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Coin cleaning is the process of removing undesirable substances from a coin's surface in order to make it more attractive to potential buyers. The subject is disputed among the numismatic community whether cleaning coins is necessary. Those that argue in favor of cleaning are also in dispute on which methods work best. It was once common practice to clean coins as the method was recommended by experts in the field. Solutions from pencil erasers to wire brushes and potassium cyanide were all used as cleaning agents with the goal to make the coin look brilliant again. When certified grading came into use in the mid 1980s though, the practice of cleaning coins diminished over time. Most coin experts have since come out against cleaning coins, as doing so can negatively affect them both in grade and value. If a potentially valuable coin must be cleaned (for example if the coin is deformed) then professional work is recommended. Commonly found coins are mentioned as ideal candidates for any attempted cleaning experiments.
History
Coin cleaning has no definitive start date as when any object looks dirty people are usually inclined to clean it. The cleaning of coins though can be traced as far back as the mid 1800s in the United States when it came to Half cents and large cents. These coins soon became popular with collectors after they were discontinued in 1857 due to the rising costs of copper. Cleansers were used on the cents to try and make the coins mint red again. Another early example involves the Philadelphia coin cabinet. In 1903, many coins in the collection that had once been in proof condition were now partly covered in a white coating. An investigation found that the coins in the cabinet (displayed in the Philadelphia Mint since 1838) had at some point been cleaned by an attendant using purchased metal polish, as the coins were "tarnished". The cabinet today resides in the Smithsonian.
By the 1930s the motto "brilliant is best" was adopted by those in the coin collecting community. Coins that were toned were considered tarnished which caused collectors to brighten up their coins with things like abrasives. Penny boards were even made with instructions on how collectors should properly clean their coins by using a pencil eraser with a little bit of vinegar. The widespread practice of "improving" coins continued into the 1960s with advertisements on lotions and potions with the aim of making coins brilliant again. According to Q. David Bowers, collectors and coin dealers cleaned and dipped their coins then re-dipped them when the toning re-appeared as a result of these messages. Bowers estimated in 1960 that 90 to 95% of the Lincoln cents sold in the marketplace dated 1910 through the late 1920s were brilliant as a result of dipping. Coins that were cleaned also include the Indian Head cent, starting in the 1960s many now scarce dates were whizzed (see below) which later destroyed them of value. The widespread practice of coin cleaning lasted until the invention of certified and encapsulated grading in the early 1980s. When coins were finally viewed under the microscope and trained naked eye, the effects of treating coins were revealed to be less than ideal. Poorly cleaned coins are now labeled "Improperly Cleaned", which negatively affects their market value depending on severity.
Professional stance
Numerous known numismatists have given their opinions over the decades regarding coin cleaning. William H. Sheldon (creator of the Sheldon coin grading scale) wrote an opinion on cleaning old pennies stating: "Many a cent has been ruined in an attempt to improve it. Amateurs, and some who are not so amateur, are forever trying to improve the condition or appearance of an old cent." Richard Snow, who specializes in the field of Flying Eagle and Indian Head cents, wrote that some cleaning techniques could improve the surface of a coin.
Snow does not suggest that people try these remedies but gives an "indication" of what could be done. He goes on to recommend in all instances that experiments be done on cheap bronze Lincoln cents (minted 1962 to 1982) and not valuable older coins. Scott A. Travers, author of the book The Insider's Guide to Coins Values states that a coin should never be cleaned as "many" collectors find them to be "repugnant". Travers also wrote that the idea of enhancing a coin's value through cleaning is a misconception. Kenneth Bressett and A. Kosoff also wrote opinions on the matter saying that once a coin has been "stripped" of its original surface and luster, it can "never be fully restored or made Uncirculated again". John J. Ford Jr. wrote an opinion regarding expertly cleaned coins saying that "while the result makes the coin look untouched, attractively colored coins should be left alone".
Methods
Listed below are some examples of how coins are cleaned. Coins with untouched original surfaces are generally more desirable than those that have been cleaned, although lightly cleaned coins with no damage done may still receive a normal coin grade. Improper cleaning can result in a coin's surface being damaged beyond repair, which is why expert attention is needed for potentially valuable coins. If a coin is shown to be damaged by cleaning then it will be marked as "Improperly Cleaned" or have a problem description by grading services.
Shipwreck finds
All items involved in shipwreck finds are documented and photographed in their before and after state to study any changes made by the restoration process. The cleaning process involves desalination in order to remove harmful salts that include chlorides. In the case of the Sveti Pavao shipwreck, the items involved were isolated in a polypropylene net and placed in tap water. The tap water was then exchanged and monitored until it was finally replaced by distilled water towards the end of the process. The items involved are then dried, and cleaned differently depending on the base metal of the object. Sea water is very corrosive and destructive to silver coins, their value is determined by their original condition as raised and by the conservation process. Gold coins on the other hand survive better underwater making their conservation process easier.
Coins recovered from shipwrecks likely hold an appeal as historical artifacts that can be given the marketable status of "treasure". These coins have an added value only if they are determined to be genuine, as a majority of collectors do not want to own an illegal coin subject to seizure. The largest supply of American mint state gold coins have been recovered from shipwrecks in grades previously unknown to collectors.
See also
Coin grading
Sheldon coin grading scale
Coin storage
References
External links
Coins
Coin grading
Numismatics
Numismatic terminology | wiki |
Creativity is a phenomenon whereby something new and valuable is formed. The created item may be intangible (such as an idea, a scientific theory, a musical composition, or a joke) or a physical object (such as an invention, a printed literary work, or a painting).
Scholarly interest in creativity is found in a number of disciplines, primarily psychology, business studies, and cognitive science. However, it can also be found in education, the humanities (philosophy, the arts) and theology, social sciences (sociology, linguistics, economics), engineering, technology and mathematics. These disciplines cover the relations between creativity and general intelligence, personality type, mental and neural processes, mental health, artificial intelligence; the potential for fostering creativity through education, training, leadership and organizational practices; the factors that determine how creativity is evaluated and perceived; the fostering of creativity for national economic benefit; and the application of creative resources to improve the effectiveness of teaching and learning.
Etymology
The English word creativity comes from the Latin term creare, "to create, make": its derivational suffixes also come from Latin. The word "create" appeared in English as early as the 14th century, notably in Chaucer (in The Parson's Tale), to indicate divine creation.
However, its modern meaning as an act of human creation did not emerge until after the Enlightenment.
Definition
In a summary of scientific research into creativity, Michael Mumford suggested: "Over the course of the last decade, however, we seem to have reached a general agreement that creativity involves the production of novel, useful products" (Mumford, 2003, p. 110), or, in Robert Sternberg's words, the production of "something original and worthwhile". Authors have diverged dramatically in their precise definitions beyond these general commonalities: Peter Meusburger estimates that over a hundred different definitions can be found in the literature, typically elaborating on the context (field, organisation, environment etc.) which determines the originality and/or appropriateness of the created object, and the processes through which it came about. As an illustration, one definition given by Dr. E. Paul Torrance in the context of assessing an individual's creative ability, described it as "a process of becoming sensitive to problems, deficiencies, gaps in knowledge, missing elements, disharmonies, and so on; identifying the difficulty; searching for solutions, making guesses, or formulating hypotheses about the deficiencies: testing and retesting these hypotheses and possibly modifying and retesting them; and finally communicating the results."
Creativity in general is usually distinguished from innovation in particular, where the stress is on implementation. For example, Teresa Amabile and Pratt (2016) define creativity as production of novel and useful ideas and innovation as implementation of creative ideas, while the OECD and Eurostat state that "Innovation is more than a new idea or an invention. An innovation requires implementation, either by being put into active use or by being made available for use by other parties, firms, individuals or organisations."
There is also an emotional creativity which is described as a pattern of cognitive abilities and personality traits related to originality and appropriateness in emotional experience.
Aspects
Theories of creativity (particularly investigation of why some people are more creative than others) have focused on a variety of aspects. The dominant factors are usually identified as "the four Ps" – process, product, person, and place/press, a framework first put forward by Mel Rhodes. A focus on process is shown in cognitive approaches that try to describe thought mechanisms and techniques for creative thinking. Theories invoking divergent rather than convergent thinking (such as Guilford), or those describing the staging of the creative process (such as Wallas) are primarily theories of creative process. A focus on creative product usually appears in attempts to assess creative output, whether for psychometrics (see below) or in understanding why some objects are considered creative. It is from a consideration of product that the standard definition of creativity as the production of something novel and useful arises.
A focus on the nature of the creative person considers more general intellectual habits, such as openness, levels of ideation, autonomy, expertise, exploratory behavior, and so on. A focus on place (sometimes called press) considers the circumstances in which creativity flourishes, such as degrees of autonomy, access to resources, and the nature of gatekeepers. Creative lifestyles are characterized by nonconforming attitudes and behaviors as well as flexibility.
In 2013, based on a sociocultural critique of the Four P model as individualistic, static, and decontextualised, Glǎveanu proposed a "five A's" model consisting of actor, action, artifact, audience, and affordance. In this model, the actor is the person with attributes, but also located within social networks; action is the process of creativity not only in internal cognitive terms, but also external, bridging the gap between ideation and implentation; artifact emphasises how creative products typically represent cumulative innovations over time rather than abrupt discontinuities; and "press/place" is divided into audience and affordance, which consider the interdependence of the creative individual with the social and material world respectively. Although not supplanting the four Ps model in creativity research, the five As model has exerted influence over the direction of some creativity research, and has been credited with bringing coherence to studies across a number of creative domains.
Conceptual history
Ancient
Most ancient cultures, including thinkers of Ancient Greece, Ancient China, and Ancient India, lacked the concept of creativity, seeing art as a form of discovery and not creation. The ancient Greeks had no terms corresponding to "to create" or "creator" except for the expression "" ("to make"), which only applied to (poetry) and to the (poet, or "maker") who made it. Plato did not believe in art as a form of creation. Asked in The Republic, "Will we say, of a painter, that he makes something?", he answers, "Certainly not, he merely imitates."
It is commonly argued that the notion of "creativity" originated in Western cultures through Christianity, as a matter of divine inspiration. According to the historian Daniel J. Boorstin, "the early Western conception of creativity was the Biblical story of creation given in the Genesis." However, this is not creativity in the modern sense, which did not arise until the Renaissance. In the Judeo-Christian tradition, creativity was the sole province of God; humans were not considered to have the ability to create something new except as an expression of God's work. A concept similar to that of Christianity existed in Greek culture. For instance, Muses were seen as mediating inspiration from the Gods. Romans and Greeks invoked the concept of an external creative "daemon" (Greek) or "genius" (Latin), linked to the sacred or the divine. However, none of these views are similar to the modern concept of creativity, and the rejection of creativity in favor of discovery and the belief that individual creation was a conduit of the divine would dominate the West probably until the Renaissance and even later.
Renaissance
It was during the Renaissance that creativity was first seen, not as a conduit for the divine, but from the abilities of "great men". The development of the modern concept of creativity began in the Renaissance, when creation began to be perceived as having originated from the abilities of the individual and not God. This could be attributed to the leading intellectual movement of the time, aptly named humanism, which developed an intensely human-centric outlook on the world, valuing the intellect and achievement of the individual. From this philosophy arose the Renaissance man (or polymath), an individual who embodies the principals of humanism in their ceaseless courtship with knowledge and creation. One of the most well-known and immensely accomplished examples is Leonardo da Vinci.
Enlightenment and thereafter
However, the shift from divine inspiration to the abilities of the individual was gradual and would not become immediately apparent until the Enlightenment. By the 18th century and the Age of Enlightenment, mention of creativity (notably in aesthetics), linked with the concept of imagination, became more frequent. In the writing of Thomas Hobbes, imagination became a key element of human cognition; William Duff was one of the first to identify imagination as a quality of genius, typifying the separation being made between talent (productive, but breaking no new ground) and genius.
As a direct and independent topic of study, creativity effectively received no attention until the 19th century. Runco and Albert argue that creativity as the subject of proper study began seriously to emerge in the late 19th century with the increased interest in individual differences inspired by the arrival of Darwinism. In particular, they refer to the work of Francis Galton, who through his eugenicist outlook took a keen interest in the heritability of intelligence, with creativity taken as an aspect of genius.
In the late 19th and early 20th centuries, leading mathematicians and scientists such as Hermann von Helmholtz (1896) and Henri Poincaré (1908) began to reflect on and publicly discuss their creative processes.
Modern
The insights of Poincaré and von Helmholtz were built on in early accounts of the creative process by pioneering theorists such as Graham Wallas and Max Wertheimer. In his work Art of Thought, published in 1926, Wallas presented one of the first models of the creative process. In the Wallas stage model, creative insights and illuminations may be explained by a process consisting of five stages:
(i) preparation (preparatory work on a problem that focuses the individual's mind on the problem and explores the problem's dimensions),
(ii) incubation (where the problem is internalized into the unconscious mind and nothing appears externally to be happening),
(iii) intimation (the creative person gets a "feeling" that a solution is on its way),
(iv) illumination or insight (where the creative idea bursts forth from its preconscious processing into conscious awareness);
(v) verification (where the idea is consciously verified, elaborated, and then applied).
Wallas' model is often treated as four stages, with "intimation" seen as a sub-stage.
Wallas considered creativity to be a legacy of the evolutionary process, which allowed humans to quickly adapt to rapidly changing environments. Simonton provides an updated perspective on this view in his book, Origins of genius: Darwinian perspectives on creativity.
In 1927, Alfred North Whitehead gave the Gifford Lectures at the University of Edinburgh, later published as Process and Reality. He is credited with having coined the term "creativity" to serve as the ultimate category of his metaphysical scheme: "Whitehead actually coined the term – our term, still the preferred currency of exchange among literature, science, and the arts... a term that quickly became so popular, so omnipresent, that its invention within living memory, and by Alfred North Whitehead of all people, quickly became occluded".
Although psychometric studies of creativity had been conducted by The London School of Psychology as early as 1927 with the work of H. L. Hargreaves into the Faculty of Imagination, the formal psychometric measurement of creativity, from the standpoint of orthodox psychological literature, is usually considered to have begun with J. P. Guilford's address to the American Psychological Association in 1950. The address helped to popularize the study of creativity and to focus attention on scientific approaches to conceptualizing creativity. Statistical analyses led to the recognition of creativity (as measured) as a separate aspect of human cognition to IQ-type intelligence, into which it had previously been subsumed. Guilford's work suggested that above a threshold level of IQ, the relationship between creativity and classically measured intelligence broke down.
"Four C" model
James C. Kaufman and Beghetto introduced a "four C" model of creativity; mini-c ("transformative learning" involving "personally meaningful interpretations of experiences, actions, and insights"), little-c (everyday problem solving and creative expression), Pro-C (exhibited by people who are professionally or vocationally creative though not necessarily eminent) and Big-C (creativity considered great in the given field). This model was intended to help accommodate models and theories of creativity that stressed competence as an essential component and the historical transformation of a creative domain as the highest mark of creativity. It also, the authors argued, made a useful framework for analyzing creative processes in individuals.
The contrast of terms "Big C" and "Little c" has been widely used. Kozbelt, Beghetto and Runco use a little-c/Big-C model to review major theories of creativity. Margaret Boden distinguishes between h-creativity (historical) and p-creativity (personal).
Robinson and Anna Craft have focused on creativity in a general population, particularly with respect to education. Craft makes a similar distinction between "high" and "little c" creativity and cites Ken Robinson as referring to "high" and "democratic" creativity. Mihaly Csikszentmihalyi has defined creativity in terms of those individuals judged to have made significant creative, perhaps domain-changing contributions. Simonton has analysed the career trajectories of eminent creative people in order to map patterns and predictors of creative productivity.
Process theories
There has been much empirical study in psychology and cognitive science of the processes through which creativity occurs. Interpretation of the results of these studies has led to several possible explanations of the sources and methods of creativity.
Incubation
Incubation is a temporary break from creative problem solving that can result in insight. There has been some empirical research looking at whether, as the concept of "incubation" in Wallas' model implies, a period of interruption or rest from a problem may aid creative problem-solving. Early work proposed that creative solutions to problems arise mysteriously from the unconscious mind while the conscious mind is occupied on other tasks.
This hypothesis is discussed in Csikszentmihalyi's five-phase model of the creative process which describes incubation as a time that your unconscious takes over. This was supposed to allow for unique connections to be made without our consciousness trying to make logical order out of the problem.
Ward lists various hypotheses that have been advanced to explain why incubation may aid creative problem-solving, and notes how some empirical evidence is consistent with a different hypothesis: Incubation aids creative problem in that it enables "forgetting" of misleading clues. Absence of incubation may lead the problem solver to become fixated on inappropriate strategies of solving the problem.
Convergent and divergent thinking
J. P. Guilford drew a distinction between convergent and divergent production (commonly renamed convergent and divergent thinking). Convergent thinking involves aiming for a single, correct solution to a problem, whereas divergent thinking involves creative generation of multiple answers to a set problem. Divergent thinking is sometimes used as a synonym for creativity in psychology literature or is considered the necessary precursor to creativity. Other researchers have occasionally used the terms flexible thinking or fluid intelligence, which are roughly similar to (but not synonymous with) creativity.
Creative cognition approach
In 1992, Finke et al. proposed the "Geneplore" model, in which creativity takes place in two phases: a generative phase, where an individual constructs mental representations called "preinventive" structures, and an exploratory phase where those structures are used to come up with creative ideas. Some evidence shows that when people use their imagination to develop new ideas, those ideas are heavily structured in predictable ways by the properties of existing categories and concepts. Weisberg argued, by contrast, that creativity only involves ordinary cognitive processes yielding extraordinary results.
The Explicit–Implicit Interaction (EII) theory
Helie and Sun more recently proposed a unified framework for understanding creativity in problem solving, namely the Explicit–Implicit Interaction (EII) theory of creativity. This new theory constitutes an attempt at providing a more unified explanation of relevant phenomena (in part by reinterpreting/integrating various fragmentary existing theories of incubation and insight).
The EII theory relies mainly on five basic principles, namely:
The co-existence of and the difference between explicit and implicit knowledge;
The simultaneous involvement of implicit and explicit processes in most tasks;
The redundant representation of explicit and implicit knowledge;
The integration of the results of explicit and implicit processing;
The iterative (and possibly bidirectional) processing.
A computational implementation of the theory was developed based on the CLARION cognitive architecture and used to simulate relevant human data. This work represents an initial step in the development of process-based theories of creativity encompassing incubation, insight, and various other related phenomena.
Conceptual blending
In The Act of Creation, Arthur Koestler introduced the concept of bisociation – that creativity arises as a result of the intersection of two quite different frames of reference. This idea was later developed into conceptual blending. In the 1990s, various approaches in cognitive science that dealt with metaphor, analogy, and structure mapping have been converging, and a new integrative approach to the study of creativity in science, art and humor has emerged under the label conceptual blending.
Honing theory
Honing theory, developed principally by psychologist Liane Gabora, posits that creativity arises due to the self-organizing, self-mending nature of a worldview. The creative process is a way in which the individual hones (and re-hones) an integrated worldview. Honing theory places emphasis not only on the externally visible creative outcome but also the internal cognitive restructuring and repair of the worldview brought about by the creative process. When faced with a creatively demanding task, there is an interaction between the conception of the task and the worldview. The conception of the task changes through interaction with the worldview, and the worldview changes through interaction with the task. This interaction is reiterated until the task is complete, at which point not only is the task conceived of differently, but the worldview is subtly or drastically transformed as it follows the natural tendency of a worldview to attempt to resolve dissonance and seek internal consistency amongst its components, whether they be ideas, attitudes, or bits of knowledge.
A central feature of honing theory is the notion of a potentiality state. Honing theory posits that creative thought proceeds not by searching through and randomly 'mutating' predefined possibilities, but by drawing upon associations that exist due to overlap in the distributed neural cell assemblies that participate in the encoding of experiences in memory. Midway through the creative process one may have made associations between the current task and previous experiences, but not yet disambiguated which aspects of those previous experiences are relevant to the current task. Thus the creative idea may feel 'half-baked'. It is at that point that it can be said to be in a potentiality state, because how it will actualize depends on the different internally or externally generated contexts it interacts with.
Honing theory is held to explain certain phenomena not dealt with by other theories of creativity – for example, how different works by the same creator are observed in studies to exhibit a recognizable style or 'voice', even in different creative outlets. This is not predicted by theories of creativity that emphasize chance processes or the accumulation of expertise, but it is predicted by honing theory, according to which personal style reflects the creator's uniquely structured worldview. Another example is in the environmental stimulus for creativity. Creativity is commonly considered to be fostered by a supportive, nurturing, trustworthy environment conducive to self-actualization. However, research shows that creativity is also associated with childhood adversity, which would stimulate honing.
Everyday imaginative thought
In everyday thought, people often spontaneously imagine alternatives to reality when they think "if only...". Their counterfactual thinking is viewed as an example of everyday creative processes. It has been proposed that the creation of counterfactual alternatives to reality depends on similar cognitive processes to rational thought.
Dialectical theory of creativity
The term "dialectical theory of creativity" dates back to psychoanalyst Daniel Dervin and was later developed into an interdisciplinary theory. The dialectical theory of creativity starts with the antique concept that creativity takes place in an interplay between order and chaos. Similar ideas can be found in neurosciences and psychology. Neurobiologically, it can be shown that the creative process takes place in a dynamic interplay between coherence and incoherence that leads to new and usable neuronal networks. Psychology shows how the dialectics of convergent and focused thinking with divergent and associative thinking leads to new ideas and products. Also, creative personality traits like the 'Big Five' seem to be dialectically intertwined in the creative process: emotional instability vs. stability, extraversion vs. introversion, openness vs. reserve, agreeableness vs. antagonism, and disinhibition vs. constraint. The dialectical theory of creativity applies also to counseling and psychotherapy.
Neuroeconomic framework for creative cognition
Lin and Vartanian developed a framework that provides an integrative neurobiological description of creative cognition. This interdisciplinary framework integrates theoretical principles and empirical results from neuroeconomics, reinforcement learning, cognitive neuroscience, and neurotransmission research on the locus coeruleus system. It describes how decision-making processes studied by neuroeconomists as well as activity in the locus coeruleus system underlie creative cognition and the large-scale brain network dynamics associated with creativity. It suggests that creativity is an optimization and utility-maximization problem that requires individuals to determine the optimal way to exploit and explore ideas (multi-armed bandit problem). This utility maximization process is thought to be mediated by the locus coeruleus system and this creativity framework describes how tonic and phasic locus coerulues activity work in conjunction to facilitate the exploiting and exploring of creative ideas. This framework not only explains previous empirical results but also makes novel and falsifiable predictions at different levels of analysis (ranging from neurobiological to cognitive and personality differences).
Behaviorism theory of creativity
Skinner attributed creativity to accidental behaviors that are reinforced by the environment. Spontaneous behaviors done by living creatures reflect past learned behavior. In Karen Pryor's book Don't Shoot the Dog she refers to how she reinforced a dolphin to display novel behaviors. This is what one can attribute to both those who are creative and those who appreciate creativity. A behaviorist may say that prior learning caused novel behaviors to be reinforced many times over and the individual has been shaped to produce increasingly novel behaviors. A creative person, according to this definition, would be someone who has been reinforced more often for novel behaviors than others. Behaviorists would also suggest that anyone can be creative, they just need to be reinforced to learn to produce novel behaviors.
Personal assessment
Psychometric approaches
J. P. Guilford's group, which pioneered the modern psychometric study of creativity, constructed several performance-based tests to measure creativity in 1967:
Plot Titles, where participants are given the plot of a story and asked to write original titles.
Quick Responses is a word-association test scored for uncommonness.
Figure Concepts, where participants were given simple drawings of objects and individuals and asked to find qualities or features that are common by two or more drawings; these were scored for uncommonness.
Unusual Uses is finding unusual uses for common everyday objects such as bricks.
Remote Associations, where participants are asked to find a word between two given words (e.g. Hand _ Call)
Remote Consequences, where participants are asked to generate a list of consequences of unexpected events (e.g. loss of gravity)
Originally, Guilford was trying to create a model for intellect as a whole, but in doing so also created a model for creativity. Guilford made an important assumption for creative research: creativity is not one abstract concept. The idea that creativity is a category rather than one single concept opened up the ability for other researchers to look at creativity with a whole new perspective.
Additionally, Guilford hypothesized one of the first models for the components of creativity. He explained that creativity was a result of having:
Sensitivity to problems, or the ability to recognize problems;
Fluency, which encompasses
a. Ideational fluency, or the ability rapidly to produce a variety of ideas that fulfill stated requirements;
b. Associational fluency, or the ability to generate a list of words, each of which is associated with a given word;
c. Expressional fluency, or the ability to organize words into larger units, such as phrases, sentences, and paragraphs;
Flexibility, which encompasses
a. Spontaneous flexibility, or the ability to demonstrate flexibility;
b. Adaptive flexibility, or the ability to produce responses that are novel and high in quality.
This represents the base model by which several researchers would take and alter to produce their new theories of creativity years later. Building on Guilford's work, tests were developed, sometimes called Divergent Thinking (DT) tests have been both supported and criticized. For example, Torrance developed the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking in 1966. They involved task of divergent thinking and other problem-solving skills, which were scored on:
Fluency – The total number of interpretable, meaningful, and relevant ideas generated in response to the stimulus.
Originality – The statistical rarity of the responses among the test subjects.
Elaboration – The amount of detail in the responses.
Considerable progress has been made in automated scoring of divergent thinking tests using semantic approach. When compared to human raters, NLP techniques were shown to be reliable and valid in scoring the originality. The reported computer programs were able to achieve a correlation of 0.60 and 0.72 respectively to human graders.
Semantic networks were also used to devise originality scores that yielded significant correlations with socio-personal measures. Most recently, an NSF-funded team of researchers led by James C. Kaufman and Mark A. Runco combined expertise in creativity research, natural language processing, computational linguistics, and statistical data analysis to devise a scalable system for computerized automated testing (SparcIt Creativity Index Testing system). This system enabled automated scoring of DT tests that is reliable, objective, and scalable, thus addressing most of the issues of DT tests that had been found and reported. The resultant computer system was able to achieve a correlation of 0.73 to human graders.
Social-personality approach
Some researchers have taken a social-personality approach to the measurement of creativity. In these studies, personality traits such as independence of judgement, self-confidence, attraction to complexity, aesthetic orientation, and risk-taking are used as measures of the creativity of individuals. A meta-analysis by Gregory Feist showed that creative people tend to be "more open to new experiences, less conventional and less conscientious, more self-confident, self-accepting, driven, ambitious, dominant, hostile, and impulsive." Openness, conscientiousness, self-acceptance, hostility, and impulsivity had the strongest effects of the traits listed. Within the framework of the Big Five model of personality, some consistent traits have emerged. Openness to experience has been shown to be consistently related to a whole host of different assessments of creativity. Among the other Big Five traits, research has demonstrated subtle differences between different domains of creativity. Compared to non-artists, artists tend to have higher levels of openness to experience and lower levels of conscientiousness, while scientists are more open to experience, conscientious, and higher in the confidence-dominance facets of extraversion compared to non-scientists.
Self-report questionnaires
An alternative is using biographical methods. These methods use quantitative characteristics such as the number of publications, patents, or performances of a work. While this method was originally developed for highly creative personalities, today it is also available as self-report questionnaires supplemented with frequent, less outstanding creative behaviors such as writing a short story or creating your own recipes. For example, the Creative Achievement Questionnaire, a self-report test that measures creative achievement across 10 domains, was described in 2005 and shown to be reliable and valid when compared to other measures of creativity and to independent evaluation of creative output. Besides the English original, it was also used in a Chinese, French, and German-speaking version. It is the self-report questionnaire most frequently used in research.
Intelligence
The potential relationship between creativity and intelligence has been of interest since the late 1900s, when a multitude of influential studies – from Getzels & Jackson, Barron, Wallach & Kogan, and Guilford – focused not only on creativity, but also on intelligence. This joint focus highlights both the theoretical and practical importance of the relationship: researchers are interested not only if the constructs are related, but also how and why.
There are multiple theories accounting for their relationship, with the three main theories as follows:
Threshold Theory – Intelligence is a necessary, but not sufficient condition for creativity. There is a moderate positive relationship between creativity and intelligence until IQ ~120.
Certification Theory – Creativity is not intrinsically related to intelligence. Instead, individuals are required to meet the requisite level intelligence in order to gain a certain level of education/work, which then in turn offers the opportunity to be creative. Displays of creativity are moderated by intelligence.
Interference Theory – Extremely high intelligence might interfere with creative ability.
Sternberg and O'Hara proposed a framework of five possible relationships between creativity and intelligence:
Creativity is a subset of intelligence
Intelligence is a subset of creativity
Creativity and intelligence are overlapping constructs
Creativity and intelligence are part of the same construct (coincident sets)
Creativity and intelligence are distinct constructs (disjoint sets)
Creativity as a subset of intelligence
A number of researchers include creativity, either explicitly or implicitly, as a key component of intelligence.
Examples of theories that include creativity as a subset of intelligence
Sternberg's Theory of Successful intelligence (see Triarchic theory of intelligence) includes creativity as a main component, and comprises three sub-theories: Componential (Analytic), Contextual (Practical), and Experiential (Creative). Experiential sub-theory – the ability to use pre-existing knowledge and skills to solve new and novel problems – is directly related to creativity.
The Cattell–Horn–Carroll theory includes creativity as a subset of intelligence. Specifically, it is associated with the broad group factor of long-term storage and retrieval (Glr). Glr narrow abilities relating to creativity include: ideational fluency, associational fluency, and originality/creativity. Silvia et al. conducted a study to look at the relationship between divergent thinking and verbal fluency tests, and reported that both fluency and originality in divergent thinking were significantly affected by the broad level Glr factor. Martindale extended the CHC-theory in the sense that it was proposed that those individuals who are creative are also selective in their processing speed. Martindale argues that in the creative process, larger amounts of information are processed more slowly in the early stages, and as the individual begins to understand the problem, the processing speed is increased.
The Dual Process Theory of Intelligence posits a two-factor/type model of intelligence. Type 1 is a conscious process, and concerns goal directed thoughts, which are explained by g. Type 2 is an unconscious process, and concerns spontaneous cognition, which encompasses daydreaming and implicit learning ability. Kaufman argues that creativity occurs as a result of Type 1 and Type 2 processes working together in combination. The use of each type in the creative process can be used to varying degrees.
Intelligence as a subset of creativity
In this relationship model, intelligence is a key component in the development of creativity.
Theories of creativity that include intelligence as a subset of creativity
Sternberg & Lubart's Investment Theory. Using the metaphor of a stock market, they demonstrate that creative thinkers are like good investors – they buy low and sell high (in their ideas). Like under/low-valued stock, creative individuals generate unique ideas that are initially rejected by other people. The creative individual has to persevere, and convince the others of the ideas value. After convincing the others, and thus increasing the ideas value, the creative individual 'sells high' by leaving the idea with the other people, and moves onto generating another idea. According to this theory, six distinct, but related elements contribute to successful creativity: intelligence, knowledge, thinking styles, personality, motivation, and environment. Intelligence is just one of the six factors that can either solely, or in conjunction with the other five factors, generate creative thoughts.
Amabile's Componential Model of Creativity. In this model, there are three within-individual components needed for creativity – domain-relevant skills, creativity-relevant processes, and task motivation – and 1 component external to the individual: their surrounding social environment. Creativity requires a confluence of all components. High creativity will result when an individual is: intrinsically motivated, possesses both a high level of domain-relevant skills and has high skills in creative thinking, and is working in a highly creative environment.
Amusement Park Theoretical Model. In this four-step theory, both domain-specific and generalist views are integrated into a model of creativity. The researchers make use of the metaphor of the amusement park to demonstrate that within each of these creative levels, intelligence plays a key role:
To get into the amusement park, there are initial requirements (e.g., time/transport to go to the park). Initial requirements (like intelligence) are necessary, but not sufficient for creativity. They are more like prerequisites for creativity, and if an individual does not possess the basic level of the initial requirement (intelligence), then they will not be able to generate creative thoughts/behaviour.
Secondly are the subcomponents – general thematic areas – that increase in specificity. Like choosing which type of amusement park to visit (e.g. a zoo or a water park), these areas relate to the areas in which someone could be creative (e.g. poetry).
Thirdly, there are specific domains. After choosing the type of park to visit e.g. waterpark, you then have to choose which specific park to go to. Within the poetry domain, there are many different types (e.g. free verse, riddles, sonnet, etc.) that have to be selected from.
Lastly, there are micro-domains. These are the specific tasks that reside within each domain e.g. individual lines in a free verse poem / individual rides at the waterpark.
Creativity and intelligence as overlapping yet distinct constructs
This possible relationship concerns creativity and intelligence as distinct, but intersecting constructs.
Theories that include Creativity and Intelligence as Overlapping Yet Distinct Constructs
Renzulli's Three-Ring Conception of Giftedness. In this conceptualisation, giftedness occurs as a result from the overlap of above average intellectual ability, creativity, and task commitment. Under this view, creativity and intelligence are distinct constructs, but they do overlap under the correct conditions.
PASS theory of intelligence. In this theory, the planning component – relating to the ability to solve problems, make decisions and take action – strongly overlaps with the concept of creativity.
Threshold Theory (TT). A number of previous research findings have suggested that a threshold exists in the relationship between creativity and intelligence – both constructs are moderately positively correlated up to an IQ of ~120. Above this threshold of an IQ of 120, if there is a relationship at all, it is small and weak. TT posits that a moderate level of intelligence is necessary for creativity.
In support of the TT, Barron reported finding a non-significant correlation between creativity and intelligence in a gifted sample and a significant correlation in a non-gifted sample. Yamamoto in a sample of secondary school children, reported a significant correlation between creativity and intelligence of r = 0.3, and reported no significant correlation when the sample consisted of gifted children. Fuchs-Beauchamp et al. in a sample of preschoolers found that creativity and intelligence correlated from r = 0.19 to r = 0.49 in the group of children who had an IQ below the threshold; and in the group above the threshold, the correlations were r = <0.12. Cho et al. reported a correlation of 0.40 between creativity and intelligence in the average IQ group of a sample of adolescents and adults; and a correlation of close to r = 0.0 for the high IQ group. Jauk et al. found support for the TT, but only for measures of creative potential, not creative performance.
Much modern day research reports findings against TT. Wai et al. in a study using data from the longitudinal Study of Mathematically Precocious Youth – a cohort of elite students from early adolescence into adulthood – found that differences in SAT scores at age 13 were predictive of creative real-life outcomes 20 years later. Kim's meta-analysis of 21 studies did not find any supporting evidence for TT, and instead negligible correlations were reported between intelligence, creativity, and divergent thinking both below and above IQ's of 120. Preckel et al., investigating fluid intelligence and creativity, reported small correlations of r = 0.3 to r = 0.4 across all levels of cognitive ability.
Creativity and intelligence as coincident sets
Under this view, researchers posit that there are no differences in the mechanisms underlying creativity in those used in normal problem solving; and in normal problem solving, there is no need for creativity. Thus, creativity and Intelligence (problem solving) are the same thing. Perkins referred to this as the 'nothing-special' view.
Weisberg & Alba examined problem solving by having participants complete the nine dots puzzle – where the participants are asked to connect all nine dots in the three rows of three dots using four straight lines or less, without lifting their pen or tracing the same line twice. The problem can only be solved if the lines go outside the boundaries of the square of dots. Results demonstrated that even when participants were given this insight, they still found it difficult to solve the problem, thus showing that to successfully complete the task it is not just insight (or creativity) that is required.
Creativity and intelligence as disjoint sets
In this view, creativity and intelligence are completely different, unrelated constructs.
Getzels and Jackson administered five creativity measures to a group of 449 children from grades 6–12, and compared these test findings to results from previously administered (by the school) IQ tests. They found that the correlation between the creativity measures and IQ was r = 0.26. The high creativity group scored in the top 20% of the overall creativity measures, but were not included in the top 20% of IQ scorers. The high intelligence group scored the opposite: they scored in the top 20% for IQ, but were outside the top 20% scorers for creativity, thus showing that creativity and intelligence are distinct and unrelated.
However, this work has been heavily criticised. Wallach and Kogan highlighted that the creativity measures were not only weakly related to one another (to the extent that they were no more related to one another than they were with IQ), but they seemed to also draw upon non-creative skills. McNemar noted that there were major measurement issues, in that the IQ scores were a mixture from three different IQ tests.
Wallach and Kogan administered five measures of creativity, each of which resulted in a score for originality and fluency; and 10 measures of general intelligence to 151 5th grade children. These tests were untimed, and given in a game-like manner (aiming to facilitate creativity). Inter-correlations between creativity tests were on average r = 0.41. Inter-correlations between intelligence measures were on average r = 0.51 with each other. Creativity tests and intelligence measures correlated r = 0.09.
Neuroscience
The neuroscience of creativity looks at the operation of the brain during creative behaviour. It has been addressed in the article "Creative Innovation: Possible Brain Mechanisms". The authors write that "creative innovation might require coactivation and communication between regions of the brain that ordinarily are not strongly connected." Highly creative people who excel at creative innovation tend to differ from others in three ways:
they have a high level of specialized knowledge,
they are capable of divergent thinking mediated by the frontal lobe.
and they are able to modulate neurotransmitters such as norepinephrine in their frontal lobe.
Thus, the frontal lobe appears to be the part of the cortex that is most important for creativity.
This article also explored the links between creativity and sleep, mood and addiction disorders, and depression.
In 2005, Alice Flaherty presented a three-factor model of the creative drive. Drawing from evidence in brain imaging, drug studies and lesion analysis, she described the creative drive as resulting from an interaction of the frontal lobes, the temporal lobes, and dopamine from the limbic system. The frontal lobes can be seen as responsible for idea generation, and the temporal lobes for idea editing and evaluation. Abnormalities in the frontal lobe (such as depression or anxiety) generally decrease creativity, while abnormalities in the temporal lobe often increase creativity. High activity in the temporal lobe typically inhibits activity in the frontal lobe, and vice versa. High dopamine levels increase general arousal and goal directed behaviors and reduce latent inhibition, and all three effects increase the drive to generate ideas. A 2015 study on creativity found that it involves the interaction of multiple neural networks, including those that support associative thinking, along with other default mode network functions.
Similarly, in 2018, Lin and Vartanian proposed a neuroeconomic framework that precisely describes norepinephrine's role in creativity and modulating large-scale brain networks associated with creativity. This framework describes how neural activity in different brain regions and networks like the default mode network are tracking utility or subjective value of ideas.
In 2018, experiments showed that when the brain suppresses obvious or 'known' solutions, the outcome is solutions that are more creative. This suppression is mediated by alpha oscillations in the right temporal lobe.
Working memory and the cerebellum
Vandervert described how the brain's frontal lobes and the cognitive functions of the cerebellum collaborate to produce creativity and innovation. Vandervert's explanation rests on considerable evidence that all processes of working memory (responsible for processing all thought) are adaptively modeled for increased efficiency by the cerebellum. The cerebellum (consisting of 100 billion neurons, which is more than the entirety of the rest of the brain) is also widely known to adaptively model all bodily movement for efficiency. The cerebellum's adaptive models of working memory processing are then fed back to especially frontal lobe working memory control processes where creative and innovative thoughts arise. (Apparently, creative insight or the "aha" experience is then triggered in the temporal lobe.)
According to Vandervert, the details of creative adaptation begin in "forward" cerebellar models which are anticipatory/exploratory controls for movement and thought. These cerebellar processing and control architectures have been termed Hierarchical Modular Selection and Identification for Control (HMOSAIC). New, hierarchically arranged levels of the cerebellar control architecture (HMOSAIC) develop as mental mulling in working memory is extended over time. These new levels of the control architecture are fed forward to the frontal lobes. Since the cerebellum adaptively models all movement and all levels of thought and emotion, Vandervert's approach helps explain creativity and innovation in sports, art, music, the design of video games, technology, mathematics, the child prodigy, and thought in general.
Essentially, Vandervert has argued that when a person is confronted with a challenging new situation, visual-spatial working memory and speech-related working memory are decomposed and re-composed (fractionated) by the cerebellum and then blended in the cerebral cortex in an attempt to deal with the new situation. With repeated attempts to deal with challenging situations, the cerebro-cerebellar blending process continues to optimize the efficiency of how working memory deals with the situation or problem. Most recently, he has argued that this is the same process (only involving visual-spatial working memory and pre-language vocalization) that led to the evolution of language in humans. Vandervert and Vandervert-Weathers have pointed out that this blending process, because it continuously optimizes efficiencies, constantly improves prototyping attempts toward the invention or innovation of new ideas, music, art, or technology. Prototyping, they argue, not only produces new products, it trains the cerebro-cerebellar pathways involved to become more efficient at prototyping itself. Further, Vandervert and Vandervert-Weathers believe that this repetitive "mental prototyping" or mental rehearsal involving the cerebellum and the cerebral cortex explains the success of the self-driven, individualized patterning of repetitions initiated by the teaching methods of the Khan Academy. The model proposed by Vandervert has, however, received incisive critique from several authors.
REM sleep
Creativity involves the forming of associative elements into new combinations that are useful or meet some requirement. Sleep aids this process. REM rather than NREM sleep appears to be responsible. This has been suggested to be due to changes in cholinergic and noradrenergic neuromodulation that occurs during REM sleep. During this period of sleep, high levels of acetylcholine in the hippocampus suppress feedback from the hippocampus to the neocortex, and lower levels of acetylcholine and norepinephrine in the neocortex encourage the spread of associational activity within neocortical areas without control from the hippocampus. This is in contrast to waking consciousness, where higher levels of norepinephrine and acetylcholine inhibit recurrent connections in the neocortex. It is proposed that REM sleep aids creativity by allowing "neocortical structures to reorganize associative hierarchies, in which information from the hippocampus would be reinterpreted in relation to previous semantic representations or nodes."
Affect
Some theories suggest that creativity may be particularly susceptible to affective influence. As noted in voting behavior, the term "affect" in this context can refer to liking or disliking key aspects of the subject in question. This work largely follows from findings in psychology regarding the ways in which affective states are involved in human judgment and decision-making.
Positive affect relations
According to Alice Isen, positive affect has three primary effects on cognitive activity:
Positive affect makes additional cognitive material available for processing, increasing the number of cognitive elements available for association;
Positive affect leads to defocused attention and a more complex cognitive context, increasing the breadth of those elements that are treated as relevant to the problem;
Positive affect increases cognitive flexibility, increasing the probability that diverse cognitive elements will in fact become associated. Together, these processes lead positive affect to have a positive influence on creativity.
Barbara Fredrickson in her broaden-and-build model suggests that positive emotions such as joy and love broaden a person's available repertoire of cognitions and actions, thus enhancing creativity.
According to these researchers, positive emotions increase the number of cognitive elements available for association (attention scope) and the number of elements that are relevant to the problem (cognitive scope). Day-by-day psychological experiences including emotions, perceptions, and motivation will significantly impact creative performance. Creativity is higher when emotions and perceptions are more positive and when intrinsic motivation is stronger.
Various meta-analyses, such as Baas et al. (2008) of 66 studies about creativity and affect support the link between creativity and positive affect.
Computational creativity
Jürgen Schmidhuber's formal theory of creativity postulates that creativity, curiosity, and interestingness are by-products of a simple computational principle for measuring and optimizing learning progress. Consider an agent able to manipulate its environment and thus its own sensory inputs. The agent can use a black box optimization method such as reinforcement learning to learn (through informed trial and error) sequences of actions that maximize the expected sum of its future reward signals. There are extrinsic reward signals for achieving externally given goals, such as finding food when hungry. But Schmidhuber's objective function to be maximized also includes an additional, intrinsic term to model "wow-effects". This non-standard term motivates purely creative behavior of the agent even when there are no external goals. A wow-effect is formally defined as follows. As the agent is creating and predicting and encoding the continually growing history of actions and sensory inputs, it keeps improving the predictor or encoder, which can be implemented as an artificial neural network or some other machine learning device that can exploit regularities in the data to improve its performance over time. The improvements can be measured precisely, by computing the difference in computational costs (storage size, number of required synapses, errors, time) needed to encode new observations before and after learning. This difference depends on the encoder's present subjective knowledge, which changes over time, but the theory formally takes this into account. The cost difference measures the strength of the present "wow-effect" due to sudden improvements in data compression or computational speed. It becomes an intrinsic reward signal for the action selector. The objective function thus motivates the action optimizer to create action sequences causing more wow-effects. Irregular, random data (or noise) do not permit any wow-effects or learning progress, and thus are "boring" by nature (providing no reward). Already known and predictable regularities also are boring. Temporarily interesting are only the initially unknown, novel, regular patterns in both actions and observations. This motivates the agent to perform continual, open-ended, active, creative exploration. Schmidhuber's work is highly influential in intrinsic motivation which has emerged as a research topic in its own right as part of the study of artificial intelligence and robotics.
According to Schmidhuber, his objective function explains the activities of scientists, artists, and comedians.
For example, physicists are motivated to create experiments leading to observations obeying previously unpublished physical laws permitting better data compression. Likewise, composers receive intrinsic reward for creating non-arbitrary melodies with unexpected but regular harmonies that permit wow-effects through data compression improvements.
Similarly, a comedian gets intrinsic reward for "inventing a novel joke with an unexpected punch line, related to the beginning of the story in an initially unexpected but quickly learnable way that also allows for better compression of the perceived data."
Schmidhuber argues that ongoing computer hardware advances will greatly scale up rudimentary artificial scientists and artists based on simple implementations of the basic principle since 1990.
He used the theory to create low-complexity art and an attractive human face.
Creativity and mental health
A study by psychologist J. Philippe Rushton found creativity to correlate with intelligence and psychoticism. Another study found creativity to be greater in people with schizotypal personality disorder than in people with either schizophrenia or those without mental health conditions. While divergent thinking was associated with bilateral activation of the prefrontal cortex, schizotypal individuals were found to have much greater activation of their right prefrontal cortex. This study hypothesizes that such individuals are better at accessing both hemispheres, allowing them to make novel associations at a faster rate. Consistent with this hypothesis, ambidexterity is also more common in people with schizotypal personality disorder and schizophrenia. Three studies by Mark Batey and Adrian Furnham have demonstrated the relationships between schizotypal personalty disorder and hypomanic personality and several different measures of creativity.
Particularly strong links have been identified between creativity and mood disorders, particularly manic-depressive disorder (a.k.a. bipolar disorder) and depressive disorder (a.k.a. unipolar disorder). In Touched with Fire: Manic-Depressive Illness and the Artistic Temperament, Kay Redfield Jamison summarizes studies of mood-disorder rates in writers, poets, and artists. She also explores research that identifies mood disorders in such famous writers and artists as Ernest Hemingway (who shot himself after electroconvulsive treatment), Virginia Woolf (who drowned herself when she felt a depressive episode coming on), composer Robert Schumann (who died in a mental institution), and even the famed visual artist Michelangelo.
A study looking at 300,000 persons with schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, or unipolar depression, and their relatives, found overrepresentation in creative professions for those with bipolar disorder as well as for undiagnosed siblings of those with schizophrenia or bipolar disorder. There was no overall overrepresentation, but overrepresentation for artistic occupations, among those diagnosed with schizophrenia. There was no association for those with unipolar depression or their relatives.
Another study involving more than one million people, conducted by Swedish researchers at the Karolinska Institute, reported a number of correlations between creative occupations and mental illnesses. Writers had a higher risk of anxiety and bipolar disorders, schizophrenia, unipolar depression, and substance abuse, and were almost twice as likely as the general population to kill themselves. Dancers and photographers were also more likely to have bipolar disorder.
As a group, those in the creative professions were no more likely to have psychiatric disorders than other people, although they were more likely to have a close relative with a disorder, including anorexia and, to some extent, autism, the Journal of Psychiatric Research reports.
People who have worked in the arts industry throughout history have faced many environmental factors that are associated with and can sometimes influence mental illness. Including things such as poverty, persecution, social alienation, psychological trauma, substance abuse, and high stress. In fact, according to psychologist Robert Epstein, PhD, creativity can be obstructed through stress. So, while research has found that people are the most creative in positive moods, it might be pursuing a career that causes some problems.
Conversely, research has shown that creative activities such as art therapy, poetry writing, journaling, and reminiscence can promote mental well-being.
Bipolar Disorders and Creativity
Nancy Andreasen was one of the first known researchers to carry out a large scale study revolving around creativity and whether mental illnesses have an impact on someone's ability to be creative. Originally she had expected to find a link between creativity and schizophrenia but her research sample had no real history of schizophrenia from the book authors she pooled. Her findings instead showed that 80% of the creative group had previously had some form of mental illness episode in their lifetime. When she performed follow up studies over a 15-year period, she found that 43% of the authors had bipolar disorder compared to the 1% of the general public that has the disease. In 1989 there was another study done by Kay Redfield Jamison that reaffirmed those statistics by having 38% of her sample of authors having a history of mood disorders. Anthony Storr who is a prominent psychiatrist remarked that, "The creative process can be a way of protecting the individual against being overwhelmed by depression, a means of regaining a sense of mastery in those who have lost it, and, to a varying extent, a way of repairing the self-damaged by bereavement or by the loss of confidence in human relationships which accompanies depression from whatever cause."
According to a study done by Shapiro and Weisberg, there appears to be a positive correlation between the manic upswings of the cycles of bipolar disorder and the ability for an individual to be more creative. The data that they had collected and analyzed through multiple tests showed that it was in fact not the depressive swing that many believe to bring forth dark creative spurts, but the act of climbing out of the depressive episode that sparked creativity. The reason behind this spur of creative genius could come from the type of self-image that the person has during a time of hypomania. A hypomanic person may be feeling a bolstered sense of self-confidence, creative confidence, and sense of individualism.
In reports from people who were diagnosed with bipolar disorder they noted themselves as having a larger range of emotional understanding, heightened states of perception, and an ability to connect better with those in the world around them. Other reported traits include higher rates of productivity, higher senses of self-awareness, and a greater understanding of empathy. Those who have bipolar disorder also understand their own sense of heightened creativity and ability to get immense amounts of tasks done all at once. McCraw, Parker, Fletcher, & Friend (2013) report that out of 219 participants (aged 19 to 63) that have been diagnosed bipolar disorder 82% of them reported having elevated feelings of creativity during the hypomanic swings.
Giannouli believes that the creativity a person diagnosed with bipolar disorder feels comes as a form of "stress management". In the realm of music, one might be expressing their stress or pains through the pieces they write in order to better understand those same feelings. Famous authors and musicians along with some actors would often attribute their wild enthusiasm to something like a hypomanic state. The artistic side of society has also been notorious for behaviors that are seen as maladapted to societal norms. Side effects that come with bipolar disorder match up with many of the behaviors that we see in high-profile creative personalities; these include, but are not limited to, alcohol addiction, drug abuse including stimulants, depressants, hallucinogens and dissociatives, opioids, inhalants, and cannabis, difficulties in holding regular occupations, interpersonal problems, legal issues, and a high risk of suicide.
Weisberg believes that the state of mania sets "free the powers of a thinker". What he implies here is that not only has the person become more creative they have fundamentally changed the kind of thoughts they produce. In a study done of poets, who seem to have especially high percentages of bipolar authors, it was found that over a period of three years those poets would have cycles of really creative and powerful works of poetry. The timelines over the three-year study looked at the poet's personal journals and their clinical records and found that the timelines between their most powerful poems matched that of their upswings in bipolar disorder.
Personality
Creativity can be expressed in a number of different forms, depending on unique people and environments. A number of different theorists have suggested models of the creative person. One model suggests that there are four "Creativity Profiles" that can help produce growth, innovation, speed, etc.
(i) Incubate (Long-term Development)
(ii) Imagine (Breakthrough Ideas)
(iii) Improve (Incremental Adjustments)
(iv) Invest (Short-term Goals)
Research by Dr Mark Batey of the Psychometrics at Work Research Group at Manchester Business School has suggested that the creative profile can be explained by four primary creativity traits with narrow facets within each
(i) "Idea Generation" (Fluency, Originality, Incubation and Illumination)
(ii) "Personality" (Curiosity and Tolerance for Ambiguity)
(iii) "Motivation" (Intrinsic, Extrinsic and Achievement)
(iv) "Confidence" (Producing, Sharing and Implementing)
This model was developed in a sample of 1000 working adults using the statistical techniques of Exploratory Factor Analysis followed by Confirmatory Factor Analysis by Structural Equation Modelling.
An important aspect of the creativity profiling approach is to account for the tension between predicting the creative profile of an individual, as characterised by the psychometric approach, and the evidence that team creativity is founded on diversity and difference.
One characteristic of creative people, as measured by some psychologists, is what is called divergent production. Divergent production is the ability of a person to generate a diverse assortment, yet an appropriate amount of responses to a given situation. One way of measuring divergent production is by administering the Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking. The Torrance Tests of Creative Thinking assesses the diversity, quantity, and appropriateness of participants responses to a variety of open-ended questions.
Other researchers of creativity see the difference in creative people as a cognitive process of dedication to problem solving and developing expertise in the field of their creative expression. Hard working people study the work of people before them and within their current area, become experts in their fields, and then have the ability to add to and build upon previous information in innovative and creative ways. In a study of projects by design students, students who had more knowledge on their subject on average had greater creativity within their projects. Other researchers emphasize how creative people are better at balancing between divergent and convergent production, which depends on an individual's innate preference or ability to explore and exploit ideas.
The aspect of motivation within a person's personality may predict creativity levels in the person. Motivation stems from two different sources, intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. Intrinsic motivation is an internal drive within a person to participate or invest as a result of personal interest, desires, hopes, goals, etc. Extrinsic motivation is a drive from outside of a person and might take the form of payment, rewards, fame, approval from others, etc. Although extrinsic motivation and intrinsic motivation can both increase creativity in certain cases, strictly extrinsic motivation often impedes creativity in people.
From a personality-traits perspective, there are a number of traits that are associated with creativity in people. Creative people tend to be more open to new experiences, are more self-confident, are more ambitious, self-accepting, impulsive, driven, dominant, and hostile, compared to people with less creativity.
From an evolutionary perspective, creativity may be a result of the outcome of years of generating ideas. As ideas are continuously generated, the need to evolve produces a need for new ideas and developments. As a result, people have been creating and developing new, innovative, and creative ideas to build our progress as a society.
In studying exceptionally creative people in history, some common traits in lifestyle and environment are often found. Creative people in history usually had supportive parents, but rigid and non-nurturing. Most had an interest in their field at an early age, and most had a highly supportive and skilled mentor in their field of interest. Often the field they chose was relatively uncharted, allowing for their creativity to be expressed more in a field with less previous information. Most exceptionally creative people devoted almost all of their time and energy into their craft, and after about a decade had a creative breakthrough of fame. Their lives were marked with extreme dedication and a cycle of hard-work and breakthroughs as a result of their determination.
Another theory of creative people is the investment theory of creativity. This approach suggest that there are many individual and environmental factors that must exist in precise ways for extremely high levels of creativity opposed to average levels of creativity. In the investment sense, a person with their particular characteristics in their particular environment may see an opportunity to devote their time and energy into something that has been overlooked by others. The creative person develops an undervalued or under-recognised idea to the point that it is established as a new and creative idea. Just like in the financial world, some investments are worth the buy in, while others are less productive and do not build to the extent that the investor expected. This investment theory of creativity views creativity in a unique perspective compared to others, by asserting that creativity might rely to some extent on the right investment of effort being added to a field at the right time in the right way.
Malevolent creativity
So called malevolent creativity is associated with the "dark side" of creativity. This type of creativity is not typically accepted within society and is defined by the intention to cause harm to others through original and innovative means. Malevolent creativity should be distinguished from negative creativity in that negative creativity may unintentionally cause harm to others, whereas malevolent creativity is explicitly malevolently motivated. While it is often associated with criminal behaviour, it can also be observed in ordinary day-to-day life as lying, cheating and betrayal.
Crime
Malevolent creativity is often a key contributor to crime and in its most destructive form can even manifest as terrorism. As creativity requires deviating from the conventional, there is a permanent tension between being creative and producing products that go too far and in some cases to the point of breaking the law. Aggression is a key predictor of malevolent creativity, and studies have also shown that increased levels of aggression also correlates to a higher likelihood of committing crime.
Predictive factors
Although everyone shows some levels of malevolent creativity under certain conditions, those that have a higher propensity towards it have increased tendencies to deceive and manipulate others to their own gain. While malevolent creativity appears to dramatically increase when an individual is placed under unfair conditions, personality, particularly aggressiveness, is also a key predictor in anticipating levels of malevolent thinking. Researchers Harris and Reiter-Palmon investigated the role of aggression in levels of malevolent creativity, in particular levels of implicit aggression and the tendency to employ aggressive actions in response to problem solving. The personality traits of physical aggression, conscientiousness, emotional intelligence and implicit aggression all seem to be related with malevolent creativity. Harris and Reiter-Palmon's research showed that when subjects were presented with a problem that triggered malevolent creativity, participants high in implicit aggression and low in premeditation expressed the largest number of malevolently-themed solutions. When presented with the more benign problem that triggered prosocial motives of helping others and cooperating, those high in implicit aggression, even if they were high in impulsiveness, were far less destructive in their imagined solutions. They concluded premeditation, more than implicit aggression controlled an individual's expression of malevolent creativity.
The current measure for malevolent creativity is the 13-item test Malevolent Creativity Behaviour Scale (MCBS).
Cultural differences in creativity
Creativity is viewed differently in different countries. For example, cross-cultural research centered on Hong Kong found that Westerners view creativity more in terms of the individual attributes of a creative person, such as their aesthetic taste, while Chinese people view creativity more in terms of the social influence of creative people (i.e., what they can contribute to society). Mpofu et al. surveyed 28 African languages and found that 27 had no word which directly translated to 'creativity' (the exception being Arabic). The principle of linguistic relativity (i.e., that language can affect thought) suggests that the lack of an equivalent word for 'creativity' may affect the views of creativity among speakers of such languages. However, more research would be needed to establish this, and there is certainly no suggestion that this linguistic difference makes people any less (or more) creative; Africa has a rich heritage of creative pursuits such as music, art, and storytelling. Nevertheless, it is true that there has been very little research on creativity in Africa, and there has also been very little research on creativity in Latin America. Creativity has been more thoroughly researched in the northern hemisphere, but here again there are cultural differences, even between countries or groups of countries in close proximity. For example, in Scandinavian countries, creativity is seen as an individual attitude which helps in coping with life's challenges, while in Germany, creativity is seen more as a process that can be applied to help solve problems.
Organizational creativity
It has been the topic of various research studies to establish that organizational effectiveness depends on the creativity of the workforce to a large extent. For any given organization, measures of effectiveness vary, depending upon its mission, environmental context, nature of work, the product or service it produces, and customer demands. Thus, the first step in evaluating organizational effectiveness is to understand the organization itself – how it functions, how it is structured, and what it emphasizes.
Amabile and Sullivan and Harper argued that to enhance creativity in business, three components were needed:
Expertise (technical, procedural and intellectual knowledge),
Creative thinking skills (how flexibly and imaginatively people approach problems),
and Motivation (especially intrinsic motivation).
There are two types of motivation:
extrinsic motivation – external factors, for example threats of being fired or money as a reward,
intrinsic motivation – comes from inside an individual, satisfaction, enjoyment of work, etc.
Six managerial practices to encourage motivation are:
Challenge – matching people with the right assignments;
Freedom – giving people autonomy choosing means to achieve goals;
Resources – such as time, money, space, etc. There must be balance fit among resources and people;
Work group features – diverse, supportive teams, where members share the excitement, willingness to help, and recognize each other's talents;
Supervisory encouragement – recognitions, cheering, praising;
Organizational support – value emphasis, information sharing, collaboration.
Nonaka, who examined several successful Japanese companies, similarly saw creativity and knowledge creation as being important to the success of organizations. In particular, he emphasized the role that tacit knowledge has to play in the creative process.
In business, originality is not enough. The idea must also be appropriate – useful and actionable. Creative competitive intelligence is a new solution to solve this problem. According to Reijo Siltala it links creativity to innovation process and competitive intelligence to creative workers.
Creativity can be encouraged in people and professionals and in the workplace. It is essential for innovation, and is a factor affecting economic growth and businesses. In 2013, the sociologist Silvia Leal Martín, using the Innova 3DX method, suggested measuring the various parameters that encourage creativity and innovation: corporate culture, work environment, leadership and management, creativity, self-esteem and optimism, locus of control and learning orientation, motivation, and fear.
Similarly, social psychologists, organizational scientists, and management scientists (who conduct extensive research on the factors that influence creativity and innovation in teams and organizations) have developed integrative theoretical models that emphasize the roles of team composition, team processes, and organizational culture. These theoretical models also emphasize the mutually reinforcing relationships between them in promoting innovation.
The investigation by Sai Loo, an academic and author of research monographs, on creative working in the knowledge economy brings together studies of creativity as described in this web page. It offers connections with the sections on the '"Four C" model', 'Theories of creative processes', 'Creativity as a subset of intelligence', 'Creativity and personality', and 'In organisations'. It is the last section that the investigation addresses.
Research studies of the knowledge economy may be classified into three levels: macro, meso and micro. Macro studies refer to investigations at a societal or transnational dimension. Meso studies focus on organisations. Micro investigations centre on the minutiae workings of workers. There is also an interdisciplinary dimension such as research from businesses, economics, education, human resource management, knowledge and organizational management, sociology, psychology, and knowledge economy-related sectors – especially information technology (IT) software and advertising.
Loo studies how individual workers in the knowledge economy use their creativity and know-how in the advertising and IT software sectors. It examines this phenomenon across three developed countries of England, Japan, and Singapore to observe global perspectives. Specifically, the study uses qualitative data from semi-structured interviews of the related professionals in the roles of creative directing and copywriting (in advertising), and systems software developing and software programme managing.
The study offers a conceptual framework of a two-dimensional matrix of individual and collaborative working styles, and single and multi-contexts. The investigation draws on literature sources from the four disciplines of economics, management, sociology, and psychology. The themes arising from the analysis of knowledge work and creativity literature serve to create a distinct theoretical framework of creative knowledge work. These workers apply their cognitive abilities, creative personalities and skill sets in the areas of science, technology, or culture industries to invent or discover new possibilities – e.g. a medium, product or service. These work activities may be done individually or collectively. Education, training and 'encultured environments' are necessary for the performance of these creative activities. Acts of creativity are viewed as asking new questions over and above those questions asked by an intelligent person, seeking novelty when reviewing a situation, and creating something that is different and novel, i.e. a 'variation' on the idea of existing ideas in a domain. This framework is evidenced by the empirical chapters on the micro-workings of creative workers in the two knowledge economy sectors from global perspectives.
This investigation identifies a definition of creative work, three types of work and the necessary conditions for it to occur. These workers use a combination of creative applications including anticipatory imagination, problem-solving, problem seeking, and generating ideas and aesthetic sensibilities. Taking aesthetic sensibilities as an example, for a creative director in the advertising industry, it is a visual imagery whether still or moving via a camera lens, and for a software programmer, it is the innovative technical expertise in which the software is written. There are specific creative applications for each of the sectors such as emotional connection in the advertising sector, and the power of expression and sensitivity in the IT software sector. In addition to the creative applications, creative workers require abilities and aptitudes to carry out their roles. Passion for one's job is generic. For copywriters, this passion is identified with fun, enjoyment and happiness alongside attributes such as honesty (regarding the product), confidence, and patience in finding the appropriate copy. Knowledge is also required in the disciplines of the humanities (e.g. literature), the creative arts (e.g. painting and music) and technical-related know-how (e.g. mathematics, computer sciences and physical sciences). In the IT software, technical knowledge of computer languages (e.g. C++) is especially significant for programmers whereas the degree of technical expertise may be less for a programme manager, as only knowledge of the relevant language is necessary to understand the issues for communicating with the team of developers and testers.
There are three types of work. One is intra-sectoral (e.g. 'general sponge' and 'in tune with the zeitgeist' [advertising], and 'power of expression' and 'sensitivity' [IT software]). The second is inter-sectoral (e.g. 'integration of advertising activities' [advertising], and 'autonomous decentralized systems' [ADS] [IT software]). The third relates to changes in culture/practices in the sectors (e.g. 'three-dimensional trust' and 'green credentials' [advertising], and 'collaboration with HEIs and industry' and 'ADS system in the Tokyo train operator' [IT software]).
The necessary conditions for creative work to exist are a supportive environment such as supportive information, communications and electronic technologies (ICET) infrastructure, training, work environment and education.
This investigation has implications for lifelong learning of these workers informally and formally. Teaching institutions need to offer multi-disciplinary knowledge of humanities, arts and sciences and it has impacts on the programme structure, delivery approaches and assessments. At a macro level, governments need to offer a rich diet of cultural activities, outdoor activities and sports fixtures that inform potential creative workers in the areas of video gaming and advertising. This study has implications for work organisations that support and encourage collaborative working alongside individual working, offer opportunities to engage in continuous professional development (formally and informally), and foster an environment, which promotes experiential functioning and supports experimentation.
Team composition
Diversity between team members' backgrounds and knowledge can increase team creativity by expanding the total collection of unique information that is available to the team and by introducing different perspectives that can integrate in novel ways. However, under some conditions, diversity can also decrease team creativity by making it more difficult for team members to communicate about ideas and causing interpersonal conflicts between those with different perspectives. Thus, the potential advantages of diversity must be supported by appropriate team processes and organizational cultures in order to enhance creativity. Recent study by An Zeng et al. found that studies of fresh research teams is associated with higher creativity or originality.
Team processes
Team communication norms, such as respecting others' expertise, paying attention to others' ideas, expecting information sharing, tolerating disagreements, negotiating, remaining open to others' ideas, learning from others, and building on each other's ideas, increase team creativity by facilitating the social processes involved with brainstorming and problem solving. Through these processes, team members are able to access their collective pool of knowledge, reach shared understandings, identify new ways of understanding problems or tasks, and make new connections between ideas. Engaging in these social processes also promotes positive team affect, which facilitates collective creativity.
Organizational culture
Supportive and motivational environments that create psychological safety by encouraging risk taking and tolerating mistakes increase team creativity as well. Organizations in which help-seeking, help giving, and collaboration are rewarded promote innovation by providing opportunities and contexts in which team processes that lead to collective creativity can occur. Additionally, leadership styles that downplay status hierarchies or power differences within an organization and empower people to speak up about their ideas or opinions also help to create cultures that are conducive to creativity.
Constraints
There is a long-standing debate on how material constraints (e.g., lack of money, materials, or equipment) affect creativity. In psychological and managerial research, two competing views in this regard prevail. In one view, many scholars propose a negative effect of material constraints on innovation and claim that material constraints starve creativity. The proponents of this view argue that adequate material resources are needed to engage in creative activities like experimenting with new solutions and idea exploration. In an opposing view, scholars assert that people tend to stick to established routines or solutions as long as they are not forced to deviate from them by constraints. In this sense, Neren posits that scarcity is an important driver of creativity. Consistently, Gibbert and Scranton demonstrated how material constraints facilitated the development of jet engines in World War II.
To reconcile these competing views, contingency models were proposed. The rationale behind these models is that certain contingency factors (e.g., creativity climate or creativity relevant skills) influence the relationship between constraints and creativity. These contingency factors reflect the need for higher levels of motivation and skills when working on creative tasks under constraints. Depending on these contingency factors, there is either a positive or negative relationship between constraints and creativity.
The sociology of creativity
Creativity research for most of the twentieth century was dominated by psychology and business studies, with little work done in sociology as a discipline. While since the turn of the millennium, there has been more attention paid by sociological researchers, it has yet to establish itself as a specific research field, with reviews of sociological research into creativity a rarity in high impact literature.
While psychology has tended to focus on the individual as the locus of creativity, sociological research is directed more at the structures and context within which creative activity takes place, primarily based in the more long-standing field of the sociology of culture, which finds its roots in the works of Marx, Durkheim, and Weber. This has meant a particular focus on the cultural and creative industries as sociological phenomena. Such research has covered a variety of areas, including the economics and production of culture, the role of creative industries in development, and the rise of the "creative class".
Economic views
Economic approaches to creativity have focussed on three aspects – the impact of creativity on economic growth, methods of modelling markets for creativity, and the maximisation of economic creativity (innovation).
In the early 20th century, Joseph Schumpeter introduced the economic theory of creative destruction, to describe the way in which old ways of doing things are endogenously destroyed and replaced by the new. Some economists (such as Paul Romer) view creativity as an important element in the recombination of elements to produce new technologies and products and, consequently, economic growth. Creativity leads to capital, and creative products are protected by intellectual property laws.
Mark A. Runco and Daniel Rubenson have tried to describe a "psychoeconomic" model of creativity. In such a model, creativity is the product of endowments and active investments in creativity; the costs and benefits of bringing creative activity to market determine the supply of creativity. Such an approach has been criticised for its view of creativity consumption as always having positive utility, and for the way it analyses the value of future innovations.
The creative class is seen by some to be an important driver of modern economies. In his 2002 book, The Rise of the Creative Class, economist Richard Florida popularized the notion that regions with "3 T's of economic development: Technology, Talent and Tolerance" also have high concentrations of creative professionals and tend to have a higher level of economic development.
Fostering creativity
Several different researchers have proposed methods of increasing the creativity of an individual. Such ideas range from the psychological-cognitive, such as Osborn-Parnes Creative Problem Solving Process, Synectics, science-based creative thinking, Purdue Creative Thinking Program, and Edward de Bono's lateral thinking; to the highly structured, such as TRIZ (the Theory of Inventive Problem-Solving) and its variant Algorithm of Inventive Problem Solving (developed by the Russian scientist Genrich Altshuller), and Computer-Aided morphological analysis.
Daniel Pink, in his 2005 book A Whole New Mind, repeating arguments posed throughout the 20th century, argues that we are entering a new age where creativity is becoming increasingly important. In this conceptual age, we will need to foster and encourage right-directed thinking (representing creativity and emotion) over left-directed thinking (representing logical, analytical thought). However, this simplification of 'right' versus 'left' brain thinking is not supported by the research data.
Nickerson provides a summary of the various creativity techniques that have been proposed. These include approaches that have been developed by both academia and industry:
Establishing purpose and intention
Building basic skills
Encouraging acquisitions of domain-specific knowledge
Stimulating and rewarding curiosity and exploration
Building motivation, especially internal motivation
Encouraging confidence and a willingness to take risks
Focusing on mastery and self-competition
Promoting supportable beliefs about creativity
Providing opportunities for choice and discovery
Developing self-management (metacognitive skills)
Teaching techniques and strategies for facilitating creative performance
Providing balance
Managing the need for closure
Experiments suggest the need for closure of task participants, whether as a reflection of personality or induced (through time pressure), negatively impacts creativity. Accordingly, it has been suggested that reading fiction, which can reduce the cognitive need for closure, may help to encourage creativity.
Education policies
Some see the conventional system of schooling as stifling of creativity and attempt (particularly in the preschool/kindergarten and early school years) to provide a creativity-friendly, rich, imagination-fostering environment for young children. Researchers have seen this as important because technology is advancing our society at an unprecedented rate and creative problem solving will be needed to cope with these challenges as they arise. In addition to helping with problem solving, creativity also helps students identify problems where others have failed to do so. See the Waldorf School as an example of an education program that promotes creative thought.
Promoting intrinsic motivation and problem solving are two areas where educators can foster creativity in students. Students are more creative when they see a task as intrinsically motivating, valued for its own sake. To promote creative thinking, educators need to identify what motivates their students and structure teaching around it. Providing students with a choice of activities to complete allows them to become more intrinsically motivated and therefore creative in completing the tasks.
Teaching students to solve problems that do not have well defined answers is another way to foster their creativity. This is accomplished by allowing students to explore problems and redefine them, possibly drawing on knowledge that at first may seem unrelated to the problem in order to solve it. In adults, mentoring individuals is another way to foster their creativity. However, the benefits of mentoring creativity apply only to creative contributions considered great in a given field, not to everyday creative expression.
Musical creativity is a gateway to the flow state. A place conducive to spontaneity, improvisation, and creativity. Recent studies have shown that we should emphasize students' creative side and integrate more creativity into their curriculums. A reason for this is that "Students aiming to express themselves and connect with peers through music will be able to tap into higher-order brain regions during improvisation rather than limiting themselves to the areas seen for rudimentary pattern generator" (Landau, 2017:30). Schools should teach this Buddhist philosophy to help musicians, for example, better understand what's happening when you're in a creative process and ways to realize it better. In this sense, an improvisation is a form of self-expression that can generate connectivity amongst peers and surpasses the age-old rudimentary aspects of school.
Scotland
In the Scottish education system, creativity is identified as a core skillset for learning, life and work and is defined as "a process which generates ideas that have value to the individual. It involves looking at familiar things with a fresh eye, examining problems with an open mind, making connections, learning from mistakes and using imagination to explore new possibilities." The need to develop a shared language and understanding of creativity and its role across every aspect of learning, teaching and continuous improvement was identified as a necessary aim and a set of four skills is used to allow educators to discuss and develop creativity skills across all subjects and sectors of education – curiosity, open-mindedness, imagination and problem solving. Distinctions are made between creative learning (when learners are using their creativity skills), creative teaching (when educators are using their creativity skills) and creative change (when creativity skills are applied to planning and improvement). Scotland's national Creative Learning Plan supports the development of creativity skills in all learners and of educators' expertise in developing creativity skills. A range of resources have been created to support and assess this including a national review of creativity across learning by Her Majesty's Inspectorate for Education.
Academic journals
See also
Notes
References
Hadamard, Jacques, The Psychology of Invention in the Mathematical Field (Dover, 1954)
Jung, C. G., The Collected Works of C. G. Jung. Volume 8. The Structure and Dynamics of the Psyche. (Princeton, 1981)
Kanigel, Robert, The Man Who Knew Infinity: A Life of the Genius Ramanujan (Washington Square Press, 1992)
D/2009/11848/5
*Lehrer, Jonah (2012), Imagine: How Creativity Works.
Sabaneev, Leonid. The Psychology of the Musico-Creative Process // Psyche. - Vol. 9 (July 1928). - pp. 37–54.
von Franz, Marie-Louise, Psyche and Matter (Shambhala, 1992)
Miyake, A., & Shah, P. (Eds.). (1999). Models of working memory: Mechanisms of active maintenance and executive control. New York: Cambridge University Press.
Schmahmann, J. (Ed.). (1997). The cerebellum and cognition. New York: Academic Press.
Tatarkiewicz, Władysław, A History of Six Ideas: an Essay in Aesthetics, translated from the Polish by Christopher Kasparek, The Hague, Martinus Nijhoff, 1980.
Vandervert, L. (2003b). The neurophysiological basis of innovation. In L. V. Shavinina (Ed.) The international handbook on innovation (pp. 17–30). Oxford, England: Elsevier Science.
Vandervert, L. (in press). How the blending of cerebellar internal models can explain the evolution of thought and language. Cerebellum.
Vandervert, L., & Vandervert-Weathers, K. (in press). New brain-imaging studies indicate how prototyping is related to entrepreneurial giftedness and innovation education in children. In L. Shavinina (Ed.), The International Handbook of Innovation Education. London: Routlage.
Gielen, P. (2013). Creativity and other Fundamentalisms. Mondriaan: Amsterdam.
Further reading
J. P. Guilford's 1950 inaugural speech to the American Psychological Association, reproduced in
Aptitude
Cognition
Concepts in aesthetics
Critical thinking skills
Design
Imagination
Innovation economics
Mental processes
Metaphysics of mind
Problem solving skills
Product management
Science and technology studies
Thought | wiki |
Superscope may refer to:
Superscope (song), a 2014 song and EP by Clark
Superscope 235 or Super 35, a motion picture film format
Super Scope, a wireless light gun controller for the Super NES video game console | wiki |
Stick puzzles are a type of combination puzzle that uses multiple sticks or 'polysticks' (which can be one-dimensional objects) to assemble two- or three-dimensional configurations.
Polysticks are configurations of joined or unjoined thin (ideally one-dimensional) 'sticks'. The sticks may be; line segments on paper, matchsticks, pieces of straw, wire or similar.
A special class of stick puzzles are 'matchstick puzzles', where all parts used are sticks (usually matchsticks) rather than polysticks. Some trick puzzles can only be solved when one assumes that the sticks actually have measurements in more than one dimension. Three-dimensional arrangements like tetrastix can also be made from matchsticks.
Examples of stick puzzles
Matchstick puzzles
Burr puzzle
Hexastix
Stick bomb
References
Puzzles | wiki |
In hydrology, stage refers to the water level in a river or stream with respect to a chosen reference height. Stage is important because direct measurements of river discharge are very difficult while water surface elevation measurements are comparatively easy. In order to convert stage into discharge, scientists can use a combination of tracer studies, observations of high water marks, numerical modeling, and/or satellite or aerial photography. The relationship between stage and discharge is called a rating curve.
See also
Hydraulic head
Stream gauge
Hydrology | wiki |
The Grand Carver of England is an hereditary office in the Royal Household of the sovereign of England, then Great Britain, and later the United Kingdom, held in gross.
Role
The Grand Carver is charged with carving the Monarch's meat during official and royal dinners.
Officers
The Earl of Denbigh and Desmond currently serves as Grand Carver.
See also
Great Officers of State
References
Positions within the British Royal Household
Ceremonial officers in the United Kingdom | wiki |
UCI Track Champions League is a season-long track cycling competition held over four rounds around Europe during November and December. It was established in 2021 from a partnership between the UCI and Discovery Sports Events, and was originally titled the UCI Track Cycling World League.
The competition consists of two categories: endurance and sprint events, where overall titles are awarded for each at the end of the series. The endurance events consist of an elimination race and a scratch race, while the sprint events consist of the keirin and the individual sprint.
Overall winners
Men
Sprint
Endurance
Women
Sprint
Endurance
References
Track cycling races | wiki |
A puzzle lock or puzzle padlock is a type of mechanical puzzle. It consists of a lock with unusual or hidden mechanics. Puzzle locks are reconfigurable mechanisms where the topological structure changes during the operation. Such locks are sometimes called trick locks, because there is a trick to opening them which needs to be found. Puzzle locks exist both with keys and without keys.
China
Puzzle locks with exposed keyholes were widely used in ancient China and can be very tricky to open.
There are three main types in China:
Locks with extra obstacle
Locks with indirect insertion
Multi-stage locks.
Europe
In Europe, many small puzzle padlocks had front plate with a face or mask. The padlocks were designed to secure small bags or pouches and could be found across Europe with the most around the Danubian provinces and Aquileia. They were often shaped like rings and may have been fitted around the mouth of a bag as a sort of tamper-proof seal. The earliest Roman puzzle locks date back to the 2nd century BCE.
In the 1850s in the UK, "puzzle lock" was synonymous with "letter lock" and used to denote a lettered combination lock.
See also
Puzzle box
References
Mechanical puzzles
Locksmithing | wiki |
Gtk2-Perl is a set of wrappers for the Perl programming language around the GTK and further GNOME libraries. Gtk-Perl is free and open-source software licensed under the GNU Lesser General Public License (LGPL) version 2.1. Developers and interested parties can usually be found on the IRC channel #gtk-perl on irc.gnome.org.
Gtk2-Perl is part of the official GNOME Platform Bindings release.
Example
use Gtk2 '-init';
$window = Gtk2::Window->new('toplevel');
$window->set_title("Hello World!");
$button = Gtk2::Button->new("Press me");
$button->signal_connect(clicked => sub { print "Hello again - the button was pressed\n"; });
$window->add($button);
$window->show_all;
Gtk2->main;
0;
The sample program creates a GTK Window titled "Hello World!". The window contains a Button labelled "Press me." When the button is pressed, the message "Hello again - the button was pressed" is displayed on the console via the callback inside the anonymous subroutine connected to the "clicked" signal.
References
External links
GTK2-Perl homepage on SourceForge.net
https://git.gnome.org/browse/perl-Gtk2/
https://git.gnome.org/browse/perl-Gtk3/
A tool helps compile gtk2-perl under Windows
GTK language bindings
Perl modules | wiki |
Multiplex may refer to:
Multiplex (automobile), a former American car make
Multiplex (comics), a DC comic book supervillain
Multiplex (company), a global contracting and development company
Multiplex (assay), a biological assay which measures several components at the same time
Multiplex (highway) or concurrency, a single road designated by multiple highway numbers
Multiplex (juggling), a juggling action with multiple balls thrown or caught at one time by the same hand
Multiplex (movie theater), a theater with many screens
Multiplex (webcomic), an online comic about the staff of a movie theater
Multiplexing or multiplex communication, combining many signals into one transmission circuit or channel
Multiplex (television), a group of digital television or radio channels that are combined for broadcast
See also
Multiplex Modellsport, a manufacturer of radio control equipment and radio-controlled airplanes
Multiplexer, an electronic device that performs multiplexing | wiki |
White Rock – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Nowy Meksyk, w hrabstwie Los Alamos.
CDP w stanie Nowy Meksyk | wiki |
The bottom sirloin steak is a steak cut from the back of the animal below top sirloin and above the flank. This cut can also be referred to as sirloin butt and thick flank. The meat is further cut into three different portions called ball tip, tri-tip and flap steak for consumption. Ball tip cuts are used for common steaks in restaurants and are often advertised as sirloin. Tri-tip is found in roasts or used for barbecue since it is common for it to be cooked over long periods of time. Flap portions are found in hamburger meat or can be made into stews or even fajitas since it is too tough to be used in steaks.
When compared to top sirloin, this meat is cheaper but often chewier than its counterpart.
See also
Tri-tip
Cut of beef
List of steak dishes
References
External links
Cuts of beef | wiki |
A circle of latitude or line of latitude on Earth is an abstract east–west small circle connecting all locations around Earth (ignoring elevation) at a given latitude coordinate line.
Circles of latitude are often called parallels because they are parallel to each other; that is, planes that contain any of these circles never intersect each other. A location's position along a circle of latitude is given by its longitude. Circles of latitude are unlike circles of longitude, which are all great circles with the centre of Earth in the middle, as the circles of latitude get smaller as the distance from the Equator increases. Their length can be calculated by a common sine or cosine function. For example, the 60th parallel north or south is half as long as the Equator (disregarding Earth's minor flattening by 0.335%), stemming from . On the Mercator projection or on the Gall-Peters projection, a circle of latitude is perpendicular to all meridians. On the ellipsoid or on spherical projection, all circles of latitude are rhumb lines, except the Equator.
The latitude of the circle is approximately the angle between the Equator and the circle, with the angle's vertex at Earth's centre. The Equator is at 0°, and the North Pole and South Pole are at 90° north and 90° south, respectively. The Equator is the longest circle of latitude and is the only circle of latitude which also is a great circle. As such, it is perpendicular to all meridians.
There are 89 integral (whole degree) circles of latitude between the Equator and the poles in each hemisphere, but these can be divided into more precise measurements of latitude, and are often represented as a decimal degree (e.g. 34.637° N) or with minutes and seconds (e.g. 22°14'26" S).
On a map, the circles of latitude may or may not be parallel, and their spacing may vary, depending on which projection is used to map the surface of the Earth onto a plane. On an equirectangular projection, centered on the equator, the circles of latitude are horizontal, parallel, and equally spaced. On other cylindrical and pseudocylindrical projections, the circles of latitude are horizontal and parallel, but may be spaced unevenly to give the map useful characteristics. For instance, on a Mercator projection the circles of latitude are more widely spaced near the poles to preserve local scales and shapes, while on a Gall–Peters projection the circles of latitude are spaced more closely near the poles so that comparisons of area will be accurate. On most non-cylindrical and non-pseudocylindrical projections, the circles of latitude are neither straight nor parallel.
Arcs of circles of latitude are sometimes used as boundaries between countries or regions where distinctive natural borders are lacking (such as in deserts), or when an artificial border is drawn as a "line on a map", which was made in massive scale during the 1884 Berlin Conference, regarding huge parts of the African continent. North American nations and states have also mostly been created by straight lines, which are often parts of circles of latitudes. For instance, the northern border of Colorado is at 41° N while the southern border is at 37° N. Roughly half the length of border between the United States and Canada follows 49° N.
Major circles of latitude
There are five major circles of latitude, listed below from north to south. The position of the Equator is fixed (90 degrees from Earth's axis of rotation) but the latitudes of the other circles depend on the tilt of this axis relative to the plane of Earth's orbit, and so are not perfectly fixed. The values below are for :
Arctic Circle ( N)
Tropic of Cancer ( N)
Equator (0° latitude)
Tropic of Capricorn ( S)
Antarctic Circle ( S)
These circles of latitude, excluding the Equator, mark the divisions between the five principal geographical zones.
Equator
The equator is the circle that is equidistant from the North Pole and South Pole. It divides the Earth into the Northern Hemisphere and the Southern Hemisphere. Of the parallels or circles of latitude, it is the longest, and the only 'great circle' (a circle on the surface of the Earth, centered on Earth's center). All the other parallels are smaller and centered only on Earth's axis.
Polar circles
The Arctic Circle is the southernmost latitude in the Northern Hemisphere at which the sun can remain continuously above or below the horizon for 24 hours (at the June and December solstices respectively). Similarly, the Antarctic Circle marks the northernmost latitude in the Southern Hemisphere at which the sun can remain continuously above or below the horizon for 24 hours (at the December and June Solstices respectively).
The latitude of the polar circles is equal to 90° minus the Earth's axial tilt.
Tropical circles
The Tropic of Cancer and Tropic of Capricorn mark the northernmost and southernmost latitudes at which the sun may be seen directly overhead at the June solstice and December solstice respectively.
The latitude of the tropical circles is equal to the Earth's axial tilt.
Movement of the Tropical and Polar Circles
By definition, the positions of the Tropic of Cancer, Tropic of Capricorn, Arctic Circle and Antarctic Circle all depend on the tilt of the Earth's axis relative to the plane of its orbit around the sun (the "obliquity of the ecliptic"). If the Earth were "upright" (its axis at right angles to the orbital plane) there would be no Arctic, Antarctic, or Tropical circles: at the poles the sun would always circle along the horizon, and at the equator the sun would always rise due east, pass directly overhead, and set due west.
The positions of the Tropical and Polar Circles are not fixed because the axial tilt changes slowly – a complex motion determined by the superimposition of many different cycles (some of which are described below) with short to very long periods. At noon of January 1st 2000 AD, the mean value of the tilt was 23° 26′ 21.406″ (according to IAU 2006, theory P03).
The main long-term cycle causes the axial tilt to fluctuate between about 22.1° and 24.5° with a period of 41,000 years. Currently, the average value of the tilt is decreasing by about 0.468″ per year. As a result (approximately, and on average), the Tropical Circles are drifting towards the equator (and the Polar Circles towards the poles) by 15 m per year, and the area of the Tropics is decreasing by per year.
The Earth's axial tilt has additional shorter-term variations due to nutation, of which the main term, with a period of 18.6 years, has an amplitude of 9.2″ (corresponding to almost 300 m north and south). There are many smaller terms, resulting in varying daily shifts of some metres in any direction.
Finally, the Earth's rotational axis is not exactly fixed in the Earth, but undergoes small fluctuations (on the order of 15 m) called polar motion, which have a small effect on the Tropics and Polar Circles and also on the Equator.
Short-term fluctuations over a matter of days do not directly affect the location of the extreme latitudes at which the sun may appear directly overhead, or at which 24-hour day or night is possible, except when they actually occur at the time of the solstices. Rather, they cause a theoretical shifting of the parallels, that would occur if the given axis tilt were maintained throughout the year.
Other planets
These circles of latitude can be defined on other planets with axial inclinations relative to their orbital planes. Objects such as Pluto with tilt angles greater than 45 degrees will have the tropic circles closer to the poles and the polar circles closer to the equator.
Other notable parallels
A number of sub-national and international borders were intended to be defined by, or are approximated by, parallels. Parallels make convenient borders in the northern hemisphere because astronomic latitude can be roughly measured (to within a few tens of metres) by sighting the North Star.
Elevation
Normally the circles of latitude are defined at zero elevation. Elevation has an effect on a location with respect to the plane formed by a circle of latitude. Since (in the geodetic system) altitude and depth are determined by the normal to the Earth's surface, locations sharing the same latitude—but having different elevations (i.e., lying along this normal)—no longer lie within this plane. Rather, all points sharing the same latitude—but of varying elevation and longitude—occupy the surface of a truncated cone formed by the rotation of this normal around the Earth's axis of rotation.
See also
Circles of a sphere
List of circles of latitude
References
External links
U.S. Naval Observatory - mean obliquity of the ecliptic | wiki |
The Highway Patrol Group is a police unit under the Philippine National Police (PNP).
History
The Highway Patrol Group was established as Traffic Control Group (Trafcon) in 1955 as a response to a high-profile vehicular accident along a highway in Pampanga, now known as the MacArthur Highway. The accident which occurred on November 4, 1954 which killed House of Representatives members Gregorio Tan of Samar and Lorenzo Ziga of Albay. President Ramon Magsaysay urged the Congress to establish a "specialized and dedicated" police unit to maintain road traffic safety across the Philippines.
The Trafcon was a unit under the Philippine Constabulary, which in turn was part of the Armed Forces of the Philippines. The Trafcon later became known as the Constabulary Highway Patrol Group. The HPG was absorbed in 1991 when the Philippine National Police was formed through the merger of the Constabulary and the Integrated National Police. The HPG became the Traffic Management Group. However the traffic law enforcement powers of the patrol group was given to the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) and local government units (LGUs) some years later.
The Highway Patrol Group returned to EDSA in 2015 and was tasked to enforce traffic laws due to worsening traffic conditions in the Metro Manila thoroughfare at the time. This is to augment MMDA traffic constables and LGU enforcers. The HPG last patrolled EDSA in 1994.
Organization
As the Traffic Control Group (Trafcon), the unit was under the Philippine Constabulary. It later became part of the Philippine National Police. The HPG has Regional Highway Patrol Units under it.
Role
The Highway Patrol Group is a highway patrol with a national scope. It is tasked to enforce traffic safety roles and provides general supervision to local police forces with regard to the enforcement of traffic laws. It also provides assistance to the Land Transportation Office, formerly the Bureau of Land Transportation. The HPG furthermore also enforces driver's licenses and motor vehicle registration and regulations with regards to public carriers.
Directors
References
External links
1955 establishments in the Philippines
Philippine National Police | wiki |
In physics, a center of gravity of a material body is a point that may be used for a summary description of gravitational interactions. In a uniform gravitational field, the center of mass serves as the center of gravity. This is a very good approximation for smaller bodies near the surface of Earth, so there is no practical need to distinguish "center of gravity" from "center of mass" in most applications, such as engineering and medicine.
In a non-uniform field, gravitational effects such as potential energy, force, and torque can no longer be calculated using the center of mass alone. In particular, a non-uniform gravitational field can produce a torque on an object, even about an axis through the center of mass. The center of gravity seeks to explain this effect. Formally, a center of gravity is an application point of the resultant gravitational force on the body. Such a point may not exist, and if it exists, it is not unique. One can further define a unique center of gravity by approximating the field as either parallel or spherically symmetric.
The concept of a center of gravity as distinct from the center of mass is rarely used in applications, even in celestial mechanics, where non-uniform fields are important. Since the center of gravity depends on the external field, its motion is harder to determine than the motion of the center of mass. The common method to deal with gravitational torques is a field theory.
Center of mass
One way to define the center of gravity of a body is as the unique point in the body if it exists, that satisfies the following requirement: There is no torque about the point for any positioning of the body in the field of force in which it is placed. This center of gravity exists only when the force is uniform, in which case it coincides with the center of mass. This approach dates back to Archimedes.
Centers of gravity in a field
When a body is affected by a non-uniform external gravitational field, one can sometimes define a center of gravity relative to that field that will act as a point where the gravitational force is applied. Textbooks such as The Feynman Lectures on Physics characterize the center of gravity as a point about which there is no torque. In other words, the center of gravity is a point of application for the resultant force. Under this formulation, the center of gravity is defined as a point that satisfies the equation
where and are the total force and torque on the body due to gravity.
One complication concerning is that its defining equation is not generally solvable. If and are not orthogonal, then there is no solution; the force of gravity does not have a resultant and cannot be replaced by a single force at any point. There are some important special cases where and are guaranteed to be orthogonal, such as if all forces lie in a single plane or are aligned with a single point.
If the equation is solvable, there is another complication: its solutions are not unique. Instead, there are infinitely many solutions; the set of all solutions is known as the line of action of the force. This line is parallel to the weight . In general, there is no way to choose a particular point as the unique center of gravity. A single point may still be chosen in some special cases, such as if the gravitational field is parallel or spherically symmetric. These cases are considered below.
Parallel fields
Some of the inhomogeneity in a gravitational field may be modeled by a variable but parallel field: , where is some constant unit vector. Although a non-uniform gravitational field cannot be exactly parallel, this approximation can be valid if the body is sufficiently small. The center of gravity may then be defined as a certain weighted average of the locations of the particles composing the body. Whereas the center of mass averages over the mass of each particle, the center of gravity averages over the weight of each particle:
where is the (scalar) weight of the th particle and is the (scalar) total weight of all the particles. This equation always has a unique solution, and in the parallel-field approximation, it is compatible with the torque requirement.
A common illustration concerns the Moon in the field of the Earth. Using the weighted-average definition, the Moon has a center of gravity that is lower (closer to the Earth) than its center of mass, because its lower portion is more strongly influenced by the Earth's gravity. This eventually lead to the Moon always showing the same face, a phenomenon known as tidal locking.
Spherically symmetric fields
If the external gravitational field is spherically symmetric, then it is equivalent to the field of a point mass at the center of symmetry . In this case, the center of gravity can be defined as the point at which the total force on the body is given by Newton's Law:
where is the gravitational constant and is the mass of the body. As long as the total force is nonzero, this equation has a unique solution, and it satisfies the torque requirement. A convenient feature of this definition is that if the body is itself spherically symmetric, then lies at its center of mass. In general, as the distance between and the body increases, the center of gravity approaches the center of mass.
Another way to view this definition is to consider the gravitational field of the body; then is the apparent source of gravitational attraction for an observer located at . For this reason, is sometimes referred to as the center of gravity of relative to the point .
Usage
The centers of gravity defined above are not fixed points on the body; rather, they change as the position and orientation of the body changes. This characteristic makes the center of gravity difficult to work with, so the concept has little practical use.
When it is necessary to consider a gravitational torque, it is easier to represent gravity as a force acting at the center of mass, plus an orientation-dependent couple. The latter is best approached by treating the gravitational potential as a field.
Notes
References
Classical mechanics
Gravity | wiki |
Steger Design, Inc is a privately held maker of winter boots and moccasins based in Ely, Minnesota. The brand Steger Mukluks was founded in 1986 by Patti Steger when friends came to her with their own piece of leather to be made into mukluk boots.
References
External links
Official website
Manufacturing companies established in 1986
Manufacturing companies based in Minnesota
Sporting goods manufacturers of the United States
Shoe companies of the United States
1986 establishments in Minnesota | wiki |
In geometry, an icosidodecahedral prism is a convex uniform polychoron (four-dimensional polytope).
It is one of 18 convex uniform polyhedral prisms created by using uniform prisms to connect pairs of parallel Platonic solids or Archimedean solids.
Alternative names
Icosidodecahedral dyadic prism (Norman W. Johnson)
Iddip (Jonathan Bowers: for icosidodecahedral prism)
Icosidodecahedral hyperprism
External links
4-polytopes | wiki |
Solar time is a calculation of the passage of time based on the position of the Sun in the sky. The fundamental unit of solar time is the day, based on the synodic rotation period. Traditionally, there are three types of time reckoning based on astronomical observations: apparent solar time and mean solar time (discussed in this article), and sidereal time, which is based on the apparent motions of stars other than the Sun.
Introduction
A tall pole vertically fixed in the ground casts a shadow on any sunny day. At one moment during the day, the shadow will point exactly north or south (or disappear when and if the Sun moves directly overhead). That instant is local apparent noon, or 12:00 local apparent time. About 24 hours later the shadow will again point north–south, the Sun seeming to have covered a 360-degree arc around Earth's axis. When the Sun has covered exactly 15 degrees (1/24 of a circle, both angles being measured in a plane perpendicular to Earth's axis), local apparent time is 13:00 exactly; after 15 more degrees it will be 14:00 exactly.
The problem is that in September the Sun takes less time (as measured by an accurate clock) to make an apparent revolution than it does in December; 24 "hours" of solar time can be 21 seconds less or 29 seconds more than 24 hours of clock time. This change is quantified by the equation of time, and is due to the eccentricity of Earth's orbit (as in, Earth's orbit is not perfectly circular, meaning that the EarthSun distance varies throughout the year), and the fact that Earth's axis is not perpendicular to the plane of its orbit (the so-called obliquity of the ecliptic).
The effect of this is that a clock running at a constant ratee.g. completing the same number of pendulum swings in each hourcannot follow the actual Sun; instead it follows an imaginary "mean Sun" that moves along the celestial equator at a constant rate that matches the real Sun's average rate over the year. This is "mean solar time", which is still not perfectly constant from one century to the next but is close enough for most purposes. , a mean solar day is about 86,400.002 SI seconds.
Apparent solar time
The apparent sun is the true sun as seen by an observer on Earth. Apparent solar time or true solar time is based on the apparent motion of the actual Sun. It is based on the apparent solar day, the interval between two successive returns of the Sun to the local meridian. Apparent solar time can be crudely measured by a sundial. The equivalent on Mars is termed Mars local true solar time (LTST).
The length of a solar day varies through the year, and the accumulated effect produces seasonal deviations of up to 16 minutes from the mean. The effect has two main causes. First, due to the eccentricity of Earth's orbit, Earth moves faster when it is nearest the Sun (perihelion) and slower when it is farthest from the Sun (aphelion) (see Kepler's laws of planetary motion). Second, due to Earth's axial tilt (known as the obliquity of the ecliptic), the Sun's annual motion is along a great circle (the ecliptic) that is tilted to Earth's celestial equator. When the Sun crosses the equator at both equinoxes, the Sun's daily shift (relative to the background stars) is at an angle to the equator, so the projection of this shift onto the equator is less than its average for the year; when the Sun is farthest from the equator at both solstices, the Sun's shift in position from one day to the next is parallel to the equator, so the projection onto the equator of this shift is larger than the average for the year (see tropical year). In June and December when the sun is farthest from the celestial equator, a given shift along the ecliptic corresponds to a large shift at the equator. Therefore, apparent solar days are shorter in March and September than in June or December.
These lengths will change slightly in a few years and significantly in thousands of years.
Mean solar time
Mean solar time is the hour angle of the mean Sun plus 12 hours. This 12 hour offset comes from the decision to make each day start at midnight for civil purposes, whereas the hour angle or the mean sun is measured from the local meridian. , this is realized with the UT1 time scale, constructed mathematically from very-long-baseline interferometry observations of the diurnal motions of radio sources located in other galaxies, and other observations. The duration of daylight varies during the year but the length of a mean solar day is nearly constant, unlike that of an apparent solar day. An apparent solar day can be 20 seconds shorter or 30 seconds longer than a mean solar day. Long or short days occur in succession, so the difference builds up until mean time is ahead of apparent time by about 14 minutes near February 6, and behind apparent time by about 16 minutes near November 3. The equation of time is this difference, which is cyclical and does not accumulate from year to year.
Mean time follows the mean sun. Jean Meeus describes the mean sun as follows:
The length of the mean solar day is slowly increasing due to the tidal acceleration of the Moon by Earth and the corresponding slowing of Earth's rotation by the Moon.
History
The sun has always been visible in the sky, and its position forms the basis of apparent solar time, the timekeeping method used in antiquity. An Egyptian obelisk constructed c. 3500 BC, a gnomon in China dated 2300 BC, and an Egyptian sundial dated 1500 BC are some of the earliest methods for measuring the sun's position.
Babylonian astronomers knew that the hours of daylight varied throughout the year. A tablet from 649 BC shows that they used a 2:1 ratio for the longest day to the shortest day, and estimated the variation using a linear zigzag function. It is not clear if they knew of the variation in the length of the solar day and the corresponding equation of time. Ptolemy clearly distinguishes the mean solar day and apparent solar day in his Almagest (2nd century), and he tabulated the equation of time in his Handy Tables.
Apparent solar time grew less useful as commerce increased and mechanical clocks improved. Mean solar time was introduced in almanacs in England in 1834 and in France in 1835. Because the sun was difficult to observe directly due to its large size in the sky, mean solar time was determined as a fixed ratio of time as observed by the stars, which used point-like observations. A specific standard for measuring "mean solar time" from midnight came to be called Universal Time.
Conceptually Universal Time is the rotation of the Earth with respect to the sun and hence is mean solar time. However, UT1, the version in common use since 1955, uses a slightly different definition of rotation that corrects for the motion of Earth's poles as it rotates. The difference between this corrected mean solar time and Coordinated Universal Time (UTC) determines whether a leap second is needed. (Since 1972 the UTC time scale has run on SI seconds, and the SI second, when adopted, was already a little shorter than the current value of the second of mean solar time.)
See also
Local mean time
Meridian circle
Earth rotation
Synodic day
Notes
References
External links
Sunrise and Sunset and maximum Sun altitude, all year long, anywhere
Astrarium Solar Tempometer: Apparent solar time in a digital display.
Time scales
Day
Time in astronomy | wiki |
Thomas (the Tank Engine) & Friends is a children's television series about the engines and other characters working on the railways of the Island of Sodor, and is based on The Railway Series books written by the Reverend W. Awdry.
This article lists and details episodes from the fourteenth series of the show, which was first broadcast in 2010. This series was narrated by Michael Angelis for the UK audiences, while Michael Brandon narrated the episodes for the US audiences.
Episodes
Voice cast
References
2010 British television seasons
Thomas & Friends seasons | wiki |
Abacus (lat., af gr., abax = plade, eller fr., abaque, tailloir. Flertal Abaci) har flere betydninger:
Abacus (regnemaskine) - et regneinstrument (regnebræt, regnetavle, kugleramme)
Abacus (arkitektur) - stendækplade over søjlekapitæl
Abacus (forlag) - engelsk bogforlag | wiki |
This is a list of episodes for the single season MyNetworkTV telenovella Fashion House.
Episodes
These episodes aired as a part of MyNetworkTV's weekday primetime schedule.
Series recaps
Highlights episodes
External links
Fashion House|Fashion House | wiki |
In life sciences funga is a recent term for the kingdom fungi similar to the longstanding fauna for animals and flora for plants. The term was considered to be needed in order to simplify projects oriented toward implementation of educational and conservation goals. An informal meeting held during the IX Congreso Latinoamericano de Micología resulted in a proposal for the term in 2018; alternative terms were also proposed and discussed. Funga was recommended by the IUCN in 2021. The term highlights parallel terminology referring to treatments of these macroorganisms of particular geographical areas.
The Species Survival Commission (SSC) of the International Union for Conservation of Nature (IUCN) in August 2021 called for the recognition of fungi as one of three kingdoms of life, and critical to protecting and restoring Earth. They ask that the phrase animals and plants be replaced by animals, fungi, and plants, and fauna and flora by fauna, flora, and funga.
The term funga had been used in the scientific literature before the later recommendation.
References
Life sciences
Fungi | wiki |
Lake City High School is a secondary education institution located near Lake City, South Carolina. The school enrolls approximately 1,000 students.
References
External links
Official web site
Public high schools in South Carolina
Schools in Florence County, South Carolina
1970 establishments in South Carolina
Educational institutions established in 1970 | wiki |
A loan line sheet is a work document used by bank examiners who can be either bank regulators or bank "third party" or consulting examiners. The line sheet represents the examiner's review of a bank loan, whether a loan to a company or to an individual. The line sheet initially contains basic information about the particular loan in question, such as the original amount of the loan, the current balance, the monthly payment, etc. The examiner then uses the line sheet to review the loan file, and makes his/her own notations and analysis on the line sheet to document the review of the loan.
A line sheet, or line guide, can also be a schedule that a company keeps for guidance showing the top lines that can be written inclusive of reinsurance on different classes of risk.
References
Banking terms
Insurance | wiki |
The Public Works and Economic Development Act of 1965 (Pub.L. 89−136, 79 Stat. 552) established the Economic Development Administration in the U.S. Department of Commerce to provide grants to economically distressed communities to support employment and industrial and commercial growth.
History
The bill became law on August 26, 1965 and was substantially amended by the Economic Development Administration Reform Act of 1998.
Footnotes
United States Department of Commerce
1965 in law
89th United States Congress
United States federal legislation articles without infoboxes | wiki |
Carriera
È stato selezionato dai Washington Bullets al primo giro del Draft NBA 1986 (12ª scelta assoluta).
Palmarès
McDonald's All-American Game (1984)
Collegamenti esterni
Scheda su thedraftreview.com | wiki |
AGW peut faire référence à :
;
Anthropogenic global warming (en français, Réchauffement climatique anthropique ou réchauffement climatique dû aux activités humaines ;
arrêté du Gouvernement wallon, en droit belge. | wiki |
The Alamo is an historic Spanish mission and fortress compound founded in the 18th century by Roman Catholic missionaries in what is now San Antonio, Texas, United States. It was the site of the Battle of the Alamo in 1836, a pivotal event of the Texas Revolution in which American folk heroes James Bowie and Davy Crockett died. Today it is a museum in the Alamo Plaza Historic District and a part of the San Antonio Missions World Heritage Site.
Originally named the Misión San Antonio de Valero, it was one of the early Spanish missions in Texas, built for the education of local American Indians after their conversion to Christianity. The mission was secularized in 1793 and then abandoned. Ten years later, it became a fortress housing the Second Flying Company of San Carlos de Parras military unit, who likely gave the mission the name Alamo. During the Texas Revolution, Mexican General Martín Perfecto de Cos surrendered the fort to the Texian Army in December 1835, following the Siege of Béxar. A relatively small number of Texian soldiers then occupied the compound for several months. The defenders were wiped out at the Battle of the Alamo on March 6, 1836. As the Mexican Army retreated from Texas several months later, they tore down many of the Alamo walls and burned some of the buildings.
For the next five years, the Alamo was periodically used to garrison soldiers, both Texian and Mexican, but was ultimately abandoned. In 1849, several years after Texas was annexed to the United States, the U.S. Army began renting the facility for use as a quartermaster's depot, before again abandoning the mission in 1876 after nearby Fort Sam Houston was established. The Alamo chapel was sold to the state of Texas, which conducted occasional tours but made no effort to restore it. The remaining buildings were sold to a mercantile company that operated them as a wholesale grocery store.
The Daughters of the Republic of Texas (DRT) formed in 1891 and began trying to preserve the Alamo. Adina Emilia De Zavala and Clara Driscoll successfully convinced the state legislature in 1905 to purchase the remaining buildings and to name the DRT as the permanent custodian of the site. Over the next century, periodic attempts were made to transfer control of the Alamo from the DRT. In early 2015, Texas Land Commissioner George P. Bush officially moved control of the Alamo to the Texas General Land Office. The Alamo and the four missions in the San Antonio Missions National Historical Park were designated a UNESCO World Heritage Site on July 5, 2015.
History
As a Mission
In 1716, the Spanish government established several Roman Catholic missions in East Texas. The isolation of the missions—the nearest Spanish settlement, San Juan Bautista, Coahuila was over away—made it difficult to keep them adequately provisioned. To assist the missionaries, the new governor of Spanish Texas, Martín de Alarcón, wished to establish a waystation between the settlements along the Rio Grande and the new missions in East Texas.
In April 1718, Alarcón led an expedition to found a new community in Texas. The group erected a temporary mud, brush, and straw structure near the headwaters of the San Antonio River. This building would serve as a new mission, San Antonio de Valero, named after Saint Anthony of Padua and the viceroy of New Spain, the Marquess of Valero. Alarcón, acting in his capacity as "General of the Provinces of the Kingdom of the New Philippines," formally entrusted the mission on May 1 to Father Antonio de San Buenaventura y Olivares in a foundation document, still preserved. The mission was located near a community of Coahuiltecans and was initially populated by three to five Indian converts from Mission San Francisco Solano near San Juan Bautista. One mile (two km) north of the mission, Alarcón built a fort, the Presidio San Antonio de Béxar. Close by, he founded the first civilian community in Texas, San Antonio de Béxar, which later developed into the present-day city of San Antonio, Texas.
Within a year, the mission moved to the western bank of the river, where it was less likely to flood. Over the next several years, a chain of missions was established nearby. In 1724, after remnants of a Gulf Coast hurricane destroyed the existing structures at Misión San Antonio de Valero, the mission was moved to its current location. At the time, the new location was just across the San Antonio River from the town of San Antonio de Béxar and just north of a group of huts known as La Villita.
Over the next several decades, the mission complex expanded to cover . The first permanent building was likely the two-story, L-shaped stone residence for the priests. The building served as parts of the west and south edges of an inner courtyard. A series of adobe barracks buildings were constructed to house the mission Indians and a textile workshop was erected. By 1744, over 300 Indian converts resided at San Antonio de Valero. The mission was largely self-sufficient, relying on its 2,000 head of cattle and 1,300 sheep for food and clothing. Each year, the mission's farmland produced up to 2,000 bushels of corn and 100 bushels of beans; cotton was also grown.
The first stones were laid for a more permanent church building in 1744, however, the church, its tower, and the sacristy collapsed in the late 1750s. Reconstruction began in 1758, with the new chapel located at the south end of the inner courtyard. Constructed of thick limestone blocks, it was intended to be three stories high and topped by a dome, with bell towers on either side. Its shape was a traditional cross, with a long nave and short transepts. Although the first two levels were completed, the bell towers and third story were never begun. While four stone arches were erected to support the planned dome, the dome itself was never built. As the church was never completed, it is unlikely that it was ever used for religious services.
The chapel was intended to be highly decorated. Niches were carved on either side of the door to hold statues. The lower-level niches displayed Saint Francis and Saint Dominic, while the second-level niches contained statues of Saint Clare and Saint Margaret of Cortona. Carvings were also completed around the chapel's door.
Up to 30 adobe or mud buildings were constructed to serve as workrooms, storerooms, and homes for the Indian residents. As the nearby presidio was perpetually understaffed, the mission was built to withstand attacks by Apache and Comanche raiders. In 1745, 100 mission Indians successfully drove off a band of 300 Apaches which had surrounded the presidio. Their actions saved the presidio, the mission, and likely the town from destruction. Walls were erected around the Indian homes in 1758, likely in response to a massacre at the Mission Santa Cruz de San Sabá. The convent and church were not fully enclosed within the high walls. The walls were built thick and enclosed an area long (north-south) and wide (east-west). For additional protection, a turret housing three cannon was added near the main gate in 1762. By 1793, an additional one-pounder cannon had been placed on a rampart near the convent.
The population of Indians fluctuated from a high of 328 in 1756 to a low of 44 in 1777. The new commandant general of the interior provinces, Teodoro de Croix, thought the missions were a liability and began taking actions to decrease their influence. In 1778, he ruled that all unbranded cattle belonged to the government. Raiding Apache tribes had stolen most of the mission's horses, making it difficult to round up and brand the cattle. As a result, when the ruling took effect, the mission lost a great deal of its wealth and was unable to support a larger population of converts. By 1793, only 12 Indians remained. By this point, few of the hunting and gathering tribes in Texas had not been Christianized. In 1793, Misión San Antonio de Valero was secularized.
Shortly after, the mission was abandoned. Most locals were uninterested in the buildings. Visitors were often more impressed. In 1828, French naturalist Jean Louis Berlandier visited the area. He mentioned the Alamo complex: "An enormous battlement and some barracks are found there, as well as the ruins of a church which could pass for one of the loveliest monuments of the area, even if its architecture is overloaded with ornamentation like all the ecclesiastical buildings of the Spanish colonies."
Military
In the 19th century, the mission complex became known as "the Alamo". The name may have been derived from a grove of nearby cottonwood trees, known in Spanish as álamo. Alternatively, in 1803, the abandoned compound was occupied by the Second Flying Company of San Carlos de Parras, from Álamo de Parras in Coahuila. Locals often called them simply the "Alamo Company".
During the Mexican War of Independence, parts of the mission frequently served as a political prison. Between 1806 and 1812 it served as San Antonio's first hospital. Spanish records indicate that some renovations were made for this purpose, but no details were provided.
The buildings were transferred from Spanish to Mexican control in 1821 after Mexico gained its independence. Soldiers continued to garrison the complex until December 1835, when General Martín Perfecto de Cos surrendered to Texian forces following a two-month siege of San Antonio de Béxar during the Texas Revolution. In the few months that Cos supervised the troops garrisoned in San Antonio, he had ordered many improvements to the Alamo. Cos's men likely demolished the four stone arches that were to support a future chapel dome. The debris from these was used to build a ramp to the apse of the chapel building. There, the Mexican soldiers placed three cannon, which could fire over the walls of the roofless building. To close a gap between the church and the barracks (formerly the convent building) and the south wall, the soldiers built a palisade. When Cos retreated, he left behind 19 cannons, including a 16-pounder.
Battle of the Alamo
With Cos's departure, there was no longer an organized garrison of Mexican troops in Texas, and many Texians believed the war was over. Colonel James C. Neill assumed command of the 100 soldiers who remained. Neill requested that an additional 200 men be sent to fortify the Alamo, and expressed fear that his garrison could be starved out of the Alamo after a four-day siege. However, the Texian government was in turmoil and unable to provide much assistance. Determined to make the best of the situation, Neill and engineer Green B. Jameson began working to fortify the Alamo. Jameson installed the cannons that Cos had left along the walls.
Heeding Neill's warnings, General Sam Houston ordered Colonel James Bowie to take 35–50 men to Béxar to help Neill move all of the artillery and destroy the fortress. There were not enough oxen to move the artillery to a safer place, and most of the men believed the complex was of strategic importance to protecting the settlements to the east. On January 26, the Texian soldiers passed a resolution in favor of holding the Alamo. On February 11, Neill went on furlough to pursue additional reinforcements and supplies for the garrison. William Travis and James Bowie agreed to share command of the Alamo.
On February 23, the Mexican Army, under the command of President-General Antonio López de Santa Anna, arrived in San Antonio de Béxar intent on recapturing the city. For the next thirteen days, the Mexican Army laid siege to the Alamo, during which work continued on its interior. After Mexican soldiers tried to block the irrigation ditch leading into the fort, Jameson supervised the digging of a well at the south end of the plaza. Although the men hit the water, they weakened an earth and timber parapet near the barracks, collapsing it and leaving no way to fire safely over that wall.
The siege ended in a fierce battle on March 6. As the Mexican Army overran the walls, most of the Texians fell back to the long barracks (convent) and the chapel. During the siege, Texians had carved holes in many of the walls of these rooms so that they would be able to fire. Each room had only one door which led into the courtyard and which had been "buttressed by semicircular parapets of dirt secured with cowhides". Some of the rooms even had trenches dug into the floor to provide some cover for the defenders. Mexican soldiers used the abandoned Texian cannon to blow off the doors of the rooms, allowing Mexican soldiers to enter and defeat the Texians.
The last of the Texians to die were the eleven men manning the two cannon in the chapel. The entrance to the church had been barricaded with sandbags, which the Texians were able to fire over. A shot from the cannon destroyed the barricades, and Mexican soldiers entered the building after firing an initial musket volley. With no time to reload, the Texians, including Dickinson, Gregorio Esparza, and Bonham, grabbed rifles and fired before being bayoneted to death. Texian Robert Evans was master of ordnance and had been tasked with keeping the gunpowder from falling into Mexican hands. Wounded, he crawled towards the powder magazine but was killed by a musket ball with his torch only inches from the powder. If he had succeeded, the blast would have destroyed the church.
Santa Anna ordered that the Texian bodies be stacked and burned. All, or almost all, of the Texian defenders were killed in the battle, although some historians believe that at least one Texian, Henry Warnell, successfully escaped. Warnell died several months later of wounds incurred either during the final battle or during his escape. Most Alamo historians agree that 400–600 Mexicans were killed or wounded. This would represent about one-third of the Mexican soldiers involved in the final assault, which historian Terry Todish stated was "a tremendous casualty rate by any standards".
Further military use
Following the battle of the Alamo, one thousand Mexican soldiers, under General Juan Andrade, remained at the mission. For the next two months, they repaired and fortified the complex, however, no records remain of what improvements they made to the structure. After the Mexican army's defeat at the Battle of San Jacinto and the capture of Santa Anna, the Mexican army agreed to leave Texas, effectively ending the Texas Revolution. As Andrade and his garrison joined the retreat on May 24, they spiked the cannons, tore down many of the Alamo walls, and set fires throughout the complex. Only a few buildings survived their efforts; the chapel was left in ruins, most of the Long Barracks was still standing, and the building that had contained the south wall gate and several rooms were mostly intact.
The Texians briefly used the Alamo as a fortress in December 1836 and again in January 1839. The Mexican army regained control in March 1841 and September 1842 as they briefly took San Antonio de Bexar. According to historians Roberts and Olson, "both groups carved names in the Alamo's walls, dug musket rounds out of the holds, and knocked off stone carvings". Pieces of the debris were sold to tourists, and in 1840 the San Antonio town council passed a resolution allowing local citizens to take stone from the Alamo at a cost of $5 per wagonload. By the late 1840s, even the four statues located on the front wall of the chapel had been removed.
On January 13, 1841, the Republic of Texas legislature passed an act returning the sanctuary of the Alamo to the Roman Catholic Church. By 1845, when Texas was annexed to the United States, a colony of bats occupied the abandoned complex and weeds and grass covered many of the walls.
As the Mexican–American War loomed in 1846, 2000 United States Army soldiers were sent to San Antonio under Brigadier General John Wool. By the end of the year, they had appropriated part of the Alamo complex for the Quartermaster's Department. Within eighteen months, the convent building had been restored to serve as offices and storerooms. The chapel remained vacant, however, as the army, the Roman Catholic Church, and the city of San Antonio bickered over its ownership. An 1855 decision by the Texas Supreme Court reaffirmed that the Catholic Church was the rightful owner of the chapel. While litigation was ongoing, the army rented the chapel from the Catholic Church for $150 per month.
Under the army's oversight, the Alamo was greatly repaired. Soldiers cleared the grounds and rebuilt the old convent and the mission walls, primarily from the original stone which was strewn along the ground. During the renovations, a new wooden roof was added to the chapel and the campanulate, or bell-shaped facade, was added to the front wall of the chapel. At the time, reports suggested that the soldiers found several skeletons while clearing the rubble from the chapel floor. The new chapel roof was destroyed in a fire in 1861. The army also cut additional windows into the chapel, adding two on the upper level of the facade as well as additional windows on the other three sides of the building. The complex eventually contained a supply depot, offices, storage facilities, a blacksmith shop, and stables.
During the American Civil War, Texas joined the Confederacy, and the Alamo complex was taken over by the Confederate Army. In February 1861, the Texan Militia, under direction from the Texas Secession Convention and led by Ben McCullough and Sam Maverick, confronted General Twiggs, commander of all US Forces in Texas and headquartered at the Alamo. Twiggs elected to surrender and all supplies were turned over to the Texans. Following the Confederacy's defeat, the United States Army again maintained control over the Alamo. Shortly after the war ended, however, the Catholic Church requested that the army vacate the premises so that the Alamo could become a place of worship for local German Catholics. The army refused, and the church made no further attempts at retaking the complex.
Mercantile
The army abandoned the Alamo in 1876 when Fort Sam Houston was established in San Antonio. About that time, the Church sold the convent to Honore Grenet, who added a new two-story wood building to the complex. Grenet used the convent and the new building for a wholesale grocery business. After Grenet's death in 1882, his business was purchased by the mercantile firm, Hugo & Schmeltzer, which continued to operate the store.
San Antonio's first rail service began in 1877, and the city's tourism industry began to grow. The city heavily advertised the Alamo, using photographs and drawings that showed only the chapel, not the surrounding city. Many of the visitors were disappointed with their visit; in 1877 tourist Harrier P. Spofford wrote that the chapel was "a reproach to all San Antonio. Its wall is overthrown and removed, its dormitories are piled with military stores, its battle-scarred front has been revamped and repainted and market carts roll to and fro on the spot where flames ascended ... over the funeral pyre of heroes".
Ownership transfer
In 1883, the Catholic Church sold the chapel to the State of Texas for $20,000. The state hired Tom Rife to manage the building. He gave tours but did not make any efforts to restore the chapel, to the annoyance of many. In the past decades, soldiers and members of the local Masonic lodge, which had used the building for meetings, had inscribed various graffiti on the walls and statues. In May 1887 a devout Catholic who was incensed that Masonic emblems had been inscribed on a statue of Saint Teresa was arrested after breaking into the building and smashing statues with a sledgehammer.
The 50th anniversary of the fall of the Alamo received little attention. In an editorial after the fact, the San Antonio Express called for the formation of a new society that would help recognize important historical events. The Daughters of the Republic of Texas (DRT) organized in 1892 with one of their main goals being to preserve the Alamo. Among its early members was Adina Emilia De Zavala, granddaughter of the Republic of Texas Vice-president Lorenzo de Zavala. Shortly before the turn of the 20th century, Adina de Zavala convinced Gustav Schmeltzer, owner of the convent, to give the DRT first option in purchasing the building if it was ever sold. In 1903, when Schmeltzer wanted to sell the building to a developer, he offered the building first to the DRT for $75,000, which they did not have. During De Zavala's attempts to raise the money, she met Clara Driscoll, an heiress who was very interested in Texas history, especially the Alamo.
Shortly thereafter, Driscoll joined the DRT and was appointed chair of the San Antonio chapter's fund-raising committee. The DRT negotiated a 30-day option on the property, wherein the group would pay $500 up front, with $4,500 due at the conclusion of the 30 days, with an additional $20,000 due on February 10, 1904, and the remainder paid in five annual installments of $10,000. Driscoll paid the initial $500 deposit out of her personal funds, and when fundraising efforts fell far short (only raising slightly over $1,000 of the needed $4,500), Driscoll paid the balance of the $4,500 from her own pocket.
At the urging of both Driscoll and de Zavala, the Texas Legislature approved $5,000 for the committee to use as part of the next payment. The appropriation was vetoed by Governor S. W. T. Lanham, who said it was "not a justifiable expenditure of the taxpayers' money". DRT members set up a collection booth outside the Alamo and held several fundraising activities, collecting $5,662.23. Driscoll agreed to make up the difference, as well as agreeing to pay the final $50,000. After hearing of her generosity, various newspapers in Texas dubbed her the "Savior of the Alamo". Many groups began to petition the legislature to reimburse Driscoll. In January 1905, de Zavala drafted a bill that was sponsored by representative Samuel Ealy Johnson Jr. (father of future US President Lyndon Baines Johnson), to reimburse Driscoll and name the DRT custodian of the Alamo. The bill passed, and Driscoll received all of her money back.
Driscoll and de Zavala argued over how best to preserve the building. De Zavala wished to restore the exterior of the buildings to a state similar to its 1836 appearance, focusing on the convent (then called the long barracks), while Driscoll wanted to tear down the long barracks and create a monument similar to those she had seen in Europe: "a city center opened by a large plaza and anchored by an ancient chapel".
Unable to reach an agreement, Driscoll and several other women formed a competing chapter of the DRT named the Alamo Mission chapter. The two chapters argued over which had oversight of the Alamo. Unable to resolve the dispute, in February 1908 the executive committee of the DRT leased out the building. Angry with that decision, de Zavala announced that a syndicate wanted to buy the chapel and tear it down. She then barricaded herself in the Hugo and Schmeltzer building for three days.
In response to de Zavala's actions, on February 12, Governor Thomas Mitchell Campbell ordered that the superintendent of public buildings and grounds take control of the property. Eventually, a judge named Driscoll's chapter the official custodians of the Alamo. The DRT later expelled de Zavala and her followers.
Restoration
Driscoll offered to donate the money required to tear down the convent, build a stone wall around the Alamo complex, and convert the interior into a park. The legislature postponed a decision until after the 1910 elections after which Texas had a new governor, Oscar Branch Colquitt. Both de Zavala and Driscoll spoke, and Colquitt toured the property; three months later, Colquitt removed the DRT as official custodians of the Alamo, citing that they had done nothing to restore the property since gaining control. He also announced an intent to rebuild the convent. Shortly thereafter, the legislature paid to demolish the building that had been added by Hugo and Schmeltzer and authorized $5,000 to restore the rest of the complex. The restorations were begun, but not finished, as the appropriations fell short of the costs.
Driscoll, upset over Colquitt's decisions, used her influence as a major donor to the Democratic Party to undermine him. At the time, Colquitt was considered running for U.S. Senate. She told the New York Herald Tribune that "the Daughters desire to have a Spanish garden on the site of the old mission, but the governor will not consider it. Therefore, we are going to fight him from the stump. ... We are also going to make speeches in the districts of State Senators who voted against and killed the amendment" to return control of the mission to the DRT. Subsequently, while Colquitt was out of state on a business trip, Lieutenant Governor William Harding Mayes allowed the removal of the upper-story walls of the long barracks from the convent, leaving only the one-story walls of the west and south portions of the building. This conflict became known as the Second Battle of the Alamo. Upon their deaths in 1945 and 1955, Driscoll and de Zavala, respectively, had their bodies laid in state in the Alamo Chapel.
In 1931, Driscoll persuaded the state legislature to purchase two tracts of land between the chapel and Crockett street. In 1935, she convinced the city of San Antonio not to place a fire station in a building near the Alamo; the DRT later purchased that building and made it the DRT Library. During the Great Depression, money from the Works Progress Administration and the National Youth Administration was used to construct a wall around the Alamo and a museum, and to raze several non-historic buildings on the Alamo property.
The Alamo was designated a National Historic Landmark on December 19, 1960, and was documented by the Historic American Buildings Survey in 1961. It was an inaugural listing on the National Register of Historic Places in 1966 and is a contributing property to the Alamo Plaza Historic District, which was designated in 1977. As San Antonio prepared to host the Hemisfair in 1968, the long barracks were roofed and turned into a museum. Few structural changes have taken place since then.
According to Herbert Malloy Mason's Spanish Missions of Texas, the Alamo is one of "the finest examples of Spanish ecclesiastical building on the North American continent". The mission, along with others located in San Antonio, is at risk from environmental factors, however. The limestone used to construct the buildings was taken from the banks of the San Antonio River. It expands when confronted with moisture and then contracts when temperatures drop, shedding small pieces of limestone with each cycle. Measures have been taken to partially combat the problem.
Ownership dispute
In 1988, a theater near the Alamo unveiled a new movie, Alamo ... the Price of Freedom. The 40-minute-long film would be screened several times each day. The movie attracted many protests from Mexican-American activists, who decried the anti-Mexican comments and complained that it ignored Tejano contributions to the battle. The movie was re-edited in response to the complaints, but the controversy grew to the point that many activists began pressuring the legislature to move control of the Alamo to the League of United Latin American Citizens (LULAC). In response to pressure from Hispanic groups, state representative Orlando Garcia of San Antonio began legislative hearings into DRT finances. The DRT agreed to make their financial records more open, and the hearings were canceled.
Shortly after that, San Antonio representative Jerry Beauchamp proposed that the Alamo be transferred from the DRT to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. Many minority legislators agreed with him. However, the San Antonio mayor, Henry Cisneros, advocated that control remain with the DRT, and the legislature shelved the bill.
Several years later, Carlos Guerra, a reporter for the San Antonio Express-News, began writing columns attacking the DRT for its handling of the Alamo. Guerra claimed that the DRT had kept the temperature too low within the chapel, a situation which caused the formation of water vapor, which when mixed with automobile exhaust fumes damaged the limestone walls. These allegations prompted the legislature in 1993 to once more attempt to transfer control of the Alamo to the Texas Parks and Wildlife Department. At the same time, State Senator Gregory Luna filed a competing bill to transfer oversight of the Alamo to the Texas Historical Commission.
By the following year, some advocacy groups in San Antonio had begun pressing for the mission to be turned into a larger historical park. They wished to restore the chapel to its 18th-century appearance and focus public interpretation of the site on its mission days rather than the activities of the Texas Revolution. The DRT was outraged. The head of the group's Alamo Committee, Ana Hartman, claimed that the dispute was gender-based. According to her, "There's something macho about it. Some of the men who are attacking us just resent what has been a successful female venture since 1905."
The dispute was mostly resolved in 1994, when then-Governor George W. Bush vowed to veto any legislation that would displace the DRT as caretakers of the Alamo. Later that year, the DRT erected a marker on the mission grounds recognizing that they had once served as Indian burial grounds.
In 2010, the office of the Texas Attorney General received a complaint that the DRT had been mismanaging not only the site, but the funds allocated for its management, and an investigation was begun. After two years, the Attorney General's office concluded that the DRT had indeed mismanaged the Alamo, citing numerous instances of misconduct on the DRT's part, including failing to properly maintain the Alamo in good order and repair, mismanagement of state funds, and breach of fiduciary duty.
During the course of the investigation, a state law was passed in 2011 and signed by governor Rick Perry to transfer custodianship of the Alamo from the DRT to the Texas General Land Office (GLO). The transfer was officially enacted in 2015. While the DRT initially objected to the Attorney General's report, and even went so far as to file a lawsuit to prevent the transfer, the organization eventually vowed to work with the Texas GLO to preserve the Alamo for generations to come.
Modern use
As of 2002, the Alamo welcomed over four million visitors each year, making it one of the most popular historic sites in the United States. Visitors may tour the chapel, as well as the Long Barracks, which contains a small museum with paintings, weapons, and other artifacts from the era of the Texas Revolution. Additional artifacts are displayed in another complex building, alongside a large diorama that recreates the compound as it existed in 1836. A large mural, known as the Wall of History, portrays the history of the Alamo complex from its mission days to modern times.
The site has an annual operating budget of $6 million, primarily funded through sales in the gift store. Under the 2011 law, which placed the Alamo under the care of the General Land Office, Commissioner George P. Bush announced on March 12, 2015, that his office would take charge of the daily operations of the Alamo from the Daughters of the Republic of Texas.
Renewed resistance to the General Land Office's master plan for the site, which envisions a quadrupling of the site to include a 100,000-square-foot museum, came from the recent consideration to move the Alamo Cenotaph to a different location. Other concerns expressed include the proposed $450 million cost of the project and any efforts to allow alterations or modifications to the story of the Alamo.
Gallery
See also
Alamo Village, in Brackettville, Texas
Espada Acequia, an aqueduct
List of National Historic Landmarks in Texas
List of the oldest buildings in Texas
List of World Heritage Sites in the United States
Main and Military Plazas Historic District
National Register of Historic Places listings in Bexar County, Texas
Spanish Governor's Palace
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
Daughters of the Republic of Texas: Welcome to the Alamo
Alamo Handbook of Texas Online
National Historic Landmarks Program: Alamo
Spanish missions in Texas
San Antonio Missions National Historical Park
Buildings and structures in San Antonio
Museums in San Antonio
History museums in Texas
History of San Antonio
Mexican–American War forts
Texas Revolution
Churches completed in 1744
National Register of Historic Places in San Antonio
Properties of religious function on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas
Conflict sites on the National Register of Historic Places in Texas
Individually listed contributing properties to historic districts on the National Register in Texas
National Historic Landmarks in Texas
Texas State Antiquities Landmarks
Works Progress Administration in Texas
1724 establishments in Texas
San Antonio Missions (World Heritage Site)
Spanish Colonial architecture in Texas | wiki |
AGX peut faire référence à :
;
en chimie, un halogénure d'argent, noté dans le cas général AgX ;
agul, une langue parlée au Daghestan, selon son code ISO 639-3. | wiki |
Thunbergia holstii is een plantensoort uit de Acanthusfamilie (Acanthaceae). De soort komt voor in het zuidelijke deel van Afrika.
Acanthusfamilie | wiki |
Strange Toys is a fantasy novel written by Patricia Geary and published in 1987. It won the Philip K. Dick Award that year.
1987 American novels
American fantasy novels
Bantam Spectra books | wiki |
Search syndication is a type of contextual advertising which allows online search advertisers to buy keyword-targeted traffic outside of search engine results pages. This is considered to be an alternative to advertising on search engines, since 43% of all searches occur outside of the top search engines.
Although search syndication falls under the umbrella of contextual advertising, they are not synonymous because contextual advertising also includes display ads while search syndication focuses on text ads sold on a pay per click basis.
Overture, Yahoo and Microsoft
Search syndication was originated by Herman Tumurcuoglu at Montreal Meta Search Company Mamma.com in 1999. Beginning as a relatively unknown aspect of search engine marketing (SEM), Overture expanded the practice before it was acquired by Yahoo.com. In 2011, Microsoft formed an alliance with Yahoo to support SEM through its adCenter platform across its properties, however in the realm of search syndication, the two competed for direct deals with publishers. Forty percent of the alliance’s traffic (about five billion queries per month) comes from search syndication. Industry analysts now estimate that Yahoo has the most syndication partners—between 1,200 and 1,500—that request ads through its XML feeds.
Yahoo’s 2011 fourth quarter revenue was $1.3 billion, a 13 percent decrease from 2010 Q4.
Google
Google currently has the largest search syndication network. It adopted search syndication when it rolled out AdSense for Feeds in 2005, to address the fact that it had more advertisers than user queries to its search engine. To find additional traffic for these advertisers, Google began showcasing search ads on third-party sites across the web. These syndication partners include other search engines (including metasearch engines and downloadable toolbars), media sites, domain parking sites and retail sites.
In fourth quarter 2011, Google earned $8.13 billion from search syndication (missing analysts’ forecast of $8.38 billion).
Criticism
Like traditional contextual advertising, syndication networks comprise multiple publishers. Unlike a search results page, however, this means the quality of the traffic varies by ad placement.
Some Internet marketers have accused search engines of not being transparent about their syndication practices and that they were not informed that their ads were being syndicated. The majority of such criticism has been directed at Google.
Marketers also do not always know how syndicated paid-search ads are priced or placed across networks, which has led to lawsuits and protests against Google by competitors and advertisers, as well an anti-trust inquiry from the Federal Trade Commission.
Bidding by placement
Today, several companies have built platforms specifically for search syndication, giving advertisers the ability to bid transparently by traffic source. This increases advertiser performance because it allows pricing based on traffic source quality.
Bidding by placement gives advertisers the ability to set bid prices by syndication partner.
Types of bidding by placement
Across-the-board: This is when the search engine bids one price for clicks from search results traffic, and a lower bid for all syndication traffic.
or
Bidding by individual source: Rather than discounting the entire network, syndication advertisers can specify the value of each traffic source based on its performance. Currently, the only search syndication network that allows for bidding by specific traffic source and keyword is adMarketplace. This method has been increasing in popularity among advertisers and search syndication publishers with high-quality traffic.
See also
Web syndication
Advertising network
Content delivery platform
Semantic targeting
References
Online advertising | wiki |
Eurovision 2010 could refer to:
Eurovision Song Contest 2010, the fifty-fifth Eurovision Song Contest that was held in May 2010
Junior Eurovision Song Contest 2010, the eighth Junior Eurovision Song Contest that was held in November 2010
Third Eurovision Dance Contest, which was originally postponed to 2010 | wiki |
In fluid mechanics, the center of pressure is the point where the total sum of a pressure field acts on a body, causing a force to act through that point. The total force vector acting at the center of pressure is the surface integral of the pressure vector field across the surface of the body. The resultant force and center of pressure location produce an equivalent force and moment on the body as the original pressure field.
Pressure fields occur in both static and dynamic fluid mechanics. Specification of the center of pressure, the reference point from which the center of pressure is referenced, and the associated force vector allows the moment generated about any point to be computed by a translation from the reference point to the desired new point. It is common for the center of pressure to be located on the body, but in fluid flows it is possible for the pressure field to exert a moment on the body of such magnitude that the center of pressure is located outside the body.
Hydrostatic example (dam)
Since the forces of water on a dam are hydrostatic forces, they vary linearly with depth. The total force on the dam is then the integral of the pressure multiplied by the width of the dam as a function of the depth. The center of pressure is located at the centroid of the triangular shaped pressure field from the top of the water line. The hydrostatic force and tipping moment on the dam about some point can be computed from the total force and center of pressure location relative to the point of interest.
Historical usage for sailboats
Center of pressure is used in sailboat design to represent the position on a sail where the aerodynamic force is concentrated.
The relationship of the aerodynamic center of pressure on the sails to the hydrodynamic center of pressure (referred to as the center of lateral resistance) on the hull determines the behavior of the boat in the wind. This behavior is known as the "helm" and is either a weather helm or lee helm. A slight amount of weather helm is thought by some sailors to be a desirable situation, both from the standpoint of the "feel" of the helm, and the tendency of the boat to head slightly to windward in stronger gusts, to some extent self-feathering the sails. Other sailors disagree and prefer a neutral helm.
The fundamental cause of "helm", be it weather or lee, is the relationship of the center of pressure of the sail plan to the center of lateral resistance of the hull. If the center of pressure is astern of the center of lateral resistance, a weather helm, the tendency of the vessel is to want to turn into the wind.
If the situation is reversed, with the center of pressure forward of the center of lateral resistance of the hull, a "lee" helm will result, which is generally considered undesirable, if not dangerous. Too much of either helm is not good, since it forces the helmsman to hold the rudder deflected to counter it, thus inducing extra drag beyond what a vessel with neutral or minimal helm would experience.
Aircraft aerodynamics
A stable configuration is desirable not only in sailing, but in aircraft design as well. Aircraft design therefore borrowed the term center of pressure. And like a sail, a rigid non-symmetrical airfoil not only produces lift, but a moment.
The center of pressure of an aircraft is the point where all of the aerodynamic pressure field may be represented by a single force vector with no moment. A similar idea is the aerodynamic center which is the point on an airfoil where the pitching moment produced by the aerodynamic forces is constant with angle of attack.
The aerodynamic center plays an important role in analysis of the longitudinal static stability of all flying machines. It is desirable that when the pitch angle and angle of attack of an aircraft are disturbed (by, for example wind shear/vertical gust) that the aircraft returns to its original trimmed pitch angle and angle of attack without a pilot or autopilot changing the control surface deflection. For an aircraft to return towards its trimmed attitude, without input from a pilot or autopilot, it must have positive longitudinal static stability.
Missile aerodynamics
Missiles typically do not have a preferred plane or direction of maneuver and thus have symmetric airfoils. Since the center of pressure for symmetric airfoils is relatively constant for small angle of attack, missile engineers typically speak of the complete center of pressure of the entire vehicle for stability and control analysis. In missile analysis, the center of pressure is typically defined as the center of the additional pressure field due to a change in the angle of attack off of the trim angle of attack.
For unguided rockets the trim position is typically zero angle of attack and the center of pressure is defined to be the center of pressure of the resultant flow field on the entire vehicle resulting from a very small angle of attack (that is, the center of pressure is the limit as angle of attack goes to zero). For positive stability in missiles, the total vehicle center of pressure defined as given above must be further from the nose of the vehicle than the center of gravity. In missiles at lower angles of attack, the contributions to the center of pressure are dominated by the nose, wings, and fins. The normalized normal force coefficient derivative with respect to the angle of attack of each component multiplied by the location of the center of pressure can be used to compute a centroid representing the total center of pressure. The center of pressure of the added flow field is behind the center of gravity and the additional force "points" in the direction of the added angle of attack; this produces a moment that pushes the vehicle back to the trim position.
In guided missiles where the fins can be moved to trim the vehicles in different angles of attack, the center of pressure is the center of pressure of the flow field at that angle of attack for the undeflected fin position. This is the center of pressure of any small change in the angle of attack (as defined above). Once again for positive static stability, this definition of center of pressure requires that the center of pressure be further from the nose than the center of gravity. This ensures that any increased forces resulting from increased angle of attack results in increased restoring moment to drive the missile back to the trimmed position. In missile analysis, positive static margin implies that the complete vehicle makes a restoring moment for any angle of attack from the trim position.
Movement of center of pressure for aerodynamic fields
The center of pressure on a symmetric airfoil typically lies close to 25% of the chord length behind the leading edge of the airfoil. (This is called the "quarter-chord point".) For a symmetric airfoil, as angle of attack and lift coefficient change, the center of pressure does not move. It remains around the quarter-chord point for angles of attack below the stalling angle of attack. The role of center of pressure in the control characterization of aircraft takes a different form than in missiles.
On a cambered airfoil the center of pressure does not occupy a fixed location. For a conventionally cambered airfoil, the center of pressure lies a little behind the quarter-chord point at maximum lift coefficient (large angle of attack), but as lift coefficient reduces (angle of attack reduces) the center of pressure moves toward the rear. When the lift coefficient is zero an airfoil is generating no lift but a conventionally cambered airfoil generates a nose-down pitching moment, so the location of the center of pressure is an infinite distance behind the airfoil.
For a reflex-cambered airfoil, the center of pressure lies a little ahead of the quarter-chord point at maximum lift coefficient (large angle of attack), but as lift coefficient reduces (angle of attack reduces) the center of pressure moves forward. When the lift coefficient is zero an airfoil is generating no lift but a reflex-cambered airfoil generates a nose-up pitching moment, so the location of the center of pressure is an infinite distance ahead of the airfoil. This direction of movement of the center of pressure on a reflex-cambered airfoil has a stabilising effect.
The way the center of pressure moves as lift coefficient changes makes it difficult to use the center of pressure in the mathematical analysis of longitudinal static stability of an aircraft. For this reason, it is much simpler to use the aerodynamic center when carrying out a mathematical analysis. The aerodynamic center occupies a fixed location on an airfoil, typically close to the quarter-chord point.
The aerodynamic center is the conceptual starting point for longitudinal stability. The horizontal stabilizer contributes extra stability and this allows the center of gravity to be a small distance aft of the aerodynamic center without the aircraft reaching neutral stability. The position of the center of gravity at which the aircraft has neutral stability is called the neutral point.
See also
Aerodynamic center
Aerodynamic force
Aeroprediction
Center of lateral resistance
Longitudinal static stability
Zero moment point
Notes
References
Anderson, John D. (1999), Aircraft Performance and Design, McGraw-Hill.
Clancy, L.J. (1975), Aerodynamics, Pitman Publishing Limited, London.
Aerodynamics
Fluid dynamics
Pressure
Vehicle dynamics | wiki |
UPI Coach of the Year may refer to:
UPI College Basketball Coach of the Year, an annual United Press International award given from 1955 through 1996 to the best men's basketball head coach in NCAA Division I competition
UPI NFL Coach of the Year, an annual National Football League Coach of the Year Award presented from 1955 through 1996 by United Press International | wiki |
The Epic is a tall skyscraper in New York City. It was constructed from 2005 to 2007, and has 58 floors. It is tied with four other buildings, the New York Life Building, 919 Third Avenue, Tower 49, and 750 7th Avenue in its position as the 118th tallest building in New York, and has 460 rooms.
Gallery
See also
List of tallest buildings in New York City
References
Phorio
Emporis
Skyscraperpage
Building Developer Website
Residential skyscrapers in Manhattan
Residential buildings completed in 2007
Chelsea, Manhattan
2007 establishments in New York City | wiki |
Ashlyn Pearce (born July 8, 1994) is an American actress known for playing Alexandria Forrester on the popular CBS daytime soap The Bold and the Beautiful. Pearce joined the cast of Bold and the Beautiful in 2013 and exited the series in 2015.
Filmography
Awards and nominations
References
External links
1994 births
Living people
American actresses
21st-century American women | wiki |
Texas has a long history of wine production. The sunny and dry climate of the major winemaking regions in the state have drawn comparison to Portuguese wines, in addition to other regions in Europe like Spain, France, and Italy. Some of the earliest recorded Texas wines were produced by Spanish missionaries in the 1650s near El Paso. Texas ranked as the fifth largest wine producing state by 2019.
The state is home to over 42 members of the Vitis grape vine family with fifteen being native to the state, more than any other region on earth. As of 2017, the state had over planted with Vitis vinifera. Despite being the largest of conterminous states, this relatively small amount of planted land is dwarfed by the production of even the smallest French AOCs like Sancerre. The Texan wine industry is continuing its steady pace of expansion and has gained a reputation as an established wine growing region in the United States.
History
Texas is one of the oldest wine growing states in the US with vines planted here more than a hundred years before they were planted in California or Virginia. In the 1650s, Franciscan priest Father Garcia de San Francisco y Zǘñiga, the founder of El Paso, planted Mission vines in West Texas for the production of sacramental wine. The horticulturist Thomas Munson used Texas vines to create hundreds of hybrid grapes and conducted significant research in finding root stock immune to the Phylloxera epidemic, which saved the French wine industry from total ruin. The advent of Prohibition in the United States virtually eliminated Texas' wine industry, which didn't experience a revival until the 1970s, beginning with the founding of Llano Estacado and Pheasant Ridge wineries in the Texas High Plains appellation near Lubbock and the La Buena Vida winery in Springtown. The Texas wine industry still feels the effects of Prohibition today with a quarter of Texas' 254 counties still having dry laws on the books.
Geography and climate
Texas is divided into three main wine growing regions with a vast range of diversity and microclimates that allows many different types of grapevines to grow in the state. The North-Central Region spans the northern third of the state from the border of New Mexico across the Texas Panhandle and towards Dallas. This includes the Texas High Plains AVA which has the highest concentration of grape growers in the state. The eastern third of the state makes up the South-Eastern Region which encompasses the area southeast of Austin & San Antonio, and including Houston. In recent years this area's wine industry has been hard hit by Pierce's Disease. The high humidity around the northern end of this area makes it difficult to grow vinifera grapes, while vines in the Muscadine family flourish along with Blanc du Bois and Black Spanish grapes which can withstand Pierce's Disease. Roughly in the center is the Texas Hill Country AVA where vinifera is grown. At the far southwest end of this region, along the Mexico–United States border is the state's oldest winery, Val Verde, which has been in operation for over a century. The central-western third of the state is known as the Trans-Pecos Regions which produces about 40 percent of the state's grape in the highest altitude vineyards of the area. More than two thirds of all the wine produced in Texas comes from this area.
The calcareous soil in the Texas High Plains is characterized as red sandy loam (tiera roja) over caliche (limestone) with moderate low fertility, a terroir similar to that found in Coonawarra in Australia. The vines are exposed to long days of sunshine and cool nights due to an elevation of over 3500 feet. Cold temperatures during the winter gives the vines opportunity to shut down and go dormant before the growing season. The Ogallala Aquifer provides water resources for irrigation and serves as a tempering effects on the high summer temperatures and extreme winter hazards such as freezing temperatures and hail. The effects of constant wind over the flat terrain serves as a buffer against viticultural diseases such as oidium and powdery mildew.
Harvest time in Texas normally starts in July, two months earlier than in California and three months earlier than most of the wine regions in France.
Appellations
Texas is home to eight American Viticultural Areas.
Mesilla Valley AVA (1985) - West Texas. Texas' first AVA though primarily located in New Mexico with only small parts extending into Texas.
Bell Mountain AVA (1986) - Central Texas. First AVA completely within the state of Texas. Known for its distinctive Cabernet Sauvignon grown in northern Gillespie County.
Fredericksburg in the Texas Hill Country AVA (1989) - Central Texas. Known for its Cabernet Sauvignon and Chardonnay.
Texas Hill Country AVA (1991) - Central Texas. Located just west of Austin. With over , it is the second-largest AVA in the United States though less than are planted in grape vines.
Escondido Valley AVA (1992) - West Texas. About along the Pecos River in Pecos County.
Texas High Plains AVA (1993) - North Texas. About 85% of the wine grapes in Texas are grown on the Texas High Plains in approximately . The AVA is the second largest AVA with over . Elevation ranges from 3,300 to 3,700 feet.
Texas Davis Mountains AVA (1998) - West Texas. Only one winery in existence when granted AVA status in 1998. Specializes in Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon blanc.
Texoma AVA (2005) - North Texas. The Texoma region is where 19th century viticulturist Thomas Volney Munson discovered the cure for France's phylloxera epidemic.
Wines
Cabernet Sauvignon and Tempranillo have the highest number of plantings in the state, followed by Merlot, Black Spanish, and Blanc du Bois as leading variety in bearing acreage planted. Texas is also home to Mourvèdre, Sangiovese, Viognier, Muscat Canelli, and Malbec plantings. The United States Department of Agriculture - National Agricultural Statistics Service survey lists more than 53 wine varieties grown in Texas.
Over the past decade, the Southeast, Gulf Coast, and North Texas growing areas of Texas have increased their plantings of Blanc du Bois and Black Spanish varieties, which are more tolerant of the more humid climates in those areas. The two grapes are among the top ten grapes grown in Texas.
Wineries
As of 2021, there are more than 470 wineries in Texas. Over 2,000,000 gallons of wine were produced in 2021 making it the fourth-largest wine producing state in the nation. That puts Texas behind California, Washington, and Oregon respectively. Mesa Vineyards was the largest wine producer in the state with planted near Fort Stockton in West Texas. First established as an experimental vineyard in 1987 with the University of Texas System, the winery produced wine under multiple labels with the primary brand of Ste. Genevieve. The second largest winery is Llano Estacado Winery. Most of the wineries offer tastings. Besides standard wine tastings where a flight of wines are tasted, many wineries are offering special tasting experiences that include food and wine pairings, and more.
Wine Enthusiast magazine named the Texas Hill Country as one of the 10 best wine travel destinations in 2014.
See also
American wine
Index of Texas-related articles
References
External links
Texan wine - Texas Dept of Agriculture
Texas Wine & Grape Growers Association
Texas A&M AgriLife Extension Service
Texas Hill Country Wineries
TTB AVA Map
Texas Wine Club
Wine regions of the United States by state | wiki |
Winter clothing are clothes used for protection against the particularly cold weather of winter. Often they have a good water resistance, consist of multiple layers to protect and insulate against low temperatures.
Winter clothes are especially outerwear like coats, jackets, hats, scarves and gloves or mittens, earmuffs, but also warm underwear like long underwear, union suits and socks. Military issue winter clothing evolved from heavy coats and jackets to multilayered clothing for the purpose of keeping troops warm during winter battles. Several shirts and socks, usually four pairs were standard issue for the U.S. Army during WWII. Winter clothes used for sports and recreation includes ski suits and snowmobile suits.
Many northern cultures use animal fur to make winter clothes.
Gallery
See also
Outerwear
Ski suit
Jacket
Winter Gloves
Selbuvott
References
Clothing by function
Protective gear | wiki |
An accessible image is an image that is made accessible to the visually impaired through touch, magnification, smell or sound.
See also
Tactile graphic
External links
Accessible image discussion list
Tactile graphics resources
Creating accessible images
Seeing with Sound project
Accessible Media Producers
Blindness | wiki |
Birdman Aircraft was a U.S. aircraft manufacturer that marketed the Birdman TL-1 ultralight in the 1970s and early 1980s, at the time, the lightest aircraft to have ever flown. The firm was based at the Daytona Beach International Airport in Florida.
References
Defunct aircraft manufacturers of the United States
Defunct manufacturing companies based in Florida | wiki |
Men's Super G World Cup 1987/1988
Final point standings
In Men's Super G World Cup 1987/88 all four results count. Pirmin Zurbriggen won the cup without a single race-win. All events were won by different skiers.
References
fis-ski.com
World Cup
FIS Alpine Ski World Cup men's Super-G discipline titles | wiki |
Lightle House may refer to:
Ben Lightle House (301 East Market Avenue, Searcy, Arkansas) listed on the National Register of Historic Places (NRHP) in White County, Arkansas
Lightle House (107 North Elm Street, Searcy, Arkansas), NRHP-listed in White County, Arkansas
Lightle House (605 Race Avenue, Searcy, Arkansas), NRHP-listed in White County, Arkansas
Lightle House (County Road 76, Searcy, Arkansas), NRHP-listed in White County, Arkansas
William H. Lightle House (601 East Race Street, Searcy, Arkansas), NRHP-listed in White County, Arkansas
National Register of Historic Places listings in White County, Arkansas, NRHP-listed in White County, Arkansas | wiki |
Blank or Blanks may refer to:
Blank (archaeology), a thick, shaped stone biface for refining into a stone tool
Blank (cartridge), a type of gun cartridge
Blank (Scrabble), a playing piece in the board game Scrabble
Blank (solution), a solution containing no analyte
A planchet or blank, a round metal disk to be struck as a coin
Application blank, a space provided for data on a form
Glass blank, an unfinished piece of glass
Key blank, an uncut key
About:blank, a Web browser function
Blank (playing card), playing card in card-point games
Created works
"Blank" (Eyehategod song), a track on the album Take as Needed for Pain
Blank (2009 film), a French drama film
Blank (2019 film), an Indian action thriller film
The Blanks, an American a cappella group
"Blank!", a 1957 short story by Isaac Asimov
[BLANK], a 2019 play by Alice Birch
Names
Blank (horse), a Thoroughbred racehorse and sire
Blank (surname)
Blanks
Blanks, Louisiana, an unincorporated community in the United States
Blanks (musician), Dutch musician and Youtuber
Ernests Blanks (1894–1972), Latvian publicist
Jim Blanks (born 1952), American basketball player
See also
Blanking (disambiguation)
Blank page (disambiguation)
Blank space (disambiguation) | wiki |
Land of the Gods may refer to:
Greece, in Greek literature and mythology
Land of Punt, by the Ancient Egyptians
Uttarakhand, States of India, on account of the number of Hindu sacred places there | wiki |
While the Secretariat of the United Nations is headquartered in New York City, its many bodies, specialized agencies, and related organizations are headquartered in other parts of the world, particularly in Europe.
Locations
Africa
Americas
Asia
Europe
Statistics
See also
List of United Nations organizations
United Nations
United Nations System
References
External links
Main UN Offices Worldwide
UN System of Organisations
United Nations properties | wiki |
Love Eternal is a novel by H. Rider Haggard, first published in 1918.
References
External links
Complete novel at Project Gutenberg
Novels by H. Rider Haggard
1918 British novels | wiki |
Store-operated channels (SOCs) are ion channels located in the plasma membrane of cells. These channels are most studied in regard to their role in calcium entry into the cytoplasm from extracellular milieu. There are other SOC channels selective to other ions. Calcium SOCs are especially important for the cell because they are the major source of intracellular calcium; and calcium itself is involved in a wide array of vital cellular functions. SOCs are so called because they are activated by intracellular calcium (particularly the endoplasmic reticulum (ER)) stores depletion by both physiological or pharmacological processes.
See also
Calcium release activated channel
References
Further reading
Cell anatomy | wiki |
South Florida Bulls basketball could refer to:
South Florida Bulls men's basketball
South Florida Bulls women's basketball | wiki |
South Florida Bulls soccer could refer to:
South Florida Bulls men's soccer
South Florida Bulls women's soccer | wiki |
Matt's Wild Cherry is a cultivar of tomato ostensibly based on the original wild tomato plants, acquired by a friend of Doctor Matt Liebman in Hidalgo, Mexico. Liebman raised this cultivar in Maine, eventually releasing it under his own name. It is species Lycopersicum esculentum var. cerasiforme.
See also
List of tomato cultivars
References
Tomato cultivars | wiki |
Flowers in the Attic, o romance de V.C. Andrews
Filmes
Flowers in the Attic (1987), com Louise Fletcher e Victoria Tennant
Flowers in the Attic (2014), com Ellen Burstyn e Heather Graham | wiki |
In lawn care, thatch is a layer of organic matter that accumulates on a lawn around the base of the grass plants. Thatch is a combination of living and dead plant matter including crowns, stolons, rhizomes, and roots.
Grass clippings do not generally contribute to thatch buildup as they can be easily broken down by soil microorganisms. Thatch is composed of about 25% lignin, a complex organic polymer that is highly resistant to decomposition. Thatch buildup can be caused by several factors:
Certain grass species are especially prone to thatch production
Acidic soils may not be able to support sufficient populations of decomposing microorganisms
Certain fungicides can stimulate excessive root and rhizome growth
Application of insecticides may reduce earthworm activity, leading to decreased bioturbation
Over-application of nitrogen fertilizers can stimulate excess growth as well as contribute to soil acidity
A small amount of thatch may provide a beneficial insulating effect against fluctuations in temperature and moisture. However, excessive thatch can cause root problems and lawn mower difficulties. A dethatcher may be used to remove thatch from a lawn.
See also
References
External links
NDIS Lawn Mowing
Professional Lawn Care
Gardening
Horticultural techniques
Lawn care | wiki |
A duty editor (also known as editor of the day) in news media, such as radio and television, is a senior journalist with editorial and managerial duties. A duty editor acts as an editor in the absence of the news editor (compare: duty officer). In many cases, it is the duty editor who takes most day-to-day decisions. The duty editor decides which content that shall be broadcast, how it shall be presented and in what order and gives assignments to reporters.
In large media organizations, the actual editor or news editor is often a senior manager who is seldom directly involved in day-to-day decisions, having delegated editorial duties to a senior journalist. The duty editor is usually the most senior journalist who is present at a news desk. There may be several duty editors on duty with different areas of responsibility; in the BBC, there is always a "home duty editor" and a "foreign duty editor" on duty, responsible for domestic and foreign news, respectively.
References
Types of editors | wiki |
Virtual group may refer to:
Virtual band in music
Groupoid in category theory (an area of mathematics) | wiki |
5th Multi-member Constituency – Vidin is a constituency whose borders are the same as Vidin Province in Bulgaria.
Background
In the 2009 Bulgarian parliamentary election 5th Multi-member Constituency – Vidin elected 4 members to the Bulgarian National Assembly, 3 of which were through proportionality vote and 1 was through first-past-the-post voting.
Members in the Bulgarian National Assembly
Through first-past-the-post voting
Through proportionality vote
Elections
2009 election
proportionality vote
first-past-the-post voting
See also
2009 Bulgarian parliamentary election
Politics of Bulgaria
List of Bulgarian Constituencies
References
Electoral divisions in Bulgaria
Vidin Province | wiki |
Calumet Hotel may refer to:
Calumet Hotel (Pipestone, Minnesota), listed on the NRHP in Minnesota
Calumet Hotel (Portland, Oregon), listed on the NRHP in Oregon
Calumet Hotel (Wasta, South Dakota), listed on the NRHP in South Dakota | wiki |
Visa requirements for Cape Verdean citizens are administrative entry restrictions by the authorities of other states placed on citizens of Cape Verde. As of 19 July 2022, Cape Verdean citizens had visa-free or visa on arrival access to 67 countries and territories, ranking the Cape Verdean passport 80th in terms of travel freedom (tied with passports from the Philippines and Uganda) according to the Henley Passport Index.
Visa requirements map
Visa requirements
Dependent, disputed, or restricted territories
Unrecognized or partially recognized countries
Dependent and autonomous territories
Non-visa restrictions
See also
Visa policy of Cape Verde
Cape Verdean passport
External links
VisaHQ - Cape Verdean Passport
References and Notes
References
Notes
Cape Verde
Foreign relations of Cape Verde | wiki |
Sammy is a nickname.
It may also refer to:
People
Daren Sammy (born 1983), Saint Lucian cricketer
Jasmine Sammy, Trinidad and Tobago cricketer in the 1970s
DJ Sammy, stage name of Spanish DJ and producer Samuel Bouriah (born 1969)
Arts and entertainment
Sammy (comics), a Belgian comics series which began in 1970
Sammy (band), the 1994-1996 partnership of guitarist Luke Wood and guitarist/vocalist Jesse Hartman
Sammy (TV series), a short-lived 2000 American animated television series
Other uses
Sammy Corporation, a Japanese manufacturer of games and a subsidiary of Sega Sammy
Sigma Alpha Mu, a college fraternity also known as "Sammy" | wiki |
Grape Agate is a market name for purple aggregates of tiny quartz crystals with botryoidal (spherical) habit. Mineralogically speaking, grape agate is not an agate and is actually botryoidal purple chalcedony.
It occurs in Indonesia and has also been found west of the Green river in Utah.
References
Chalcedony | wiki |
The Kuyoh River () is the river in Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
See also
List of rivers of Malaysia
References
Rivers of Kuala Lumpur
Rivers of Malaysia | wiki |
Icon:
Icon – język programowania
Icon (program) – system okienkowy dla komputera BBC Master Compact produkowanych przez Acorn
Icon (album) – album zespołu Paradise Lost
Icon – album zespołu Icon
Icon – album Billy'ego Raya Cyrusa
Icon – amerykański zespół heavymetalowy
Icon – album Queen
Icon – album Nirvany
Icon – album DMX-a | wiki |
Olympic Way, often incorrectly known as Wembley Way, is the road that links Wembley Park tube station and Wembley Stadium in Wembley Park, London, England. Thousands of spectators walk along it to every event as the road leads directly into the stadium. The road is an easy access from the London Underground system at Wembley Park to the stadium, and travels in a north–south direction. The road also allows pedestrians an easy access to London Designer Outlet from the station.
Olympic Way was constructed several years after World War II by German prisoners of war in the United Kingdom. Originally they were intended to be used for picking up refuse during the 1948 Summer Olympics, but their duties were changed due to criticism in the press; one media outlet stated that "It is fair to assume that the Ministry of Labour will think very hard before intending for a slave squad to operate quite so publicly and before quite so many overseas visitors." As a result of a labour shortage, German prisoners of war were used in constructing Olympic War instead.
References
Roads in London
Wembley
Transport in the London Borough of Brent | wiki |
A Sex education curriculum is a sex education program encompassing the methods, materials, and assessments exercised to inform individuals of the issues relating to human sexuality, including human sexual anatomy, sexual reproduction, sexual intercourse, reproductive health, emotional relations, reproductive rights and responsibilities, abstinence, birth control, and other aspects of human sexual behavior. Common sex education curricula include an abstinence-only approach, as well as a comprehensive approach, implemented in academia via the Internet, peer education, visual media, games, health care organizations, and school instruction.
European Union
Purpose
The purpose of sexuality education curriculum in Europe is to facilitate adolescents to gain knowledge, attitudes, skills, and values to make appropriate and healthy choices in their sexual behavior, thus preventing them from sexually transmitted infections, including HIV and HPV, teenage or unwanted pregnancies, and from domestic and sexual violence, contributing to a greater society. While European educators and policymakers recognize the benefits of sexuality education as being essential in the realm of sexual health, the content and approach of the curriculum have undergone significant changes over time and differ among each European country. Influenced by politics, as well as social and religious movements, European educators and policymakers recognize the struggle to find common criteria of sexuality education curriculum.
Common sex education curricula
Researchers identify the most common delivery of sexuality education curriculum as being through a biology, relationship, and ideological focus. In this form of curriculum, practiced through a moral and informative approach by a teacher’s instruction, attention is directed towards the reproductive and physical aspects of sexuality education rather than the emotional and social aspects. While this approach is identified as the most common form of sexuality education in Europe, Europe is not limited to this practice. With a total of twenty-seven countries within the European Union, a wide variety of practices are implemented in an attempt to address and/or ignore sexuality education. European policymakers and educators recognize the need for an implementation of an ideal curriculum for European countries to adopt, while distinguishing the political, social, and religious movements that hinder this action.
The Safe Project
The Safe Project was introduced by a coalition of European health organizations including the IPPF European Network, WHO Regional Office for Europe, and Lund University, in 2004 in response to European policymakers and educators speaking out about the political, social, and religious struggles encountered when implementing sexuality education curriculum in Europe. The SAFE project conducted extensive research, implemented advocacy, engaged the youth, and created a greater recognition among public health organizations of the sexual rights of European youth as well as the creation of a model curriculum, providing an outline of the ideal sexuality education curriculum to be practiced within the European Union. This model of sexuality education curriculum was charted in a ninety-eight-page product entitled The Reference Guide to Sexuality Education in Europe, selling thousands of copies to public health organizations and journals, as well as various books within academia.
The model sex education curricula
The ideal sexuality education curriculum within the European Union, as proposed by the SAFE Project, is one that would be provided for varying ages of students, from the primary to the secondary level. A multi-dimensional staff including public health professionals, school instructors with knowledge in the sciences, and non-governmental organizations, would be responsible for providing instruction in an interactive approach. Educators recognize the benefits of health organizations and agencies not only as offering a more emotional and social approach to sexuality education, but also expertise in recognizing issues among youth such as indications of sexual abuse, sexually transmitted diseases, and pregnancy. Similarly, non-government organizations(NGOs) provide students as well as the public with private counseling, sexuality seminars, public health campaigns, as well as peer-led informational groups, in which they can step outside of a strictly lecture and informational curriculum in sexuality education and accommodate the personal needs of European youth. While the ideal curriculum would be altered to accommodate the needs of its audience, its goal is to inform students on the topic of sexuality, raising awareness and therefore allowing students to make healthier decisions in regards to sexuality and relationship activity as well as European youth distinguishing their sexual rights. Younger audiences within the primary setting would be instructed by their classroom teacher in areas of puberty, sexual development, and bullying while secondary audiences would be instructed by a multi-dimensional staff in the topical areas of racism, homophobia, sexual violence, abstinence, safe sex, sexually transmitted diseases, pregnancy and contraceptives, as well as the biological, emotional, and social effects of sexuality.
Complications
Several complications are associated with the implementation of an ideal sexuality education curriculum including the area and diversity of each European country, variances in political and religious views, and a lack of sustainability.
The area in which a country is located can affect religious and political beliefs, as well as resources and access to health education, similarly, the idea of diversity and the exposure to information and resources as well.
Politics and religion are two controversial topics that both have strong oppositions to sexuality education. With strong oppositions and public protests, political and religious-affiliated organizations voice their negative opinions of a sexuality education curriculum that informs youth of sexual resources and options concerning contraception and abortion. With sexuality education not being mandatory in all twenty-seven countries of the European Union and the controversial opposition of political and religious organizations, policymakers are unable to make an ideal sexuality education curriculum concrete.
A lack of sustainability within sexuality education curriculum is also an issue addressed by European policymakers and educators. Upon a country acknowledging the benefits, as well as a need for sexuality education, they implement the ideal sexuality education curriculum in which they see positive results in the decline of sexually transmitted diseases as well as teenage and unplanned pregnancies. Upon government officials recognizing the positive results of the curriculum, the program is eliminated due to the significant improvements and the mindset that the problem is fixed and therefore the curriculum is no longer needed. With governmental cuts in sexuality education programs as well as the funding provided for those programs, policymakers and educators face great difficulty in the implementation of a continent-wide curriculum.
Benefits
Several benefits are associated with the implementation of this model of sexuality education curriculum, including youth empowerment, an increased awareness of sexuality, a decline in the acquiring or conveying of sexually transmitted diseases, as well as a decrease in unintended pregnancies.
Supporters
The IPPF European Network strives for support and access to sexual and reproductive health services, while serving as a voice for the sexual rights of European individuals globally.
The WHO Regional Office for Europe advocates for public health, implements programs for disease prevention and control, addresses health threats, responds to health emergencies, and sustains and supports the implementation of public health policies.
Lund University is one of Europe’s most renowned universities, as well as one of the top one-hundred universities globally.
European Union countries
Austria
Sexuality education in Austria is addressed in the manner of a Biology, German, Religious Studies, and Social Studies/Factual Education curriculum through a method of formal classroom instruction. Sexuality education curriculum is introduced in a primary school setting, middle school setting, as well as a secondary setting. Topics discussed are differences between sexes, pregnancy, puberty and physical changes, genitals, masturbation, contraceptives, safe sex, abstinence, abortion, and sexually transmitted diseases.
Belgium
Sexuality education in Belgium is a mandatory practice that offers schools a great amount of autonomy on the curriculum that they offer. Majority of the curriculum offered to students is mandated by school instructors calling upon outside resources such as health organizations or facilities for guidance. Topics discussed within the curriculum are gender, physical development, sexual orientation, intimacy, morality, and risk prevention.
Bulgaria
Sexuality education is not mandatory in Bulgaria; therefore no minimum standards of a curriculum are intact. Students and parents are able to request an optional discipline of sexuality education in which the schooling system relies heavily on non-governmental organizations in relaying the information in the following topical areas of reproductive systems, HIV and AIDS, contraception, and violence.
Cyprus
The curriculum of sexuality education within Cyprus is referred to as Sexuality Education and Interpersonal Relationship Education. The curriculum is taught through the instruction of biology, home economics, and religion educators in which great emphasis is placed on the importance of family relationships and development, rather than sexuality.
Czech Republic
The sexuality education curriculum in the Czech Republic is introduced to students by teachers and school staff with the reliance on non-governmental and health organizations as early as the age of seven. The curriculum is considered comprehensive, covering areas in sexual abuse, contraceptives, reproduction, sexual crimes, homophobia, pregnancies, and sexually transmitted diseases.
Denmark
Sexuality Education has been mandatory since 1970 in Denmark in which school staff and educations have great autonomy within the curriculum. The curriculum is delivered through a biological and Danish focus, in which topics discussed include contraceptives, pregnancy, and puberty.
Estonia
Sexuality education within Estonia is offered through the lens of human studies in formal classroom settings, in which an instructor focuses on a personal relationships curriculum.
Germany
Sexual education has been mandatory in German schools since 1968, when it was put in place by the Bundesländer. In the mid-1990s the ‘Pregnancy and Family Aid Act’(SFHÄndG) introduced national mandatory sexuality education programmes that dealt with biological and medical views, as well as emotions, relationships, and ethics. Sexual education in Germany begins at the age of 9. Sexuality education aims include topics like body changes in puberty, the effectiveness of different contraceptive methods, and the reproductive cycle.
By law The Federal Centre for Health Education (BZgA) and the authorities of the 16 federal states are assigned to implement and conduct sexual education. They work with German family counseling and other organizations working in the field. BZgA provides sexuality education for different age groups and provides its materials to the general population, teachers, and counseling centers for free. BZgA is supervised by the Federal Ministry for Family Affairs, Senior Citizens, Women and Youth.
Greece
Sexuality education is a mandatory practice in Greece in which a multi-dimensional team of teachers, nurses, and health organizations focus on the curriculum of biological and relational aspect of sexuality education, as well as human anatomy.
Hungary
Sexuality education is referred to as Education for Family Life in Hungary in which a staff of teachers and health care professionals focus on a curriculum that addresses the human body, drinking, smoking, drugs, and AIDS.
Ireland
Sexuality education in Ireland is a mandatory practice as of 2003, however parents can remove their children from the curriculum, focusing on a variety of topics in the areas of relational, social, and personal health.
Italy
Italy, with great influence from the Catholic Church, has created a sexuality education curriculum taught through formal classroom instruction, focusing on the biological aspects of sex and behavior.
Latvia
Sexuality education in Latvia is taught through a social science perspective in which instructors focus on a curriculum outlining the development of family, roles of family, gender, child development, relationships, and pregnancy.
Lithuania
Sexuality education in Lithuania is taught through the perspective of Biology, Ethics, and Physical Culture in which instructors base a curriculum off of their responsibility to inform students how to make healthy lifestyle choices.
Luxembourg
Sexuality education in Luxembourg is provided by teachers in the topical areas of biology, citizenship, and religion with a curriculum focusing on love, sexual activities, family, contraception, pregnancy, sexually transmitted diseases, and drugs.
Netherlands
Norway
School teachers and nurses are responsible for the implementation of sexuality education. A biological curriculum is common in which educators focus on the areas of sex, contraception, pregnancy, puberty, families, and relationships.
Spain
Sexuality education in Spain is not a mandatory practice however upon a school deciding to instruct its students on the topic, educators rely heavily on outside health organizations and professionals to provide private workshops.
Other countries
Australia
The Victorian Government (Australia) developed a policy for the promotion of Health and Human Relations Education in schools in 1980 that was introduced into the State's primary and secondary schools during 1981. The initiative was developed and implemented by the Honorable Norman Lacy MP, Minister for Educational Services from 1979–1982.
A Consultative Council for Health and Human Relations Education was established in December 1980 under the chairmanship of Dame Margaret Blackwood; its members possessed considerable expertise in the area.
The Council had three major functions:
1. to advise and to be consulted on all aspects of Health and Human Relations' Education in schools;
2. to develop, for consideration of the Government, appropriate curriculum for schools;
3. to advise and recommend the standards for in-service courses for teachers and relevant members of the school community.
Support services for the Consultative Council were provided by a new Health and Human Relations Unit within the Special Services Division of the Education Department of Victoria and was responsible for the implementation of the Government's policy and guidelines in this area. The Unit advised principals, school councils, teachers, parents, tertiary institutions, and others in all aspects of Health and Human Relations Education.
In 1981 the Consultative Council recommended the adoption of a set of guidelines for the provision of Health and Human Relations Education in schools as well as a Curriculum Statement to assist schools in the development of their programs. These were presented to the Victorian Cabinet in December 1981 and adopted as Government policy.
Canada
A catalog of Canadian sex education films, ranging from 1953 to 2012, was recently compiled by researchers at the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada.
References
Literature
Sex education | wiki |
Millimeter (SI-symbol mm) er en måleenhed til måling af længde i metersystemet, der er det samme som en tusindedel meter, der er SI enheden for længde.
En millimeter svarer til 1.000 mikrometer og 1.000.000 nanometer. Der går 25,4 mm på en tomme.
1 mm3 (en kubikmillimeter) er det samme som én mikroliter.
Indenfor meteorologi er en millimeter en måleenhed for nedbør, defineret som 1 liter pr. m²
Se også
Noter
Længdeenheder | wiki |
"High Rollin'" is a song written by Dave Gibson and Blue Miller, and recorded by American country music group Gibson/Miller Band. It was released in February 1993 as the second single from the album Where There's Smoke.... The song reached number 20 on the Billboard Hot Country Singles & Tracks chart.
Chart performance
References
1993 singles
1993 songs
Gibson/Miller Band songs
Epic Records singles
Song recordings produced by Doug Johnson (record producer)
Songs written by Dave Gibson (American songwriter) | wiki |
Western Distributor may refer to:
Western Distributor (Sydney), an elevated freeway in Sydney, Australia
West Gate Tunnel, a proposed toll road and tunnel in Melbourne, Australia initially named Western Distributor
See also
Distributor (disambiguation)
Eastern Distributor (Sydney) | wiki |
Hemiseptella is a genus of bryozoans belonging to the family Calloporidae.
The species of this genus are found in South America.
Species:
Hemiseptella africana
Hemiseptella filimargo
Hemiseptella fistula
Hemiseptella fragilis
Hemiseptella granulosa
Hemiseptella labiata
Hemiseptella lacinia
Hemiseptella lata
Hemiseptella ogivaliformis
Hemiseptella planulata
Hemiseptella rectangulata
Hemiseptella saucatsensis
Hemiseptella tuberosa
References
Bryozoan genera | wiki |
A handle is a grip attached to an object for using or moving the object.
Handle may also refer to:
Arts, entertainment, and media
Handles (novel), a children's book by Jan Mark
Handles, a character in the Doctor Who episode "The Time of the Doctor"
Computing and technology
Handle (computing), an abstract reference to a resource
Handle, in a communication system, is a:
Pseudonym
User name
Handle, in computer programming, is an opaque pointer, i.e., a datatype that hides its internal implementation using a pointer
Adjustment handles, little boxes for resizing a GUI control
Handle System, a system for uniquely numbering digital objects
Handle-o-Meter, a machine that measures surface friction and flexibility of sheeted materials
Other uses
Handle (mathematics), a topological ball
Handle, in gambling, is the total amount bet, usually at a given place or for a given event
Handle, a half-gallon (1.75 L) bottle of liquor; see alcohol measurements
See also
Handel (disambiguation)
Hendel
Hendl | wiki |
Exclusivity may refer to:
Concepts
Exclusivity (religion), the ubiquitous stance in religion of asserting unique veracity
Mutual exclusivity, if two propositions or events cannot both be true
Exclusive positioning, a marketing strategy
Regulations
Exclusivity (law), rights to exclusivity
Syndication exclusivity, US law giving protection of television station rights
Test data exclusivity, confidentiality of medical data
Console exclusivity, technical system limits to video games
Other uses
"Exclusivity" (song), 1991 R&B song by the duo Damian Dame | wiki |
Never is a 2014 drama film written and directed by Brett Allen Smith and starring Zelda Williams and Zachary Booth.
Plot
A lesbian and a straight man fall into a quasi-romance.
References
External links
American independent films
2014 films
American romantic drama films
American LGBT-related films
2014 LGBT-related films
LGBT-related romantic drama films
2014 romantic drama films
2014 independent films
2010s English-language films
2010s American films | wiki |
This is a list of nonprofit organizations with notable activities related to bitcoin.
References
Bitcoin | wiki |
How to Steal a Wife () is a 2013 Lithuanian comedy film directed by Donatas Ulvydas.
Summary
What would happen if, just before the New Year's Day, you would lock up a woman and her two men – one, a husband, and the other, an ex–husband? And what if the latter was accused of stealing a large sum of money (the fact that he denies himself)? Is it true that old love never withers, especially when 300 million litas are involved? Four people attempt to resolve the ages–old debate of whether love is stronger than money.
References
2013 comedy films
2013 films
Lithuanian comedy films | wiki |
9-1-1 is an American procedural drama television series created by Ryan Murphy, Brad Falchuk and Tim Minear for the Fox Broadcasting Company. The series follows the lives of Los Angeles first responders: police officers, paramedics, firefighters and dispatchers. The series premiered on January 3, 2018. 9-1-1 is a joint production between Reamworks, Ryan Murphy Television, and 20th Television.
On May 16, 2022, Fox renewed the series for a sixth season which premiered on September 19, 2022.
Series overview
Episodes
Season 1 (2018)
Season 2 (2018–19)
Season 3 (2019–20)
Season 4 (2021)
Season 5 (2021–22)
Season 6 (2022–23)
Ratings
Season 1
Season 2
Season 3
Season 4
Season 5
Season 6
Explanatory notes
References
External links
9-1-1 (TV series)
Lists of American drama television series episodes | wiki |
Barcelona (, ) is a province of eastern Spain, in the center of the autonomous community of Catalonia. The province is bordered by the provinces of Tarragona, Lleida, and Girona, and by the Mediterranean Sea. Its area is . 5,743,402 people live in the province, of whom about 29% (1,664,182) live within the administrative limits of the city of Barcelona, which itself is contained in the Barcelona metropolitan area.
Divisions
The capital of the province is the city of Barcelona, and the provincial council is based in the Casa Serra on the Rambla de Catalunya in that city. Some other cities and towns in Barcelona province include L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Badalona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Martorell, Mataró, Granollers, Sabadell, Terrassa, Sitges, Igualada, Vic, Manresa, Berga.
See also List of municipalities in Barcelona.
Since the division by provinces in Spain and the division by comarques in Catalonia do not completely agree, the term comarques of the province of Barcelona would not be entirely correct. However, a list of the comarques that are included—totally or partially—in the province of Barcelona can be made:
Fully included:
Alt Penedès
Anoia
Bages
Baix Llobregat
Barcelonès
Garraf
Maresme
Moianès
Vallès Occidental
Vallès Oriental
Partially included:
Berguedà (all municipalities except Gósol)
Osona (all municipalities except Espinelves, Vidrà and Viladrau)
Selva (only the municipality of Fogars de la Selva)
Geography
The Catalan Pre-Coastal Range and Catalan Coastal Range mountains run through the Province of Barcelona. There are several notable smaller mountain ranges that are located in the province, including Montseny Massif, Serra de Collserola, and Tibidabo. Pedraforca is the tallest mountain in the province, located on the north side as part of the Pre-Pyrenees. Tibidabo is the mountain that overlooks the city of Barcelona.
The majority of the Province of Barcelona has a Mediterranean climate on the coast and an oceanic climate inland.
Population development
The historical population is given in the following chart:
Notes and references
External links | wiki |
Triamcinolone acetonide, sold under the brand name Kenalog among others, is a synthetic corticosteroid medication used topically to treat various skin conditions, to relieve the discomfort of mouth sores, and by injection into joints to treat various joint conditions. It is also injected into lesions to treat inflammation in some parts of the body, particularly the skin. In nasal spray form, it is used to treat allergic rhinitis. It is used for the treatment of macular edema associated with uveitis. It is a more potent derivative of triamcinolone, and is about eight times as potent as prednisone.
Most forms of triamcinolone acetonide are prescription drugs. In 2014, the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) made triamcinolone acetonide an over-the-counter drug in the United States in nasal spray form under the brand name Nasacort. It is available as a generic medication.
Medical uses
Triamcinolone acetonide as an intra-articular injectable has been used to treat a variety of musculoskeletal conditions. When applied to the skin as a topical ointment, it is used to mitigate blistering from poison ivy, oak, and sumac. When combined with nystatin, it is used to treat skin infections with discomfort from fungus, though it should not be used on the eyes. It provides relatively immediate relief and is used before using oral prednisone. Oral and dental paste preparations are used for treating aphthous ulcers.
As an intravitreal injection, triamcinolone acetonide has been used to treat various eye diseases and has been found useful in reducing macular edema. Drug trials have found it to be as efficient as anti-VEGF drugs in eyes with artificial lenses over a two-year period. A systematic review did not find any evidence of any benefit in preventing vision loss in eyes treated with triamcinolone acetonide over placebo, for patients with age-related macular degeneration.
Triamcinolone acetonide is also administered via intralesional injection in the treatment of hypertrophic and keloid scars.
Contraindications
Evidence suggests that usage of triamcinolone acetonide or other steroids to treat macular edema increases the risk of increasing intraocular pressure in patients.
Triamcinolone acetonide should not be used by those with tuberculosis or untreated fungal, bacterial, systemic viral or herpes simplex infections without consulting a doctor first.
Pharmacology
Pharmacodynamics
Triamcinolone acetonide is a corticosteroid. It is specifically a glucocorticoid, or an agonist of the glucocorticoid receptor, that is about five times as potent as cortisol. It has very little mineralocorticoid effects. The affinities of triamcinolone acetonide for the androgen and estrogen receptors are both <0.1% (relative to testosterone and estradiol). However, triamcinolone acetonide has 15% of the affinity of progesterone for the progesterone receptor. In relation to this, triamcinolone acetonide can produce endocrine side effects like ovulation inhibition and menstrual irregularities.
Chemistry
Triamcinolone acetonide, also known as 9α-fluoro-16α-hydroxyprednisolone 16α,17α-acetonide or as 9α-fluoro-11β,16α-17α,21-tetrahydroxypregna-1,4-diene-3,20-dione cyclic 16,17-acetal with acetone, is a synthetic halogenated cyclic ketal pregnane corticosteroid. It is the C16α,17α acetonide of triamcinolone.
Veterinary use
Triamcinolone acetonide is also used in veterinary medicine as an ingredient in topical ointments and in topical sprays for control of pruritus in dogs.
A series of injections with triamcinolone acetonide or another corticosteroid may reduce keloid size and irritation. It is used as a preinductor and/or inductor of birth in cows. It was also used in the horse racing industry, but it is now a banned substance if found in a horse's system on race day.
References
External links
Acetonides
Bristol Myers Squibb
Corticosteroid cyclic ketals
Corticosteroids
Diketones
Diols
Fluoroarenes
Glucocorticoids
Organofluorides
Orphan drugs
Pregnanes
Progestogens | wiki |
Copper tape refers to a thin strip of copper, often backed with adhesive. Copper tape can be found at most hardware and gardening stores and sometimes electronic stores. Copper tape is used to keep slugs and snails out of certain areas in gardens, potted plants, and trunks of fruit trees, and other trees and shrubs. It is also used for other applications, such as electromagnetic shielding or low-profile surface mount transmission line in electronics and in the production of tiffany lamps. It comes in two forms; conductive adhesive and non-conductive adhesive (which is more common).
References
Pest control techniques
Horticultural techniques
Biological pest control
Copper
Adhesive tape | wiki |
Soldiers and Sailors Monument is a war monument located in Lafayette Square, Buffalo, New York. It was the work of sculptor Casper Buberl and architect George Keller. It was unveiled in 1882.
The monument's shaft supports a female figure, and four bronze statues, representing the infantry, artillery, cavalry and navy, sculpted by Caspar Buberl, which face the four cardinal points. Bronze bas-reliefs encircle the column above the statues. The female figure is a "nameless stone lady, "emblematic of Buffalo."
The dedication on the west (Main Street) side honors those who laid down their lives "in the war to maintain the union for the cause of their country and of mankind." Half of Abraham Lincoln's Gettysburg Address graces the east side of the monument. Several bas-relief panels feature scenes of Lincoln's original cabinet: Treasury Secretary Salmon Chase, Secretary of State William H. Seward, Attorney General Edward Bates, Postmaster General Montgomery Blair, Secretary of the Interior, Caleb Smith, Secretary of the Navy Gideon Welles, Major General Winfield Scott, and Secretary of War Simon Cameron.
Gallery
References
1882 sculptures
Buildings and structures completed in 1882
Buildings and structures in Erie County, New York
Union (American Civil War) monuments and memorials in New York (state) | wiki |
.bsp or .BSP may refer to:
.bsp (EAGLE), a file extension used by EAGLE for Gerber bottom solder paste files
.bsp (Quake), a file extension used by Quake for binary space partitioning files
See also
BSP (disambiguation) | wiki |
Triamcinolone diacetate is a synthetic glucocorticoid corticosteroid and a corticosteroid ester.
References
Corticosteroid esters
Glucocorticoids
Acetate esters | wiki |
The Hôtel d'Estrées is a hôtel particulier, a type of large townhouse of France, at 79 rue de Grenelle in the 7th arrondissement of Paris. It is the residence of the Ambassador of the Russian Federation to France. It was designed by Robert de Cotte, architect of King Louis XIV, and built between 1711 and 1713 for Madeleine-Diane de Bautru de Vaubrun, the Duchesse d'Estrées (1668-1753). After belonging to several owners, it was purchased by the Russian government in 1863 and became the Russian Embassy. Both Czar Alexander II of Russia and his grandson, Nicholas II, stayed in the residence when they visited Paris. In 1977 the Russian Embassy was moved to another building, and the Hotel became the residence of the Ambassador. It is now classified as a historic monument of France.
History
From Louis XIV to the Revolution
The Hôtel d'Estrées was designed by the architect Robert de Cotte (1656-1735), and was built between 1711 and 1713 for Madeleine-Diane de Bautru de Vaubrun, the duchess of Estrées. Robert De Cotte was the brother-in-law of Jules Hardouin-Mansard, and when Mansard died in 1708, de Cotte succeeded him as the chief architect (premier architect) of the King. De Cotte's other notable buildings in Paris included the Caserne des Mousquetaires noire, (1710),at 26-28 rue Charenton (12th arrondissement); the Abbey of Saint Denis, the Royal Library (later the Bibliothèque Nationale, site Richelieu) at 58 rue de Richelieu, which was finished by his son in 1727; and the facade of the Èglise Saint-Roche on rue Saint-Honoré, also finished after his death.
Following the death of the Duchess in 1753, her nephew, Louis-Antoine de Contaut-Biron, sold the house to Charlotte-Aglaé d'Orleans, the daughter of Philippe II, Duke of Orléans, the grandson of King Louis XIII and the Regent for King Louis XV until he reached maturity. After her death in 1761, the house was purchased by Anne-Françoise d'Harcourt, the marquis of Beuvon. His family lived in the house until the French Revolution.
From the French Revolution to 1917
During the French Revolution, the house was seized by the revolutionary government and sold to Henri Jacques Guillaume Clarke, an Irish-born French soldier and politician who became a Marshal of France, the Duc de Feitre, and Napoleon's Minister of War from 1808 until his downfall in 1815. After his death in 1818, it became the residence of the Comte de Montesquiou, the former President of the National Assembly. He in turn sold it in 1823 to the Duchesse de Tourzel.
In 1863, during the Second Empire of Napoleon III, the descendants of the Duchesse de Tourzel sold the house to the Imperial Russian government, represented by Ambassador Baron André de Boudberg. Following the purchase, the Russian government made extensive changes to the house. Several salons on the ground floor were made into the apartment of the Ambassador, while the central salon became his office. A large part of the original wall panelling of the original salons, dating to the 18th century, was preserved. More extensive renovations were carried out on the first floor, where the salons were made into reception rooms. The old walls were removed and the decor redone in the Second Empire style. The transformation of the house was completed in 1867.
A few months after the completion of the work, Emperor Alexander II of Russia came to Paris to visit the Universal Exposition of 1867, and welcomed Napoleon III and Empress Eugenie at a reception in the house. In 1896, his grandson, the newly-crowned Emperior Nicholas II, came to Paris with his wife Alexandra. They stayed for three days, during which the house briefly became the imperial Palace.
During his visit he laid the first stone for the Pont Alexandre III, named for his father.
After the Russian Revolution
Following the first phase of the Russian Revolution in March 1917, the house was occupied for a time by Vasily Maklakov, the Ambassador of the provisional Russian government to France. After the Bolshevik seizure of power in November 1917, ,France and Russia broke off diplomatic relations, and the house was occupied by representatives of the anti-Bolshevik white Russians in France, and served as their informal headquarters.
In October 1924, the French government of Edouard Herriot formally recognized the Soviet Union, and in December, 1930, the first Soviet ambassador to France, Leonid Krasin, took up residence in the house. During the Second World War, the building was occupied by the Germans.
In 1977, a new chancellery for the Embassy was completed in the 16th Arrondissement, and most Embassy offices moved there. The new building was inaugurated in by Leonid Brezhnev, General Secretary of the Central Committee of the Communist Party of the Soviet Union. In 1978 the Hôtel d'Estrées was closed for four years of extensive renovation, which restored the building to its appearance during the 19th century. When the work was completed in 1982, it became the residence of the Ambassador.
The ground floor
The ground floor of the building preserves many elements of the decoration of the house from the 18th century, while the upper floor was extensively remodeled into the style of the Second Empire.
The ground floor was used as the imperial apartments during the visit of Nicholas II and Empress Alexandra in October 1896.
The entrance of the building leads from the courtyard into the grand vestibule. inside the door is a bust of Emperor Alexander II by the contemporary Russian sculptor, Alexander Bourganov. on the walls are bronze plaques with the names of all Russian Ambassadors to France since 1701.
In the corridor leading to the grand stairway are portraits of three other Russian sovereigns; Peter the Great, Nicholas I of Russia and Alexander II of Russia.
The gray salon preserves the wood panelling from the 18th century. Over the doors are grisaille paintings of putti, in various human activities.
The next room is he Ambassador’s office, decorated as it was in 1924. The desk is the original one used by Ambassadors since that date. On the wall is a Flemish tapestry from the 17th century, “the Hunt”. The office has three large windows looking out onto the garden.
The white salon, next to the office, was used as the bed chamber by Nicholas II and Alexandra.
Behind the building is the garden, decorated with flowerbeds and trees. In recent years it has been used to display works of sculptor by contemporary Russian artists.
The first floor
The grand stairway, fade of marble with three landing, connects the ground floor with the “etage noble”, or first floor. It dates to 1713, when the house was built. The stairway is decorated with a large tapestry, “The Triumph of Alexander”, made in Brussels in the 18th century after a painting by Charles Le Brun, the court painter of Louis XIV.
The small antechamber at the top of the stairway has the original panelling 18th century, with the coat of arms of the Dukes of Harcourt.
The antechamber opens onto the Gold Salon, the former Salon d’Honneur. The doors, walls and cornices are gilded with gold leaf, and the architecture includes four columns with Corinthian capitals. Over the doors are illustrations from the fables of La Fontaine.
Next to the Gold Salon is the Green Salon, which was the dining room for the ambassadors of Imperial Russia. It contains Russian paintings from the 19th century, including “The Mirage” by the Russian-Armenian marine painter Ivan Aivazovsky representing a vision of Constantinople.
The antechamber also opens onto the Red Salon, which was used for official ceremonies, and was used as the throne room by Nicholas II during his visit to Paris. The furniture is in the Louis XV style, and includes a clock from that period by Lerolle and Freres, Paris, placed on a red granite chimney. The decoration over the doors dates to the first owners of the house, and represents scenes of court life.
The Red Salon leads to the Bleu Salon, an oval room with a light blue color which serves as a dining room for the Ambassador for official functions. The room had been transformed into a throne room for the planned visit of Alexander III which never took place, and was decorated with the monograms of the Emperor, while the cornices were decorated with the Imperial coats of arms. During the visit of Nicholas II, the room was used as his private office.
Art
References
Notes and citations
Bibliography
Brochure published by the Cultural Services section of the Embassy of the Russian Federation in France, for the Journées Europeenes du Patrimoine, September 19–20, 2015
Official residences in France
Imperial residences in France
Buildings and structures in the 7th arrondissement of Paris
Estrées
1713 establishments in France | wiki |
Billings House may refer to:
Billings House (Florida), Liberty Billing's historic house in Florida
Billings Estate Museum, a historic residence in Ottawa, Ontario
Swift-Kyle House, a historic residence in Columbus, Georgia
Frederick Billings House, a historic house in Cambridge, Massachusetts | wiki |
The foot sweep (also footsweep) is a move in many different styles of martial arts. It is used to trip an opponent. Foot sweeps are commonly used in Tang Soo Do, karate, Muay Thai and jujutsu. In addition, many closer sweeps like the Trap Sweep and Two-Leg Sweep can resemble Judo throws.
Types
Drop sweep
Commonly thought of when someone hears “foot sweep,” the drop sweep involves spinning and sweeping one or two legs from a crouched position. This move is also known as the front sweep in martial arts circles.
Single-leg sweep
When the opponent has one foot off the ground (usually in mid-kick) and the defender moves past this kick and sweeps out the standing leg.
Trap sweep
A variant of the single-leg sweep, this involves catching the opponent's kick with one hand and sweeping the back leg. The advantage is closer proximity and less chance of failure, but it leaves the defender open to hand attacks to the head.
Two-leg sweep
When the opponent has both feet on the ground and the defender strikes behind both legs, usually accompanied by a blow across the chest to further off-balance the opponent.
Forward sweep
A sweep aimed at the front of the opponent's legs, as opposed to the more conventional behind-the-legs strike. This is considered more dangerous due to the possibility of injuring the opponent's knees or shins if the sweep is too powerful or misapplied.
Scissor sweep
The scissor sweep involves positioning one leg across the opponent's lower chest/stomach and striking behind the knee or calves with the other leg, closing the legs in a “scissor” motion. This can be done as an offensive technique, leaping into the air toward the opponent, but is more commonly used as an escape when the opponent has trapped the defender's kick across his chest.
Reverse scissor sweep
A variant of the scissor sweep, it is an offensive technique used in opposite position from a traditional scissor; that is, the higher leg strikes at the opponent's back and the lower leg scissors against the front of the opponent's knees. Like the forward sweep, this can be very dangerous due to potential injury to the opponent's knees, spine, and kidneys.
See also
Sweep (martial arts)
References
External links
Fundamentals of High Performance Wushu: Taolu Jumps and Spins by Raymond Wu, .
(Wayback Machine copy)
Kicks
Martial art techniques | wiki |
The gram per cubic centimetre is a unit of density in the CGS system, commonly used in chemistry, defined as mass in grams divided by volume in cubic centimetres. The official SI symbols are g/cm3, g·cm−3, or g cm−3. It is equivalent to the units gram per millilitre (g/mL) and kilogram per litre (kg/L). The density of water is about 1 g/cm3, since the gram was originally defined as the mass of one cubic centimetre of water at its maximum density at 4 °C.
Conversions
1 g/cm3 is equivalent to:
= 1000 g/L (exactly)
= 1000 kg/m3 (exactly)
≈ (approximately)
≈ (approximately)
1 kg/m3 = 0.001 g/cm3(exactly)
1 lb/cu ft ≈ (approximately)
1 oz/US gal ≈ (approximately)
See also
Kilogram per cubic metre
Units of chemical measurement
Units of density
Centimetre–gram–second system of units | wiki |
Hyperacuity may refer to:
Hyperacuity (album)
Hyperacuity (scientific term) | wiki |
YEPP may refer to:
Youth of the European People's Party
Samsung YEPP, Samsung's digital audio player | wiki |
Shriek may refer to:
Screaming, a loud vocalization
Exclamation mark, in some computing and mathematical contexts
Shriek map, in category theory, a type of unusual functor
Shriek (album) or the title song, by Wye Oak, 2014
"Shriek" (Batman Beyond), a television episode
Shriek (Batman Beyond character), the namesake character introduced in the episode
Shriek (character), a Marvel Comics character
Shriek: An Afterword, a 2006 novel by Jeff VanderMeer
Shriek, in the Dragon Age media franchise, a type of Darkspawn creature
Shriek DuBois, a character in the TV series CatDog
The Shriek, a 1933 American animated short film
See also
Shrieker (disambiguation)
Shrek (disambiguation) | wiki |
Shito or shitor din (lit. 'black pepper') is a hot black pepper sauce ubiquitous in Ghanaian cuisine. The name comes from the Ga language.
Shito sauce consists primarily of fish or vegetable oil, ginger, dried fish, prawns, crustaceans, tomatoes, garlic, peppers and spices. These ingredients are usually blended and cooked in vegetable or corn oil for a little over an hour to create the sauce. The blend of spices and fish differs between different regions and villages but owes its original recipe to the Ga tribe.
In Ghana, shito is used with a variety of dishes. These include kenkey, steamed rice, garri and waakye (rice and beans) and banku. Indeed, its uses have been adapted to that of a local ketchup, hot sauce or chili oil. It is not uncommon to find shito being eaten with white bread or spring rolls. In most Chinese restaurants across Ghana, shito replaces layou as a condiment to fried rice/steamed rice.
Ground shito
Shito is not always hot black pepper and it can also be prepared without the use of oil. The ingredients for this type of shito are fresh pepper, onions, tomatoes and a little salt mashed together in an earthenware bowl popularly known as 'asanka' and a pestle shaped like an hour glass. The colour of the resulting sauce is red (shitor tsulu) or green (kpakpo shito) depending on the colour of the pepper used. It can be eaten with banku, akple, gari, kenkey and steamed rice.
See also
Chili oil
Solomon Gundy
References
Chili sauce and paste
Ghanaian cuisine | wiki |
The Silver Bullet (1935), een film van Bernard B. Ray
The Silver Bullet (1942), een film van Joseph H. Lewis
Zie ook
Silver Bullet
Bob Seger voor The Silver Bullet Band | wiki |
Catania–Fontanarossa Airport () , also known as Vincenzo Bellini Airport, is an international airport southwest of Catania, the second largest city on the Italian island of Sicily. It is named after the opera composer Vincenzo Bellini, who was born in Catania.
According to Assaeroporti, it is the busiest airport in Sicily and the fourth busiest in Italy in 2020. Major airlines such as ITA Airways, Lufthansa and KLM offer services here and connect numerous European destinations such as Rome, Munich, Amsterdam and Berlin, while low-cost airlines such as easyJet and Ryanair offer flights to leisure destinations.
With nearly two million passengers carried in 2016, the Catania/Fontanarossa – Rome/Fiumicino route is Italy's busiest air route, and Europe's second busiest in 2021.
History
Early years
Catania Airport's history dates back to 1924, when it was the region's first airport. During World War II it was seized by the Allies during the Sicily Campaign and used by the United States Army Air Forces as a military airfield. Twelfth Air Force used the airport as a combat airfield, stationing the 340th Bombardment Group, which flew B-25 Mitchells from 27 August to 19 November 1943. In addition, the HQ, 51st Troop Carrier Wing used the airport from 29 September 1943 to 29 June 1944. Various transport units used the airport for the rest of the war. After the war, it was turned back over to civil authorities.
By the late 1940s, it was clear that the airport was fast running out of space and it was deemed necessary to relocate it. In 1950, the new bigger and improved Catania Airport opened for business.
After 20 years of unexpected growth and high passengers levels, in 1981 it was once again necessary to restructure the airport to cope with demand.
Development since the 2000s
In order to cope with the increasing passengers figures, a new terminal, equipped with 22 gates and six loading bridges, opened on 8 May 2007 replacing the old facilities. The current "investment programme" has ensured that Catania Fontanarossa Airport continues to look forward and plan for growth over the next ten years, implementing a whole new infrastructure and making many additions, including a panoramic restaurant, a new airside runway and further office space.
Ryanair started flying to Catania in 2013, initially announcing only one route to Catania while also starting operations to Comiso Airport, a new airport which opened in 2013 and is located approximately 100 km from Catania, near the city of Ragusa.
To cope with the fast passenger growth, two additional terminals were opened in 2018 (Terminal B and C). Terminal C is used exclusively by easyJet.
Airlines and destinations
The following airlines operate regular scheduled and charter flights at Catania–Fontanarossa Airport:
Statistics
Ground transportation
Train
A new train station, Catania-Aeroporto Fontanarossa served by regional train lines such as the Messina-Syracuse railway, the Catania-Palermo railway, as well as the Catania-Caltagirone railway.
Catania-Aeroporto Fontanarossa rail station is part of Catania's suburban railway line. The station is situated between Bicocca and Catania-Acquicella stations.
A typical journey to and from Catania Central Station will take less than 10 minutes, and approximately one hour to and from Syracuse or Taormina train stations.
Car
The airport is located close to the A19 motorway, which links Catania with Palermo and central Sicily, while the European route E45 runs to Syracuse in the south.
Bus
A shuttle bus service provides transport into Catania city centre and the Central Train Station, while scheduled bus services to other parts of the island are also available direct from the airport. The main bus station is opposite the railway station and 10 minutes walk from the city centre.
See also
Other airports in Sicily:
Palermo Airport Falcone e Borsellino – also known as Punta Raisi Airport
Trapani Birgi Airport Vincenzo Florio
Comiso Airport Vincenzo Magliocco
References
External links
Official website
Airports in Sicily
Airport
Airport
Airfields of the United States Army Air Forces in Italy
Airports established in 1924
1924 establishments in Italy | wiki |
Fire on the Moon may refer to:
Of a Fire on the Moon, 1970 book by Norman Mailer
Fire on the Moon (Dream Command album), a 1990 album released by Comsat Angels under an alias
Fire on the Moon (Mother's Army album) | wiki |
Robert of Beverley (died 1285) was a 13th-century British mason and sculptor who served as master mason of Westminster Abbey after Master John of Gloucester as well as contributing to the Tower of London and a number of castles and manors as surveyor of the kings' works.
References
Binski, Paul (1990) The Cosmati at Westminster and the English Court Style. The Art Bulletin 72(1):6-34.
Christopher Wilson (2004), ‘Beverley, Robert of (d. 1285)’, Oxford Dictionary of National Biography.
British sculptors
British male sculptors
1285 deaths
Year of birth unknown | wiki |
Naver VIBE (Hangul:네이버 바이브) is a music streaming service developed by Naver Corporation. The service was operated alongside Naver's other music service, Naver Music, until the service ended on November 1, 2020 and merged with VIBE. Naver also operates another music service under its Japanese subsidiary, Line Corporation, called Line Music. It is the fifth largest music streaming service in South Korea.
Overview
Unlike Naver's other music service, VIBE relies on artificial intelligence to curate music and recommend songs based on what users listen to based on the sound of the music rather than what's popular on charts like Naver Music. VIBE also introduced a new payment system where users pay for songs they listen to rather than paying a monthly fee. It also revamped the way it compensated artists by adopting a similar payment model used by Spotify and Apple Music where they are paid proportionally to their streaming volume of music.
See also
Line Music
Melon (online music service)
References
Music streaming services
IOS software
Android (operating system) software
Internet properties established in 2018 | wiki |
Metrocolor is the trade name used by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer (MGM) for films processed at their laboratory. Virtually all of these films were shot on Kodak's Eastmancolor film.
Although MGM used Kodak film products, MGM did not use all of Kodak's processes, and could not call their final product Eastmancolor. Kodak's products were used by MGM instead of having their film processed by Technicolor. MGM owned its own lab, located on its Culver City, California lot until 1986, when it was sold by then-owner Ted Turner to Lorimar, which then sold it to a consortium including Technicolor.
References
External links
List of Metrocolor-processed films at Internet Movie Database
Film and video technology
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer | wiki |
The Kraków sausage (Polish: kiełbasa krakowska) is a type of Polish sausage (kielbasa), usually served as a cold cut. The name is the adjective form of the name of the city of Kraków (mediaeval capital of the Polish–Lithuanian Commonwealth till the late 16th century). It is made from cuts of lean pork seasoned with pepper, allspice, coriander and garlic, packed into large casings and smoked.
It is registered under the name "Kiełbasa krakowska sucha staropolska" ("old-Polish dry sausage of Kraków") as a Traditional Speciality Guaranteed product in the European Union and the United Kingdom.
Gallery
See also
List of smoked foods
Rookworst
References
Polish sausages
Lunch meat
Smoked meat
Polish products with protected designation of origin
Cooked sausages | wiki |
Gott's may refer to:
Gott's Park or Armlet Park, park in Leeds, West Yorkshire, Northern England
Gott's Roadside, Northern California restaurant group
See also
Gott (disambiguation) | wiki |
The tuberosity of the tibia or tibial tuberosity or tibial tubercle is an elevation on the proximal, anterior aspect of the tibia, just below where the anterior surfaces of the lateral and medial tibial condyles end.
Structure
The tuberosity of the tibia gives attachment to the patellar ligament, which attaches to the patella from where the suprapatellar ligament forms the distal tendon of the quadriceps femoris muscles. The quadriceps muscles consist of the rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus medialis, and vastus intermedius. These quadriceps muscles are innervated by the femoral nerve. The tibial tuberosity thus forms the terminal part of the large structure that acts as a lever to extend the knee-joint and prevents the knee from collapsing when the foot strikes the ground. The two ligaments, the patella, and the tibial tuberosity are all superficial, easily palpable structures.
Fractures
Tibial tuberosity fractures are infrequent fractures, most common in adolescents. In running and jumping movements, extreme contraction of the knee extensors can result in avulsion fractures of the tuberosity apophysis. A cast is all that is required if the fragment is not displaced from its normal position on the tibia. However, if the fracture fragment is displaced, then surgery is necessary to allow for normal function.
See also
Tenderness in the tibial tuberosity can arise from Osgood-Schlatter disease or deep infrapatellar bursitis. A bony prominence on the tibial tuberosity can be the result of ongoing Osgood-Schlatter’s irritation in an adolescent with open growth plates, or what remains of Osgood-Schlatter’s in adults.
Additional images
Notes
References
Bones of the lower limb
Tibia | wiki |
Kill Me Again is a 1989 American neo-noir thriller film directed by John Dahl, and starring Val Kilmer, Joanne Whalley and Michael Madsen.
Plot
Violent criminal Vince (Michael Madsen) and his girlfriend and partner in crime Fay (Joanne Whalley-Kilmer) rob a pair of Las Vegas mobsters of a briefcase containing $850,000, killing one of them in the process. During their getaway the couple fight over what to do with the money and Fay loses. Deciding she has had enough of his controlling ways, Fay knocks Vince out and drives away with the money.
Jack Andrews (Val Kilmer) is a widowed private investigator operating out of Reno. Guilt-ridden over his failure to save his wife from the lake car crash that killed her, he has accrued $10,000 in gambling debts and loan sharks are circling. Fay turns up at his office posing as a battered wife on the run from her abusive husband and offers him ten grand to fake her death so she can start a new life. Although he doubts Fay’s story, Jack feels sorry for her and agrees to help.
Jack and Fay stage her death at a motel, though unbeknownst to Jack a matchbook with his name written in it is left in the room. Jack falls for Fay and agrees to meet her later at her motel, but after ditching the evidence-filled car in a lake he returns to find she has fled to Las Vegas, along with the remaining half of the money she owes him.
The next day the cops arrest Jack for Fay’s murder but release him due to insufficient evidence. Meanwhile Vince reads about the murder in the paper and learns Jack’s name. Jack, believing Fay must have had a good reason to leave, prepares to follow her to Vegas, but is thwarted when the loan sharks return and take the rest of the advance she gave him. Shortly after, he is visited by Vince, who attacks him and demands to know where Fay is. Jack outwits him and escapes, leaving for Vegas in his car. The mob learn from the loan sharks that Jack has their money, and resolve to kill him.
Jack reaches Vegas and finds out from his partner, Alan (Jon Gries), that Fay is staying at a hotel under an alias similar to the fake ID he gave her. Jack finds her gambling at the hotel casino’s craps table, though not before the pit boss spots the mob money she is using and calls the gangsters. Jack takes Fay to her room to get his money and sees the briefcase full of cash. Before he can find out what is really going on, a couple of mobsters barge in, looking for the money. When one of them prepares to kill them, Fay pulls a gun and shoots him dead while the other escapes. Jack and Fay flee in his car and Fay admits to him she stole the money from Vince after they stole it from the mob. Fay manages to persuade Jack she ran because she was afraid Vince would kill her.
Jack and Fay drive to a lakeside motel where they make love. Although he admits he does not trust her, Jack suggests they go to Maine to start a new life together, and Fay agrees. The next morning they hear on the radio the police are seeking them for the murder of the mobster, who was part of a powerful crime family. ‘Kill me again,’ says Fay, suggesting they fake their own deaths to escape. Jack calls Alan to say goodbye, unwittingly revealing their location.
Jack and Fay take a boat onto the lake where he explains his plan: they’ll blow up the boat to make it appear they died in an accident, then swim to shore and retrieve the money from a drop off before fleeing to Maine. Meanwhile, Vince tortures Alan to find out Fay and Jack’s whereabouts before killing him.
Jack leaves a reluctant and untrusting Fay at the motel while he drives to the drop off to bury the money. He stops to buy supplies at the Arizona border, thinks about driving away with the money, but decides to stick to the plan. He buries the money and supplies on an Indian reservation and returns to the motel where he finds Fay tied up by a gun-toting Vince, who demands to know where the money is. Jack calls Vince’s bluff, knowing he can’t kill him if he wants to find the money. Vince threatens to kill Fay instead, but again Jack calls his bluff, much to Fay’s dismay. Jack proposes a deal: he’ll take Fay and half the money and let Vince know in two days where the rest is. Vince ties Jack up and shuts him in the closet so he can think over his offer, but instead proceeds to rape Fay. She grabs the gun and shoots Vince, and she and Jack escape.
Their plan scuppered, Jack and Fay drive to the drop off to retrieve the money. Just as Jack digs up the case, Vince appears, alive and well, and Jack realises he has been tricked. Fay shoots him and he falls into the lake. She and Vince take the case and drive away in Jack’s car, only to find they too have been tricked: the case is empty. The cops appear and chase the couple to the border where they crash into a fuel tank, dying in the explosion. Jack, wounded but alive and in possession of the money, is rescued from the lake by a pair of Indians who drive him to safety.
Cast
Val Kilmer as Jack Andrews
Joanne Whalley-Kilmer as Fay Forrester
Michael Madsen as Vince Miller
Jon Gries as Alan Swayzie
Pat Mulligan as Sammy
Michael Sharrett as Tim, Motel Clerk
Michael Greene as Lieutenant Hendrix
Reception
Critical response
The film drew a mixed reception. Variety gave it a mostly positive review, stating: "The tale of a down-and-out detective and a seamy femme fatale is a thoroughly professional little entertainment. Time Out gave it a mostly negative review, complaining: "Derived from assorted Hitchcocks and noir classics, the tortuous storyline of writer-director Dahl's determinedly sordid thriller has its moments," but was critical of the three lead actors and concludes: "Setting its study of betrayal and deceit in and around the gambling towns of the Nevada desert, the film sporadically achieves a truly seedy atmosphere, but there are too many symbols, too many loose ends, and too many vaguely sensationalist scenes.
Box office
The film was a failure at the box office, but it later achieved some success on home video.
See also
List of American films of 1989
References
External links
1989 films
1989 directorial debut films
1989 thriller films
American independent films
American neo-noir films
American thriller films
Films directed by John Dahl
Films produced by Steve Golin
Films scored by William Olvis
Films shot in Nevada
Films with screenplays by John Dahl
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
PolyGram Filmed Entertainment films
1980s English-language films
1980s American films | wiki |
Phyteuma spicatum is een plant uit de klokjesfamilie (Campanulaceae). In de Benelux komen van nature twee ondersoorten voor:
Zwartblauwe rapunzel (Phyteuma spicatum subsp. nigrum)
Witte rapunzel, (Phyteuma spicatum subsp. spicatum)
Externe link
Klokjesfamilie
Plant uit het Palearctisch gebied | wiki |
War of the Ring is a 1976 board wargame published by Fantasy Games Unlimited. It is based on the Middle-earth works of J. R. R. Tolkien.
Gameplay
War of the Ring is a two player game with one player as Gondor and one player as Mordor as they compete to control the One Ring.
Reception
Tony Watson reviewed War of the Ring in The Space Gamer No. 12. Watson commented that "The game plays well as game, but the use of a Diplomacy type system in a game of this nature is questionable."
In the 1978 White Dwarf gaming magazine (Issue 05) it was reviewed by Mike Westhead. He gave it a score of 5 out of 10, disliking the presentation, expense, rule ambiguities and the fact it had no control markers.
References
Board games based on Middle-earth
Board games introduced in 1976
Fantasy Games Unlimited games | wiki |
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