and an assembly area for troops. It supported a large war industry, manufacturing parts for planes and boats, for bombs, rifles, and handguns. The center of the city contained several reinforced concrete buildings and lighter structures. Outside the center, the area was congested by a dense collection of small timber workshops set among Japanese houses. A few larger industrial plants lay near the outskirts of the city. The houses were constructed of timber with tile roofs, and many of the industrial buildings were also built around timber frames. The city as a whole was highly susceptible to fire damage. It was the second largest city in Japan after Kyoto that was still undamaged by air raids, primarily because it lacked the aircraft manufacturing industry that was the XXI Bomber Command's priority target. On 3 July, the Joint Chiefs of Staff placed it off limits to bombers, along with Kokura, Niigata and Kyoto.
The population of Hiroshima had reached a peak of over 381,000 earlier in the war but prior to the atomic bombing, the population had steadily decreased because of a systematic evacuation ordered by the Japanese government. At the time of the attack, the population was approximately 340,000–350,000. Residents wondered why Hiroshima had been spared destruction by firebombing. Some speculated that the city was to be saved for U.S. occupation headquarters, others thought perhaps their relatives in Hawaii and California had petitioned the U.S. government to avoid bombing Hiroshima. More realistic city officials had ordered buildings torn down to create long, straight firebreaks. These continued to be expanded and extended up to the morning of 6 August 1945.
Bombing of Hiroshima
Hiroshima was the primary target of the first atomic bombing mission on 6 August, with Kokura and Nagasaki as alternative targets. The 393d Bombardment Squadron B-29 Enola Gay, named after Tibbets's mother and piloted by Tibbets, took off from North Field, Tinian, about six hours' flight time from Japan. Enola Gay was accompanied by two other B-29s: The Great Artiste, commanded by Major Charles Sweeney, which carried instrumentation, and a then-nameless aircraft later called Necessary Evil, commanded by Captain George Marquardt. Necessary Evil was the photography aircraft.
After leaving Tinian, the aircraft made their way separately to Iwo Jima to rendezvous with Sweeney and Marquardt at 05:55 at , and set course for Japan. The aircraft arrived over the target in clear visibility at . Parsons, who was in command of the mission, armed the bomb in flight to minimize the risks during takeoff. He had witnessed four B-29s crash and burn at takeoff, and feared that a nuclear explosion would occur if a B-29 crashed with an armed Little Boy on board. His assistant, Second Lieutenant Morris R. Jeppson, removed the safety devices 30 minutes before reaching the target area.
During the night of 5–6 August, Japanese early warning radar detected the approach of numerous American aircraft headed for the southern part of Japan. Radar detected 65 bombers headed for Saga, 102 bound for Maebashi, 261 en route to Nishinomiya, 111 headed for Ube and 66 bound for Imabari. An alert was given and radio broadcasting stopped in many cities, among them Hiroshima. The all-clear was sounded in Hiroshima at 00:05. About an hour before the bombing, the air raid alert was sounded again, as Straight Flush flew over the city. It broadcast a short message which was picked up by Enola Gay. It read: "Cloud cover less than 3/10th at all altitudes. Advice: bomb primary." The all-clear was sounded over Hiroshima again at 07:09.
At 08:09, Tibbets started his bomb run and handed control over to his bombardier, Major Thomas Ferebee. The release at 08:15 (Hiroshima time) went as planned, and the Little Boy containing about of uranium-235 took 44.4 seconds to fall from the aircraft flying at about to a detonation height of about above the city. Enola Gay traveled before it felt the shock waves from the blast.
Due to crosswind, the bomb missed the aiming point, the Aioi Bridge, by approximately and detonated directly over Shima Surgical Clinic. It released the equivalent energy of . The weapon was considered very inefficient, with only 1.7 percent of its material fissioning. The radius of total destruction was about , with resulting fires across .
Enola Gay stayed over the target area for two minutes and was away when the bomb detonated. Only Tibbets, Parsons, and Ferebee knew of the nature of the weapon; the others on the bomber were only told to expect a blinding flash and given black goggles. "It was hard to believe what we saw", Tibbets told reporters, while Parsons said "the whole thing was tremendous and awe-inspiring... the men aboard with me gasped 'My God'." He and Tibbets compared the shockwave to "a close burst of ack-ack fire".
Events on the ground
People on the ground reported a —a brilliant flash of light—followed by a —a loud booming sound. Some 70,000–80,000 people, around 30 percent of the population of Hiroshima at the time, were killed by the blast and resultant firestorm, and another 70,000 were injured. It is estimated that as many as 20,000 Japanese military personnel were killed. U.S. surveys estimated that of the city were destroyed. Japanese officials determined that 69 percent of Hiroshima's buildings were destroyed and another 6 to 7 percent damaged.
Some of the reinforced concrete buildings in Hiroshima had been very strongly constructed because of the earthquake danger in Japan, and their framework did not collapse even though they were fairly close to the blast center. Since the bomb detonated in the air, the blast was directed more downward than sideways, which was largely responsible for the survival of the Prefectural Industrial Promotional Hall, now commonly known as the Genbaku (A-bomb) dome, which was only from ground zero (the hypocenter). The ruin was named Hiroshima Peace Memorial and was made a UNESCO World Heritage Site in 1996 over the objections of the United States and China, which expressed reservations on the grounds that other Asian nations were the ones who suffered the greatest loss of life and property, and a focus on Japan lacked historical perspective. The bombing started intense fires that spread rapidly through timber and paper homes, burning everything in a radius of . As in other Japanese cities, the firebreaks proved ineffective.
The air raid warning had been cleared at 07:31, and many people were outside, going about their activities. Eizō Nomura was the closest known survivor, being in the basement of a reinforced concrete building (it remained as the Rest House after the war) only from ground zero at the time of the attack. He died in 1982, aged 84. Akiko Takakura was among the closest survivors to the hypocenter of the blast. She was in the solidly-built Bank of Hiroshima only from ground-zero at the time of the attack.
Over 90 percent of the doctors and 93 percent of the nurses in Hiroshima were killed or injured—most had been in the downtown area which received the greatest damage. The hospitals were destroyed or heavily damaged. Only one doctor, Terufumi Sasaki, remained on duty at the Red Cross Hospital. Nonetheless, by early afternoon the police and volunteers had established evacuation centres at hospitals, schools and tram stations, and a morgue was established in the Asano library. Survivors of the blast gathered for medical treatment, but many would die before receiving any help, leaving behind rings of corpses around hospitals.
Most elements of the Japanese Second General Army headquarters were undergoing physical training on the grounds of Hiroshima Castle, barely from the hypocenter. The attack killed 3,243 troops on the parade ground. The communications room of Chugoku Military District Headquarters that was responsible for issuing and lifting air raid warnings was located in a semi-basement in the castle. Yoshie Oka, a Hijiyama Girls High School student who had been mobilized to serve as a communications officer, had just sent a message that the alarm had been issued for Hiroshima and neighboring Yamaguchi, when the bomb exploded. She used a special phone to inform Fukuyama Headquarters (some away) that "Hiroshima has been attacked by a new type of bomb. The city is in a state of near-total destruction."
Since Mayor Senkichi Awaya had been killed while eating breakfast with his son and granddaughter at the mayoral residence, Field Marshal Shunroku Hata, who was only slightly wounded, took over the administration of the city, and coordinated relief efforts. Many of his staff had been killed or fatally wounded, including Lieutenant Colonel Yi U, a prince of the Korean imperial family who was serving as a General Staff Officer. Hata's senior surviving staff officer was the wounded Colonel Kumao Imoto, who acted as his chief of staff. Soldiers from the undamaged Hiroshima Ujina Harbor used s, intended to repel the American invasion, to collect the wounded and take them down the rivers to the military hospital at Ujina. Trucks and trains brought in relief supplies and evacuated survivors from the city.
Twelve American airmen were imprisoned at the Chugoku Military Police Headquarters, about from the hypocenter of the blast. Most died instantly, although two were reported to have been executed by their captors, and two prisoners badly injured by the bombing were left next to the Aioi Bridge by the Kempei Tai, where they were stoned to death. Eight U.S. prisoners of war killed as part of the medical experiments program at Kyushu University were falsely reported by Japanese authorities as having been killed in the atomic blast as part of an attempted cover up.
Japanese realization of the bombing
The Tokyo control operator of the Japan Broadcasting Corporation noticed that the Hiroshima station had gone off the air. He tried to re-establish his program by using another telephone line, but it too had failed. About 20 minutes later the Tokyo railroad telegraph center realized that the main line telegraph had stopped working just north of Hiroshima. From some small railway stops within of the city came unofficial and confused reports of a terrible explosion in Hiroshima. All these reports were transmitted to the headquarters of the Imperial Japanese Army General Staff.
Military bases repeatedly tried to call the Army Control Station in Hiroshima. The complete silence from that city puzzled the General Staff; they knew that no large enemy raid had occurred and that no sizable store of explosives was in Hiroshima at that time. A young officer was instructed to fly immediately to Hiroshima, to land, survey the damage, and return to Tokyo with reliable information for the staff. It was felt that nothing serious had taken place and that the explosion was just a rumor.
The staff officer went to the airport and took off for the southwest. After flying for about three hours, while still nearly from Hiroshima, he and his pilot saw a great cloud of smoke from the firestorm created by the bomb. After circling the city to survey the damage they landed south of the city, where the staff officer, after reporting to Tokyo, began to organize relief measures. Tokyo's first indication that the city had been destroyed by a new type of bomb came from President Truman's announcement of the strike, sixteen hours later.
Events of 7–9 August
After the Hiroshima bombing, Truman issued a statement announcing the use of the new weapon. He stated, "We may be grateful to Providence" that the German atomic bomb project had failed, and that the United States and its allies had "spent two billion dollars on the greatest scientific gamble in history—and won". Truman then warned Japan: "If they do not now accept our terms, they may expect a rain of ruin from the air, the like of which has never been seen on this earth. Behind this air attack will follow sea and land forces in such numbers and power as they have not yet seen and with the fighting skill of which they are already well aware." This was a widely broadcast speech picked up by Japanese news agencies.
The 50,000-watt standard wave station on Saipan, the OWI radio station, broadcast a similar message to Japan every 15 minutes about Hiroshima, stating that more Japanese cities would face a similar fate in the absence of immediate acceptance of the terms of the Potsdam Declaration and emphatically urged civilians to evacuate major cities. Radio Japan, which continued to extoll victory for Japan by never surrendering, had informed the Japanese of the destruction of Hiroshima by a single bomb. Prime Minister Suzuki felt compelled to meet the Japanese press, to whom he reiterated his government's commitment to ignore the Allies' demands and fight on.
Soviet Foreign Minister Vyacheslav Molotov had informed Tokyo of the Soviet Union's unilateral abrogation of the Soviet–Japanese Neutrality Pact on 5 April. At two minutes past midnight on 9 August, Tokyo time, Soviet infantry, armor, and air forces had launched the Manchurian Strategic Offensive Operation. Four hours later, word reached Tokyo of the Soviet Union's official declaration of war. The senior leadership of the Japanese Army began preparations to impose martial law on the nation, with the support of Minister of War Korechika Anami, to stop anyone attempting to make peace.
On 7 August, a day after Hiroshima was destroyed, Dr. Yoshio Nishina and other atomic physicists arrived at the city, and carefully examined the damage. They then went back to Tokyo and told the cabinet that Hiroshima was indeed destroyed by a nuclear weapon. Admiral Soemu Toyoda, the Chief of the Naval General Staff, estimated that no more than one or two additional bombs could be readied, so they decided to endure the remaining attacks, acknowledging "there would be more destruction but the war would go on". American Magic codebreakers intercepted the cabinet's messages.
Purnell, Parsons, Tibbets, Spaatz, and LeMay met on Guam that same day to discuss what should be done next. Since there was no indication of Japan surrendering, they decided to proceed with dropping another bomb. Parsons said that Project Alberta would have it ready by 11 August, but Tibbets pointed to weather reports indicating poor flying conditions on that day due to a storm, and asked if the bomb could be readied by 9 August. Parsons agreed to try to do so.
Nagasaki
Nagasaki during World War II
The city of Nagasaki had been one of the largest seaports in southern Japan, and was of great wartime importance because of its wide-ranging industrial activity, including the production of ordnance, ships, military equipment, and other war materials. The four largest companies in the city were Mitsubishi Shipyards, Electrical Shipyards, Arms Plant, and Steel and Arms Works, which employed about 90 percent of the city's labor force, and accounted for 90 percent of the city's industry. Although an important industrial city, Nagasaki had been spared from firebombing because its geography made it difficult to locate at night with AN/APQ-13 radar.
Unlike the other target cities, Nagasaki had not been placed off limits to bombers by the Joint Chiefs of Staff's 3 July directive, and was bombed on a small scale five times. During one of these raids on 1 August, a number of conventional high-explosive bombs were dropped on the city. A few hit the shipyards and dock areas in the southwest portion of the city, and several hit the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works. By early August, the city was defended by the 134th Anti-Aircraft Regiment of the 4th Anti-Aircraft Division with four batteries of anti-aircraft guns and two searchlight batteries.
In contrast to Hiroshima, almost all of the buildings were of old-fashioned Japanese construction, consisting of timber or timber-framed buildings with timber walls (with or without plaster) and tile roofs. Many of the smaller industries and business establishments were also situated in buildings of timber or other materials not designed to withstand explosions. Nagasaki had been permitted to grow for many years without conforming to any definite city zoning plan; residences were erected adjacent to factory buildings and to each other almost as closely as possible throughout the entire industrial valley. On the day of the bombing, an estimated 263,000 people were in Nagasaki, including 240,000 Japanese residents, 10,000 Korean residents, 2,500 conscripted Korean workers, 9,000 Japanese soldiers, 600 conscripted Chinese workers, and 400 Allied prisoners of war in a camp to the north of Nagasaki.
Bombing of Nagasaki
Responsibility for the timing of the second bombing was delegated to Tibbets. Scheduled for 11 August against Kokura, the raid was moved earlier by two days to avoid a five-day period of bad weather forecast to begin on 10 August. Three bomb pre-assemblies had been transported to Tinian, labeled F-31, F-32, and F-33 on their exteriors. On 8 August, a dress rehearsal was conducted off Tinian by Sweeney using Bockscar as the drop airplane. Assembly F-33 was expended testing the components and F-31 was designated for the 9 August mission.
At 03:47 Tinian time (GMT+10), 02:47 Japanese time, on the morning of 9 August 1945, Bockscar, flown by Sweeney's crew, lifted off from Tinian island with the Fat Man, with Kokura as the primary target and Nagasaki the secondary target. The mission plan for the second attack was nearly identical to that of the Hiroshima mission, with two B-29s flying an hour ahead as weather scouts and two additional B-29s in Sweeney's flight for instrumentation and photographic support of the mission. Sweeney took off with his weapon already armed but with the electrical safety plugs still engaged.
During pre-flight inspection of Bockscar, the flight engineer notified Sweeney that an inoperative fuel transfer pump made it impossible to use of fuel carried in a reserve tank. This fuel would still have to be carried all the way to Japan and back, consuming still more fuel. Replacing the pump would take hours; moving the Fat Man to another aircraft might take just as long and was dangerous as well, as the bomb was live. Tibbets and Sweeney therefore elected to have Bockscar continue the mission.
This time Penney and Cheshire were allowed to accompany the mission, flying as observers on the third plane, Big Stink, flown by the group's operations officer, Major James I. Hopkins, Jr. Observers aboard the weather planes reported both targets clear. When Sweeney's aircraft arrived at the assembly point for his flight off the coast of Japan, Big Stink failed to make the rendezvous. According to Cheshire, Hopkins was at varying heights including higher than he should have been, and was not flying tight circles over Yakushima as previously agreed with Sweeney and Captain Frederick C. Bock, who was piloting the support B-29 The Great Artiste. Instead, Hopkins was flying dogleg patterns. Though ordered not to circle longer than fifteen minutes, Sweeney continued to wait for Big Stink for forty minutes. Before leaving the rendezvous point, Sweeney consulted Ashworth, who was in charge of the bomb. As commander of the aircraft, Sweeney made the decision to proceed to the primary, the city of Kokura.
After exceeding the original departure time limit by nearly a half-hour, Bockscar, accompanied by The Great Artiste, proceeded to Kokura, thirty minutes away. The delay at the rendezvous had resulted in clouds and drifting smoke over Kokura from fires started by a major firebombing raid by 224 B-29s on nearby Yahata the previous day. Additionally, the Yahata Steel Works intentionally burned coal tar, to produce black smoke. The clouds and smoke resulted in 70 percent of the area over Kokura being covered, obscuring the aiming point. Three bomb runs were made over the next 50 minutes, burning fuel and exposing the aircraft repeatedly to the heavy defenses around Kokura, but the bombardier was unable to drop visually. By the time of the third bomb run, Japanese anti-aircraft fire was getting close, and Second Lieutenant Jacob Beser, who was monitoring Japanese communications, reported activity on the Japanese fighter direction radio bands.
With fuel running low because of the failed fuel pump, Bockscar and The Great Artiste headed for their secondary target, Nagasaki. Fuel consumption calculations made en route indicated that Bockscar had insufficient fuel to reach Iwo Jima and would be forced to divert to Okinawa, which had become entirely Allied-occupied territory only six weeks earlier. After initially deciding that if Nagasaki were obscured on their arrival the crew would carry the bomb to Okinawa and dispose of it in the ocean if necessary, Ashworth agreed with Sweeney's suggestion that a radar approach would be used if the target was obscured. At about 07:50 Japanese time, an air raid alert was sounded in Nagasaki, but the "all clear" signal was given at 08:30. When only two B-29 Superfortresses were sighted at 10:53 Japanese Time (GMT+9), the Japanese apparently assumed that the planes were only on reconnaissance and no further alarm was given.
A few minutes later at 11:00 Japanese Time, The Great Artiste dropped instruments attached to three parachutes. These instruments also contained an unsigned letter to Professor Ryokichi Sagane, a physicist at the University of Tokyo who studied with three of the scientists responsible for the atomic bomb at the University of California, Berkeley, urging him to tell the public about the danger involved with these weapons of mass destruction. The messages were found by military authorities but not turned over to Sagane until a month later. In 1949, one of the authors of the letter, Luis Alvarez, met with Sagane and signed the letter.
At 11:01 Japanese Time, a last-minute break in the clouds over Nagasaki allowed Bockscars bombardier, Captain Kermit Beahan, to visually sight the target as ordered. The Fat Man weapon, containing a core of about of plutonium, was dropped over the city's industrial valley. It exploded 47 seconds later at 11:02 Japanese Time at , above a tennis court, halfway between the Mitsubishi Steel and Arms Works in the south and the Nagasaki Arsenal in the north. This was nearly northwest of the planned hypocenter; the blast was confined to the Urakami Valley and a major portion of the city was protected by the intervening hills. The resulting explosion released the equivalent energy of . Big Stink spotted the explosion from away, and flew over to observe.
Bockscar flew on to Okinawa, arriving with only sufficient fuel for a single approach. Sweeney tried repeatedly to contact the control tower for landing clearance, but received no answer. He could see heavy air traffic landing and taking off from Yontan Airfield. Firing off every flare on board to alert the field to his emergency landing, the Bockscar came in fast, landing at instead of the normal . The number two engine died from fuel starvation as he began the final approach. Touching down on only three engines midway down the landing strip, Bockscar bounced up into the air again for about before slamming back down hard. The heavy B-29 slewed left and towards a row of parked B-24 bombers before the pilots managed to regain control. Its reversible propellers were insufficient to slow the aircraft adequately, and with both pilots standing on the brakes, Bockscar made a swerving 90-degree turn at the end of the runway to avoid running off it. A second engine died from fuel exhaustion before the plane came to a stop.
Following the mission, there was confusion over the identification of the plane. The first eyewitness account by war correspondent William L. Laurence of The New York Times, who accompanied the mission aboard the aircraft piloted by Bock, reported that Sweeney was leading the mission in The Great Artiste. He also noted its "Victor" number as 77, which was that of Bockscar. Laurence had interviewed Sweeney and his crew, and was aware that they referred to their airplane as The Great Artiste. Except for Enola Gay, none of the 393d's B-29s had yet had names painted on the noses, a fact which Laurence himself noted in his account. Unaware of the switch in aircraft, Laurence assumed Victor 77 was The Great Artiste, which was in fact, Victor 89.
Events on the ground
Although the bomb was more powerful than the one used on Hiroshima, its effects were confined by hillsides to the narrow Urakami Valley. Of 7,500 Japanese employees who worked inside the Mitsubishi Munitions plant, including "mobilized" students and regular workers, 6,200 were killed. Some 17,000–22,000 others who worked in other war plants and factories in the city died as well. Casualty estimates for immediate deaths vary widely, ranging from 22,000 to 75,000. At least 35,000–40,000 people were killed and 60,000 others injured. In the days and months following the explosion, more people died from their injuries. Because of the presence of undocumented foreign workers, and a number of military personnel in transit, there are great discrepancies in the estimates of total deaths by the end of 1945; a range of 60,000 to 80,000 can be found in various studies.
Unlike Hiroshima's military death toll, only 150 Japanese soldiers were killed instantly, including 36 from the 134th AAA Regiment of the 4th AAA Division. At least eight Allied prisoners of war (POWs) died from the bombing, and as many as thirteen may have died. The eight confirmed deaths included a British POW, Royal Air Force Corporal Ronald Shaw, and seven Dutch POWs. One American POW, Joe Kieyoomia, was in Nagasaki at the time of the bombing but survived, reportedly having been shielded from the effects of the bomb by the concrete walls of his cell. There were 24 Australian POWs in Nagasaki, all of whom survived.
The radius of total destruction was about , followed by fires across the northern portion of the city to south of the bomb. About 58 percent of the Mitsubishi Arms Plant was damaged, and about 78 percent of the Mitsubishi Steel Works. The Mitsubishi Electric Works suffered only 10 percent structural damage as it was on the border of the main destruction zone. The Nagasaki Arsenal was destroyed in the blast. Although many fires likewise burnt following the bombing, in contrast to Hiroshima where sufficient fuel density was available, no firestorm developed in Nagasaki as the damaged areas did not furnish enough fuel to generate the phenomenon. Instead, ambient wind pushed the fire spread along the valley.
As in Hiroshima, the bombing badly dislocated the city's medical facilities. A makeshift hospital was established at the Shinkozen Primary School, which served as the main medical centre. The trains were still running, and evacuated many victims to hospitals in nearby towns. A medical team from a naval hospital reached the city in the evening, and fire-fighting brigades from the neighboring towns assisted in fighting the fires. Takashi Nagai was a doctor working in the radiology department of Nagasaki Medical College Hospital. He received a serious injury that severed his right temporal artery, but joined the rest of the surviving medical staff in treating bombing victims.
Plans for more atomic attacks on Japan
Groves expected to have another "Fat Man" atomic bomb ready for use on 19 August, with three more in September and a further three in October; a second Little Boy bomb (using U-235) would not be available until December 1945. On 10 August, he sent a memorandum to Marshall in which he wrote that "the next bomb ... should be ready for delivery on the first suitable weather after 17 or 18 August." Marshall endorsed the memo with the hand-written comment, "It is not to be released over Japan without express authority from the President", something Truman had requested that day. This modified the previous order that the target cities were to be attacked with atomic bombs "as made ready". There was already discussion in the War Department about conserving the bombs then in production for Operation Downfall, and Marshall suggested to Stimson that the remaining cities on the target list be spared attack with atomic bombs.
Two more Fat Man assemblies were readied, and scheduled to leave Kirtland Field for Tinian on 11 and 14 August, and Tibbets was ordered by LeMay to return to Albuquerque, New Mexico, to collect them. At Los Alamos, technicians worked 24 hours straight to cast another plutonium core. Although cast, it still needed to be pressed and coated, which would take until 16 August. Therefore, it could have been ready for use on 19 August. Unable to reach Marshall, Groves ordered on his own authority on 13 August that the core should not be shipped.
Surrender of Japan and subsequent occupation
Until 9 August, Japan's war council still insisted on its four conditions for surrender. The full cabinet met at 14:30 on 9 August, and spent most of the day debating surrender. Anami conceded that victory was unlikely, but argued in favor of continuing the war nonetheless. The meeting ended at 17:30, with no decision having been reached. Suzuki went to the palace to report on the outcome of the meeting, where he met with Kōichi Kido, the Lord Keeper of the Privy Seal of Japan. Kido informed him that the emperor had agreed to hold an imperial conference, and gave a strong indication that the emperor would consent to surrender on condition that kokutai be preserved. A second cabinet meeting was held at 18:00. Only four ministers supported Anami's position of adhering to the four conditions, but since cabinet decisions had to be unanimous, no decision was reached before it ended at 22:00.
Calling an imperial conference required the signatures of the prime minister and the two service chiefs, but the Chief Cabinet Secretary Hisatsune Sakomizu had already obtained signatures from Toyoda and General Yoshijirō Umezu in advance, and he reneged on his promise to inform them if a meeting was to be held. The meeting commenced at 23:50. No consensus had emerged by 02:00 on 10 August, but the emperor gave his "sacred decision", authorizing the Foreign Minister, Shigenori Tōgō, to notify the Allies that Japan would accept their terms on one condition, that the declaration "does not comprise any demand which prejudices the prerogatives of His Majesty as a Sovereign ruler."
On 12 August, the Emperor informed the imperial family of his decision to surrender. One of his uncles, Prince Asaka, then asked whether the war would be continued if the kokutai could not be preserved. Hirohito simply replied, "Of course." As the Allied terms seemed to leave intact the principle of the preservation of the Throne, Hirohito recorded on 14 August his capitulation announcement which was broadcast to the Japanese nation the next day despite an attempted military coup d'état by militarists opposed to the surrender.
In his declaration's fifth paragraph, Hirohito solely mentions the duration of the conflict; and did not explicitly mention the Soviets as a factor for surrender:
The sixth paragraph by Hirohito specifically mentions the use of nuclear ordnance devices against Japan by the United States, from the aspect of the unprecedented damage they caused:
The seventh paragraph gives the reason for the ending of hostilities against the Allies:
In his "Rescript to the Soldiers and Sailors" delivered on 17 August, Hirohito did not refer to the atomic bombs or possible human extinction, and instead described the Soviet declaration of war as "endangering the very foundation of the Empire's existence."
Reportage
On 10 August 1945, the day after the Nagasaki bombing, military photographer Yōsuke Yamahata, correspondent Higashi, and artist Yamada arrived in the city with instructions to record the destruction for propaganda purposes. Yamahata took scores of photographs, and on 21 August, they appeared in Mainichi Shimbun, a popular Japanese newspaper. After Japan's surrender and the arrival of American forces, copies of his photographs were seized amid the ensuing censorship, but some records have survived.
Leslie Nakashima, a former United Press (UP) journalist, filed the first personal account of the scene to appear in American newspapers. He observed that large numbers of survivors continued to die from what later became recognized as radiation poisoning. On 31 August, The New York Times published an abbreviated version of his 27 August UP article. Nearly all references to uranium poisoning were omitted. An editor's note was added to say that, according to American scientists, "the atomic bomb will not have any lingering after-effects."
Wilfred Burchett was also one of the first Western journalists to visit Hiroshima after the bombing. He arrived alone by train from Tokyo on 2 September, defying the traveling ban put in place on Western correspondents. Burchett's Morse code dispatch, "The Atomic Plague", was printed by the Daily Express newspaper in London on 5 September 1945. The reports from Nakashima and Burchett informed the public for the first time of the gruesome effects of radiation and nuclear fallout—radiation burns and radiation poisoning, sometimes lasting more than thirty days after the blast. Burchett especially noted that people were dying "horribly" after bleeding from orifices, and their flesh would rot away from the injection holes where vitamin A was administered, to no avail.
The New York Times then apparently reversed course and ran a front-page story by Bill Lawrence confirming the existence of a terrifying affliction in Hiroshima, where many had symptoms such as hair loss and vomiting of blood before dying. Lawrence had gained access to the city as part of a press junket promoting the U.S. Army Air Force. Some reporters were horrified by the scene, however, referring to what they saw as a "death laboratory" littered with "human guinea pigs". General MacArthur found the reporting to have turned from good PR into bad PR and threatened to court martial the entire group. He withdrew Burchett's press accreditation and expelled the journalist from the occupation zones. The authorities also accused him of being under the sway of Japanese propaganda and later suppressed another story, on the Nagasaki bombing, by George Weller of the Chicago Daily News. Less than a week after his New York Times story was published, Lawrence also backtracked and dismissed the reports on radiation sickness as Japanese efforts to undermine American morale.
A member of the U.S. Strategic Bombing Survey, Lieutenant Daniel McGovern, used a film crew to document the effects of the bombings in early 1946. The film crew shot of film, resulting in a three-hour documentary titled The Effects of the Atomic Bombs Against Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The documentary included images from hospitals showing the human effects of the bomb; it showed burned-out buildings and cars, and rows of skulls and bones on the ground. It was classified "secret" for the next 22 years. Motion picture company Nippon Eigasha started sending cameramen to Nagasaki and Hiroshima in September 1945. On 24 October 1945, a U.S. military policeman stopped a Nippon Eigasha cameraman from continuing to film in Nagasaki. All Nippon Eigasha reels were confiscated by the American authorities, but they were requested by the Japanese government, and declassified. The public release of film footage of the city post-attack, and some research about the effects of the attack, was restricted during the occupation of Japan, but the Hiroshima-based magazine, Chugoku Bunka, in its first issue published on 10 March 1946, devoted itself to detailing the damage from the bombing.
The book Hiroshima, written by Pulitzer Prize winner John Hersey, which was originally published in article form in the popular magazine The New Yorker, on 31 August 1946, is reported to have reached Tokyo in English by January 1947, and the translated version was released in Japan in 1949. It narrated the stories of the lives of six bomb survivors from immediately prior to, and months after, the dropping of the Little Boy bomb. Beginning in 1974, a compilation of drawings and artwork made by the survivors of the bombings began to be compiled, with completion in 1977, and under both book and exhibition format, it was titled The Unforgettable Fire.
The bombing amazed Otto Hahn and other German atomic scientists, whom the British held at Farm Hall in Operation Epsilon. Hahn stated that he had not believed an atomic weapon "would be possible for another twenty years"; Werner Heisenberg did not believe the news at first. Carl Friedrich von Weizsäcker said "I think it's dreadful of the Americans to have done it. I think it is madness on their part", but Heisenberg replied, "One could equally well say 'That's the quickest way of ending the war'". Hahn was grateful that the German project had not succeeded in developing "such an inhumane weapon"; Karl Wirtz observed that even if it had, "we would have obliterated London but would still not have conquered the world, and then they would have dropped them on us".
Hahn told the others, "Once I wanted to suggest that all uranium should be sunk to the bottom of the ocean". The Vatican agreed; L'Osservatore Romano expressed regret that the bomb's inventors did not destroy the weapon for the benefit of humanity. Rev. Cuthbert Thicknesse, the dean of St Albans, prohibited using St Albans Abbey for a thanksgiving service for the war's end, calling the use of atomic weapons "an act of wholesale, indiscriminate massacre". Nonetheless, news of the atomic bombing was greeted enthusiastically in the U.S.; a poll in Fortune magazine in late 1945 showed a significant minority of Americans (23 percent) wishing that more atomic bombs could have been dropped on Japan. The initial positive response was supported by the imagery presented to the public (mainly the powerful images of the mushroom cloud). During this time in America, it was a common practice for editors to keep graphic images of death out of films, magazines, and newspapers.
Post-attack casualties
An estimated 90,000 to 140,000 people in Hiroshima (up to 39 percent of the population) and 60,000 to 80,000 people in Nagasaki (up to 32 percent of the population) died in 1945, though the number which died immediately as a result of exposure to the blast, heat, or due to radiation, is unknown. One Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission report discusses 6,882 people examined in Hiroshima and 6,621 people examined in Nagasaki, who were largely within of the hypocenter, who suffered injuries from the blast and heat but died from complications frequently compounded by acute radiation syndrome (ARS), all within about 20 to 30 days. Many people not injured by the blast eventually died within that timeframe as well after suffering from ARS. At the time, the doctors had no idea what the cause was and were unable to effectively treat the condition. Midori Naka was the first death officially certified to be the result of radiation poisoning or, as it was referred to by many, the "atomic bomb disease". She was some from the hypocenter at Hiroshima and would die on 24 August 1945 after traveling to Tokyo. It was unappreciated at the time but the average radiation dose that would kill approximately 50 percent of adults (the LD50) was approximately halved; that is, smaller doses were made more lethal when the individual experienced concurrent blast or burn polytraumatic injuries. Conventional skin injuries that cover a large area frequently result in bacterial infection; the risk of sepsis and death is increased when a usually non-lethal radiation dose moderately suppresses the white blood cell count.
In the spring of 1948, the Atomic Bomb Casualty Commission (ABCC) was established in accordance with a presidential directive from Truman to the National Academy of Sciences–National Research Council to conduct investigations of the late effects of radiation among the survivors in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. In 1956, the ABCC published The Effect of Exposure to the Atomic Bombs on Pregnancy Termination in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. The ABCC became the Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) on 1 April 1975. A binational organization run by both the United States and Japan, the RERF is still in operation today.
Cancer increases
Cancers do not immediately emerge after exposure to radiation; instead, radiation-induced cancer has a minimum latency period of some five years and above, and leukemia some two years and above, peaking around six to eight years later. Dr Jarrett Foley published the first major reports on the significant increased incidence of the latter among survivors. Almost all cases of leukemia over the following 50 years were in people exposed to more than 1Gy. In a strictly dependent manner dependent on their distance from the hypocenter, in the 1987 Life Span Study, conducted by the Radiation Effects Research Foundation, a statistical excess of 507 cancers, of undefined lethality, were observed in 79,972 hibakusha who had still been living between 1958 and 1987 and who took part in the study. As the epidemiology study continues with time, the RERF estimates that, from 1950 to 2000, 46 percent of leukemia deaths which may include Sadako Sasaki and 11 percent of solid cancers of unspecified lethality were likely due to radiation from the bombs or some other post-attack city effects, with the statistical excess being 200 leukemia deaths and 1,700 solid cancers of undeclared lethality. Both of these statistics being derived from the observation of approximately half of the total survivors, strictly those who took part in the study. A meta-analysis from 2016 found that radiation exposure increases cancer risk, but also that the average lifespan of survivors was reduced by only a few months compared to those not exposed to radiation.
Birth defect investigations
While during the preimplantation period, that is one to ten days following conception, intrauterine radiation exposure of "at least 0.2 Gy" can cause complications of implantation and death of the human embryo. The number of miscarriages caused by the radiation from the bombings, during this radiosensitive period, is not known.
One of the early studies conducted by the ABCC was on the outcome of pregnancies occurring in Hiroshima and Nagasaki, and in a control city, Kure, located south of Hiroshima, to discern the conditions and outcomes related to radiation exposure. James V. Neel led the study which found that the overall number of birth defects was not significantly higher among the children of survivors who were pregnant at the time of the bombings. He also studied the longevity of the children who survived the bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, reporting that between 90 and 95 percent were still living 50 years later.
While the National Academy of Sciences raised the possibility that Neel's procedure did not filter the Kure population for possible radiation exposure which could bias the results, overall, a statistically insignificant increase in birth defects occurred directly after the bombings of Nagasaki and Hiroshima when the cities were taken as wholes, in terms of distance from the hypocenters. However, Neel and others noted that in approximately 50 humans who were of an early gestational age at the time of the bombing and who were all within about of the hypocenter, an increase in microencephaly and anencephaly was observed upon birth, with the incidence of these two particular malformations being nearly 3 times what was to be expected when compared to the control group in Kure, where approximately 20 cases were observed in a similar sample size.
In 1985, Johns Hopkins University geneticist James F. Crow examined Neel's research and confirmed that the number of birth defects was not significantly higher in Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Many members of the ABCC and its successor Radiation Effects Research Foundation (RERF) were still looking for possible birth defects among the survivors decades later, but found no evidence that they were significantly common among the survivors or inherited in the children of survivors.
Investigations into brain development
Despite the small sample size of 1,600 to 1,800 persons who came forth as prenatally exposed at the time of the bombings, that were both within a close proximity to the two hypocenters, to survive the in utero absorption of a substantial dose of radiation and then the malnourished post-attack environment, data from this cohort does support the increased risk of severe mental retardation (SMR), that was observed in some 30 individuals, with SMR being a common outcome of the aforementioned microencephaly. While a lack of statistical data, with just 30 individuals out of 1,800, prevents a definitive determination of a threshold point, the data collected suggests a threshold intrauterine or fetal dose for SMR, at the most radiosensitive period of cognitive development, when there is the largest number of undifferentiated neural cells (8 to 15 weeks post-conception) to begin at a threshold dose of approximately "0.09" to "0.15" Gy, with the risk then linearly increasing to a 43-percent rate of SMR when exposed to a fetal dose of 1 Gy at any point during these weeks of rapid neurogenesis.
However either side of this radiosensitive age, none of the prenatally exposed to the bombings at an age less than 8 weeks, that is prior to synaptogenesis or at a gestational age more than 26 weeks "were observed to be mentally retarded", with the condition therefore being isolated to those solely of 8–26 weeks of age and who absorbed more than approximately "0.09" to "0.15" Gy of prompt radiation energy.
Examination of the prenatally exposed in terms of IQ performance and school records, determined the beginning of a statistically significant reduction in both, when exposed to greater than 0.1 to 0.5 gray, during the same gestational period of 8–25 weeks. However outside this period, at less than 8 weeks and greater than 26 after conception, "there is no evidence of a radiation-related effect on scholastic performance."
The reporting of doses in terms of absorbed energy in units of grays and rads – rather than the biologically significant, biologically weighted sievert in both the SMR and cognitive performance data – is typical. The reported threshold dose variance between the two cities is suggested to be a manifestation of the difference between X-ray and neutron absorption, with Little Boy emitting substantially more neutron flux, whereas the Baratol that surrounded the core of Fat Man filtered or shifted the absorbed neutron-radiation profile, so that the dose of radiation energy received in Nagasaki was mostly that from exposure to X-rays/gamma rays. Contrast this to the environment within 1500 meters of the hypocenter at Hiroshima, where the in-utero dose depended more on the absorption of neutrons which have a higher biological effect per unit of energy absorbed. From the radiation dose reconstruction work, which were also informed by the 1962 BREN Tower Japanese city analog, the estimated dosimetry at Hiroshima still has the largest uncertainty as the Little Boy bomb design was never tested before deployment or afterward, therefore the estimated radiation profile absorbed by individuals at Hiroshima had required greater reliance on calculations than the Japanese soil, concrete and roof-tile measurements which began to reach accurate levels and thereby inform researchers, in the 1990s.
Many other investigations into cognitive outcomes, such as schizophrenia as a result of prenatal exposure, have been conducted with "no statistically significant linear relationship seen". There is a suggestion that in the most extremely exposed, those who survived within a kilometer or so of the hypocenters, a trend emerges akin to that seen in SMR, though the sample size is too small to determine with any significance.
Hibakusha
The survivors of the bombings are called , a Japanese word that literally translates to "explosion-affected people". The Japanese government has recognized about 650,000 people as hibakusha. , 118,935 were still alive, mostly in Japan. The government of Japan recognizes about one percent of these as having illnesses caused by radiation. The memorials in Hiroshima and Nagasaki contain lists of the names of the hibakusha who are known to have died since the bombings. Updated annually on the anniversaries of the bombings, , the memorials record the names of 526,000 hibakusha; 333,907 in Hiroshima and 192,310 in Nagasaki.
If they discuss their background, hibakusha and their children were (and still are) victims of fear-based discrimination and exclusion when it comes to prospects of marriage or work due to public ignorance about the consequences of radiation sickness or that the low doses that the majority received were less than a routine diagnostic x-ray, much of the public however persist with the belief that the hibakusha carry some hereditary or even contagious disease. This is despite the fact that no statistically demonstrable increase of birth defects/congenital malformations was found among the later conceived children born to survivors of the nuclear weapons used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki, or indeed has been found in the later conceived children of cancer survivors who had previously received radiotherapy.
The surviving women of Hiroshima and Nagasaki, that could conceive, who were exposed to substantial amounts of radiation, went on and had children with no higher incidence of abnormalities/birth defects than the rate which is observed in the Japanese average.
A study of the long-term psychological effects of the bombings on the survivors found that even 17–20 years after the bombings had occurred survivors showed a higher prevalence of anxiety and somatization symptoms.
Double survivors
Perhaps as many as 200 people from Hiroshima sought refuge in Nagasaki. The 2006 documentary Twice Survived: The Doubly Atomic Bombed of Hiroshima and Nagasaki documented 165 nijū hibakusha (lit. double explosion-affected people), nine of whom claimed to be in the blast zone in both cities. On 24 March 2009, the Japanese government officially recognized Tsutomu Yamaguchi as a double hibakusha. He was confirmed to be from ground zero in Hiroshima on a business trip when the bomb was detonated. He was seriously burnt on his left side and spent the night in Hiroshima. He arrived at his home city of Nagasaki on 8 August, the day before the bombing, and he was exposed to residual radiation while searching for his relatives. He was the first officially recognized survivor of both bombings. He died on 4 January 2010, at age 93, of stomach cancer.
Korean survivors
During the war, Japan brought as many as 670,000 Korean conscripts to Japan to work as forced labor. About 5,000–8,000 Koreans were killed in Hiroshima and another 1,500–2,000 died in Nagasaki. For many years, Korean survivors had a difficult time fighting for the same recognition as Hibakusha as afforded to all Japanese survivors, a situation which resulted in the denial of the free health benefits to them in Japan. Most issues were eventually addressed in 2008 through lawsuits.
Memorials
Hiroshima
Hiroshima was subsequently struck by Typhoon Ida on 17 September 1945. More than half the bridges were destroyed, and the roads and railroads were damaged, further devastating the city. The population increased from 83,000 soon after the bombing to 146,000 in February 1946. The city was rebuilt after the war, with help from the national government through the Hiroshima Peace Memorial City Construction Law passed in 1949. It provided financial assistance for reconstruction, along with land donated that was previously owned by the national government and used for military purposes. In 1949, a design was selected for the Hiroshima Peace Memorial Park. Hiroshima Prefectural Industrial Promotion Hall, the closest surviving building to the location of the bomb's detonation, was designated the Hiroshima Peace Memorial. The Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum was opened in 1955 in the Peace Park. Hiroshima also contains a Peace Pagoda, built in 1966 by Nipponzan-Myōhōji.
On January 27, 1981, the Atomic Bombing Relic Selecting Committee of Hiroshima announced to build commemorative plaques at nine historical sites related to the bombing in the year. Genbaku Dome, Shima Hospital (hypocenter), all unveiled plaques with historical photographs and descriptions. The rest sites planned including Hondō Shopping Street, Motomachi No.2 Army Hospital site, , , and Hiroshima Station. The committee also planned to establish 30 commemorative plaques in three years.
Nagasaki
Nagasaki was also rebuilt after the war, but was dramatically changed in the process. The pace of reconstruction was initially slow, and the first simple emergency dwellings were not provided until 1946. The focus on redevelopment was the replacement of war industries with foreign trade, shipbuilding and fishing. This was formally declared when the Nagasaki International Culture City Reconstruction Law was passed in May 1949. New temples were built, as well as new churches owing to an increase in the presence of Christianity. Some of the rubble was left as a memorial, such as a torii at Sannō Shrine, and an arch near ground zero. New structures were also raised as memorials, such as the Nagasaki Atomic Bomb Museum, which was opened in the mid-1990s.
Debate over bombings
The role of the bombings in Japan's surrender, and the ethical, legal, and military controversies surrounding the United States' justification for them have been the subject of scholarly and popular debate. On one hand, it has been argued that the bombings caused the Japanese surrender, thereby preventing casualties that an invasion of Japan would have involved. Stimson talked of saving one million casualties. The naval blockade might have starved the Japanese into submission without an invasion, but this would also have resulted in many more Japanese deaths.
However, critics of the bombings have cited a belief that atomic weapons are fundamentally immoral, that the bombings were war crimes, and that they constituted state terrorism. Others, such as historian Tsuyoshi Hasegawa, argued that the entry of the Soviet Union into the war against Japan "played a much greater role than the atomic bombs in inducing Japan to surrender because it dashed any hope that Japan could terminate the war through Moscow's mediation". A view among critics of the bombings, popularized by American historian Gar Alperovitz in 1965, is the idea of atomic diplomacy: that the United States used nuclear weapons to intimidate the Soviet Union in the early stages of the Cold War. James Orr wrote that this idea became the accepted position in Japan and that it may have played some part in the decision making of the US government.
Legal considerations
The Hague Conventions of 1899 and 1907, which address the codes of wartime conduct on land and at sea, were adopted before the rise of air power. Despite repeated diplomatic attempts to update international humanitarian law to include aerial warfare, it was not updated before the outbreak of World War II. The absence of specific international humanitarian law did not mean aerial warfare was not covered under the laws of war, but rather that there was no general agreement of how to interpret those laws. This means that aerial bombardment of civilian areas in enemy territory by all major belligerents during World War II was not prohibited by positive or specific customary international humanitarian law.
In 1963 the bombings were subjected to judicial review in Ryuichi Shimoda v. The State. The District Court of Tokyo declined to rule on the legality of nuclear weapons in general but, in the judgment of the court, the atomic bombings of both Hiroshima and Nagasaki were illegal under international law as it existed at that time, as an indiscriminate bombardment of undefended cities. The court denied the appellants compensation on the grounds that the Japanese government had waived the right for reparations from the U.S. government under the Treaty of San Francisco.
Legacy
The manner in which World War II ended cast a long shadow over international relations for decades afterwards. By 30 June 1946, there were components for nine atomic bombs in the US arsenal, all Fat Man devices identical to the one used in the bombing of Nagasaki. The nuclear weapons were handmade devices, and a great deal of work remained to improve their ease of assembly, safety, reliability and storage before they were ready for production. There were also many improvements to their performance that had been suggested or recommended, but that had not been possible under the pressure of wartime development. The Chairman of the Joint Chiefs of Staff, Fleet Admiral William D. Leahy, decried the use of the atomic bombs as adopting "an ethical standard common to the barbarians of the Dark Ages", but in October 1947 he reported a military requirement for 400 bombs.
The American monopoly on nuclear weapons lasted four years before the Soviet Union detonated an atomic bomb in September 1949. The United States responded with the development of the hydrogen bomb, a nuclear weapon a thousand times as powerful as the bombs that devastated Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Such ordinary fission bombs would henceforth be regarded as small tactical nuclear weapons. By 1986, the United States had 23,317 nuclear weapons and the Soviet Union had 40,159. In early 2019, more than 90% of the world's 13,865 nuclear weapons were owned by the United States and Russia.
By 2020, nine nations had nuclear weapons, but Japan was not one of them. Japan reluctantly signed the Treaty on the Non-Proliferation of Nuclear Weapons in February 1970, but is still sheltered under the American nuclear umbrella. American nuclear weapons were stored on Okinawa, and sometimes in Japan itself, albeit in contravention of agreements between the two nations. Lacking the resources to fight the Soviet Union using conventional forces, the NATO came to depend on the use of nuclear weapons to defend itself during the Cold War, a policy that became known in the 1950s as the New Look. In the decades after Hiroshima and Nagasaki, the United States would threaten to use its nuclear weapons many times.
On 7 July 2017, more than 120 countries voted to adopt the UN Treaty on the Prohibition of Nuclear Weapons. Elayne Whyte Gómez, President of the UN negotiations on the nuclear ban treaty, said, "the world has been waiting for this legal norm for 70 years," since the atomic bombings of Hiroshima and Nagasaki in August 1945. , Japan has not signed the treaty.
Notes
References
Further reading
O'Brien, Phillips Payson. "The Joint Chiefs of Staff, the atom bomb, the American Military Mind and the end of the Second World War." Journal of Strategic Studies 42.7 (2019): 971–991. online
Historiography
Kort, Michael. "The Historiography of Hiroshima: The Rise and Fall of Revisionism." New England Journal of History 64.1 (2007): 31–48. online
Newman, Robert P. "Hiroshima and the Trashing of Henry Stimson" The New England Quarterly, 71#1 (1998), pp. 5–32 in JSTOR
External links
Decision
Effects
Archives
Bibliographies
Commemoration
Hiroshima National Peace Memorial Hall For The Atomic Bomb Victims
Nagasaki National Peace Memorial Hall For The Atomic Bomb Victims
Hiroshima Peace Memorial Museum
Hiroshima and Nagasaki: A Look Back at the US Atomic Bombing 64 Years Later – video by Democracy Now!
Hiroshima & Nagasaki Remembered 2005 website commemorating 60th anniversary
1945 in Japan
1945 in military history
1945 in the environment
Articles containing video clips
August 1945 events in Asia
Explosions in 1945
History of the Manhattan Project | wiki |
This is a list of international football matches of the Germany national football team during its period as West Germany from 1950 until 1990.
Following the end of World War II, Germany was partitioned into rival West and East zones, each with their own football systems. The general turmoil of the period and the country's lack of international footballing pedigree up to that point meant it was a surprise to many when West Germany won the 1954 FIFA World Cup in neighbouring Switzerland. It was in the mid-1960s when German football became very strong, with the backbone of the national squad formed by an exceptional group of young players at FC Bayern Munich, soon augmented further by another very strong team at Borussia Monchengladbach and others from the leading clubs. After reaching the 1966 FIFA World Cup Final, they built on victory in UEFA Euro 1972 by winning the 1974 FIFA World Cup on home soil. A further Euro win in 1980 (after an unexpected loss in the 1976 final), plus further World Cup final appearances in 1982 and 1986 confirmed their status as one of the world's most consistently powerful teams. With the end of the Cold War and reunification of the country approaching at the end of the 1980s, the final achievement of West Germany was winning the 1990 FIFA World Cup.
List of matches
1950 – 1960 – 1970 – 1980 – 1980
Notes
Cancelled matches
Below is a list of all matches in the period that were cancelled. Matches that were rescheduled to another date are not included.
See also
East Germany national football team results (1952–1990)
Germany national football team records
Germany national football team results (1908–1942)
Germany national football team results (1990–1999)
Germany national football team results (2000–2019)
Germany national football team results (2020–present)
References
External links
Results archive at German Football Association (DFB)
(West) Germany - International Results (complete list) at RSSSF
Germany - International Results - Details 1970-1979 at RSSSF
Germany - International Results - Details 1980-1989 at RSSSF
Germany - International Results - Details 1990-1999 at RSSSF
Results archive at National Football Teams
Results archive at World Football
Germany national football team results | wiki |
Database (WCD) 2010 and International Religious Freedom Report for 2012'' of the U.S. Department of State. The article Religions by country has a sortable table from the Pew Forum report.
See also
Religions by country
Notes
References
Adherents.com World Religions Religion Statistics Geography Church Statistics
BBC News's Muslims in Europe: Country guide
CIA FactBook
Religious Intelligence
The University of Virginia
The US State Department's International Religious Freedom Report 2007
The US State Department's Background Notes
Vipassana Foundation's Buddhists around the world
World Statesmen
Catholic Hierarchy's Its Bishops and Dioceses, Current and Past
Religion-related lists by country
Religion-related lists | wiki |
In flow measurement, flow meter error is typically reported by a percentage indicating non-linearity of the device. This can be expressed as either a +/- percentage based on either the full range capacity of the device or as a percentage of the actual indicated flow. In practice the flow meter error is a combination of repeatability, accuracy and the uncertainty of the reference calibration. http://www.flowmeters.co.uk/liquid-flow-meter-performance-specification-glossary/
Measurement
Error | wiki |
NGC 7204-1
NGC 7204-2 | wiki |
St. Patrick: The Irish Legend is a 2000 television historical drama film about the life of Saint Patrick (AD 387–463) who was born in Wales and who brought Christianity to Ireland.
Cast
Patrick Bergin as Saint Patrick
Malcolm McDowell as Quentin
Alan Bates as Calpornius, Patrick's father
Susannah York as Concessa, Patrick's mother
See also
List of historical drama films
External links
2000 television films
2000 films
Films based on European myths and legends
Films set in the 5th century
British historical films
2000s historical films
Films scored by Inon Zur
Cultural depictions of Saint Patrick
2000s English-language films
2000s British films
Saint Patrick's Day films | wiki |
Road food is a cuisine concerning food prepared especially for hungry travelers who arrive by road. Most road food establishments are casual dining restaurants. American road food is associated with "comfort food" such as hamburgers, hot dogs, fried chicken, barbecue, and pizza. Road food establishments can include fast food, cafes and barbecue shacks.
Road food was the topic of the book Roadfood by Jane and Michael Stern originally published in 1977. Jane Stern also had an ongoing, James Beard Award-winning road food column in Gourmet magazine. Road food has been the subject of several television series, including the three-season series Feasting on Asphalt created by James Beard award winning food author Alton Brown, and Al Roker's Roker on the Road.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Cuisine
Transport culture | wiki |
This is a list of cider brands. Cider is an alcoholic beverage made exclusively from the juice of apple or pear. This list also includes perry, which is a similar alcoholic beverage made from pear varieties.
Operational brands
Defunct brands
Martinelli's formerly produced a hard cider, now only produces sparkling apple juice, California, USA
Red Rock Cider, now defunct brand made by Taunton Cider, division of Blackthorn Cider, United Kingdom
White Lightning, discontinued at the end of 2009
See also
List of cider and perry producers in the United Kingdom
References
Cider
Cider
Cider
Brands of cider | wiki |
Mexico is a historical unincorporated community, in Hunt County, Texas, now inundated by Lake Tawakoni.
References
Unincorporated communities in Texas
Unincorporated communities in Hunt County, Texas | wiki |
This is a list of international football matches of the Germany national football team between 1990 and 1999.
Following the reunification of Germany, the best players from the former East were added to a squad which were already reigning World champions of 1990. The unified German team reached the final of UEFA Euro 1992 only to surprisingly lose to Denmark, but then won the 1996 tournament in England. At the World Cup, Germany failed to maintain their own high standards (having been involved in the previous three finals), being eliminated in the quarter-final stage at both the 1994 and 1998 editions.
List of matches
Notes
Cancelled matches
Below is a list of all matches in the period that were cancelled. Matches that were rescheduled to another date are not included.
See also
East Germany national football team results (1952–74)
Germany national football team all-time record
Germany national football team results (1908–42)
Germany national football team results (2000–19)
Germany national football team results (2020–present)
West Germany national football team results (1950–90)
References
External links
Results archive at German Football Association (DFB)
Germany - International Results - Details 1990-1999 at RSSSF
Results archive at National Football Teams
Results archive at World Football
Germany national football team results | wiki |
Chinese apple is a name used for several fruits :
Citrus × sinensis (orange) is referred to as Chinese apple in Dutch, sinaasappel or appelsien, and sometimes German, Apfelsine, Swedish apelsin, Finnish appelsiini and Danish and Norwegian appelsin, and Icelandic appelsína', and Lithuanian apelsinas.
Malus prunifolia, a species in the apple genus (Malus) native to China, used as in breeding and sometimes cultivated for its fruit
Punica granatum (pomegranate) sometimes called Chinese apple in British English
Syzygium luehmannii (riberry) sometimes called Chinese apple in Australian English
Ziziphus jujuba is referred to as Chinese apple in Vietnamese, táo tàu, or simply táo. | wiki |
Quintetto per archi n. 2 di Johannes Brahms
Quintetto per archi n. 2 di Louis Spohr | wiki |
A tapering jig is a woodworking jig used to cut a progressively deeper cut along a workpiece usually parallel to the grain.
Tapering jigs are often used to create table legs, with the taper usually cut into the two sides of the leg facing the inside of the table. There are various commercial varieties of tapering jigs, ranging for simple two hinged pieces of aluminum square tubing with a device to maintain angle settings, to more complex varieties that utilize clamps to affix the workpiece to a bed using toggle clamps or other clamping devices.
Many woodworkers prefer to make the jig in the shop in order to customize it to the particular project at hand.
See Also
Jig (tool)
Staircase jig
Sharpening jig
Woodworking jigs | wiki |
The ovarian vein, the female gonadal vein, carries deoxygenated blood from its corresponding ovary to inferior vena cava or one of its tributaries. It is the female equivalent of the testicular vein, and is the venous counterpart of the ovarian artery. It can be found in the suspensory ligament of the ovary.
Structure
It is a paired vein, each one supplying an ovary.
The right ovarian vein travels through the suspensatory ligament of the ovary and generally joins the inferior vena cava.
The left ovarian vein, unlike the right, often joins the left renal vein instead of the inferior vena cava.
Pathology
Thrombosis of ovarian vein is associated with postpartum endometritis, pelvic inflammatory disease, diverticulitis, appendicitis, and gynecologic surgery.
Additional images
See also
Ovarian vein syndrome
References
External links
- "Posterior Abdominal Wall: Tributaries to the Inferior Vena Cava"
Veins of the torso | wiki |
Zhovtyak (, ) is a surname of Ukrainian origin.
Notable
Volodymyr Zhovtyak (born 1973), Ukrainian social activist, human rights defender
Ukrainian-language surnames
Surnames of Ukrainian origin | wiki |
Raleigh Bay is an indentation of the North Carolina coast, between Cape Lookout in the south and Cape Hatteras in the north. The coastline of the bay is approximately 75 miles (121 km) long, and consists of barrier islands, including Ocracoke Island. It is part of the open Atlantic Ocean and affords no protection from oceanic swells.
External links
http://www.bartelby.com/69/0/R00500.html
Bays of North Carolina
Bodies of water of Carteret County, North Carolina
Bodies of water of Dare County, North Carolina | wiki |
Of Thee I Sing is a phrase from the American patriotic song My Country, 'Tis of Thee (also known as "America"). The phrase may also refer to:
Of Thee I Sing, a musical by George and Ira Gershwin.
Of Thee I Sing (song), a song from the musical.
Of Thee I Sing (book), a children's book by Barack Obama.
Of Thee I Sing (poetry book), a book of poems by Timothy Liu. | wiki |
Skyshaper är ett musikalbum av Covenant som släpptes år 2006.
Låtlista
Musikalbum 2006
Album av Covenant | wiki |
Etest (previously known as the Epsilometer test) is a way of determining antimicrobial sensitivity by placing a strip impregnated with antimicrobials onto an agar plate. A strain of bacterium or fungus will not grow near a concentration of antibiotic or antifungal if it is sensitive. For some microbial and antimicrobial combinations, the results can be used to determine a minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC). Etest is a proprietary system manufactured by bioMérieux. It is a laboratory test used in healthcare settings to help guide physicians by indicating what concentration of antimicrobial could successfully be used to treat patients' infections.
Use
Etest is a quantitative technique for determining the antibiotic sensitivity and minimum inhibitory concentration (in µg/mL) of some bacteria including Gram-negative and Gram-positive aerobic bacteria such as Enterobacteriaceae, Pseudomonas, Burkholderia, Staphylococcus, and Enterococcus species and fastidious bacteria, such as anaerobes, N. gonorrhoeae, S. pneumoniae, Streptococcus and Haemophilius species. It can also be used to determine MICs against certain fungi.
Procedure
Etest is a pre-prepared non-porous plastic reagent strip with a predefined gradient of antibiotic, covering a continuous concentration range. It is applied to the surface of an agar plate inoculated with the test strain, where there is release of the antimicrobial gradient from the plastic carrier to the agar to form a stable and continuous gradient beneath and in nearby to the strip.
The time taken for a plate to be ready depends on the bacterium that is being tested, and the conditions of the agar plate. The predefined Etest gradient remains stable for at least 18 to 24 hours; that is, a period that covers the critical times of many species of fastidious and non-fastidious organisms.
After the test, the bacterial growth becomes visible after incubation and a symmetrical inhibition ellipse centered along the strip is seen. The MIC value is read from the scale in terms of µg/mL where the ellipse edge intersects the strip. After the required incubation period, the minimum inhibitory value is read where the edge of the inhibition ellipse intersects the side of the strip. The plate should not be read if the culture appears mixed or if the lawn of growth is too light or too heavy.
Etest MIC endpoints are usually clear-cut although different growth/inhibition patterns may be seen depending on the antifungal or antibiotic used.
Selection of agar medium
Etest can be used with many different kinds of AST agar medium as long as the medium supports good growth of the test organism and does not interfere with the activity of the antimicrobial agent. However, to maximise reproducibility, the medium chosen should fulfil the basic requirements for a susceptibility test medium. The following AST media are recommended for use with Etest:
Aerobes: Mueller Hinton agar such as MHE (bioMérieux)
Anaerobes: Brucella blood agar with appropriate supplements
These media may require supplemental nutrients to obtain enhanced growth of nutritionally fastidious organisms such as pneumococci, streptococci, Abiotrophia, Haemophilus, gonococci, meningococci and Campylobacter. In general, media recommendations from the Clinical and Laboratory Standards Institute (CLSI) and European Committee on Antimicrobial Susceptibility Testing (EUCAST) are considered appropriate for Etest.
Availability
Etest products for more than 100 antimicrobial agents, including antibiotics, antifungal agents and antimycobacterial agents are available. In addition, specific Etest products are available for the detection of specific resistance mechanisms [e.g. ESBL (Extended Spectrum Beta-Lactamase), MBL (Metallo Beta-Lactamase), AmpC Beta-Lactamase and VISA/h VISA].
Etest has been FDA cleared and CE marked for many organisms by comparing to conventional broth/agar dilution reference methods and shown to have excellent correlation.
Etest equipment
The Etest family of instruments is designed to simplify the daily use of Etest. Simplex C76, Nema C88, and Retro C80 are easy to use, reducing operator fatigue, saving time and improving the quality of results by increasing reproducibility. Etest and related instruments offer one of the most efficient methods for generating on-scale MIC values across 15 doubling dilutions for susceptibility testing of a wide range of drug-bug combinations, including fastidious organisms.
Simplex C76 automates the placement of 1 to 6 different Etest strips to simplify the setup of MIC panels. Application of up to 6 strips for large agar plates or up to 2 strips on small plates takes <12 seconds.
Retro C80 is a rota-plater that simplifies and standardizes the inoculation of small and large agar plates making Etest® easier to read when compared to manual streaking.
Nema C88 is a vacuum pen that simplifies the application of Etest® strips. The applicator is held like a pen and the evacuation hole is covered with the fingertip to create suction. The suction cup is placed on the strip to lift it up and then position onto the agar surface. The strip is released by removing the finger tip from the evacuation hole.
History
The Etest strip was first described in 1988 and was introduced commercially in 1991 by AB BIODISK. bioMérieux acquired AB BIODISK in 2008 and continues to manufacture and market this product range under the mark Etest.
During the 1950s, Hans Ericsson (Professor of microbiology at the Karolinska Hospital and Karolinska Institute, Stockholm), the scientific founder of AB BIODISK, developed a method to standardize the disk diffusion test and to improve its reproducibility and reliability for clinical susceptibility predictions. The inhibition zone sizes from disk test results were compared to minimum inhibitory concentration (MIC) values based on the reference agar dilution procedure. The correlation between zone sizes and MIC values was then assessed using regression analysis and regression lines were used for extrapolating zone interpretive limits that corresponded to the MIC breakpoint values that defined susceptible, intermediate and resistant categorical results.
Etest was first presented at the Interscience Conference on Antimicrobial Agents and Chemotherapy (ICAAC) in Los Angeles in 1988 as a novel gradient concept for MIC determinations. In September 1991, Etest was launched globally as a MIC product after receiving the USA Food and Drug Administration (FDA) clearance.
See also
Antibiotic sensitivity testing
References
Microbiology | wiki |
William Lawton may refer to:
William Stevens Lawton (1900–1993), United States Army general
William Cranston Lawton (1853–1941), American author and educator
Bill Lawton (1920–2008), English cricketer | wiki |
Thomas Woodcock, né le , est roi d'armes principal de la Jarretière et historien britannique.
Distinctions honorifiques
Commandeur de l’ordre royal de Victoria (2011)
Occupations annexes
Membre de la Society of Antiquaries of London (F.S.A.)
Notes et références
Liens externes
Debrett's People of Today
Naissance en mai 1951
Étudiant de l'université de Durham
Historien britannique du XXe siècle
Membre de la Society of Antiquaries of London | wiki |
William Land may refer to:
William Land (athlete), English track and field athlete
William Jesse Goad Land, American botanist, inventor, and professor
Bill Land, American Negro league outfielder
See also
William E.M. Lands, American nutritional biochemist | wiki |
Matchstick puzzles are rearrangement puzzles in which a number of matchsticks are arranged as squares, rectangles or triangles. The problem to solve is usually formulated as: "move n matchsticks to make m squares, triangles, or rectangles". Some match stick problems are solved with planar topological graphs.
Other matchstick puzzles require lateral thinking and are not just about making geometric shapes.
Different three-dimensional matchstick arrangements are also possible as puzzles held together with friction.
References
Puzzles | wiki |
Capuns is a traditional food from the canton of Graubünden in Switzerland, predominantly made in the eastern part. They are made from Spätzle dough with pieces of dried meat, such as Bündnerfleisch and/or Salsiz, and rolled in a chard leaf. They are boiled in a gravy of bouillon, milk and water and served covered with grated cheese.
See also
Maluns, another typical dish of Graubünden
Cabbage rolls
References
External links
Capuns recipe
Dumplings
Meat dishes
Swiss cuisine
Culture of Graubünden | wiki |
Marriott is Steve Marriott's debut solo album from 1976 and features a British and an American side, reflecting the make-up of the bands backing Steve Marriott. The British side includes former Humble Pie colleague Greg Ridley on bass and singing backing vocals.
Track listings
All tracks written by Steve Marriott unless otherwise noted
British Side
East Side Struttin' (Marriott, Finn) – 4:47
Lookin' for a Love (Alexander, Samuels) – 3:44
Help Me Through the Day (Leon Russell) – 5:52
Midnight Rollin' (Marriott, Stphens) – 3:30
Wham Bam Thank You Ma'am (Marriott, Lane) – 3:57
American Side
Star In My Life (Marriott, Wallace)– 3:31
Are You Lonely For Me Baby (B.Burns) – 3:51
You Don't Know Me (C. Walker, E.Arnold) – 4:55
Late Night Lady (Marriott, Hinkley, Ridley) – 3:02
Early Evening Light – 4:02
Personnel
Steve Marriott – Lead vocals, Guitar
Mickey Finn – Guitar on Track1-5
David Spinozza – Guitar on Track10
Ben Benay – Guitar on Track6-10
Red Rhodes – Pedal Steel on Track6-10
Greg Ridley – Bass Guitar on Track1-5, Backing vocals on Track1-10
Dennis Kovarik – Bass Guitar on Track6-10
Michael Baird – Drums on Track6-10
Ian Wallace – Drums on Track1-5 , Percussion on Track6-10
David Foster – Keyboards on Track6-10
Ernie Watts – Saxophone on Track6-10
Alan Estes – Congas on Track6-10
Venetta Fields – Backing vocals on Track2,6-10
Carlena Williams – Backing vocals on Track2,6-10
Maxayn Lewis – Backing vocals on Track2,6-10
References
1976 albums | wiki |
William Loucks may refer to:
William John Loucks, member of the House of Commons of Canada
William H. Loucks, member of the South Dakota House of Representatives | wiki |
Auguste Francotte&Comp. () was a privately owned firearms manufacturer based in Liège, Belgium. It was founded between 1805. and 1810, and was still in operation after 1948.
History
The company was founded in 1805 by August Francotte in Liège, based at Rue de Mont-Saint-Martin 61. The company was especially active from 1860 to 1914 before manufacturing ceased due to the German invasion of Belgium. The company resumed production after World War I.
Arms for Serbian military
In 1857, the Principality of Serbia ordered rifles (Francotte rifle model 1849/56) and pistols of percussion cap system for its armed forces. Also, in 1875, Serbia procured 11 mm Lefaucheux-Francotte M. 1871 revolvers of double action, similar to a Danish revolver Lefaucheux-Francotte M1865.
Production
Throughout the period from the middle of the nineteenth century to 1914, Belgian gunmakers like Auguste Francotte made large quantities of rifles and revolvers of the most diverse construction, calibre and size; most, however, were imitations (produced under licence) of other well-known systems (Martini-Henry, Mauser, Smith&Wesson, Nagant).
During the first decades they manufactured various arms for various nations around Europe, among others 1,500 M1849 kammerladers for Norway.Later they concentrated on high-quality, expensive civilian arms.
Rifles
Francotte-Martini rifle, single shot breachloader with falling block action. Made after 1865, it was an unlicenced derivative the of the Peabody rifle. Modern versions are of the hamerless type, and have a removable breechblock, which can be easily removed for cleaning. It is a very well made and expensive weapon.
Revolvers
Model 1865, Chamelot-Delavigne double action pinfire revolver with solid frame and fixed cilinder, with no mechanical extractor. Made for Danish navy, caliber 11 mm.
Model 1871, Lefaucheux-Francotte double action pinfire revolver with solid frame and fixed cilinder, with no mechanical extractor. Made for Danish army, caliber 11 mm.
Revolver m/1871, Lefaucheux-Francotte double action revolver with solid frame and fixed cilinder, with no mechanical extractor. Made for Swedish army, caliber 11 mm.
Model 1882 (trooper's model), similar as above, made for Danish army, caliber 10.9 mm.
Model 1886 (trooper's model), similar as above, made for Danish army, caliber 9.5 mm.
Recourse
Firearm manufacturers of Belgium
Companies based in Liège Province | wiki |
Unrequited Infatuations is a memoir written by Steven Van Zandt, edited by Ben Greenman, and published in 2021 by Hachette Books.
References
External links
Publishers Weekly review.
2021 non-fiction books
Autobiographies
Steven Van Zandt
Hachette (publisher) books
Books about television
HBO people | wiki |
Cheer (stylised as CHEER), formerly marketed as Coon, is the Australian trademark of a cheddar cheese (known as "tasty" in Australia) produced by the Warrnambool Cheese and Butter company, which is majority-owned by Canadian dairy company Saputo Inc.
The Kraft Walker Cheese Co. (a partnership between Fred Walker and James L. Kraft) launched a cheese known as "Red Coon" around 1931. In October 1949, Kraft Foods Inc. registered the trademark "COON" for cheese with the US Patent Office, claiming use since 1910.
The Australian company marketing the Coon brand formerly stated on their website (2012) that the name derived from the American cheesemaker Edward Coon of Philadelphia, who patented a method in the US in 1926 for fast maturation of cheese via high temperature and humidity; however, this claim has not been repeated, and no links have been found between the Australian cheese and this man.
On 13 January 2021, the chair and CEO of Saputo Inc. announced that "Coon" cheese was to be rebranded as "Cheer" cheese, the new name scheduled to be launched in July 2021. The name was chosen to signify happiness.
On 9 November 2022, Saputo Australia announced that the company will close its Maffra factory in the Gippsland region of Victoria, and lay off up to 75 workers following issues with milk supply and a A$54.4 million annual losses. The company generated a A$30.6 million net profit in the previous year.
History
Background
In 1916, Fred Walker – after having had some success with manufacturing foods – learnt of Chicago businessman James L. Kraft's processing method of halting the maturation of cheese. Walker went to the United States to meet him and acquire the Australian rights to use this method. He began a partnership with Kraft to manufacture this "processed cheese" in 1925, and in May 1926, the Kraft Walker Cheese Co. was registered – the parent company of Kraft Foods Ltd. Kraft Walker then began to make processed "Kraft Cheddar Cheese" at their South Melbourne plant.
Red Coon (1931–1959)
From around July 1931, a cheese was marketed by Kraft Walker Cheese Co. as "Red Coon", which was "not processed in any way, but very finely matured by a secret method, which gives it a distinctive mellow flavor and smooth consistency". The same article refers to "special technical staff, which [were] engaged in the preparation of new products", including Red Coon. The cheese was also advertised as being "2 years old".
Walker had hired Cyril Callister as chief scientist and production superintendent of his factory, and it was he who had formulated Vegemite and the Kraft Walker recipe for processed cheese. Callister also built up a well-staffed laboratory at the factory. According to author, academic and activist Stephen Hagan, Red Coon cheese used a different method to Coon's, as it was pasteurised, which was not part of his patented process.
In November 1934 Kraft Walker leased the factory owned by Warrnambool Cheese and Butter at Allansford, and soon expanded it.
Red Coon was coated with red wax, later replaced with cellophane, and the red stripe in the current logo is a residual reference to the original packaging. It also said that production of Red Coon paused in December 1942 because of World War II, and began again in June 1948 at Allansford and also at Quinalow on the Darling Downs in Queensland. On 7 October 1949, Kraft Foods registered the trademark "COON" with the US Patent Office, claiming use since 1910.
In November 1951, a new Kraft-Walker factory, primarily for the manufacture of processed cheese, was opened in Northgate, Brisbane. The buildings included a cool store for Red Coon cheese, which was being made at Quinalow in Queensland, and described as "mature cheese". It is described as "mature" in many advertisements and articles in the 1950s, although one article explicitly excludes it from the category of Cheddar cheeses.
"Red Coon" cheese was referred to in a discussion about grading cheese in the Queensland Parliament in December 1958. Advertising under this name seem to have dried up in 1959.
Coon (1959–2021)
In 1959, Coon "Tasty" cheese started appearing in the press, with an illustrated advertisement showing labels which call the processed product "cheddar" and the Coon variety, sold in packages, described as "Kraft natural tasty Coon Cheese, fully matured", with a "robust flavour men really appreciate". A 1961 ad, also in the Australian Women's Weekly, shows a slightly different label, including the information that it is "Manufactured in Melbourne" by Kraft Foods Ltd. The ad says it is "aged to full maturity", and its marketing suggests its appeal to "active men".
21st century
Lion Dairy & Drinks operated the brand for some years, until Warrnambool Cheese and Butter bought back the brand in May 2015. Warrnambool Cheese and Butter is majority-owned by Canadian dairy company Saputo Inc.
On 13 January 2021, Lino A. Saputo, the chair and CEO of Saputo Inc., announced the rebranding of the cheese under the name "Cheer", following years of controversy over its name.
Naming controversy
The former product name, which it shared with a racial slur, was defended by previous manufacturers Kraft Foods and Dairy Farmers despite decades-long campaigns to change it, including through challenges to the Australian Human Rights Commission in 1999 and Advertising Standards Bureau in 2001 by blaktivist Stephen Hagan. In the public debate raised by the campaign to change it, some of those who objected to the change of name claimed that the term was not used as a derogatory term in Australia, rather being an American racist term. However, Hagan and QNews reporter Destiny Rogers have said that the research in their e-book, COON: More Holes than Swiss Cheese, shows the term was used in Australia as a derogatory term for Indigenous Australians as well as other people of colour, and was especially common between the 1870s and 1939 before fading from the language during World War II and coming back into use in the 1970s.
Hagan again challenged the name in 2008, and said that Dairy Farmers had told him that it was named after Edward Coon, "who revolutionised the speeding process of making cheese". According to Hagan, this story had only first been mentioned by the brand owners in the 1980s.
In the wake of the 2020 Black Lives Matter protests in Australia, on 24 July 2020 Saputo Inc. announced the name would be changed.
On 13 January 2021, Lino A. Saputo, the chair and CEO of Saputo Inc., announced the new name as "Cheer" cheese. He said, "Treating people with respect and without discrimination is one of our basic principles". A number of other Australian companies also rebranded some of their products which have names with racist connotations in 2020, and others face pressure to do so.
, Hagan is claiming legal damages of for what he calls "21 years of corporations undermining his claims that the cheese brand was not named after...William Edward Coon".
Coon's process
In 1926, American entrepreneur and cheesemaker Edward William Coon of Philadelphia patented a method for fast maturation of cheese via high temperature and humidity, His method explicitly excluded pasteurisation, which kills all bacteria and therefore allows cheese to last for much longer when stored. Coon once operated 14 cheese factories in New York State, before selling the businesses and going to work for the Kraft-Phenix Cheese Company in Philadelphia in 1928. He sold his patent for ripening cheese at the same time. Coon was kept on as manager until his death in 1934.
From around October 1942, Kraft began to market a cheese as "Kraft Coon cheese" in the US, although it was not registered as a trademark until 1949.
Explanatory footnotes
References
Further reading
Australian brands
Australian cheeses
Brand name dairy products
Dairy products companies of Australia
Naming controversies | wiki |
The second season of The Challenge: All Stars premiered on Paramount+ on November 11, 2021. The season features twenty-four past cast members from the flagship series competing for $500,000.
Contestants
Format
All-Stars 2 features a daily challenge, nomination process and an elimination round.
Daily Challenge: Players compete in a main challenge either individually, in pairs or in teams. For team challenges, each team must select one male and one female representative before the challenge begins. The winning male and female (for individual challenges), winning pair (for pair challenges) or winning representatives (for team challenges) are immune from elimination and earn power for the round while respective losing players of each gender, losing pair or losing representatives of the last-place team are automatically sent into the Arena.
Nominations: The daily challenge winners nominate two men and two women to potentially go into the elimination round. Players – excluding the daily challenge winners, daily challenge losers, four nominees and Life Shield holders if they used the Life Shield – must then publicly vote for one male and female to compete in the elimination round. The male and female who receive the most votes will participate in the elimination round.
Eliminations (The Arena): The losers of the daily challenge compete in an individual elimination round against the nominated player of the same gender. The loser is eliminated while the winner remains in the game and earns the Life Shield for the next round of play.
In the sixth episode, players were required to form male-female teams of two to compete in the "Deep Dive" challenge. After the challenge, it was revealed that players would compete in these teams for the remainder of the season. The winning team of the daily challenge is immune while the losing team is automatically sent into the Arena. The winners must nominate two teams where at nominations, eligible players would vote for one of these teams to compete in the Arena against the last-place team.
Twists
Life Shield: The winning players or team of an elimination round are awarded the "Life Shield" for the next cycle of the game. They may use the Life Shield to save themselves if they place last in the subsequent challenge, or save one of the nominees selected by the daily challenge winners. Players or teams are ineligible to vote for the respective cycle of the game if they elect to use the Life Shield.
If players use the Life Shield to save themselves as the losing representative in a team challenge, they must select a replacement player to compete in the Arena in their place. If teams use the Life Shield to save themselves after placing last in a challenge, the second-last team is sent to the Arena in their place.
If players use the Life Shield to save a nominee or nominated team, the winners of the daily challenge must select a replacement nominee in their place.
Gameplay
Challenge games
Boarding Party: Played in male/female pairs, teams must jump from a Zodiac boat onto a speeding motorboat, collect two colored skulls and cross a beam onto a second motorboat. They must then jump off the second boat and dunk the skulls into a basket while mid-air. The team with the fastest time wins while the team with the slowest time is automatically sent to the Arena.
Winners: Derrick K. & Jodi
Around the Block: Played in two teams of eleven, two team members at a time race down a trail and collect one of their team’s geometric puzzle pieces before the next two team members go. Once teams collect the eleven puzzle pieces, they must use them to solve their first puzzle at the bottom of a pyramid. After solving the first puzzle, teams follow the same process to collect another eleven puzzle pieces floating within a cenote before using them to solve their second puzzle on the second level of the pyramid. The first team to solve both puzzles and pull the lever at the top of the pyramid wins.
Winners: Brad, Darrell, Derrick K., Janelle, Jasmine, Katie, Laterrian, Melinda, Nehemiah, Tina & Tyler
Bright Skies: Played in male and female rounds, players begin harnessed on a ledge off the side of a 25-story building. After being asked a question with multiple answers, such as naming a novel in the Harry Potter series, one player at a time must give one of the possible answers. If they answer incorrectly or provide a previously given answer, players are pulled off the ledge and drop ten-stories below. The last player of each gender standing wins while the first player of each gender to answer incorrectly, or refuse to participate, are automatically sent into the Arena.
Winners: Casey & Steve
Bounce Back: Played two players at a time, players bounce across seven trampolines suspended above water, leaping off the final trampoline to collect a hanging puzzle piece. They must then swim to shore with their piece and repeat this process for all three puzzle pieces. After collecting all three pieces, players must use them to solve three math equations using the numbers printed on each piece. The male and female with the fastest time wins while the male and female with the slowest time are automatically sent to the Arena. In the event that multiple players are unable to complete the challenge, the last-place player is determined by the number of jumps they made off the final trampoline.
Winners: Darrell & Jodi
Deep Dive: Teams begin on a 30-foot platform above a cenote. They can either jump directly into the cenote or climb down a ladder to a 15-foot platform and jump from there at the risk of losing time. Once in the cenote, teams must swim to four buoys and dive to collect a bag of puzzle pieces from a chest submerged 15 feet under each buoy. After collecting all four bags of puzzle pieces, teams must return to shore and solve the 3D-puzzle. The team with the fastest time wins while the team with the slowest time is automatically sent into the Arena.
Winners: Brad & Jodi
Steer Clear: Teams begin on the back of a monster truck, with one team member suspended from a 20-foot mounted crane boom off the side of the truck. As the monster truck speeds down a runway, their partner must steer the boom so they can collect flags attached to several cars and motorcycles along the runway. The team that collects the most flags wins while the team that collects the least flags is automatically sent to the Arena.
Winners: Brad & Jodi
Dive & Conquer: While tethered together, teams run half a mile down a path towards a cenote. They must then jump into the cenote, swim towards the answer key and memorize it before returning down the path to their puzzle station. There, teams must replicate the answer key they memorized by placing tiles on a board, and are free to return to the cenote many or as few times as they wish. The first team to replicate their answer key wins while the last team is automatically sent to the Arena.
Winners: Jonna & MJ
Make the Connection: Teams begin harnessed on top of a speeding semi-truck. Each team member must jump onto one of the two adjacent semi-trucks, each with four small boxes on them. They must untie knots to open each box and collect four keys inside before using the keys to unlock a larger box with their final key. Team members must then climb back onto the first semi-truck and use the key to unlock a final box containing an idol. There is a three-minute time limit before the adjacent trucks speed away and leave teams behind. The team with the fastest time wins while the team with the slowest time is automatically sent to the Arena.
Winners: Melinda & Nehemiah
Arena games
Deadweight: Each player has three 300-pound coffins, each with a chain attached. They must pull each coffin across the Arena until they can secure the chains on a post at the opposite side. For the two of the coffins, they must also solve a problem inside before they can begin pulling. The first player to secure all three chains to their post wins.
Played by: Derek C. vs Nehemiah, Ayanna vs. Leah
Fireball: Similar to tic-tac-toe, players begin with five colored balls set on fire. They must transfer one ball at a time across the Arena and place them slots of a three-by-three board, attempting to line up three of their balls in a row either vertically, horizontally or diagonally to win the round. The first player to win two rounds wins.
Played by: Cohutta vs. Ryan, Jodi vs. Sophia
Weight, There's More: Players must transfer 1,000 pounds of sandbags across the Arena to the end of their ramp to reveal a puzzle. The first player to solve the puzzle, which involves sorting colored skulls by sliding them into position, wins.
Played by: Ayanna vs. Katie, Brad vs. Derrick K.
Switchback: Each player has three colored skulls placed on the boundary of the Arena that begin switched on. They must run across the Arena and flip the light switches off for their opponent's skulls, or switch their own skulls back on, while their opponent does the same. The first player to switch off all three of their opponent's skulls while also having at least of their skulls on wins.
Played by: Steve vs. Teck, Melinda vs. Tina
Pole Wrestle: Players begin at the center of the Arena with both hands on a metal pole. The first player to wrestle the pole out of their opponent's hands twice wins.
Played by: Laterrian vs. Tyler
Like Clockwork: One team member begins in a glass case which has six possible mechanical gear combinations printed on the floor. They must identify the gear combination that would correctly function when spun and verbally communicate it to their partner, who recreates the combination by placing colored gears on a puzzle board. During the elimination, the glass case would slowly fill with sand making it more difficult to view the combinations as time progresses. The first team to assemble the correct gear combination wins.
Played by: Jasmine & Laterrian vs. Melinda & Nehemiah
Smash House: One team member begins in a furnished room and must use a sledgehammer to smash the furniture into pieces and fit them through a six-inch hole to the adjacent empty room where their partner is located. Their partner must then use a sledgehammer to smash the debris into smaller pieces and fit them through a three-inch hole and into a bucket. After ten minutes, the buckets are weighed. The team with the most weight in their bucket wins.
Played by: Brad & Jodi vs. Darrell & Janelle
Final Challenge
After the "Smash House" elimination, it was announced that the remaining four teams would immediately commence the Final Challenge.
Day One
Overnight Stage: Each team is provided with one hammock for the night. One team member may sleep on the hammock at a time while their partner must stand on a log during this time.
Day Two
Phase One: Teams race down a winding jungle path to the "Nucleus" area where they would find an empty board and instructions for three checkpoints located within the jungle. They must complete each checkpoint (in any order) to collect a mandala piece. After collecting all three mandala pieces, teams place them on the board to form a mandala. The first three teams to complete their mandala advance to Phase Two while the remaining team is eliminated.
Checkpoints
Decode: Teams are given a flashlight and must follow blue arrows through the jungle until they reach a dark cave. They must search for and memorize multiple symbols and their corresponding numbers printed on the cave’s walls. They must then return to the Nucleus and decode the secret phrase "Redemption and Perseverance" on a decoding ring to receive their mandala piece.
Memory: Teams follow red arrows through the jungle to a puzzle key with dozens of symbols printed on them. They must memorize the locations of each pair of symbols, return to the Nucleus and flip over covered squares on a memory board to reveal each pair to receive their mandala piece. If teams make a mistake, they must return to the puzzle key before they can continue.
Pole Puzzle: Teams must ride two bicycles, which are tethered together, to the end of a path to find 14 three-dimensional puzzle pieces. They must then return all 14 pieces to the Nucleus and solve the vertical puzzle to receive their mandala piece.
Eliminated: Ayanna & Teck (4th place — Quit)
Phase Two: Teams must consume a plate of fish-eye tostadas, cricket-stuffed burritos and cockroach-topped nachos. Additionally, each team member must drink a glass of blood. Once complete, teams proceed to the end of a runway where they must solve several algebraic equations to find the numerical value of several symbols. Teams then use these values as the code to unlock their safe containing $500,000 worth of banknotes. The first team to open their safe and bring the money inside to a nearby plane are declared the winners of All Stars 2 and are awarded the $500,000 from their safe.
Winners: Jonna & MJ — $500,000 ($250,000 each)
Runners-Up: Darrell & Janelle, Melinda & Nehemiah
Game summary
Episode progress
Competition
The contestant won the Final Challenge
The contestant did not win the Final Challenge
The contestant won the challenge and was granted immunity from the Arena
The contestant won the challenge, but was not granted immunity from the Arena
The contestant was not selected for the Arena
The contestant was saved from being nominated for the Arena by the Life Shield
The contestant placed last in the daily challenge or was voted into the Arena, but did not have to compete
The contestant was nominated by the winners, but was not voted to compete in the Arena
The contestant won the elimination in the Arena
The contestant was removed from the competition due to medical reasons
The contestant was disqualified from the competition due to their partner being removed
The contestant lost in the Arena and was eliminated
The contestant withdrew from the competition
Voting progress
Bold indicates the winning team casting a tiebreaking vote
Team selections
Bold indicates team captains
Episodes
Notes
References
2021 American television seasons
2022 American television seasons
All Stars, The Challenge
Television shows set in Cancún
Television shows filmed in Mexico | wiki |
Rudolph William Debnar (May 9, 1916 – May 29, 1982) was an American basketball player. He played college basketball for Duquesne. In 1941, he was named All-Pennsylvania second team. He later played professionally in the National Basketball League for the Akron Goodyear Wingfoots and Youngstown Bears; he averaged 5.5 points per game for his career.
References
1916 births
1982 deaths
Akron Goodyear Wingfoots players
American men's basketball players
Basketball players from Pennsylvania
Duquesne Dukes men's basketball players
Guards (basketball)
People from Charleroi, Pennsylvania
Player-coaches
Youngstown Bears players | wiki |
Rhymes and Reasons – album di John Denver del 1969
Rhymes and Reasons – album di Carole King del 1972 | wiki |
Road 77, also known as the Haraz Road, is one of the most important roads from Tehran to the northern mountains of Iran, and the Iranian coast on the southern Caspian Sea. Amol is the first northern city of this road. Along the road landscapes, Plain, Mountain, Historical tourism. Waterfall and village.
Route
The road's route travels through Tehran Province and Mazandaran Province. It crosses the Alborz mountain range and then descends northwards down the Haraz River Valley.
The road is the shortest route from Tehran to the north ( 180 km) and in recent years some parts of the road has been widened and the safety has been improved. It passes through the towns of Amol and Rudehen.
Features
Haraz Road is the nearest road to Mount Damavand, the highest peak in Iran and Middle East.
Lar Dam, Lar National Park, which Mount Damavand is within, is easily accessible from Road 77.
Central Alborz mountain range map
Gallery
See also
Road 59 − Karaj-Chaloos Road — another main Tehran−Caspian route.
References
External links
Iran road map on Young Journalists Club
77
Transportation in Mazandaran Province
Transport in Tehran
Transportation in Tehran Province
Alborz (mountain range)
Amol County | wiki |
The 1999 NFL season was the 80th regular season of the National Football League (NFL). The Cleveland Browns returned to the field for the first time since the 1995 season, while the Tennessee Oilers changed their name to "Tennessee Titans," with the league retiring the name "Oilers."
The return of the Browns increased the number of teams to 31, the first time the league had played with an odd number of teams since 1966. As per the league's agreement with the City of Cleveland, the Browns were placed in the AFC Central, increasing that division to six teams. This also required the NFL to give at least one team a bye each week; previously, barring extreme circumstances, a club never received a bye during the first two weeks or last seven weeks of the season. Under the new system, for ten weeks of the season (Week #1, Week #2 and Week #10 to Week #17), one team received a bye, and for seven weeks of the season (Week #3 to Week #9), three teams received a bye. This format would continue until the Houston Texans joined the NFL in 2002, returning the league to an even number of teams.
The start of the 1999 NFL season was pushed back one week and started the weekend after Labor Day, a change from the previous seasons: due to the Y2K concerns, the NFL did not want to hold the opening round of the playoffs on Saturday, January 1, 2000, and did not want teams traveling on that day. This was also done to avoid competing against college football's New Years Day bowl games.
Week 17 games were held on January 2, 2000, and the opening round of the playoffs would be scheduled for January 8 and 9, with the bye week before the Super Bowl removed to accommodate the one-week adjustment. The start of the season after Labor Day would become a regular fixture for future seasons, beginning in 2001.
The final spot in the NFC playoffs came down to an exciting final day of the season. The Green Bay Packers and Carolina Panthers were both at 7–8, tied for the last spot in the playoffs with the Dallas Cowboys and tied in other tiebreakers. The Packers/Panthers tie would be broken by best net point differential in conference games. With both the Packers and Panthers playing at 1:00 p.m. Eastern on January 2, the two teams tried to outscore the other. The Packers beat the Arizona Cardinals 49–24, and the Panthers beat the New Orleans Saints 45–13, with the result that the Packers finished ahead of the Panthers by 11 points. Nevertheless, Dallas defeated the New York Giants later that night to claim the final playoff spot.
The St. Louis Rams, who had had losing records for each of the past nine seasons dating back to their first tenure in Los Angeles (and had finished in last place in their division the previous season), surprised the entire league by making a Super Bowl run, as seven point favorites, by defeating the Tennessee Titans 23–16 in Super Bowl XXXIV at the Georgia Dome.
Transactions
Retirements
On May 2, 1999, John Elway announced his retirement from pro football. He played his entire career with the Denver Broncos.
On July 27, 1999, Barry Sanders announced he was retiring from pro football. His retirement was made public by faxing a letter to the Wichita Eagle, his hometown newspaper.
Draft
The 1999 NFL Draft was held from April 17 to 18, 1999 at New York City's Theater at Madison Square Garden. With the first pick, the Cleveland Browns selected quarterback Tim Couch from the University of Kentucky.
Expansion Draft
Held on February 9, 1999, 150 players were left unprotected by their teams for the Browns to select in the 1999 NFL expansion draft. With the first overall pick, the Browns selected Center Jim Pyne from the Detroit Lions.
Referee changes
Jerry Markbreit retired prior to the 1999 season. He joined the NFL in 1976 as a line judge before being promoted to the referee in just his second year. To date, he is the only NFL referee to officiate four Super Bowl games: Super Bowl XVII, Super Bowl XXI, Super Bowl XXVI, and Super Bowl XXIX. Jeff Triplette was promoted to referee to replace Markbreit.
Major rule changes
Clipping became illegal around the line of scrimmage just as it was on the rest of the field.
A new instant replay system (different from the one used from 1986 to 1991) is adopted to aid officiating. The system mirrors a method used by the defunct USFL in 1985:
In each game, each team has two challenge flags that can be thrown to start an official review of the play in question. Each challenge will require the use of a team's timeout. If the challenge is successful, the timeout is restored.
Inside of two minutes of each half, and during all overtime periods, all reviews will be initiated by a Replay Assistant. The Replay Assistant has an unlimited number of reviews, regardless of how many timeouts each team has left. And no timeout will be charged for any review by the Replay Assistant.
All replay reviews will be conducted by the referee on a field-level monitor. A decision will be reversed only when there is indisputable visual evidence to overturn the call. The referee has 90 seconds to review the play.
The officials will be notified of a replay request or challenge via a specialized electronic pager with a vibrating alert. Each head coach would also have a red flag to use as a backup to get the attention of the officials to challenge a play.
The replay system will only cover the following situations:
Scoring plays
Pass complete/incomplete/intercepted
Runner/receiver out of bounds
Recovery of a loose ball in or out of bounds
Touching of a forward pass, either by an ineligible receiver or a defensive player
Quarterback pass or fumble
Illegal forward pass
Forward or backward pass
Runner ruled not down by contact
Forward progress in regard to a first down
Touching of a kick
Too many men on the field
The league also added the following then-minor rule change that became significant in the playoffs a few years later:
When a Team A player is holding the ball to pass it forward, any intentional forward movement of his hand starts a forward pass, even if the player loses possession of the ball as he is attempting to tuck it back toward his body. Also, if the player has tucked the ball into his body and then loses possession, it is a fumble.
This new interpretation of a forward pass would later be commonly known as the “Tuck Rule”, and was repealed in 2013.
1999 deaths
Pro Football Hall of Fame
Walter Payton: Having retired as the NFL's All-Time Leading Rusher, Payton died on November 1, 1999 from a rare liver disease known as primary sclerosing cholangitis.
Regular season
Scheduling formula
Highlights of the 1999 season included:
Thanksgiving: Two games were played on Thursday, November 25, featuring Chicago at Detroit and Miami at Dallas, with Detroit and Dallas winning.
Tiebreakers
Miami was the third AFC Wild Card ahead of Kansas City based on better record against common opponents (6–1 to Chiefs’ 5–3).
N.Y. Jets finished ahead of New England in the AFC East based on better division record (4–4 to Patriots’ 2–6).
Seattle finished ahead of Kansas City in the AFC West based on head-to-head sweep (2–0).
San Diego finished ahead of Oakland in the AFC West based on better division record (5–3 to Raiders’ 3–5).
Dallas was the second NFC Wild Card based on better record against common opponents (4–2 to Lions’ 3–3), head-to-head victory over Green Bay, and better conference record than Carolina (7–5 to Panthers’ 6–6).
Detroit was the third NFC Wild Card based on better conference record than Green Bay (7–5 to Packers’ 6–6) and head-to-head victory over Carolina.
Playoffs
Statistical leaders
Team
Individual
Awards
Coaching changes
Baltimore Ravens – Brian Billick; replaced Ted Marchibroda who was fired after the 1998 season.
Carolina Panthers – George Seifert; replaced Dom Capers who was fired after the 1998 season.
Chicago Bears – Dick Jauron; replaced Dave Wannstedt who was fired after the 1998 season.
Cleveland Browns – Chris Palmer; hired before the season, first coach of revived Browns.
Green Bay Packers – Ray Rhodes; replaced Mike Holmgren who resigned to become Head Coach and General Manager of the Seattle Seahawks.
Kansas City Chiefs – Gunther Cunningham; replaced Marty Schottenheimer who resigned at the end of the 1998 season.
Philadelphia Eagles – Andy Reid; replaced Ray Rhodes who was fired after the 1998 season.
San Diego Chargers – Mike Riley; replaced interim head coach June Jones who replaced Kevin Gilbride during the 1998 season.
Seattle Seahawks – Mike Holmgren; replaced Dennis Erickson who was fired after the 1998 season.
Stadium changes
Baltimore Ravens: Ravens Stadium at Camden Yards was renamed PSINet Stadium after the internet service provider PSINet acquired the naming rights
Cleveland Browns: The reactivated Browns team moves into Cleveland Browns Stadium
Tennessee Titans: The renamed Titans moved from Vanderbilt Stadium to Adelphia Coliseum, with the Adelphia Communications Corporation acquiring the naming rights
Washington Redskins: Jack Kent Cooke Stadium was renamed FedExField after FedEx acquired the naming rights
New uniforms
The Baltimore Ravens were forced to scrap their original helmet logo, a shield with raven wings displaying a letter "B", because of a trademark dispute. Their new helmet logo featured a purple raven's head with the letter "B" superimposed. The team introduced a new secondary shield logo with alternating Calvert and Crossland emblems similar to the flag of Maryland.
The reactivated Cleveland Browns restored the team's classic design, but widened the pants stripes.
The Detroit Lions returned to wearing silver instead of blue pants with their white jerseys. TV numbers moved from the sleeves to the shoulders.
The Philadelphia Eagles added black stripping on the sleeve ends on the green jerseys.
The renamed Tennessee Titans unveiled new uniforms featuring navy and white jerseys, white helmets, and red trim. White pants were worn with the navy jerseys and navy pants with the white jerseys. The new helmet logo featured a circle with a letter "T" and three stars in a pattern matching those on the Tennessee state flag with a trail of flames.
The New Orleans Saints switched from gold to black numbers on their white jerseys. They also began wearing black pants with a wide gold stripe with their white jerseys.
Television
This was the second year under the league's eight-year broadcast contracts with ABC, CBS, Fox, and ESPN to televise Monday Night Football, the AFC package, the NFC package, and Sunday Night Football, respectively.
Dan Dierdorf left ABC to return to CBS, joining Verne Lundquist on the latter network's #2 crew. Dierdorf replaced Randy Cross, who then became part of an overhauled talent lineup on The NFL Today: Jim Nantz remained as host, but Marcus Allen, Brent Jones, and George Seifert were replaced by Cross, Craig James, and Jerry Glanville. ABC decided to leave Al Michaels and Boomer Esiason in a two-man booth. ABC also dropped Frank Gifford's segments from its MNF pregame show, letting Chris Berman to host the entire 20 minutes.
References
NFL Record and Fact Book ()
NFL History 1991–2000 (Last accessed October 17, 2005)
Total Football: The Official Encyclopedia of the National Football League ()
Steelers Fever – History of NFL Rules (Last accessed October 17, 2005)
NFL introduces Instant Replay technology (Last accessed November 4, 2005)
Tuck Rule Hard to Grasp by Mark Maske, The Washington Post, October 15, 2005 (Last accessed November 4, 2005)
External links
Football Outsiders 1999 DVOA Ratings and Commentary
1999
National Football League | wiki |
The Depraved may refer to:
Adélaïde (film), also known as The Depraved, a 1968 French drama film
The Depraved (1957 film), a British crime film
The Depraved aka Urban Explorer, a 2011 German horror film
Depraved may refer to:
Depraved: The Shocking True Story of America's First Serial Killer, American true crime book by Harold Schechter about the murders of H.H. Holmes | wiki |
A full cover bet is any bet which consists of all available multiple bets over a given number of selections.
Examples of full cover bets:
Trixie - three selections
Yankee - four selections
Canadian or Super Yankee - five selections
Heinz - six selections
Super Heinz - seven selections
Goliath - eight selections
Examples of full cover bets with singles included:
Patent - three selections
Lucky 15 - four selections
Lucky 31 - five selections
Lucky 63 - six selections
The Lucky bets are so named because of the bookmaker's practice of offering bonuses for one or more winning selections; most common of which is 'double the odds' for one winner. The offering of a percentage increase in winnings for the success of two or more selections in these Lucky bets is primarily to compensate for the compounding of the overround when two or more events with individual overrounds on their books are combined in doubles, trebles and accumulators.
See also
Glossary of bets offered by UK bookmakers, a list of traditional and popular bets.
Mathematics of bookmaking
References
Wagering | wiki |
Shola Aur Shabnam may refer to:
Shola Aur Shabnam (1961 film), a Hindi film directed by Ramesh Saigal
Shola Aur Shabnam (1992 film), a Hindi film directed by David Dhawan | wiki |
Iceland–Sweden relations refers to the diplomatic relations between Iceland and Sweden. Both nations are mutual members of the Arctic Council, Council of the Baltic Sea States, Council of Europe, NB8, Nordic Council, Organisation for Economic Co-operation and Development and the United Nations.
History
Iceland and Sweden are two Nordic countries once inhabited by the Vikings. The first known Swede to arrive to Iceland was Garðar Svavarsson in 870. He became the first person to circumnavigate Iceland. In 1380, Iceland (at the time ruled by Norway) joined the Kalmar Union joining Iceland under a single monarch with the three kingdoms of Denmark, Norway and Sweden. Both Iceland and Sweden were joined as one nation until the dissolution of the union in 1523. After the union, Iceland was ruled by Denmark until obtaining its independence (under a Danish constitutional monarchy) in 1918. On 27 July 1940, both Iceland and Sweden established diplomatic relations. In June 1944, Iceland became a republic and both nations opened embassies in each other's capitals, respectively. During World War II both nations remained officially neutral, however, Iceland was invaded by the allies and used as a base while Sweden unofficially assisted the allies.
Since the establishment of diplomatic relations between Iceland and Sweden, both countries have actively participated in the international arena to discuss issues affecting the Nordic nations such as climate change, Arctic policy and in mutual defense outside of NATO. Both countries have participated in foreign expeditions such as in Afghanistan with the International Security Assistance Force.
During the Icelandic financial crisis from 2008 to 2011, Sweden's National Bank issued 5 billion Swedish Krona (€520 million) to Iceland's Kaupthing Bank in order to pay "depositors and other creditors" affected by the financial crisis.
Trade
Iceland, as a member of the European Free Trade Association has unrestricted access to the European Union market (which includes Sweden). In 2015, total trade between Iceland and the EU totaled €5.7 billion Euros.
Resident diplomatic missions
Iceland has an embassy in Stockholm.
Sweden has an embassy in Reykjavík.
See also
Foreign relations of Iceland
Foreign relations of Sweden
Nordic Passport Union
Scandinavia
Viking Age
References
Sweden
Iceland | wiki |
Acid green is a shade of yellow-green. Sources differ as to the exact color, but the one shown at right is representative.
Here are some additional variations:
See also
List of colors
Shades of green | wiki |
Thomas M'Crie was the name of two Scottish Seceder ministers and historians, father and son:
Thomas M'Crie the Elder (1772–1835)
Thomas M'Crie the Younger (1797–1875) | wiki |
Scorpion King may refer to:
Pharaohs
Scorpion I
Scorpion II, also known as King Scorpion
Films
The Scorpion King (1992 film), a Hong Kong film
The Scorpion King (film series), a spin-off of The Mummy franchise:
The Scorpion King, a 2002 film
The Scorpion King 2: Rise of a Warrior, a 2008 film
The Scorpion King 3: Battle for Redemption, a 2012 film
The Scorpion King 4: Quest for Power, a 2015 film
The Scorpion King: Book of Souls, a 2018 film
Video games
The Scorpion King: Sword of Osiris, a 2002 video game
The Scorpion King: Rise of the Akkadian, a 2002 video game
Other uses
Mathayus (The Scorpion King), a fictional character in the film series The Scorpion King
Scorpion Kings, South African music duo of DJ Maphorisa and Kabza de Small
Scorpion Kings (sometimes Scorpion Kings EP), 2019 album
See also
Emperor scorpion, a species of West African scorpion
Scorpion goddess (disambiguation) | wiki |
ProHD is a name used by JVC for its MPEG-2-based professional camcorders. ProHD is not a video recording format, but rather "an approach for delivering affordable HD products" and a common name for "bandwidth efficient professional HD models".
Originally ProHD lineup consisted of shoulder mount HDV 720p camcorders and offered 24-frame/s progressive video recording and LPCM audio recording/playback. It is a common misconception that JVC developed ProHD as a proprietary extension to HDV. JVC has stressed that 24-frame/s video and LPCM audio have always been part of the HDV format, but at the time they were initially offered no other HDV camcorder had them. The company went to great lengths to promote the format as an appropriate solution for professional high definition video production.
In 2009 JVC expanded the ProHD lineup with tapeless camcorders that record MPEG-2 video either in QuickTime or in XDCAM EX format.
References
JVC products | wiki |
Vanning may refer to:
Vanning - a type of ore dressing by which ores are washed on a shovel.
Vanning (hobby) - a hobby practiced by aficionados of tricked-out conversion vans.
Vanning (music) - to indulge in the lyrical mastery of Van Morrison. | wiki |
"Jesus and Mama" is a song written by Danny Mayo and James Dean Hicks, and recorded by the American country music band Confederate Railroad. It was released in July 1992 as the second single from the band's self-titled debut album. The song peaked at number 4 on the Hot Country Singles & Tracks charts in and was later included as the b-side to the album's third single, "Queen of Memphis."
Critical reception
It received a positive review in Billboard, with the uncredited review calling the song "soft and believable".
Chart performance
Year-end charts
References
1992 singles
Confederate Railroad songs
Songs written by Danny Mayo
Song recordings produced by Barry Beckett
Atlantic Records singles
Songs written by James Dean Hicks
1992 songs | wiki |
The 1954–55 British Home Championship was a football tournament played between the British Home Nations during the 1954–55 football season. It was won by a strong England side which included players such as Johnny Haynes and Nat Lofthouse as well as future manager Don Revie. England and Scotland, had competed at the 1954 FIFA World Cup in the summer before the tournament began and both teams had struggled, eventually being knocked out by Uruguay, Scotland by a 7–0 margin.
England began the tournament as favourites and proved their status with a simple victory over Ireland in their first match. Scotland matched this with a difficult win over Wales in their match, although only by one goal to nil. Both Wales and Ireland improved in their second matches, the Irish holding Scotland to a 2–2 draw whilst the Welsh almost achieved the same against England in London, eventually losing 3–2. The final games were played at the conclusion of the domestic season, and saw Ireland fall to the Welsh under their inspirational goalscorer John Charles, who netted a hat trick in a 3–2 victory. England had by this time taken the championship with a comprehensive demolition of Scotland 7–2 in their final match, Dennis Wilshaw claiming four of the goals.
Table
Results
References
1951
1954–55 in Northern Ireland association football
1954–55 in English football
1954–55 in Scottish football
1954–55 in Welsh football
1954 in British sport
1955 in British sport | wiki |
The Midway Yard is a CTA rail yard in the Southwest side of Chicago, Illinois which stores cars from the Orange Line of the Chicago Transit Authority. Currently, 2600-series railcars are stored here. It is adjacent to Midway station at Midway International Airport.
References
Chicago Transit Authority | wiki |
The term gold brick or goldbrick is dated American slang for a swindle selling a putative gold bar, by extension a swindle or swindler generally, more generally shrinking (slacking) or a shirker (slacker). It can also refer to:
A gold bar
Goldbricking, the avoidance of work or engaging in personal activities while at work
A US WWII army cartoon written by Dr. Seuss and directed by Frank Tashlin
Gold Bricks, an album by the band Fuck.
Gold Brickers, an enemy group in the video game City of Villains
Gold bricks are special items in several of the Lego video games
Gold Brick Egg, a chocolate bar manufactured by Elmer Candy Corporation | wiki |
General Barrett may refer to:
Arthur Barrett (Indian Army officer) (1857–1926), British Indian Army general
Charles D. Barrett (1885–1943), U.S. Marine Corps major general
Michael B. Barrett (born c. 1946), U.S. Army brigadier general
Sam C. Barrett (fl. 1980s–2020s), U.S. Air Force lieutenant general
See also
William Cross Barratt (1862–1940), British Army major general
John Davenport Barrette (1862–1934), U.S. Army brigadier general
Luís do Rego Barreto (1777–1840), Kingdom of Portugal lieutenant general
Attorney General Barrett (disambiguation) | wiki |
Towncraft can refer to:
Towncraft (film), a 2007 documentary
Towncraft (album), a 1992 compilation
TownCraft (video game), a 2013 video game.
Towncraft Agrico, a 2016 Agriculture and Sustainability Company.
Towncraft Technologies, a 2016 IT Company. | wiki |
General Edmonds may refer to:
Albert J. Edmonds (born 1942), U.S. Air Force lieutenant general
James Edward Edmonds (1861–1956), British Army brigadier general
Maurice O. Edmonds (born 1931), U.S. Army major general | wiki |
Walt Disney: An American Original is a 1976 non-fictional book by Bob Thomas considered to be the definitive biography of Walt Disney.
Publication history
It was later republished by Disney Editions in 1994.
See also
Walt: The Man Behind the Myth-2001 documentary about Walt
Golden Age of American animation
The Disney Version-the 1968 book by film critic Richard Schickel
References
Books about Disney
1976 non-fiction books
Works about Walt Disney
Disney books
American biographies
Biographies (books)
Simon & Schuster books | wiki |
In the United States, a ward is an optional division of a city or town for administrative and representative purposes, especially for purposes of an election. Depending upon the state and local laws, the term ward can mean any of:
an electoral district of a city council or town board, created for the purpose of providing more direct representation, from which one or more council members are elected; or
a division used in political party leadership elections; or
an administrative division, as in the wards of Newark, New Jersey or the six wards of Houston.
See also
Ward (electoral subdivision)
References
Municipal legislative districts of the United States
Local government in the United States | wiki |
ABPR may refer to:
Animal By-Products Regulations
Aberdeen and Briar Patch Railway
American Book Publishing Record | wiki |
Nokia X3 may refer to:
Nokia X3-00
Nokia X3-02, also called Nokia X3 Touch and Type, available in Q3 2010 | wiki |
Lomilomi may refer to:
Lomilomi massage, a Hawaiian massage
Lomi salmon or lomi-lomi salmon, a side dish in Pacific island cuisine | wiki |
In computing timestamping refers to the use of an electronic timestamp to provide a temporal order among a set of events.
Timestamping techniques are used in a variety of computing fields, from network management and computer security to concurrency control. For instance, a heartbeat network uses timestamping to monitor the nodes on a high availability computer cluster.
Timestamping computer files (updating the timestamp in the per-file metadata every time a file is modified) makes it possible to use efficient build automation tools.
See also
Trusted timestamping
Timestamp-based concurrency control
References
Computer network security
Concurrency control
Transaction processing | wiki |
The Linden Yard is a CTA rail yard in Wilmette, Illinois which stores cars from the Purple Line of the Chicago Transit Authority. Currently, 5000-series railcars are stored here. It is adjacent to Linden station.
References
Chicago Transit Authority | wiki |
This is a list of bridges documented by the Historic American Engineering Record in the U.S. state of Wisconsin.
Bridges
Notes
References
List
List
Wisconsin
Bridges, HAER
Bridges, HAER | wiki |
Крышень, Павел Федорович | wiki |
Devil Without a Cause — четвёртый студийный альбом американского рэпера Кид Рока. Выпущенный 18 августа 1998 года, альбом продемонстрировал развитие звучания Кид Рока, отходя от хип-хопа, который преобладал в предыдущих альбомах, к рэп-металу, хард-року, ню-металу и рэп-року, и ознаменовал завершение его сценического образа «деревенского сутенёра». Кроме того, считается, что песня «» сыграла важную роль в развитии жанра кантри-рэп.
Devil Without a Cause имел большой коммерческий успех. Подстегнутый популярностью сингла «», альбом разошёлся тиражом в 15 миллионов копий и получил «бриллиантовый» сертификат. Альбом также получил всеобщее признание критиков за его звучание.
Предыстория
В 1997 году Джейсон Флом, основатель лейбла Lava Records, посетил одно из выступлений Кид Рока и встретился с ним, который позже дал Джейсону демо-версии песен «Somebody’s Gotta Feel This» и «I Got One for Ya», что привело к подписанию контракта Кид Рока с Atlantic Records. В рамках контракта на запись Кид Рок получил от лейбла 150 000 долларов. К этому времени Кид Рок полностью решил эволюционировать свой сценический образ, развить музыкальный стиль рэп-метал и записать «деревенский, дерьмовый рок-н-ролльный рэп-альбом».
Процесс записи
Альбом был записан в White Room в Детройте и сведён в Mix Room в Лос-Анджелесе.
В дополнение к недавно написанным песням, группа также перезаписала некоторые старые песни Кид Рока, в том числе «» с более раннего EP и «Black Chick, White Guy» с альбома Early Mornin' Stoned Pimp. Эминем микшировал пластинку The Slim Shady LP в той же студии и, будучи другом Кид Рока, попросил его записать скрэтчи для песни «My Fault». В ответ Эминем исполнил рэп-куплет в песне Кида «Fuck Off». В 1999 году в интервью журналу Spin Эминем сказал, что он употреблял кокаин в первый и последний раз, когда писал и записывал свои куплеты с Кидом. По словам Эминема, Кид был в «режиме полной вечеринки с тоннами различных наркотиков, просто разложенных рядом с микшерным пультом. Там были его приятели, которые только что вырубились голышом с кокаином на носу. Это было поразительно. Я больше никогда не прикасался к этому дерьму».
Содержание
Стиль
Музыка на Devil Without a Cause известна своим эклектичным звучанием, которое заимствовано из таких жанров, как арена-рок, кантри, хартленд-рок, хэви-метал и хип-хоп. Звучание альбома в основном классифицировалось критиками и журналистами как рэп-метал, хард-рок, ню-метал и рэп-рок. Музыка Кид Рока была описана Pitchfork как нечто среднее между Run-DMC, Lynyrd Skynyrd и AC/DC. MTV сравнил песни Кид Рока «I Am the Bullgod» и «Roving Gangster (Rollin')» с чем-то средним между Alice in Chains и Public Enemy.
По словам Стивена Томаса Эрлевайна из Allmusic, «Ключом к успеху [альбома] является то, что он и не намерен стать хип-хоп-пластинкой. Это просто чудовищный рок-альбом». Эрлевайн считает, что на звучание альбома оказали влияние Боб Сигер, Lynyrd Skynyrd и Van Halen. Эрлевайн также считал, что альбом «прочно вписался в традиции классического хард-рока».
Музыка и тексты
Песня «» содержит звучание ню-метала. Чтобы сделать припев, Кид Рок объединил припевы песни «Making Cash Money», записи the Marcels «Blue Moon» и песни The Sugarhill Gang «» в «григорианское гудение». Текст песни посвящён «тёлкам с пейджерами» и налоговому управлению США, а также «всем наркоманам, критикам, циникам/И всем [моим] героям в метадоновой клинике». В демо-записи песни Кид Рок кричит: «Now get in the pit and try to kill someone!». В альбомной версии Кид Рок изменил текст, заменив слово «kill» на «love». Относительно корректировки, Кид Рок сказал The Baltimore Sun, что он рад, что изменил текст, объяснив, что мошпит — это сосуществование.
Кантри-рэп-песня «» была написана незадолго до начала записи альбома. Это сплав хип-хопа, кантри-музыки, южного рока и хэви-метала. Billboard, а также сам Кид Рок описали песню как нечто среднее между Run DMC и Lynyrd Skynyrd. Инструментальная часть включает в себя звуки варгана, губной гармошки и фортепиано. Текст песни повествует о переезде Кид Рока в Калифорнию, чтобы стать сутенёром и открыть эскорт-службу «по уважительным причинам», расположенную на крыше отеля Four Seasons Hotels and Resorts, а также о том, как его вышвырнули из бара и покупке яхты.
Песня «I Am the Bullgod», по словам , была данью уважения группе Monster Magnet. Сайт azcentral.com описал стиль песни как южный рок с элементами фанка, в то время как Billboard классифицировал песню как стоунер-рок. Текст песни отсылает к употреблению бурбона Jim Beam; Кид Рок заявляет, что «Я свободен и питаюсь всем, что есть» и что «Я никогда не был крут как Джеймс Дин».
Песня «Wasting Time» содержит интерполяцию песни Fleetwood Mac «». «Welcome 2 the Party (Ode 2 the Old School)» отсылает к рекламе Орсона Уэллса «Paul Masson» с текстом «I will serve no rhymes before their time». Песня «Where U At Rock?» ссылается на философа Айн Рэнд.
«Only God Knows Why» — это кантри-баллада, известная использованием автотюна. Текст песни «Black Chick, White Guy» рассказывает о десятилетних отношениях Кид Рока с одноклассницей по имени Келли Саут Рассел, с которой он стал отцом одного ребёнка и воспитал ещё одного ребёнка от предыдущих отношений, но расстался с ней. После чего он получил опеку над своим сыном, Робертом Джеймсом Ричи-младшим; эти события стали источником вдохновения для этой песни, в которой они обсуждаются напрямую, хотя Рассел отрицает некоторые обвинения, выдвинутые против неё в тексте песни.
Критический приём
Отзывы критиков
Альбом получил признание критиков сразу после выпуска.
Стивен Томас Эрлевайн из Allmusic дал альбому четыре с половиной звезды из пяти, написав в своём обзоре: «[Кид Рок] придумал отличный хард-рок-альбом конца 90-х — бесстрашно смешную, ломающую кости пластинку, которая умудряется сохранять свою силу, и через повторные проигрывания не утрачивает время».
Pitchfork отрицательно отнёсся к альбому и оценил его в 1,3 балла из 10, написав: «Прикол в том, что Devil Without A Cause сочетает рэп с металлом, но это сочетание уже было сделано миллион раз, и в каждом случае результат был лучше, чем этот. Вам действительно нужны предсказуемые своднические рифмы поверх дурацких элементов метала с третьесортными припевами как у гранж-песен среди вашей коллекции? Я задам вопрос: это то, чего вам не хватает в вашей жизни?».
Успех
В 1998 году Кид Рок организовал тур в поддержку Devil Without a Cause под названием . Благодаря продвижению, включая выступления на каналах HBO, MTV (а также выступление вместе с Aerosmith и Run-DMC) и выступление на фестивале Вудсток 1999 года, Devil Without a Cause разошёлся тиражом в 14 миллионов копий, успех альбома подстегнул прорывной сингл Кид Рока .
В апреле 1999 года альбом получил «золотой» статус, а в следующем месяце «платиновый», который альбом получал 11 раз. В результате альбому присвоили «бриллиантовый» статус. По состоянию на 2007 год альбом был продан тиражом 8,9 миллиона копий по данным Nielsen SoundScan.
В 2000 году Кид Рок был номинирован на премию Грэмми как «Лучший новый исполнитель», несмотря на то, что он работает в музыкальной индустрии уже более 10 лет.
Наследие
Альбом продолжал пользоваться популярностью ещё долгое время после его выхода, и в 2012 году Кид Рок заявил о своём желании перезаписать альбом полностью, чтобы отпраздновать 15-летие альбома.
Критическая оценка альбома продолжалась ещё долгое время после его выхода, и Allmusic назвал Devil Without a Cause «шедевром рэп-рока». Песня «Cowboy» считается первой в жанре кантри-рэпа; утверждает, что песня Кид Рока оказала большое влияние на вселенную кантри-музыки и что на исполнителей Jason Aldean и , среди прочих, повлияла эта песня.
Спустя 15 лет после выхода альбома автор The Village Voice Чаз Кангас похвалил артистизм Кид Рока, написав: «В эпоху Клинтона, когда ваши самые жизнеспособные поп-звёзды были первозданными тин-поп-сенсациями, хриплыми антагонистами ню-метала или странными фанатами альтернативного рока, Рок стоял в сторонке». Похвалив песню «Cowboy», Кангас назвал её «одним из треков этой эпохи, который неподвластен времени, даже не пытаясь им быть».
Loudwire назвал Devil Without a Cause одним из 10 лучших хард-рок альбомов 1998 года. Журнал Classic Rock назвал Devil Without a Cause одним из 10 основных рэп-метал альбомов. Blender назвал Devil Without a Cause одним из 100 величайших американских альбомов. Альбом также был включён в альманах Роберта Димери 1001 Albums You Must Hear Before You Die.
Список композиций
Песня «Black Chick, White Guy» заканчивается в 7:07, а ремикс начинается в 7:10; ремикс представлен как скрытый трек на компакт-диске, но в цифровой дистрибуции отсутствует. Ремикс также отсутствует в японской версии альбома. Оригинал песни «Black Chick, White Guy» нет на clean версии.
Участники записи
Кид Рок — вокал, акустическая и электрогитара, бас-гитара, банджо, синтезатор
— гостевой вокал
— бэк-вокал
Джейсон Краузе — гитара
Кенни Олсон — гитара
— тёрнтейблизм, бэк-вокал
— клавишные, орган, фортепиано, синт-бас
Стефани Эйлинберг — ударные, перкуссия
Сессионные музыканты
Кенни Тюдрик — гитара, ударные на «Bawitdaba» и «Cowboy»
Бобби Ист — слайд и ритм-гитара
Мэтт О’Брайен — бас-гитара
Ширли «P-Funk» Хейден — бэк-вокал
Дополнительные музыканты для песен «I Am The Bullgod» и «Roving Gangster»
Эндрю Нерха — гитара
Майк Нерха — бас-гитара
Боб Эбулинг — барабаны
DJ Swamp — тёрнтейблизм
Крис Питерс — гитара
Гостевое участие
Эминем — на «Fuck Off»
Роберт Брэдли — на «I Got One for Ya»
— на «Wasting Time»
Позиции в чартах
Чарты за неделю
Чарты за год
Чарты десятилетия
Сертификации
См. также
Список самых продаваемых альбомов в США
Примечания
Комментарии
Источники
Альбомы Кид Рока
Альбомы, сертифицированные как бриллиантовые Американской ассоциацией звукозаписывающих компаний
Альбомы, сертифицированные как серебряные Британской ассоциацией производителей фонограмм
Хард-рок-альбомы
Альбомы рэп-рока
Альбомы рэп-метала
Альбомы ню-метала
Альбомы США
Альбомы на английском языке | wiki |
"Shoeshine Boy" is a 1975 R&B/pop single by Eddie Kendricks. The single was the last of his three number-one U.S. R&B hits and one of his final crossover singles, peaking at number eighteen on the Billboard Hot 100.
References
1975 singles
Eddie Kendricks songs
1975 songs | wiki |
The 1969 Senior League World Series took place from August 12–16 in Gary, Indiana, United States. Sacramento, California defeated Gary, Indiana in the championship game.
This year featured the debut of the European region.
Teams
Results
References
Senior League World Series
Senior League World Series
Baseball competitions in Indiana
Sports in Gary, Indiana
1969 in sports in Indiana | wiki |
Southern Punjab cricket team may refer to:
Southern Punjab cricket team (India)
Southern Punjab cricket team (Pakistan) | wiki |
Sad Girl may refer to:
Music
Sad Girl (album), by Amy Allison (2001)
Sad Girl (EP), by Sasha Sloan (2018)
Songs
"Sad Girl", song written by Jay Wiggins, Lloyd Smith first released by Jay Wiggins in 1963. Covered by Joe Bataan, Curtis And The Showstoppers 1965, The Gallahads 1965, The Intruders, GQ 1982
"Sad Girl", song by The Stems Dom Mariani 1987
"Sad Girl", song by Thee Midniters Sam Johnson 1965
"Sad Girl", song by Lana Del Rey from Ultraviolence
"Sad Girl", song by Amy Allison from Sad Girl
"Sad Girl", song by Carol Anderson
"Sad Girl", song by Ten in the Swear Jar from Accordion Solo!
"Sad Girl", song by Savannah Keyes which represented Utah in the American Song Contest
"Sad Pony Guerrilla Girl", by Xiu Xiu from A Promise
Other
"Sad Girl", the comic by Lisa and Marge from Season 29, Episode 2 of The Simpsons, "Springfield Splendor" | wiki |
Holly Days est le second album du guitariste Denny Laine, publié en 1977.
Enregistré en août 1976, durant la première tournée mondiale des Wings, il s'agit d'un hommage rendu au chanteur Buddy Holly. L'album a été produit par Paul McCartney, qui a également joué la plupart des instruments de l'album. En raison des méthodes d’enregistrement rudimentaires utilisées pour capturer le "style Buddy Holly", seules les pistes 2 et 3 étaient en stéréo.
Liste des chansons
Personnel
Denny Laine : chant, guitares, piano, harmonica, orgue Hammond, xylophone
Paul McCartney : guitares, basse, piano, claviers, batterie, chœurs, production
Linda McCartney : claviers, chœurs
Album musical sorti en 1977 | wiki |
Alioramus remotus ("rama diferente remota") es una especie y tipo del género Alioramus de dinosaurio terópodo tiranosauroide, que vivió a finales del período Cretácico, hace aproximadamente entre 75 a 70 millones de años, en el Campaniense, en Asia.
Referencias
Véase también
Alioramus
Tyrannosauridae
Dinosaurios del Cretácico
Dinosaurios de Asia | wiki |
Sugar palm is a common name for several species of palms used to produce sugar.
Species used include:
Arenga pinnata (syn. A. saccharifera)
Borassus flabellifer
Caryota
Caryota urens
Cocos nucifera
See also
Toddy palm
Palm sugar | wiki |
General Keppel may refer to:
George Keppel, 3rd Earl of Albemarle (1724–1772), British Army colonel general
George Keppel, 6th Earl of Albemarle (1799–1891), British Army general
William Keppel (British Army officer, born 1727) (1727–1782), British Army lieutenant general
William Keppel (British Army officer, died 1834), British Army general
See also
Willem van Keppel, 2nd Earl of Albemarle (1702–1754), British lieutenant general
Other
– A British privateer (1799–1801) | wiki |
The Marty and Miller Show is a radio and television sports talk show hosted by Marty Tirrell and Ken Miller based in Des Moines, Iowa. It is broadcast on 1700AM The Champ KBGG and 1490AM The Jock KXLQ and televised across the Midwest on Mediacom 22 -HD 822.
The three-hour program debuted in 2015. It is broadcast weekdays live 3-6PM Central.
The show is streamed on MartyandMiller.com and is available in podcast form on iTunes.
Marty & Miller is also available via SportsSpotlight.com...
American sports radio programs | wiki |
Lokum, also known as Turkish delight, is a family of confections based on a gel of starch and sugar.
Lokum may also refer to:
Nokul, a type of pastry eaten in Turkey and Bulgaria
The Danish word for toilet
See also
Turkish Delight (disambiguation) | wiki |
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