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The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon is an American late-night talk show that airs weeknights at 11:35 pm Eastern/10:35 pm Central on NBC in the United States. The hour-long show has aired since February 17, 2014 and is hosted by actor, comedian and performer Jimmy Fallon, an alumnus of Saturday Night Live. Hip hop/neo soul band The Roots serve as the show's house band, and Steve Higgins as the show's announcer. A total of episodes have aired. Roots drummer Questlove often announces the episode number just before Higgins introduces Fallon.
Episodes
2014
2015
2016
2017
2018
2019
2020
2021
2022
2023
See also
List of The Tonight Show episodes
References
External links
Lineups at Interbridge
Lists of American non-fiction television series episodes
Lists of variety television series episodes
The Tonight Show Starring Jimmy Fallon | wiki |
The orbital period (also revolution period) is the amount of time a given astronomical object takes to complete one orbit around another object. In astronomy, it usually applies to planets or asteroids orbiting the Sun, moons orbiting planets, exoplanets orbiting other stars, or binary stars. It may also refer to the time it takes a satellite orbiting a planet or moon to complete one orbit.
For celestial objects in general, the orbital period is determined by a 360° revolution of one body around its primary, e.g. Earth around the Sun.
Periods in astronomy are expressed in units of time, usually hours, days, or years.
Small body orbiting a central body
According to Kepler's Third Law, the orbital period T of two point masses orbiting each other in a circular or elliptic orbit is:
where:
a is the orbit's semi-major axis
G is the gravitational constant,
M is the mass of the more massive body.
For all ellipses with a given semi-major axis the orbital period is the same, regardless of eccentricity.
Inversely, for calculating the distance where a body has to orbit in order to have a given orbital period T:
For instance, for completing an orbit every 24 hours around a mass of 100 kg, a small body has to orbit at a distance of 1.08 meters from the central body's center of mass.
In the special case of perfectly circular orbits, the semimajor axis a is equal to the radius of the orbit, and the orbital velocity is constant and equal to
where:
r is the circular orbit's radius in meters,
This corresponds to times (≈ 0.707 times) the escape velocity.
Effect of central body's density
For a perfect sphere of uniform density, it is possible to rewrite the first equation without measuring the mass as:
where:
r is the sphere's radius
a is the orbit's semi-major axis in metres,
G is the gravitational constant,
ρ is the density of the sphere in kilograms per cubic metre.
For instance, a small body in circular orbit 10.5 cm above the surface of a sphere of tungsten half a metre in radius would travel at slightly more than 1 mm/s, completing an orbit every hour. If the same sphere were made of lead the small body would need to orbit just 6.7 mm above the surface for sustaining the same orbital period.
When a very small body is in a circular orbit barely above the surface of a sphere of any radius and mean density ρ (in kg/m3), the above equation simplifies to (since )
Thus the orbital period in low orbit depends only on the density of the central body, regardless of its size.
So, for the Earth as the central body (or any other spherically symmetric body with the same mean density, about 5,515 kg/m3, e.g. Mercury with 5,427 kg/m3 and Venus with 5,243 kg/m3) we get:
T = 1.41 hours
and for a body made of water (ρ ≈ 1,000 kg/m3), or bodies with a similar density, e.g. Saturn's moons Iapetus with 1,088 kg/m3 and Tethys with 984 kg/m3 we get:
T = 3.30 hours
Thus, as an alternative for using a very small number like G, the strength of universal gravity can be described using some reference material, such as water: the orbital period for an orbit just above the surface of a spherical body of water is 3 hours and 18 minutes. Conversely, this can be used as a kind of "universal" unit of time if we have a unit of density.
Two bodies orbiting each other
In celestial mechanics, when both orbiting bodies' masses have to be taken into account, the orbital period T can be calculated as follows:
where:
a is the sum of the semi-major axes of the ellipses in which the centers of the bodies move, or equivalently, the semi-major axis of the ellipse in which one body moves, in the frame of reference with the other body at the origin (which is equal to their constant separation for circular orbits),
M1 + M2 is the sum of the masses of the two bodies,
G is the gravitational constant.
In a parabolic or hyperbolic trajectory, the motion is not periodic, and the duration of the full trajectory is infinite.
Related periods
For celestial objects in general, the orbital period typically refers to the sidereal period, determined by a 360° revolution of one body around its primary relative to the fixed stars projected in the sky. For the case of the Earth orbiting around the Sun, this period is referred to as the sidereal year. This is the orbital period in an inertial (non-rotating) frame of reference.
Orbital periods can be defined in several ways. The tropical period is more particularly about the position of the parent star. It is the basis for the solar year, and respectively the calendar year.
The synodic period refers to not the orbital relation to the parent star, but to other celestial objects, making it not a mere different approach to the orbit of an object around its parent, but a period of orbital relations with other objects, normally Earth, and their orbits around the Sun. It applies to the elapsed time where planets return to the same kind of phenomenon or location, such as when any planet returns between its consecutive observed conjunctions with or oppositions to the Sun. For example, Jupiter has a synodic period of 398.8 days from Earth; thus, Jupiter's opposition occurs once roughly every 13 months.
There are many periods related to the orbits of objects, each of which are often used in the various fields of astronomy and astrophysics, particularly they must not be confused with other revolving periods like rotational periods. Examples of some of the common orbital ones include the following:
The synodic period is the amount of time that it takes for an object to reappear at the same point in relation to two or more other objects. In common usage, these two objects are typically Earth and the Sun. The time between two successive oppositions or two successive conjunctions is also equal to the synodic period. For celestial bodies in the solar system, the synodic period (with respect to Earth and the Sun) differs from the tropical period owing to Earth's motion around the Sun. For example, the synodic period of the Moon's orbit as seen from Earth, relative to the Sun, is 29.5 mean solar days, since the Moon's phase and position relative to the Sun and Earth repeats after this period. This is longer than the sidereal period of its orbit around Earth, which is 27.3 mean solar days, owing to the motion of Earth around the Sun.
The draconitic period (also draconic period or nodal period), is the time that elapses between two passages of the object through its ascending node, the point of its orbit where it crosses the ecliptic from the southern to the northern hemisphere. This period differs from the sidereal period because both the orbital plane of the object and the plane of the ecliptic precess with respect to the fixed stars, so their intersection, the line of nodes, also precesses with respect to the fixed stars. Although the plane of the ecliptic is often held fixed at the position it occupied at a specific epoch, the orbital plane of the object still precesses, causing the draconitic period to differ from the sidereal period.
The anomalistic period is the time that elapses between two passages of an object at its periapsis (in the case of the planets in the Solar System, called the perihelion), the point of its closest approach to the attracting body. It differs from the sidereal period because the object's semi-major axis typically advances slowly.
Also, the tropical period of Earth (a tropical year) is the interval between two alignments of its rotational axis with the Sun, also viewed as two passages of the object at a right ascension of 0 hr. One Earth year is slightly shorter than the period for the Sun to complete one circuit along the ecliptic (a sidereal year) because the inclined axis and equatorial plane slowly precess (rotate with respect to reference stars), realigning with the Sun before the orbit completes. This cycle of axial precession for Earth, known as precession of the equinoxes, recurs roughly every 25,772 years.
Periods can be also defined under different specific astronomical definitions that are mostly caused by the small complex external gravitational influences of other celestial objects. Such variations also include the true placement of the centre of gravity between two astronomical bodies (barycenter), perturbations by other planets or bodies, orbital resonance, general relativity, etc. Most are investigated by detailed complex astronomical theories using celestial mechanics using precise positional observations of celestial objects via astrometry.
Synodic period
One of the observable characteristics of two bodies which orbit a third body in different orbits, and thus have different orbital periods, is their synodic period, which is the time between conjunctions.
An example of this related period description is the repeated cycles for celestial bodies as observed from the Earth's surface, the synodic period, applying to the elapsed time where planets return to the same kind of phenomenon or location. For example, when any planet returns between its consecutive observed conjunctions with or oppositions to the Sun. For example, Jupiter has a synodic period of 398.8 days from Earth; thus, Jupiter's opposition occurs once roughly every 13 months.
If the orbital periods of the two bodies around the third are called T1 and T2, so that T1 < T2, their synodic period is given by:
Examples of sidereal and synodic periods
Table of synodic periods in the Solar System, relative to Earth:
In the case of a planet's moon, the synodic period usually means the Sun-synodic period, namely, the time it takes the moon to complete its illumination phases, completing the solar phases for an astronomer on the planet's surface. The Earth's motion does not determine this value for other planets because an Earth observer is not orbited by the moons in question. For example, Deimos's synodic period is 1.2648 days, 0.18% longer than Deimos's sidereal period of 1.2624 d.
Synodic periods relative to other planets
The concept of synodic period applies not just to the Earth, but also to other planets as well, and the formula for computation is the same as the one given above. Here is a table which lists the synodic periods of some planets relative to each other:
Example of orbital periods: binary stars
See also
Geosynchronous orbit derivation
Rotation period – time that it takes to complete one revolution around its axis of rotation
Satellite revisit period
Sidereal time
Sidereal year
Opposition (astronomy)
List of periodic comets
Notes
Bibliography
External links
Time in astronomy
Period | wiki |
The Norris Cup was a trophy awarded by the Norris Candy Company to the best all around athlete at several North Carolina colleges. Jack McDowall won it twice.
List of trophy winners
The following is a list of winners.
See also
Porter Cup
References
College football awards | wiki |
Cosette is a feminine given name, is pronounced koh-ZETT. It is of French origin, is best known as the heroine of "Les Misérables" (1862) by Victor Hugo, Cosette was the nickname given to the girl named Euphrasie by her mother.
Meaning
Cosette in modern name dictionaries give the meaning as "victorious," but it doesn't appear to have been in use as a first name until after Hugo published Les Miserables, although "Cozette" sometimes appeared as a surname. Victor Hugo said he created Cosette from "chosette", meaning "little thing" in French.
Popularity
The name Cosette is of French origin, and is used mostly in English speaking countries, as the novel of "Misérables" the name also got international position in other countries and languages of the world.
Despite the popularity of Les Misérables, the name was given to only seventy-five girls in 2011.
External links
Cosette (Character) at the Internet Movie Database
Search for Cosette at the Internet Broadway Database
Notes
Feminine given names | wiki |
This is a list of bridges and other crossings of the Hudson River, from its mouth at the Upper New York Bay upstream to its cartographic beginning at Henderson Lake in Newcomb, New York.
Crossings
The crossings are listed from south to north.
See also
List of ferries across the Hudson River to New York City
List of fixed crossings of the East River
List of ferries across the East River
References
External links
Hudson River Crossings (Roads of Metro New York)
Bridges in New York (state)
Hudson River
Hudson River | wiki |
Andrew Gunn may refer to:
Andrew Gunn (director), British television director
Andrew Gunn (film producer) (born 1969), Canadian-born American film producer | wiki |
Expo '92 is the informal name of the World's Fair held in 1992, which had two sites:
Seville Expo '92 Universal Exposition in Seville, Spain
and the minor Genoa Expo '92 International Exposition in Genoa, Italy, opened on May 15, 1992
See also
Expo 92 motorcycle Grand Prix | wiki |
NGC 4464 is an elliptical galaxy located about 70 million light-years away in the constellation of Virgo. NGC 4464 was discovered by astronomer William Herschel on December 28, 1785. NGC 4464 is a member of the Virgo Cluster.
See also
List of NGC objects (4001–5000)
References
External links
Elliptical galaxies
Virgo (constellation)
4464
41148
7619
Astronomical objects discovered in 1785
Virgo Cluster | wiki |
An honesty bar is an unattended beverage bar, typically in the lobby or lounge of a hotel, where payment is left to the guest. Honesty bars differ significantly from in-room mini-bars, where any consumption is automatically charged to the guest's account.
Honesty bars are less common than staffed bars, but can be found in a number of boutique hotels and other small hotels, and the executive floors of fine hotels. No staff attend the bar and therefore it is left to the honesty of the guest to report their own consumption. Honesty bars are convenient, since a guest can make or serve a drink at any time, keeping a tab for themself for the length of the stay. Generally drinks are cheaper in an honesty bar, since no staff must be paid to attend the area continuously.
Honesty bars are generally stocked with popular beverages, mixers, and feature a standard bar setup. It is common to find a manual of basic cocktails.
See also
Honor system
Honesty box
References
Hotel terminology
Bars (establishments)
Types of drinking establishment | wiki |
Othello is Liz White's 1980 dramatic adaptation of William Shakespeare's Othello. An all black cast and crew, including actor Yaphet Kotto, created the film.
Cast
Yaphet Kotto as Othello
Benjamin Ashburn as Montano
Olive Bowles as Emilia
Louis Chisholm, Jr. as Cassio
Audrey Dixon as Desdemona
Richard Dixon as Iago
Douglas Gray as Roderigo
Lincoln Pope as Duke of Venice
Liz White as Bianca
Jim Williams as Brabantio
Production
White's Othello began as an acclaimed performance in 1960-1961 at Shearer Summer Theater, White's own repository company on Martha's Vineyeard, and in 1960 in Harlem. Shearer began the repository with a mission to create more roles for the black actors and more jobs for black theater technicians. The entire cast and crew of the film are black.
Filming
With help from Charles Dorkins, White directed the film over the summers from 1962-1966. Most involved with the project were students or maintained part- or full-time jobs during filming—even White worked as a stage dresser during production. The film was further delayed when Yaphet Kotto began his Hollywood movie career.
Casting
White herself played Bianca and she enlisted her son and daughter-in-law, Richard and Audrey Dixon, as Iago and Desdemona.
Release
The film did not screen until 1980, when it had its official debut at Howard University. In White's biography in the promotion materials for the debut, it reads: "[Liz] works out of her apartment in the Dunbar complex in Harlem and at the editing space she rents in the Screen Building on Broadway. She is cutting and editing a print of her feature length film, "Othello", sleeping on the studio floor some nights." The film's release was in part due to White's reluctance to label the film an "art" film. She attempted to market the film to various studios, including Warner Brothers. It has never been released commercially.
References
External links
1980 Program for Othello
Promotional material for Othello
Liz White's "Othello" by Peter Donaldson
1980 films
1980s English-language films
African-American drama films
American films based on plays
Films based on Othello
Unreleased American films | wiki |
Lovers or Lovers? is a 1927 silent film romance drama produced and distributed by MGM and directed by John M. Stahl. It stars Ramon Novarro and Alice Terry. It is based on the 1908 play The World and His Wife and is a remake of a 1920 silent of the same name from Paramount. Lovers is a lost film.
Cast
Ramon Novarro - Jose
Alice Terry - Felicia
Edward Martindel - Don Julian
Edward Connelly - Don Severo
George K. Arthur - Pepito
Lillian Leighton - Dona Mercedes
Holmes Herbert - Milton
John Miljan - Alvarez
Roy D'Arcy - Senor Galdos
See also
The Celebrated Scandal (1915)
The World and His Wife (1920)
References
External links
Lovers at IMDb.com
allmovie/synopsis; Lovers?
lobby poster
1927 films
1927 lost films
American silent feature films
Films directed by John M. Stahl
Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer films
American films based on plays
Lost American films
American romantic drama films
1927 romantic drama films
American black-and-white films
Lost romantic drama films
1920s American films
Silent romantic drama films
Silent American drama films | wiki |
Kneebone may refer to:
the patella
It may also refer to:
Harry Kneebone, politician
Nova Peris-Kneebone, Australian athlete
Rachel Kneebone, artist
Roger Kneebone, surgeon
Ron Kneebone, Australian Rules footballer
Tom Kneebone, actor and playwright
See also
Mr Kneebone, EP by Powderfinger
Mr. Kneebone's New Digs, book by Ian Wallace (illustrator) | wiki |
John Wick is a 2014 American action thriller film directed by Chad Stahelski and written by Derek Kolstad. Its story follows John Wick (Keanu Reeves), a legendary hitman who is forced out of retirement to seek revenge against the men who killed his puppy, a final gift from his recently deceased wife. John Wick also stars Michael Nyqvist, Alfie Allen, Adrianne Palicki, Bridget Moynahan, Dean Winters, Ian McShane, John Leguizamo, and Willem Dafoe.
Kolstad's script drew on his interest in action, revenge, and neo-noir films. Titled Scorn, the rights were purchased by producer Basil Iwanyk as his first independent film production. Reeves, who was experiencing a career lull, liked the script and recommended experienced stunt and action choreographers, Stahelski and David Leitch direct the action scenes. Instead, the pair successfully lobbied to co-direct John Wick. Despite the project nearly being cancelled weeks prior to filming, principal photography began on October 7, 2013, on a $20–$30million budget. Stahelski and Leitch focused on highly-choreographed, long single takes to convey their action, eschewing the rapid cuts and closeup shots of contemporary action films. Iwanyk struggled to secure theatrical distributors, as industry executives were dismissive of an action film by first-time directors and Reeves's recent filmography had underperformed. The distribution rights were eventually purchased by Lionsgate Films and a release date scheduled only two months later for October 24, 2014.
The marketing campaign was seen as a success, changing the perception of John Wick as disposable entertainment to a prestige event helmed by an affable leading actor. The film exceeded box office projections, earning $86million worldwide, becoming a modest success, and earned generally positive reviews for its style and action sequences. It was hailed as a comeback for Reeves, the John Wick character playing to his strengths as an actor. The film's mythology of a criminal underworld with specific rituals and rules was also praised as the film's most unique and interesting feature.
John Wick is now considered one of the greatest action films ever made. Its unexpected success led to the John Wick franchise, one of the most successful action franchises, which comprises three sequels, John Wick: Chapter 2 (2017), John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum (2019), and John Wick: Chapter 4 (2023), as well as video games and comic books. The franchise includes the upcoming spin-off film Ballerina and television series The Continental. John Wick has been influential on action films. It is seen as having revitalized the genre, popularizing long single takes with choreographed and detailed action.
Plot
John Wick is grieving the death of his wife, Helen, from an illness. To help him cope, she arranged for him to receive a beagle puppy as a gift. A few days later, Wick is accosted at a gas station outside of New York City by a group of Russian gangsters, led by Iosef, who fail to intimidate Wick into selling them his 1969 Boss 429 Mustang. That night, the men break into Wick's home, beat him up, and kill the puppy before stealing the car. Iosef takes the Mustang to a chop shop to remove its identifying details, but the shop owner, Aurelio, recognizes the car and refuses service. Wick learns from Aurelio that Iosef is the son of Viggo Tarasov, the boss of the city's Russian mafia.
Learning of his son's actions, Viggo beats Iosef and chastises him for incurring Wick's wrath. Viggo reveals that Wick was formerly a hitman in his employ, renowned and feared in the criminal underworld as the "Baba Yaga", a ruthless and relentless "man of focus, commitment, and sheer will." After Wick fell in love with Helen, a civilian, Viggo gave him a seemingly "impossible task" to earn his freedom.
Wick recovers his concealed stash from his former career, including weapons and gold coins used as underworld currency for special services. He refuses Viggo's attempt to make amends for his son's actions and kills the hitman squad subsequently sent to his home. As a result, Viggo puts a $2million bounty on Wick's head, and his former mentor Marcus is enlisted to take him out. Wick lodges in the city at the Continental, a luxurious hotel that serves as neutral ground for the underworld and conducting criminal business there is strictly forbidden. The hotel's owner and Wick's old friend, Winston, warns him about the dangers of returning to the life he left behind. Despite this, Winston secretly informs Wick that Iosef is at the Red Circle nightclub. Wick infiltrates the club and confronts Iosef, but he is attacked by Kirill, Viggo's henchman, and forced to retreat to the Continental for medical attention.
As Wick rests he is targeted by a hitwoman named Ms. Perkins, who sneaks into his room. Marcus sees Perkins from an adjacent building and fires a warning shot to alert Wick. He wakes up and subdues Perkins, who reveals that Viggo doubled the bounty for her to kill him in the hotel. She also discloses that Viggo has a high-value stash concealed in a church. Wick has another hitman, Harry, secure Perkins, but she escapes and kills him.
At the church, Wick destroys Viggo's cache of cash and extensive blackmail material. When Viggo arrives to assess the damage, Wick assaults him and his men, but is captured after being hit by Kirill's car. Wick tells Viggo that he will not stop until Iosef is dead because the puppy gave him hope and a chance to not be alone in his grief for Helen. Marcus intervenes again to save Wick, allowing him to kill Kirill and threaten Viggo into revealing his son's location. Wick assaults the safehouse and kills Iosef. Afterward, Marcus encourages Wick to return to the normal life he has built, but their meeting is witnessed by Perkins, who reveals Marcus's duplicity to Viggo. He has Marcus tortured and killed before calling Wick to taunt him with the details, drawing him back to the city.
Perkins is executed at Winston's behest for breaking the Continental's rules, and Winston informs Wick that Viggo is preparing to leave the city by helicopter. Wick races to the New York Harbor, where he fights and mortally wounds Viggo. Resigned to dying from his own injuries, Wick watches a video on his phone of Helen telling him they need to go home. He breaks into a nearby animal clinic, treats his wounds, and adopts a pit bull puppy scheduled to be euthanized before beginning the walk home.
Cast
Keanu Reeves as John Wick: A retired hitman who is legendary in the criminal underworld
Michael Nyqvist as Viggo Tarasov: A vicious Russian crime boss and Wick's former employer
Alfie Allen as Iosef Tarasov: Viggo's reckless and arrogant son
Adrianne Palicki as Ms. Perkins: A ruthless and highly skilled hitwoman
Bridget Moynahan as Helen: Wick's beloved and devoted wife
Dean Winters as Avi: Viggo's attorney
Lance Reddick as Charon / Hotel Manager: The Continental's concierge
Toby Leonard Moore as Victor: A Russian gangster working with Iosef
Ian McShane as Winston: The enigmatic owner of the Continental
John Leguizamo as Aurelio: A mechanic who owns a high-end chop shop
Willem Dafoe as Marcus: A skilled sniper and Wick's old friend
The cast also includes Omer Barnea as Gregori, Iosef's underling who kills Wick's dog, Daniel Bernhardt as Kirill, a former Russian military commander turned Viggo's henchman, Thomas Sadoski as Jimmy, a police officer, and David Patrick Kelly as Charlie, a "cleaner" who destroys criminal evidence, including bodies. The Continental staff includes Bridget Regan as Addy, a bartender fond of Wick, and Randall Duk Kim as a hotel doctor. Clarke Peters portrays Harry, a hitman, Kevin Nash appears as Francis, a bouncer at the Red Circle night club; and Munro M. Bonnell plays a corrupt priest protecting Viggo's vault beneath a church. A beagle puppy called Andy portrays Wick's dog, Daisy.
Production
Writing
During the early 2000s, Derek Kolstad struggled to gain recognition as a screenwriter, despite being related to successful author Lori Wick. Kolstad produced up to eight screenplays per year, yet none of them were realized projects. In an effort to further his career, Kolstad moved closer to the film industry in Los Angeles but decided to leave after two months. With encouragement from his wife, Sonja, Kolstad secured a manager and wrote 60 screenplays before finding success with the low-budget action films, One in the Chamber (2012) and The Package (2013).
Over four days in either 2012 or 2013, Kolstad wrote a spec script titled Scorn. The inspiration for the script came from two "terrible revenge movies" that Kolstad had watched. The story centered around the character of John Wick, a long-retired hitman in his mid-60s to mid-70s, modeled after older actors such as Clint Eastwood and Paul Newman, who is forced back into his former life. The script included elements such as Wick's elderly dog, long-deceased wife, Charon, Winston, the Continental, and the underworld gold coins, with a more modest kill count of 11 compared to the film's several dozen. Wick is portrayed as an underworld legend but one who has been absent for decades, causing younger criminals to dismiss the tales. Kolstad aimed to explore the character of "the worst man in existence", Wick, finding and losing salvation through love and what would happen afterward. The writer struggled to determine the inciting incident that would lead to Wick's return, ultimately choosing his dog's murder over the cliche of killing the character's wife and family. Kolstad focused his efforts on the first act, believing that a solid opening would make later acts easier to write.
The draft was influenced by the variety of action films of which Kolstad was fond, including Aliens (1986), Predator (1987), and Die Hard (1988), revenge films, western films, and noir films such as Miller's Crossing (1990). Kolstad included black comedy, believing levity added to the characters' humanity, drawing influence from comic actors such as Buster Keaton, Harold Lloyd, Charlie Chaplin, and Roscoe Arbuckle, as well as his favorite animated television series, inluding Rick and Morty and SpongeBob SquarePants. After garnering feedback from family and agents, Kolstad made minor changes and the spec script was put out for sale.
Development
At the same time, producer Basil Iwanyk was developing films for Warner Bros. Pictures through his studio Thunder Road Films. Frustrated at not being involved beyond sourcing scripts, he wanted the autonomy of developing independent films so he could be more involved in the process throughout. In particular, he focused on action films which could be made for relatively low budgets. Iwanyk read Kolstad's spec script, appreciating its "subversive" tone and "emotional throughline", as well as the relatability and accessibility of a man seeking revenge after losing his wife, his dog, his car, and his home being violated. However, several studios were interested in the spec script and could offer Kolstad more money than Iwanyk.
Kolstad met with his agent to discuss the five offers received, but the agent told him to ignore all but the lowest bid by Iwanyk, because Thunder Road Films was ready to start work immediately. The deal was completed in February 2013. Kolstad began rewrites alongside Iwanyk and his fellow producer Erica Lee over two months. Iwanyk originally envisioned older actors such as Eastwood or Harrison Ford as John Wick, but later decided he wanted someone who was not physically older "but who has a seasoned history in the film world."
In April 2013, Iwanyk's friend at talent company Creative Artists Agency was Keanu Reeves's agent, and asked Iwanyk if he had any action projects suitable for the actor. He gave the agent the script, telling him to ensure Reeves understood, "clearly, you're not seventy-five." Reeves was interested in the dynamics between the real and underworld and the emotional connnection to Wick's wife. At the same time, the script was sent out to several directors, but Kolstad said their responses were, "'I totally want to do this. Maybe John Wick is married, his mother-in-law lives with him, he has four kids, and they kill the entire family?' And I was like 'You don't get it. We're not doing that'". Others were not interested because the idea came across as a typical Reeves action film.
While Reeves was negotiating his involvement, he sent the script to Chad Stahelski and David Leitch, who had worked alongside him as stunt coordinators and performers on the initial The Matrix trilogy of films and other successive projects. They had since founded the action design and stunt company 87Eleven Productions. He recommended them to choreograph or direct the action sequences, believing their style matched the script's tone. Stahelski and Leitch were interested in the variety of action scenes, but they wanted to direct the film itself. The pair gained Reeves support after pitching him their vision of an assassin thriller with a realistic tone in an "otherworldly setting", in which Wick is an urban legend. Reeves said they impressed him with their intent to make each character memorable and thoughts on the themes of living a double life. In May, Reeves was confirmed for the lead role, with Stahelski and Leitch to direct.
Kolstad and Reeves spent the weekends over the next two months performing about six rewrites to fit the actor's style. Wick was made younger, with Reeves intending to portray the character as a 35-year-old, and dialogue was trimmed to convey Wick as a "badass"; a five page conversation between Wick and the priest character was trimmed to Wick simply responding "Uh-huh". They also decided not to depict Wick's "impossible task", believing they should never show Wick from before Helen's death.
Casting
Many of the principal cast were added to the film in September and October 2013. Casting focused on who could be available in the two-and-a-half weeks before filming began while remaining affordable. The task was helped by filming in New York City, allowing them to secure actors based in the city, such as Ian McShane, who only had to be present to film their scenes without travelling far. Character actors were preferred, who could vivify Kolstad's characters who might have little screentime but were considered essential to providing more information about Wick's past and the underworld.
Reeves's John Wick was named by Kolstad after his grandfather, and Helen was named for his grandmother. The actor was paid between $1–$2million for his performance. Reeves brought his personal experience of loss and grief to the role, believing he related to the character's emotional state. Describing the character, Reeves said, "[Wick] thought [his old life] was something he would never go back to... [Wick] thought he was stronger than he is, when really he'd been drawing that strength from his wife, Helen... he thought he was in control, but the switch flips and there's no turning back. I always thought of it as being a kind of Old Testament revenge story. When someone takes the things he cherishes, violence erupts and [Wick] can't temper it." Stahelski and Leitch emphasised loss and humanity as a fundamental aspect of Wick, wanting to avoid making him a "stereotypical badass assassin." They had Reeves grow out his hair and beard and dressed him in stylish suits to create recognizable visual elements to Wick. Reeves undertook four months of training, including several hours per day in a gym, strict diet, stretches, and learning choreography. Although he had previous martial arts experience, the directors wanted to create a style fitting for Wick, having Reeves train in judo, Japanese jujutsu, Brazilian jiu-jitsu, and arnis, as well as taking tactical gun courses with the Los Angeles SWAT and Navy SEALs. He also learned stunt driving skills, including drifting a car while aiming a gun.
On his role as Viggo, Michael Nyqvist said, "I found the relationship between [Wick] and Viggo to be interesting. Viggo has always liked [Wick] because he was brilliant at his job. They have the kind of love and respect you might see between a father and son." Nyqist trained in the Russian martial art sambo, reflecting the character's impoverished street brawler origins, and informed his performance, in part, based on his Russian trainers. He generally played his character as a straight man with some quirks. Kolstad described Iosef as "a dinner-theater version of his father. Iosef is a rich kid who imagines himself a tough guy; but without his father's muscle, he's a punk... he's one spoiled kid." Alfie Allen said he was attracted to speaking different languages and accents, spending time in Russian bathhouses in New York to test his dialect. He found some of the physical punishment his character endures difficult, alongside spontaneous additions of Russian dialogue he had to quickly learn.
The female assassin, Ms. Perkins, was written as a male character until Adrianne Palicki's casting. Describing the character, Palicki said, "Ms. Perkins is what you think the quintessential assassin would be. She's cold, heartless, conniving, badass, and I think that she has fun with what she does. She enjoys it. I think that she'd clearly do it for a dollar." Palicki trained in judo and jujitsu for a few months and spent two weeks learning the choreography for her fight scene with Reeves. Moynahan did not read the script entirely, wanting to only know as much as Helen would know about Wick. Iwanyk said, "Helen probably thought John had some skeletons in his closet, but it wasn't important. All we know as an audience is that the moment he met her, he became a different person."
Kolstad described Winston as someone who "doesn't say a lot, but when he does, the Earth moves. If [Wick] and Viggo are the gods of New York, Winston is the titan." McShane took the role because of his fondness for neo-noir films. John Leguizamo informed his performance based on Aurelio's "slick" clothing, saying, "I'm walking through the set and all of a sudden I start feeling a little cocky, like I'm somebody. It all helps." Willem Dafoe described Marcus as "an assassin on a very high level", who serves as a father figure to Wick in "the sense that he's the king of the pride. When a new lion takes over a pride, he slaughters all the cubs." He added traits to his aging character such as a scene of Marcus making juice because he believed the character would maintain his health to keep up with the younger assassins.
Pre-production
Financial issues beset the production leading into filming, as Iwanyk had limited assets compared to the major studios and he considered his backers unreliable. He recounted an investor failing to pay on time and, when he did, "he did things like children do, if he owed us $2.4million he'd send us a check for $2,400 and go 'whoops! I messed up.'" Iwanyk admitted he and his executives lacked experience in film financing and, five days before the scheduled filming date, he considered cancelling the project. His lawyer advised that he would be likely sued into bankruptcy by those involved and their associated guild unions. Iwanyk twice deferred his own fees to cover costs and lent the costume designer his personal credit card for resources, rationalizing he would at least earn air miles. The lack of financial security delayed filming by two weeks. Iwanyk described them as the hardest and most stressful weeks of his career; his family visited to ensure he was safe as he was not sleeping or eating.
When financing was secured, it was not as much as been originally promised. Some principal cast made salary concessions, with Reeves putting his own money into the project, and Stahelski and Leitch modified scenes to keep the budget low. The majority of funding was provided by Michael Witherill of MJW Films, DefyNite Films, and actress Eva Longoria.
New York City was chosen as the main filming location. Although filming there would cost millions of dollars more than alternatives such as Baton Rouge, Chicago, or Detroit, Iwanyk said that in a neo-noir film, the location is also a character, and "if I shoot [John Wick] with the Brooklyn Bridge in the background, it feels like a big movie." Stahelski explained that New York offered visual verticality but also areas such as downtown Manhattan, where it could appear almost subterranean, offering the mythological underworld setting they wanted. There were also many restrictions because residents were resistant to film trailers, car chases, and gunfire in their streets. Even on streets closed for filming they had to obey the speed limit, impacting car chase sequences. Stahelski said they could not do everything they wanted as they had to prioritize spending on the location or other departments, and believed New York City was instrumental to conveying the "cool world" of John Wick.
Design
Like Kolstad, Staheliski and Leitch drew on a broad amalgamation of their favorite films and directors for John Wicks visual style. Stahelski described the crime thriller Point Blank (1967) as a significant influence, but they also reviewed the "classic" visual composition of films from the 1960s–1980s, including Le Cercle Rouge (1970), and The Killer (1989), and The Return of the Pink Panther (1975), a comedy in which assassins pursue the central character. They drew on Akira Kurosawa's style of holding on the composition, and John Woo's use of wide shots and multi-opponent combat, as well as Spaghetti Westerns by Sergio Leone. Stahelski said, "look at [Eastwood] in The Good, the Bad and the Ugly—there is so much back-story unsaid there. We just give you some gold coins, and then it's, 'Where do the gold coins come from?' We'll get to that. Have your imagination do some work there." Other influence came from the works of Quentin Tarantino, the films of Lee Marvin and Steve McQueen, graphic novels, and action films, such as Police Story (1985), Armour of God, Lethal Weapon (both 1987), Die Hard, and The Matrix (1999).
Stahelski and Leitch eschewed contemporary action film styles of rapid cuts showing different angles and close up shots that they believed resulted in a "confusing fury of movement." They agreed to perform longer single takes with a wider view of the action, and only cut away to cover up mistakes. This was also a practical decision as there was only budget for a single camera setup and no time for elaborate wire stunts and additional coverage footage that could be used in editing to hide any mistakes. Iwanyk said if they had an extra $5–$10million, they could have afforded a multi-camera setup and second unit filming, but the "economic experience" resulted in a better action film. The directors focused on practical stunts but used computer-generated imagery when necessary to add gun muzzle flashes and complete a stunt of Wick being struck by a car.
The setting combines the familiar, in the private, rural setting of Wick and Helen, which Leitch described as "organic and warm; very cinéma vérité real", and the hyper-real underworld where everything is a "little over the top." Production designer Dan Leigh said "the visual manifestation of [the underworld] is something that transcends reality. The light is a little bit different. There's texture in the air. There are unexpected objects everywhere." Kolstad did not describe the underworld rules or settings in detail which gave the designers lots of leeway. Iwanyk said that the lack of detail prevented them focusing too much on the world building. The directors said the value of the gold coins was unimportant, comparing them to business cards that grant access to underworld services, and that while some aspects of the underworld did not work, the coins informed the audience they were entering a different world. Luca Mosca led costume design, which focused on stylish suits with some functionality over practical combat outfits to provide the underworld "classiness" throughout the film. Mosca used many variant shades of black in the designs, and made them form-fitting, sleek, and "timeless" to fit the immaculate nature of the underworld. Wick's suit was influenced by 1970s style three piece suits worn by film stars such as Steve McQueen and Lee Marvin.
Supervising stunt coordinator J. J. Perry, Stahelski, and 87Eleven associates including John Valera, Jon Eusebio, Danny Hernandez, Guillermo Grispo, Eric Brown, the Machado brothers, Jackson Spidell, and armorer Taran Butler had developed a combat style for a previous film that combined grappling martial arts with gun combat, with a focus on restricting limbs with the left hand and leaving the right hand free for gun action. Combat training took place at 87Eleven's dedicated facility, which included an obstacle course to prepare for the Wick house invasion.
Filming
Principal photography began on October 7, 2013, on a $20–$30million budget, in and around New York City. The shoot was arduous, with stresses over the schedule and budget. There was less daylight for associated scenes, and extensive night-time filming in very cold weather. The first five days of filming began in Mill Neck village with scenes at Wick's house. Iwanyk recalled thinking "oh shit, this movie's not going to work" after watching the crew lighting a stuffed dog stand-in and several scenes of Reeves brooding. He changed his mind after Wick's interaction with the police officer after killing a hitman squad; an "absurd" situation played straight.
Cinematographer Jonathan Sela intended to use anamorphic lenses for Wick's domestic life to create a softer, cleaner image, and spherical lenses for his return to the underworld for a "gritter, darker, and sharper" picture. Once filming began, however, he opted to use the lenses for, respectively, day and night filming, and contrast the use of a static camera position for the early segments and dynamic movements for the remainder of the film. He lit scenes in a "gothic manner" to make the underworld appear a mix of American and European designs, and lit characters to maintain the mystery if they were Wick's friend or foe.
The Red Circle nightclub was filmed at Surrogate's Courthouse (exterior), Edison Theatre (club interior), and the Aire Ancient Baths (below ground spa). The production design added red and blue lighting as well as misted windows to the spa. Sela said they wanted it to look like a part of the underground, but they were constrained by the budget. He thought this sometimes worked in their favor as it forced them to develop creative solutions. Perry was hired to choreograph the nightclub sequence at the last minute because Stahelski was busy filming the final fight between Wick and Viggo. Perry, who portrays four characters killed by Wick in The Red Circle, was only told to begin in the nightclub and move up to the top level. Despite the choregraphy, improvisation often took place based on spontaneous additions during filming. Reeves training allowed him to rapidly adapt to the changes and perform many of his own stunts, so filming often operated at a rapid pace. Iwanyk said they could capture as much footage in an afternoon as others could over three days.
Combat strictly followed the number of bullets in Wick's weapons and included scenes where he could reload. If changes were made, such as adding three enemies to a scene, the number of bullets was changed accordingly and reloading scenes had to be moved. There were some difficulties filming the scene, as the production design had bought incorrect gear, such as the holster, which made it hard for Reeves to draw his gun, and Perry said they used a silencer attachment which would be impractical. There were also minor issues in timing in the spa and the club's upper floor, and not enough filmed footage to cover the inconsistencies resulting in changes to some choreography and scenes to establish the characters' locations. Reeves was also ill, with Iwanyk recalling how he would vomit between scenes then insist on carrying on filming. The insurers refused to let Reeves perform a fall from the club's upper floor; Spidell stood in for falls and other hard impacts.
The fight between Wick and Viggo, filmed at the Brooklyn Navy Yard, was difficult. Filmed over five nights, the temperature was regularly and the production was prohibited from using artificial rain on one evening because temperatures dropped too low. Reeves also refused to wear a wet suit to help prevent hyperthermia. Iwanyk believed the scene was an ill fitting end the film and would not fare well with audiences because Wick was fighting an older man. The directors had planned for the preceding vehicle sequence to involve several cars but only two turned up.
The Continental is portrayed by the Beaver Building building (exterior), with interiors portrayed by several buildings throughout Manhattan and Brooklyn, including the Cunard Building, Hotel Wolcott, and a bank vault in the Financial District; marble was glued to its surfaces to make it appear expensive. Viggo's headquarters are the Maritime Exchange Building (exterior facade) and the roof of the ModernHaus SoHo on Grand Street. Filming also took place at Calvary Cemetery, a gas station in Upper Nyack, Republic Airport, Manhattan Bridge, Schaefer Landing, and Bethesda Terrace and Fountain. The church scene was scripted as a bank heist, but scouts struggled to find a suitable location and Stahelski and Leitch believed it was interesting to hide it in a church. The building is portrayed by St. Francis Xavier Church (interior), while the exterior combines the Williamsburgh Savings Bank Building in New York and the Immanuel Presbyterian Church in Los Angeles.
Filming concluded on December 20, 2013, after nine weeks. The directors described it as a difficult learning experience that included many mistakes and stretched the limits of the budget and schedule, but they achieved their goal. Kolstad lamented the loss of his favorite scene due to scheduling, in which two men at Aurelio's garage see Wick's car being driven in, recognize it, and immediately leave the premises.
Post-production
The film entered post-production on January 10, 2014. Iwanyk described it as a struggle as there was little faith the film would succeed and most of the principle cast and crew moved onto other projects in the interim.
Editor Elísabet Ronaldsdóttir was mainly known for her work on low-budget independent drama films, but her shared dislike for close-up action shots won over the directors. There was no budget for re-shoots and no coverage material so she had to work within the available footage. Iwanyk described a longer version of the film as "painful" because the excessive action made the experience numbing and there were too many establishing shots of people walking or driving. Ronaldsdóttir performed more substantial cuts, bringing John Wick down to 101minutes, which received a more positive response from Iwanyk: "Holy shit! This is good!"
Although Stahelski was unhappy with some of the parts removed, Ronaldsdóttir said they generally removed repetitiveness and shortened action scenes to focus on the overall action aspect and spend less time on Wick's mourning. Wick's fight with Ms. Perkins was edited because they could not show him being as violent with a female character. She did not regret the cuts made, saying, "I like cutting out dialogue. Not because it's not good, it's just because when it's on the page, it's perfect. When you have the actors embody it, you have all the props and sets and the lighting and everything, so a lot of dialogue becomes redundant." The directors found balancing the film's tone with the "over-the-top" action to be the most difficult part of the production. Stahelski wanted the action to be an integral continuation of the story, not just a set-piece. Leitch said, "There's a fine balance, because you’ve seen this kind of movie a thousand times. Too cheesy, too serious, too funny, too goofy, not enough, too .
The film was shown to a few close associates of Iwanyk, who gave a "lukewarm" response. A public test screening took place in Orange County, California. He said that he knew it was well-received when the audience loudly laughed after the scene in which Aurelio tells Viggo that his son has upset Wick, and Viggo replies, "oh." The response was positive enough that they held no more test screenings. The death of Wick's dog remained a point of contention in post-production from Iwanyk, who believed it would alienate audiences and did not justify the number of deaths in response, but Kolstad and Reeves lobbied to retain it. Reeves told the directors, "You guys wanted to make a hard-core action movie, right? You wanted to do something genre, outside the box, right? So what's wrong?’... So we went back and adjusted our attitude to being unapologetic, and we just went, 'John Wick kills 80 guys because of a puppy. Fuck you, we’re done.'" Test audiences were supportive of Wick avenging his puppy. Despite Stahelski and Leitch's collaboration, the Director's Guild of America refused to co-credit them as director due to internal rules, and Leitch took a producer credit.
Music
Tyler Bates and Joel J. Richard composed the film's score. Stahelski and Leitch requested a "fun, raw, aggressive, unorthodox" score that reflected Wick's connection to his wife and his hitman past. They also wanted a clear difference between the music in each action sequence. Bates and Richard developed a separate tone for the underscore that would allow it to transition into the score's "more rocking aspects." Bates said they tried to understand Wick's thought process and establish the "essence" of his story, and begun writing with the opening scene, which at the time had more immediate transitions between Wick's mourning and the action sequence at the film's denoument. John Wick also features songs including "Killing Strangers" by Marilyn Manson, "The Red Circle" by Le Castle Vania, "Evil Man Blues" by The Candy Shop Boys, "In My Mind" by M86 & Susie Q, and "Who You Talkin' To Man" by Ciscandra Nostalghia. Ronaldsdóttir suggested the use of "Think" by Kaleida.
Release
Distribution and marketing
By August 2014, John Wick had not yet secured a distributor . Industry professionals blamed the low interest on the film's untested directors, Iwanyk's lack of experience in independent film production,and Reeves's declining success at the box office. His recent films, such as 47 Ronin and Man of Tai Chi (both 2013), had not performed well, even in countries where he was expected to have a strong following, such as China and Japan. This situation coincided with Iwanyk's promotional efforts for John Wick. While the film had secured "strong presales" in some countries, Iwanyk acknowledged that "important territories" were not showing interest in the film.
A screening arranged for studio acquisition executives went poorly, with one viewer walking out shortly after it started. Lionsgate made the only offer, with no upfront payment and a bottom release commitment, which Iwanyk believed meant the film would go straight to home video. However, Lionsgate executives Jason Constantine and Tim Palen championed John Wick, confirming an October release date through its subsidiary Summit Entertainment. The film's title came late in production as Reeves disliked Scorn and regularly referred to it as "John Wick" in interviews. Lionsgate executives equated this to "seven million dollars in free press" and titled it John Wick.
A trailer created by Palen was well-received, as were pre-release screenings at the 2014 Austin Film Festival and Fantastic Fest. Audience demand at Fantastic Fest led to two additional screenings being added. In the week leading up to its release, John Wick was also screened for free in 42 cities across the United States. Box office analyst Scott Mendhelson wrote that Lionsgate's marketing campaign had taken a film with little audience awareness and generated interest by turning a "theoretical B-movie action pick-up into something of an A-level event" and "a coronation for its iconic star [Reeves]." Lionsgate executives suggested that audiences had a favorable opinion of Reeves because of his candid nature in interviews regarding his personal and professional successes and failures. The October announcement that John Wick would play in IMAX theaters, something seen as a "premium" theatrical experience, also further raised its profile.
As a promotional tie-in, the first-person shooter game Payday 2 (2013) added John Wick as a playable character in the week leading up to the film's release. Free copies of the game were also given to people who pre-purchased tickets to the film via Fandango. Variety described it as a "pretty imaginative marketing move", targeting the same male audience as the film without the cost of making a full game based on John Wick.
Context
By the theatrical fall of 2014, the film industry was in decline. The theatrical summer had a total cross of $4.1 billion, a 15% decline from the previous summer and the lowest total since 2006. This was a result of shifting release dates, a lack of anticipated films that were either delayed to 2015 or being distributed via video on demand, and few major projects from top male stars. Even as production costs went down and attendance for female audiences rose, industry analysts blamed the decline on the weaker slate of films released that summer. Studio executives were expecting the late 2014 slate of films to match the previous year’s record performance, with anticipation for Gone Girl, Interstellar, The Hunger Games: Mockingjay – Part 1, and The Hobbit: The Battle of the Five Armies. However, expectations were low for John Wick due to Reeves's recent box office failures and the film's short promotion cycle.
Box office
The premiere of John Wick took place at the Regal Union Square Theater in New York City on October 13, 2014; Reeves was accompanied by Andy the puppy. The event was hosted in partnership with watch company, Carl F. Bucherer, and many of the cast wore the brand's watches for the premiere.
John Wick was released in the United States and Canada on October 24. During its opening weekend, the film earned $14.4million across 2,589 theaters—a average of $5,568 per theater. This figure made it the number 2 film of the weekend, behind the debut of Ouija ($19.9million) and ahead of Fury ($13.3million), which was in its second weekend. The performance of John Wick was a surprise success, nearly doubling analysts' low expectations and pre-release estimates of $7–$10million, and over-performing across 347 IMAX theaters with $2.5million, accounting for 18% of its total box office. The film attracted a mostly male audience, with about 77% being over 25 years of age. John Wick fell to number 6 in its second weekend with a gross of $8million, and number 8 in its third with $4.1million. It left the top ten-highest-grossing films by its fourth weekend with a gross of $2.2million. John Wick left theaters by January 22, 2015, with a total box office of $43million, making it the number 79 highest-grossing film of the year.
Outside of the U.S. and Canada, John Wick is estimated to have earned a further $43million, performing well in Germany ($3.7million), France ($3.2million), Australia ($2.8million), Taiwan ($2.6million), Russia ($2.59million), the United Kingdom ($2.4million), and Japan ($2.3million), among others. This made it the number 114 highest-grossing film outside of the U.S. and Canada. Cumulatively, John Wick earned an estimated worldwide gross of $86million, making it number 89 highest-grossing film of 2014.
Reception
Critical response
John Wick received generally positive reviews. On Rotten Tomatoes, the film holds an approval rating from the aggregated reviews of critics, with an average score of . The consensus reads; "Stylish, thrilling, and giddily kinetic, John Wick serves as a satisfying return to action for Keanu Reeves – and what looks like it could be the first of a franchise." The film has a score of 68 out of 100 on Metacritic based on 40 critics, indicating "generally favorable reviews." Audiences polled by CinemaScore gave the film an average grade of "B" on an A+-to-F scale.
Critics were near unanimous in their praise for Reeves's performance, describing it as a return to form for the actor. Richard Corliss, among others, believed it was a fitting role for the actor, benefitting from his stoic and taciturn demeanor for a character who conveys intent through actions. Bilge Ebiri said John Wick would have been a typical revenge story with any other actor, but the "ethereal and ageless" Reeves made it "mythic." The Atlantic and The New York Times praised Reeves for being able to suggest depths to his character and portray a physical charisma while maintaining a relatively blank expression. Others praised his believable physicality and athleticism that enhanced the many combat sequences and long single takes. However, Peter Bradshaw wrote that Reeves's deadpan style could only work when contrasted with humorous dialogue, and considered John Wick to be "pretty humorless." Praise was also given to the main supporting cast, particularly McShane and Nyqvist, though there was criticism that the actors were underutilized.
The decades of experience in stunt work shared by the directors was seen as a major benefit to the film's action sequences, with Stephanie Zacharek describing them as among the "most beautifully choreographed" set-pieces in an American action film for a long time. Reviews characterized the action scenes by their "fluidity" and "grace" that relied on both the proficiency of their performers and innovative choreography that eschewed slow-motion focus for a blunt, direct manner that provided more shock value and were impressive in their competency, and their brutal, efficient nature, reflecting of the film's main character. Some publications highlighted the film's deliberate avoidance of shaky camera movements and quick editing in favor of longer takes that helped immerse the audience in the "sleek" choreography, which made John Wick stand out from its peers. Variety said that the high number of equally impressive action sequences made up for the weak script.
While critics generally described the narrative as a self-serious, cliche-filled and predictable action script with a stylistic approach, they believed it offered a novel setting, creating intrigue related to Wick's past and the mythology developed around the criminal underworld. The mythology in John Wick is identified as a key aspect that sets it apart from other action movies, particularly the codes and rules that govern the criminals and the Continental hotel, which enforces a neutral ground and provides a contrast to the otherwise non-stop violence in the rest of the film. Entertainment Weekly described the world-building as "rich" and "stylish," with Hoffman hoping for future films to explore this setting, even without the John Wick characters.
Accolades
At the 2014 Golden Schmoes Awards John Wick was named the Biggest Surprise of the Year, and was nominated for Most Underrated Movie and Coolest Character (Wick). Reeves received a nomination for the Razzie Redeemer Award at the 35th Golden Raspberry Awards. At the 2015 Taurus World Stunt Awards, John Wick won the award for Best Fight for the scene of Wick defending his home against Viggo's hitmen. The award was presented to Reeves's stunt double, Jackson Spidell, stunt coorindators Darrin Prescott and Jonathan Eusebio, fight coordinator Jon Valera, and stunt performers Carlos Lopez, Daniel Hernandez, Dean Neistat, Justin Yu, Akos Schenek, and Luis Moco. Prescott was also nominated for Best Stunt Coordinator and/or 2nd Unit Direction. At the Golden Trailer Awards, recognizing marketing campaigns, the film's poster was named Best Thriller Poster. It was also nominated for Best Action Trailer and Best Action Poster. Dafoe received the Body of Work award at the San Diego Film Critics Society Awards 2014.
Post-release
Home media
John Wick was released as a digital download in January 2015. This was followed by a DVD and Blu-ray release in February. The physical release included a commentary track by Stahelski and Leitch, as well as six brief featurettes about the training and design of the stunt work ("Don't F*#% with John Wick"), the making of the film ("Calling in the Cavalry"), Stahelski's and Leitch's history as stunt coordinators ("Destiny of a Collective"), the different aspects of the film's criminal underworld ("The Assassin's Code"), the nightclub action sequence ("The Red Circle"), and the influence of New York City on John Wick ("N.Y.C. Noir"). The release was a success, being the second best selling home release of February, behind Dracula Untold (2014), and the number 1 rental during its release week. About 50% of its sales were on the Blu-ray format. A 4K Ultra HD Blu-ray version was released in 2017, containing all previously released features. The digital release had earned about $20million by May 2015, and the physical release about $44million by 2022.
The John Wick soundtrack was released by Varese Sarabande Records in October 2014.
Other media
John Wick Chronicles (2017) is a first-person shooter virtual reality game based on the film for HTC Vive and Steam VR allowing users to play as Wick while assassinating powerful targets. John Wick Hex (2019) is a tactical third person game serving as a prequel to the events of the film, involving Wick rescuing Winston (voiced by McShane) and Charon (Reddick). The video game Fortnite also added a John Wick character skin in 2019.
A five-issue comic book series was released between September 2017 and January 2018. Written by Greg Pak, the series is a prequel to John Wick, depicting Wick's integration into the assassin underworld.
Thematic analysis
Professor Ann C. Hall wrote that Wick is a postmodern epic hero in a contemporary epic universe. She believed the John Wick franchise satisfies all but one of the six requirements to be classified as an epic: the imposing hero is of national or international importance and legendary significance; the setting is vast; the hero conducts great deeds of valor or superhuman courage; the tale involves powerful forces; and characters speak in stylized ways. However, it fails the requirement of objectivity as Wick is the protagonist and generally presented positively. In this way, Hall links the film's narrative to elements of Samurai lore, Russian folktales, and historical epics from Christianity, ancient Greece, Rome, and the Mediterranean. Doctor Wayne Wong wrote that Stahelski and Reeves have collaborated throughout their careers with choreographers familiar with action in Kung fu films, such as Yuen Woo-ping and Tiger Chen, and John Wick can be seen as a synthesis of Eastern and Western action styles.
Professor Scott T. Alison and doctor George R. Goethal argue that while Wick has faults and is a ruthless killer, he does not have to objectively good and his heroism comes in retaining his integrity against the criminal underworld which is unjust and violent. Wick's puppy serves as a connection to his wife and demonstrates his softer side, and Iosef killing it unites the audience against him and anyone in Wick's quest for revenge. Professor Owen R. Horton described Wick as "one of the deadliest and most brutal heroes in modern action cinema," yet unlike other contemporary action heroes, Wick regularly retreats to his softer side that is defined by his love for his wife. This, Horton suggests represents the conflicting multiplicities of manhood. Critic Emmanuel Levy wrote that the central question of John Wick is if Wick is a bad person who became good, or a good person who has done bad things, and if he can truly change or be redeemed. Kolstad said that even though Wick had left his former life behind, he remained in the outskirts of the city, seeing a reminder of it every time he stepped outside his home and not truly escaping its shadow.
Hall also analysed Wick from the perspective of Reeves's personal life. She believed that the character and hero share many characteristics and that Reeves, in the vein of epic heroes, faced obstacles in his career but persisted with acting despite criticism, and he faced personal trials of both courage and loss that inspire his character and make audiences sympathetic to him. Professor Lisa Coulthard and author Lindsay Steenberg agreed that Reeves's and Wick's personalities are almost interchangeable, sharing a similar mixed-race background, personal tragedies, professionalism, and an inherent likeability, all of which adds authenticity to the character and film.
Legacy
Lasting reception
John Wick is regarded as one of the best action films ever made. Several publications have named it one of the best action films of the 21st century, and among the best films in Reeves's filmography. Analysts considered John Wicks success to be an example of a cult sleeper hit driven by strong word-of-mouth and a positive critical reception from critics and audiences. Its audience grew following its release on home video and streaming, growing support for a sequel, which became a financially and critically successful film series, and gave Reeves his most mainstream success since The Matrix films. Reeves said, "We certainly didn't know when we started on John Wick that it would become like this... We're only getting to tell these stories because of the audience. So thank you."
Cultural influence
Commentary by Rolling Stone and Collider said that before John Wick the action genre had been in decline with popular film series such as Die Hard and Rambo generally replaced with "forgettable" fare that relied heavily on CGI, shaky camera movements, and rapid edits or the greater focus on superhuman bouts in superhero films. In contrast, publications described John Wick as a groundbreaking entry in the action genre, in part because of its extensively choreographed sequences and practical effects filmed in longer takes. Author Ray Morton said the film revitalized the action genre by combining choreography, stylish video-game style visuals, and explicit gore and violence.
John Wicks success launched one of the most successful action franchises ever. Rolling Stone named it "The Last Great American Action-Movie Franchise", transforming what would normally be a B-movie into an "action-cinema connoisseur's dream come true." The mythology involved in the film's criminal underworld, such as unique currency and a strict code of rules, is also seen as contributing to the success of John Wick. Iwanyk said they had no idea during the production how "evocative" the underworld would be with audiences.
As John Wick was influenced by the history of action cinema, it is seen as an influence on many action films that followed, such as Atomic Blonde (2017), Guns Akimbo (2019), Extraction (2020), Gunpowder Milkshake, Jolt, The Protégé, and Nobody (all 2021), which was also written by Kolstad.
Far Out described Wick as a groundbreaking role for Reeves, whose pragmatic attitude, "slick" appearance, and relatable revenge story, serving to revive the actor's career. MovieWeb wrote that Wick being a legendary character before the film begins was a "genius" decision, adding depth to the character and the film's universe, while keeping him sympathetic through the loss of his wife and puppy. The publication suggested that Reeves's iconic status contributed to the character's popularity, and that his dedication to performing many of his own stunts and learning combat techniques led to similar approaches from other actors, such as Charlize Theron in Atomic Blonde and Bob Odenkirk in Nobody. John Wicks success made Stahelski and Leitch in-demand action directors, with Stahelski directing the film's sequels, while Leitch moved outside the series to direct films such as Atomic Blonde, Deadpool 2 (2018), and Bullet Train (2022).
Sequels and spin-offs
John Wick was not intended to have a sequel, but its success, particularly in markets outside the U.S., led to immediate development on a follow-up. John Wick: Chapter 2 (2017) doubled the box office of John Wick and received a similarly positive critical and audience response. It was followed by John Wick: Chapter 3 – Parabellum (2019), which nearly quadrupled the box office of John Wick and became one of the highest-grossing films of 2019. A fourth film, John Wick: Chapter 4, is scheduled for release in March 2023.
The John Wick franchise has spawned several spin-offs: The Continental is an upcoming miniseries focusing on the Continental hotel and its clientele. Ballerina is an upcoming film starring Ana de Armas as Rooney, an assassin on her own quest for revenge.
Notes and references
Notes
References
Works cited
External links
2014 films
Gun fu films
American films about revenge
Films about dogs
Films about pets
Films about animal cruelty
2014 action thriller films
American action thriller films
American neo-noir films
Films about the Russian Mafia
Films directed by Chad Stahelski
Films scored by Tyler Bates
Films set in New Jersey
Films set in New York City
Films shot in New York City
Films shot in New York (state)
IMAX films
Summit Entertainment films
1
Films with screenplays by Derek Kolstad
2014 directorial debut films
Films produced by Basil Iwanyk
Thunder Road Films films
2010s English-language films
2010s American films | wiki |
Division No. 18, Saskatchewan, Canada, is one of the eighteen Statistics Canada census divisions within the province, occupying the northern half of the province. The census division is coextensive with the Northern Saskatchewan Administration District (NSAD).
The census division is the largest in the province terms of area at , representing 46 per cent of the province's entire area of .
The most populous communities in the census division are La Ronge and La Loche with populations of 2,743 and 2,611 respectively.
Demographics
In the 2021 Census of Population conducted by Statistics Canada, Division No. 18 had a population of living in of its total private dwellings, a change of from its 2016 population of . With a land area of , it had a population density of in 2021.
Census subdivisions
Division No. 18 has 58 census subdivisions, of which 24 are municipalities (including a portion of the City of Flin Flon, a city bisected by the Saskatchewan-Manitoba border, 2 northern towns, 11 northern villages and 10 northern hamlets), 32 are First Nations communities (31 Indian reserves and an Indian settlement), an unincorporated northern settlement and the unorganized balance of Division No. 18. All municipalities within the census division, except for the Northern Hamlet of Black Point, are recognized as census subdivisions.
Cities
Northern towns
Northern villages
Northern hamlets
Indian settlements
Indian reserves
Unincorporated communities
A northern settlement is an unincorporated community in the Northern Saskatchewan Administration District, and its administration is regulated by The Northern Municipalities Act. Saskatchewan has 11 northern settlements. One northern settlement, Missinipe, is recognized as a census subdivision by Statistics Canada.
See also
List of census divisions of Saskatchewan
List of communities in Saskatchewan
References
18 | wiki |
There are two major English language computer keyboard layouts, the United States layout and the United Kingdom layout defined in BS 4822 (48-key version). Both are QWERTY layouts. Users in the United States do not frequently need to make use of the £ (pound) and € (euro) currency symbols, which are common needs in the United Kingdom and Ireland, although the $ (dollar sign) symbol is also provided as standard on UK and Irish keyboards. In other countries which predominantly use English as a common working language, such as Australia, Canada (in English-speaking parts, mostly has fallen out of favour and been replaced with the Canadian Multilingual Standard Layout), and New Zealand, the US keyboard is commonly used.
Windows keyboards
The UK variant of the Enhanced keyboard commonly used with personal computers designed for Microsoft Windows differs from the US layout as follows:
The UK keyboard has 1 more key than the U.S. keyboard (UK=62, US=61, on the typewriter keys, 102 v 101 including function and other keys, 105 vs 104 on models with Windows keys)
The Alt key to the right of the space bar is replaced by an AltGr key
the extra key is added next to the Enter key to accommodate (number sign) and (tilde)
The (pound sign) takes the place vacated by the number sign on the key
The (negation) takes the place vacated by tilde on the (grave accent) key
produces
produces (broken bar, shown as a secondary symbol)
(euro sign) is produced by and is shown as a secondary symbol
and are swapped (to and , respectively)
The key is moved to the left of the key ( still produces )
the Enter key spans two rows, and is narrower to accommodate the #/~ key
AltGr+vowel produces the acute accent variant of that vowel as needed for Irish. Diacritics used in Scots Gaelic and Welsh require the UK extended keyboard setting.
Some UK keyboards do not label Backspace, Enter, Tab and Shift in words
Early versions of Windows handled both the differences between the two keyboards and the differences between American English and British English by having two English language options — a UK setting and a US setting. While adequate for users in the United States, United Kingdom, and Ireland, this solution caused difficulty in other English-speaking countries. In many English-speaking jurisdictions (e.g., Canada, Australia, the Caribbean nations, Hong Kong, Malaysia, India, Pakistan, Bangladesh, Singapore, New Zealand, and South Africa), orthography has traditionally conformed more closely to British English usage, while these countries have chosen to use the United States keyboard layout. People in these countries were as a result required to choose a system setting inconsistent with their localised version of English, thereby causing traditional British English to fall out of favour. This is particularly evident with spelling, where words such as "colour" and "centre" are flagged as being spelled incorrectly by word processing software when the operating system is set to the US setting.
However, in more recent editions of Windows, the number of 'settings' options was increased, allowing users to select the correct keyboard and dialect independently. For example, one is given a number of default options for locality that will usually correctly match dialect and keyboard. Further, even if the hardware keyboard layout does not match the region that was pre-selected, it can be changed without changing the regional setting.
International or extended keyboard layouts
Since the standard US keyboard layout in Microsoft Windows offers no way of inputting any sort of diacritic or accent, this makes it unsuitable for all but a handful of languages unless the US International layout is used. The US International layout changes the (grave), (tilde), (circumflex), (double quote, to make diaeresis), and (apostrophe, to make acute accent) keys into dead keys for producing accented characters: thus for example (release) will produce . The US International layout also uses the right alt (AltGr) as a modifier to enter special characters.
The equivalent mapping for UK/Irish keyboards is called the "UK Extended" layout which, if activated in settings, will allow the user to enter a wide variety of diacritics (such as grave accents) which are not accommodated by the standard UK/Irish layout. In particular, à,è,ì,ò,ù used in Scots Gaelic can be made (using , release and then the vowel), the ŵ and ŷ used in Welsh (using (^), release, then etc.). Likewise, the Spanish and Portuguese letters ñ and õ can be made (using (~), release, then etc).
For more specialized uses, there is a facility in Windows for users to create a customized layout that may match their needs more precisely.
Apple Macintosh keyboards
The non-standard default U.S. layout on Apple Macintosh computers allows input of diacritical characters, whereby the entire MacRoman character set is directly available.
Apple only supply a custom "British" keyboard layout with major changes from the standard UK layout:
The and keys are swapped.
The symbol is assigned to + instead of the expected +.
The symbol is assigned to + instead of its own dedicated key.
The and and symbols have been removed.
The and symbols have been added.
The , , , and symbols have been moved.
The U.S. layout follows the ANSI convention of having an enter key in the third row, while the U.K. layout follows ISO and has a stepped double-height key spanning the second and third rows.
MacOS provides support for diacritics using either a "press and hold for pop-up menu" or a more extensive 'dead-key' facility.
Other keyboard layouts
Other operating systems can optionally re-map the keyboard layout or have different modifier keys (for example the Amiga keyboard has "A" modifier keys and BBC Micro or Acorn keyboards often had a "Shift Lock" as well as a "Caps Lock").
Under Unix/Linux the "Windows" key is often called the "Super" key and can be re-mapped by users for specific functionality but in most programs by default does nothing.
Some older Unix/Linux software, such as Emacs, uses the left Alt key as a "Meta" key, which harks back to older MIT or LISP computers.
ChromeOS uses the US and UK Windows layouts, except that the Caps-Lock key is labelled with a "fisheye" (◉) and by default acts as an "everything" search key. (There is an option in Settings to revert it to convention). The function-key row is also differently labelled. The UK-extended layout for ChromeOS is provided by a Chrome add-on, and provides ready access to a substantially greater (than Windows) repertoire of precomposed characters for western, central and eastern European (Latin alphabet) languages.
Dvorak layouts
There are also Dvorak Layouts for each region.
Typewriters
See also
Keyboard layout
Technical standards in Hong Kong
References
Latin-script keyboard layouts
American and British English differences
Computer keyboard types | wiki |
The Premiere Network, or MGM/UA Premiere Network, was an ad hoc television network created by Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer/United Artists, which announced plans to launch in 1984, originally set for an October launch. By 1991, the name was shortened to simply the MGM Premiere Network.
Background
In 1982, Metro-Goldwyn-Mayer Television was renamed MGM/UA Television Distribution after the merger with United Artists the previous year. In 1984, MGM/UA TV launched an ad hoc TV network, MGM/UA Premiere Network, with movies.
The MGM/UA Premiere Network along with MCA TV's Universal Pictures Debut Network came as a response to the weakened network television market for films in packages. To put things into perspective, virtually all movies in the early 1980s played on the cable television services before being made available for network showings. Thus, this resulted in the audience for many movies on network television diminishing dramatically.
The service was expected to broadcast 24 movies in double-runs once a month for two years. These films had never previously been shown on network television.
The package would be sold on a barter basis over a two-year period, where MGM received 10½ minutes of advertising time within a two-hour movie telecast in prime time, while its stations would retain 11½ minutes. After this particular run, the movies featured on the Premiere Network could be marketed to cable television for an exclusive six month long run. They would then go back to the stations for purchase on a cash basis.
The plan was estimated to bring a total of $72 million to the studio on the initial 24 films involved, whereas had those films had gone directly to syndication, the total revenue would have been no more than $30 million. Another $500,000 would have been added to the four or five million dollars the film might have generated in its first cable airing. Based on various assumptions, MGM/UA believed that they could gross $24 million in total from the Premiere Network run, $12 million from the pay TV window, and $1.2 million per title in the stage three syndication phase.
According to MGM/UA television president Lawrence E. Gershman, the plan was born "out of necessity" to offset a disturbing drop in revenues. MGM/UA initially spent $1 million to promote the Premiere Network. In the past, the major networks turned some of MGM/UA's films down flat, while in other cases, they had offered fees that Gershman considered too low. Gershman added that the three networks were just not buying pictures in groups anymore, so they had to get revenue from somewhere else.
Distribution and affiliation agreements
By the summer of 1984, the network had signed affiliation agreements with eight television stations in large markets. 100 television stations were signed as affiliates by October 1984, with the planned launch pushed back and set for November 10 of that year. Among these stations were WPIX in New York, KTLA in Los Angeles and WGN in Chicago. Other stations affiliated included KMPH-TV in Fresno, KTMA in Minneapolis, KCPQ in Seattle, KCAU in Sioux City, WTTG in Washington, D.C.
According to Lawrence E. Gershman, it only took two or three months to line the affiliates up because hey are hungry for product and recognize this was a situation where everybody won. In other words, they could sell their advertising spots for more money than they could have if the movies had already appeared on network television. The independent stations get the films for no charge during that first month. Instead of paying a fee, the stations agree to relinquish 10 1/2 (of 23) advertising minutes to MGM/UA, so that the studio can sell those advertising spots itself. Also, each station agreed to run 75 on the air promotional spots announcing the MGM/UA Premiere Network.
The Premiere Network was distributed in part by LBS Communications.
List of films featured
Apocalypse Now
The Beastmaster
The Black Stallion Returns
Blue Steel
Brainstorm
Cannery Row
Cat's Eye
Child's Play
Clash of the Titans
Curse of the Pink Panther
Endangered Species
Fame
Forced Vengeance
The Formula
The Ice Pirates
The French Lieutenant's Woman
My Favorite Year
Pennies from Heaven
The Pope of Greenwich Village
Reckless
Red Dawn
The Return of a Man Called Horse
Romantic Comedy
Shoot the Moon
Spaceballs
Thief
To Live and Die in L.A.
Trail of the Pink Panther
True Confessions
WarGames
The Final Option
Whose Life Is It Anyway?
The Year of Living Dangerously
Yentl
WarGames lawsuit
The very first film to air on the Premiere Network when it launched on November 10, 1984, was 1981's Clash of the Titans followed by Pennies from Heaven in December. It was initially expected that smash hits like Rocky III, WarGames, and Octopussy wouldn't be park of the package since MGM/UA was able to sell them to the major networks for hefty fees. But come 1988, the creators of the 1983 film WarGames filed a $75-million-plus lawsuit against MGM/UA for packaging the film for sale to syndicated television with 24 lesser box office successes. The film's producer Leonard Goldberg, director John Badham, and writers Lawrence Lasker and Walter F. Parkes claimed that they were shortchanged $5 million by the package deal and wanted the studio's distribution rights to the film terminated, plus $50 million in punitive damages.
Ratings
According to MGM/UA, if the initial 24 films drew strong ratings, then they would continue selling most of its films to television in this manner and hoped to add to the number of participating stations. According to journalist John Dempsey, the higher the rating, the better the movie would play when it later became part of a 30 title syndication block. This because good track records give them a familiarity with TV watchers that encourages repeat viewing. From September 4, 1988 through January 1, 1989, the Premiere Network earned a 7.5 rating. This placed it at eleventh place among the top barter series for the first 16 weeks of the 1988–89 United States television season.
See also
List of MGM Television programs
Fourth television network
This TV#Movies
References
External links
MGM Studios
Television syndication packages
Television programming blocks in the United States
First-run syndicated television programs in the United States
1980s American television series
1984 American television series debuts
1991 American television series endings
American motion picture television series
Television series by MGM Television | wiki |
Anathallis ferdinandiana is a species of orchid.
References
ferdinandiana | wiki |
Forensic Files is an American documentary-style series which reveals how forensic science is used to solve violent crimes, mysterious accidents, and even outbreaks of illness. The show is broadcast on truTV, narrated by Peter Thomas, and produced by Medstar Television, in association with truTV Original Productions. It has broadcast 406 episodes since its debut on TLC in 1996 as Medical Detectives.
Episodes
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! scope="col" style="background-color:#66CC00;color:white;" | Title
! scope="col" style="background-color:#66CC00;color:white;" | Original air date
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External links
Forensic Files episodes on TV Guide
07 | wiki |
Terpinen-4-ol is an isomer of terpineol with the chemical formula C10H18O. A primary constituent of tea tree oil, it is obtained as an extract from the leaves, branches, and bark of Melaleuca alternifolia Cheel. Despite considerable basic and preliminary clinical research of terpinen-4-ol and tea tree oil, its biological properties and potential for clinical uses have not been established as of 2019. It may be a factor in the contact dermatitis of tea tree oil when used topically.
Terpinen-4-ol occurs in Juniperus communis and is thought to be the reason why this wood is highly resistant to rot.
Additional images
References
Monoterpenes
Cyclohexenols | wiki |
Chocolate cake or chocolate gâteau (from ) is a cake flavored with melted chocolate, cocoa powder, or both.
History
Chocolate cake is made with chocolate. It can also include other ingredients. These include fudge, vanilla creme, and other sweeteners. The history of chocolate cake goes back to the 17th century, when cocoa powder from the Americas was added to traditional cake recipes.
In 1828, Coenraad van Houten of the Netherlands developed a mechanical extraction method for extracting the fat from cacao liquor resulting in cacao butter and the partly defatted cacao, a compacted mass of solids that could be sold as it was "rock cacao" or ground into powder. The processes transformed chocolate from an exclusive luxury to an inexpensive daily snack. A process for making silkier and smoother chocolate called conching was developed in 1879 by Rodolphe Lindt and made it easier to bake with chocolate, as it amalgamates smoothly and completely with cake batters. Until 1890 to 1900, chocolate recipes were mostly for chocolate drinks, and its presence in cakes was only in fillings and glazes. In 1886, American cooks began adding chocolate to the cake batter, to make the first chocolate cakes in the US.
The Duff Company of Pittsburgh, a molasses manufacturer, introduced Devil's food chocolate cake mixes in the mid-1930s, but introduction was put on hold during World War II. Duncan Hines introduced a "Three Star Special" (so called because a white, yellow or chocolate cake could be made from the same mix) was introduced three years after cake mixes from General Mills and Duncan Hines, and took over 48 percent of the market.
In the U.S., "chocolate decadence" cakes were popular in the 1980s; in the 1990s, single-serving molten chocolate cakes with liquid chocolate centers and infused chocolates with exotic flavors such as tea, curry, red pepper, passion fruit, and champagne were popular. Chocolate lounges and artisanal chocolate makers were popular in the 2000s. Rich, flourless, all-but-flourless chocolate cakes are "now standard in the modern pâtisserie", according to The New Taste of Chocolate in 2001.
Cake types
Popular variants on chocolate cake include:
"Traditional" Chocolate cake
Chocolate
Chocolate
Chocolate swiss roll – A sponge cake roll filled with jam, cream or icing
See also
List of cakes
Bûche de Noël
References
Chocolate desserts | wiki |
Anathallis linearifolia is a species of orchid.
References
External links
linearifolia
Taxa named by Alfred Cogniaux | wiki |
The Subcommittee on Tax is a subcommittee of the Committee on Ways and Means in the United States House of Representatives. Between 2019 and 2023 known as the Subcommittee on Select Revenue Measures, before receiving its current name after a return to Republican control.
Jurisdiction
From the House rules:
The jurisdiction of the Subcommittee on Tax Policy shall consist of those revenue measures that, from time to time, shall be referred to it specifically by the Chairman of the full Committee.
Members, 117th Congress
Historical membership rosters
115th Congress
116th Congress
References
External links
Ways and Means Committee Website: Subcommittee Page
Ways and Means Select | wiki |
Anathallis microphyta is a species of orchid.
References
External links
microphyta | wiki |
Window Clippings is a Windows utility that enables users to capture screenshots from open windows and menus so that the transparency (alpha channel) of target window is also captured. This includes shadows and translucent glass areas produced by Windows Aero in Windows Vista and Windows 7. It supports add-ins which extend its functionality. Window Clippings 2.1 comes with a handful of add-ins that enable it to send taken screenshots directly to Paint.NET or Microsoft OneNote.
Window Clippings 2.0.28 was the last freeware version. The trial version of 2.1.16 and onwards watermark the screenshots in the lower right corner (version 2) or in the center (version 3) of each image. It was acquired by Epsitec in early 2011.
References
Further reading
External links
Screenshot software
Windows-only shareware | wiki |
A traffic enforcement camera (also red light camera, speed camera, road safety camera, road rule camera, photo radar, photo enforcement, Gatso, safety camera, bus lane camera, flash for cash, Safe-T-Cam, No contact apprehension camera depending on use) is a camera which may be mounted beside or over a road or installed in an enforcement vehicle to detect motoring offenses, including speeding, vehicles going through a red traffic light, vehicles going through a toll booth without paying, unauthorized use of a bus lane, or for recording vehicles inside a congestion charge area. It may be linked to an automated ticketing system.
A worldwide review of studies found that speed cameras led to a reduction of "11% to 44% for fatal and serious injury crashes". The UK Department for Transport estimated that cameras had led to a 22% reduction in personal injury collisions and 42% fewer people being killed or seriously injured at camera sites. The British Medical Journal recently reported that speed cameras were effective at reducing accidents and injuries in their vicinity and recommended wider deployment. An LSE study in 2017 found that "adding another 1,000 cameras to British roads could save up to 190 lives annually, reduce up to 1,130 collisions and mitigate 330 serious injuries."
The latest automatic number-plate recognition systems can be used for the detection of average speeds and raise concerns over loss of privacy and the potential for governments to establish mass surveillance of vehicle movements and therefore by association also the movement of the vehicle's owner. Vehicles owners are often required by law to identify the driver of the vehicle and a case was taken to the European Court of Human Rights which found that human rights were not being breached. Some groups, such as the American Civil Liberties Union in the US, claim that "the common use of speed traps as a revenue source also undercuts the legitimacy of safety efforts."
Types
Bus lane enforcement
Some bus lane enforcement cameras use a sensor in the road, which triggers a number-plate recognition camera which compares the vehicle registration plate with a list of approved vehicles and records images of other vehicles. Other systems use a camera mounted on the bus, for example in London where they monitor Red routes on which stopping is not allowed for any purpose (other than taxis and disabled parking permit holders).
On Monday, February 23, 2009, New York City announced testing camera enforcement of bus lanes on 34th Street in Midtown Manhattan where a New York City taxi illegally using the bus lanes would face a fine of $150 adjudicated by the New York City Taxi and Limousine Commission.
In October 2013, in Melbourne (Australia), Melbourne Airport introduced seven automatic number-plate recognition (ANPR) cameras in their bus forecourt to monitor bus lanes and provide charging points based on vehicle type and the dwell time of each vehicle. Entry and Exit cameras determine the length of stay and provide alerts for unregistered or vehicles of concern via onscreen, email or SMS based alerts. This system was the first of several Sensor Dynamics based ANPR solutions.
Red light enforcement
A red light camera is a traffic camera that takes an image of a vehicle that goes through an intersection where the light is red. The system continuously monitors the traffic signal and the camera is triggered by any vehicle entering the intersection above a preset minimum speed and following a specified time after the signal has turned red.
Red light cameras are also utilized in capturing texting-while-driving violators. In many municipalities an officer is monitoring the cameras in a live command center and records all violations, including texting at a red light.
Speed limit enforcement
Speed enforcement cameras are used to monitor compliance with speed limits, which may use Doppler radar, LIDAR, stereo vision or automatic number-plate recognition. Other speed enforcement systems are also used which are not camera based.
Fixed or mobile speed camera systems that measure the time taken by a vehicle to travel between two or more fairly distant sites (from several hundred meters to several hundred kilometers apart) are called automatic number-plate recognition (ANPR) cameras. These cameras time vehicles over a known fixed distance, and then calculate the vehicle's average speed for the journey.
Stop sign enforcement
In 2007, the Mountains Recreation and Conservation Authority (MRCA), in California, installed the first stop sign cameras in the United States. The five cameras are located in state parks such as Franklin Canyon Park and Temescal Gateway Park. The operator, Redflex Traffic Systems Inc., is paid $20 per ticket. The fine listed on the citation is $100. In 2010, a class action lawsuit was filed against MRCA.
Noise pollution camera ("noise radar")
Noise enforcement cameras are used to monitor and enforce compliance with local or national vehicle noise limits.
All current designs of noise camera follow the same basic construction: a microphone linked to an ANPR video camera, mounted at a fixed location or on a mobile tripod. The ANPR camera is triggered when the microphone detects a passing vehicle emitting a sound signal above a pre-set decibel limit, capturing the vehicle registration and giving police or local government recourse to warn, fine or prosecute the registered owner. These cameras have been designed to respond to mass complaints about vehicle noise (in 2020 New York city recorded over 99,000 noise complaints specifically related to vehicles).
Trials of noise cameras have been conducted in cities worldwide. In Taipei, fines range from US$65 to US$130, with additional fines for illegally modified exhausts of up to US$1000. The noise camera scheme won 90% voter approval; the national government then earmarked $4m to build a national network of noise cameras, including mobile cameras.
Trials of noise cameras are conducted using 1st generation technology, which depends on microphones to measure sound. Microphones have been shown to struggle when pinpointing an offending vehicle in heavy traffic. In 2020 the UK Department of Transport published a feasibility study commissioned from a joint venture between engineering consultancies Atkins and Jacobs. The study concluded that noise cameras fail to function well in everyday traffic conditions, owing to sound contamination from adjacent vehicles. The Atkins/Jacobs study was unable to consistently derive sound readings from cars travelling less than ten seconds apart from other vehicles. This limits their use to quieter roads and delays breakeven on investment. Similar results were found in a trial in Edmonton, where local government cited technical shortcomings to explain spending $192,000 on noise cameras that recouped $98,000 in fines.
Number-plate recognition systems
Automatic number-plate recognition can be used for purposes unrelated to enforcement of traffic rules. In principle any agency or person with access to data either from traffic cameras or cameras installed for other purposes can track the movement of vehicles for any purpose.
The world's first all-weather, 24-hour, automatic number plate recognition system SAFE-T-CAM was developed in Australia for the Roads and Traffic Authority (RTA) by Telstra as the prime contractor and ICONIX and CSIRO as sub-contractors in 1991. In Australia's SAFE-T-CAM system, ANPR technology is used to monitor long distance truck drivers to detect avoidance of legally prescribed driver rest periods.
The United Kingdom's police ANPR system logs all the vehicles passing particular points in the national road network, allowing authorities to track the movement of vehicles and individuals across the country.
In the UK, 80-year-old pensioner John Catt and his daughter Linda were stopped by City of London Police while driving in London in 2005. They had their vehicle searched under section 44 of the Terrorism Act 2000 and were threatened with arrest if they refused to answer questions. After they complained formally, it was discovered they were stopped when their car was picked up by roadside ANPR CCTV cameras; it had been flagged in the Police National Computer database when they were seen near EDO MBM demonstrations in Brighton. Critics point out that the Catts had been suspected of no crime, however the police ANPR system led to them being targeted due to their association.
Multipurpose camera
In 2011, a multipurpose smart enforcement camera was tested in Finland.
This camera can check driving speeds, driver wearing seatbelt, distance between cars, insurance and tax payment.
Other multipurpose camera can check vehicles passing over the railway crossing.
In 2016, the Metropolitan Manila Development Authority (MMDA) implemented the No Contact Apprehension Policy in apprehending traffic violations such as disregarding traffic control signs and other violations via their closed-circuit television camera or other digital camera and/or other technologies. It was later adapted by other Metro Manila local government units such as Manila, Parañaque, Quezon City, Valenzuela, San Juan, Muntinlupa and Marikina, and also in provinces LGUs like Cauayan in Isabela and the whole province of Bataan.
Other
Congestion charge cameras to detect vehicles inside the chargeable area which have not paid the appropriate fee
High-occupancy vehicle lane cameras to identify vehicles violating occupancy requirements.
Level crossing cameras to identifying vehicles crossing railways at grade
Noise pollution cameras that record evidence of heavy vehicles that break noise regulations by using compression release engine brakes
Parking cameras which issue citations to vehicles which are illegally parked or which were not moved from a street at posted times.
Toll-booth cameras to identify vehicles proceeding through a toll booth without paying the toll
Turn cameras at intersections where specific turns are prohibited on red. This type of camera is mostly used in cities or heavy populated areas.
Automatic number-plate recognition systems can be used for multiple purposes, including identifying untaxed and uninsured vehicles, stolen cars and potentially mass surveillance of motorists .
Bus lane cameras that detect vehicles that should not be in the bus lane. These may be mounted on buses themselves as well as by the roadside.
Fixed camera systems can be housed in boxes, or mounted on poles beside the road, or attached to gantries over the road, or to overpasses or bridges. Cameras can be concealed, for example in garbage bins.
Mobile speed cameras may be hand-held, tripod mounted, or vehicle-mounted. In vehicle-mounted systems, detection equipment and cameras can be mounted to the vehicle itself, or simply tripod mounted inside the vehicle and deployed out a window or door. If the camera is fixed to the vehicle, the enforcement vehicle does not necessarily have to be stationary, and can be moved either with or against the flow of traffic. In the latter case, depending on the direction of travel, the target vehicle's relative speed is either added or subtracted from the enforcement vehicle's own speed to obtain its actual speed. The speedometer of the camera vehicle needs to be accurately calibrated.
Some number-plate recognition systems can also be used from vehicles.
Effectiveness
Aside from the issues of legality in some countries and states and of sometime opposition the effectiveness of speed cameras is very well documented. The introduction to The Effectiveness of Speed Cameras A review of evidence by Richard Allsop includes the following in the foreword by Professor Stephen Glaister, Director of the RAC (Royal Automobile Club). "While this report fully lays out the background to the introduction of speed cameras and the need for speed limits, its job is not to justify why the national limits are what they are; a review of speed limits to see whether they are soundly based is for another day. What it has done is to show that at camera sites, speeds have been reduced, and that as a result, collisions resulting in injuries have fallen. The government has said that a decision on whether speed cameras should be funded must be taken at a local level. With the current pressure on public funds, there will be – indeed there already are – those who say that what little money there is can be better spent. This report begs to differ. The devices are already there; they demonstrate value for money, yet are not significant revenue raisers for the Treasury; they are shown to save lives; and despite the headlines, most people accept the need for them. Speed cameras should never be the only weapon in the road safety armoury, but neither should they be absent from the battle."
The 2010 Cochrane Review of speed cameras for the prevention of road traffic injuries and deaths reported that all 28 studies accepted by the authors found the effect of speed cameras to be a reduction in all crashes, injury crashes, and death or severe injury crashes. "Twenty eight studies measured the effect on crashes. All 28 studies found a lower number of crashes in the speed camera areas after implementation of the program. In the vicinity of camera sites, the reductions ranged from 8% to 49% for all crashes, with reductions for most studies in the 14% to 25% range. For injury crashes the decrease ranged between 8% to 50% and for crashes resulting in fatalities or serious injuries the reductions were in the range of 11% to 44%. Effects over wider areas showed reductions for all crashes ranging from 9% to 35%, with most studies reporting reductions in the 11% to 27% range. For crashes resulting in death or serious injury reductions ranged from 17% to 58%, with most studies reporting this result in the 30% to 40% reduction range. The studies of longer duration showed that these positive trends were either maintained or improved with time. Nevertheless, the authors conceded that the magnitude of the benefit from speed cameras "is currently not deducible" due to limitations in the methodological rigor of many of the 28 studies cited, and recommended that "more studies of a scientifically rigorous and homogenous nature are necessary, to provide the answer to the magnitude of effect."
The 2010 report, "The Effectiveness of Speed Cameras A review of evidence", by Richard Allsop concludes "The findings of this review for the RAC Foundation, though reached independently, are essentially consistent with the Cochrane Review conclusions. They are also broadly consistent with the findings of a meta-analysis reported in the respected Handbook of Road Safety Measures, of 16 studies, not including the four-year evaluation report, of the effects of fixed cameras on numbers of collisions and casualties."
United Kingdom
In 2001 the Nottingham Safety Camera Pilot achieved "virtually complete compliance" on the major ring road into the city using average speed cameras, across all Nottinghamshire SPECS installations, KSI (Killed / Seriously Injured) figures have fallen by an average of 65%.
In 2003 the British Medical Journal reported that speed cameras were effective at reducing accidents and injuries and recommended wider deployment. In February 2005 the British Medical Journal again reported that speed cameras were an effective intervention in reducing road traffic collisions and related casualties, noting however that most studies to date did not have satisfactory control groups. In 2003 Northumbria Police's Acting Chief Inspector of motor patrols suggested that cameras didn't reduce casualties but did raise revenue – an official statement from the police force later re-iterated that speed cameras do reduce casualties.
In December 2005 the Department for Transport published a four-year report into Safety Camera Partnerships which concluded that there was a 22% reduction in personal injury collisions and 42% fewer people being killed or seriously injured following the installation of cameras. The Times reported that this research showed that the department had been previous exaggerating the safety benefits of speed cameras but that the results were still 'impressive'.
A report published by the RAC Foundation in 2010 estimated that an additional 800 more people a year could be killed or seriously injured on the UK's roads if all speed cameras were scrapped. A survey conducted by The Automobile Association in May 2010 indicated that speed cameras were supported by 75% of their members.
The town of Swindon abandoned the use of fixed cameras in 2009, questioning their cost effectiveness with the cameras being replaced by vehicle activated warning signs and enforcement by police using mobile speed cameras: in the nine months following the switch-off there was a small reduction in accident rates which had changed slightly in similar periods before and after the switch off (Before: 1 fatal, 1 serious and 13 slight accidents. Afterwards: no fatalities, 2 serious and 12 slight accidents). The journalist George Monbiot claimed that the results were not statistically significant highlighting earlier findings across the whole of Wiltshire that there had been a 33% reduction in the number of people killed and seriously injured generally and a 68% reduction at camera sites during the previous 3 years. In 2012, the town had the fewest accident rates per 1,000 registered vehicles: a result linked by the Local Authority Member for Council Transformation, Transport and Strategic Planning to the removal of speed cameras and resultant additional funding for road safety, alongside close working with the police.
In Scotland, the introduction of average speed cameras significantly reduced speeding on the A9 and A96.
United States
According to the 2003 NCHRP study on Red Light Running (RLR), "RLR automated enforcement can be an effective safety countermeasure....[I]t appears from the findings of several studies that, in general, RLR cameras can bring about a reduction in the more severe angle crashes with, at worst, a slight increase in less severe rear-end crashes. However it noted that "there is not enough empirical evidence based on proper experimental design procedures to state this conclusively."
A study conducted in Alabama and published in 2016 reveals that Red Light Cameras (RLCs) seem to have a slight impact on the clearance lost time; the intersections equipped with RLCs are half a second less in use compared with those without cameras; and highway capacity manual estimates a shorter lost time and thus may overestimate the intersection's capacity.
Controversy
Legal issues
Various legal issues arise from such cameras and the laws involved in how cameras can be placed and what evidence is necessary to prosecute a driver varies considerably in different legal systems.
One issue is the potential conflict of interest when private contractors are paid a commission based on the number of tickets they are able to issue. Pictures from the San Diego red light camera systems were ruled inadmissible as court evidence in September 2001. The judge said that the "total lack of oversight" and "method of compensation" made evidence from the cameras "so untrustworthy and unreliable that it should not be admitted".
Some US states and provinces of Canada, such as Alberta, operate "owner liability", where it is the registered owner of the vehicle who is legally responsible for paying all such fines, regardless who was driving the vehicle at the time of the offense, although they do release the owner from liability by identifying the actual driver and that person pays the fine, and in most such jurisdictions, convictions for such traffic offenses do not result in additional consequences for either drivers or owners (such as demerit points) besides the immediate financial consideration of the fine. In such jurisdictions, corporations which own vehicles (such as rental car companies) almost invariably require authorized drivers to agree in writing to assume financial responsibly for all such tickets.
In a few US states (including California), the cameras are set up to get a "face photo" of the driver. This has been done because in those states red light camera tickets are criminal violations, and criminal charges must always name the actual violator. In California, that need to identify the actual violator has led to the creation of a unique investigatory tool, the fake "ticket". In Arizona and Virginia, tickets issued by cameras are unenforceable due to there being no penalty for ignoring them. However, acknowledging receipt of such ticket makes it valid and thus enforceable. Many states have outlawed the use of traffic enforcement cameras.
In April 2000, two motorists who were caught speeding in the United Kingdom challenged the Road Traffic Act 1988, which required the keeper of a car to identify the driver at a particular time as being in contradiction to the Human Rights Act 1998 on the grounds that it amounted to a 'compulsory confession', also that since the camera partnerships included the police, local authorities, Magistrates Courts Service (MCS) and Crown Prosecution Service (CPS) which had a financial interest in the fine revenue that they would not get a fair trial. Their plea was initially granted by a judge then overturned but was then heard by the European Court of Human Rights (ECtHR), and the European Court of Justice (ECJ). In 2007 the European Court of Human Rights found there was no breach of article 6 in requiring the keepers of cars caught speeding on camera to provide the name of the driver.
Accuracy
In December, 2012, Speed Camera Contractor Xerox Corporation admitted that cameras they had deployed in Baltimore city were producing erroneous speed readings, and that 1 out of every 20 citations issued at some locations were due to errors. The erroneous citations included at least one issued to a completely stationary car, a fact revealed by a recorded video of the alleged violation.
In the city of Fort Dodge, Iowa, speed camera contractor Redspeed discovered a location where drivers of school buses, big panel trucks and similar vehicles have been clocked speeding by the city's mobile speed camera and radar unit even though they were obeying the 25 mph speed limit. The errors were due to what was described as an "electromagnetic anomaly".
Where verification photos are recorded on a time sequence, allowing the calculation of actual speed, these have been used to challenge the accuracy of speed cameras in court. Motorists in Prince George's County, Maryland, have successfully challenged tickets from Optotraffic speed cameras where they were incorrectly ticketed at over 15 mph over the limit. However, Prince George County no longer allows time-distance calculations as a defense in cases where "the equipment was calibrated and validated, or is self calibrating". The National Highway Traffic Safety Administration standards for "across the road radar" state that "If the ATR device is to be considered for unattended operation, the manufacturer shall provide a secondary method for verifying that the evidential recorded image properly identifies the target vehicle and reflects this vehicle’s true speed, as described in §5.18.2. This may be accomplished by means of a second, appropriately delayed image showing the target vehicle crossing a specified reference line."
In January 2011 Edmonton, Alberta cancelled all 100,000 "Speed On Green" tickets issued in the previous 14 months due to concerns about camera reliability.
Surveillance
Police and governments have been accused of "Big Brother tactics" in over-monitoring of public roads, and of "revenue raising" in applying cameras in deceptive ways to increase government revenue rather than improve road safety.
Online websites, like Photo Radar Scam and BantheCams.org, have been created in reaction to the rising use of traffic cameras. Their primary goal, as stated by BantheCams.org, is to “educate and equip local citizens with a way to combat the abuse of power now being exercised by local and state governments with the regards to the use of electronic surveillance devices.”
Groups like NHTSA (National Highway Traffic Safety Administration) have encouraged the usage of automated speed enforcement to help improve general road safety and to decrease crash rates.
Revenue, not safety
In 2010, a campaign was set up against a speed camera on a dual carriageway in Poole, Dorset in a 30 mph area in the United Kingdom, which had generated £1.3m of fines every year since 1999. The initial Freedom of information request was refused and the information was only released after an appeal to the Information Commissioner.
In May, 2010, the new Coalition government said that the 'Labour's 13-year war on the motorist is over' and that the new government 'pledged to scrap public funding for speed cameras' In July Mike Penning, the Road safety minister reduced the Road Safety Grant for the current year to Local Authorities from £95 million to £57 million, saying that local authorities had relied too heavily on safety cameras for far too long and that he was pleased that some councils were now focusing on other road safety measures. It is estimated that as a result the Treasury is now distributing £40 million less in Road Safety Grant than is raised from fines in the year. Dorset and Essex announced plans to review camera provision with a view to possibly ending the scheme in their counties, however Dorset strongly affirmed its support for the scheme, albeit reducing financial contributions in line with the reduction in government grant. Seven counties also announced plans to turn off some or all of their cameras, amidst warnings from the country's most senior traffic policeman that this would result in an increase in deaths and injuries. Gloucestershire cancelled plans to update cameras and has reduced or cancelled maintenance contracts.
In August 2010, the Oxfordshire, UK speed cameras had been switched off because of lack of finance due to government funding policy changes. The cameras were switched back on in April 2011 after a new source of funding was found for them. Following rule changes on the threshold for offering "Speed Awareness Courses" as an alternative to a fine and licence points for drivers, and given that the compulsory fees charged for such courses go directly to the partnerships rather than directly to central government as is the case for fine revenues, the partnership will be able to fund its operations from course fees. Compared with the same period in the previous year with the cameras still switched on, the number of serious injuries that occurred during the same period with the cameras switched off was exactly the same at 13 and the number of slight injuries was 15 more at 70, resulting from 62 crashes 2 more than when the cameras were still operating. There were no fatalities during either period.
Unpopularity
Claims of popular support are disputed by elections in the US, where the camera companies often sue to keep it off the ballot, and camera enforcement often loses by a wide margin. Automated enforcement is opposed by some motorists and motoring organizations as strictly for revenue generating. They have also been rejected in some places by referendum.
The first speed camera systems in the US were in Friendswood, Texas in 1986 and La Marque, Texas in 1987. Neither program lasted more than a few months before public pressure forced them to be dropped.
In 1991, cameras were rejected in referendum in Peoria, Arizona; voters were the first to reject cameras by a 2-1 margin.
In 1992, cameras were rejected by voters in referendums in Batavia, Illinois.
Anchorage, Alaska rejected cameras in a 1997 referendum.
In 2002, the state of Hawaii experimented with speed limit enforcement vans but they were withdrawn months later due to public outcry.
A 2002 Australian survey found that "The community generally believes that enforcement intensities should either stay the same or increase", with 40% of those surveyed saying that they thought that the number of speed cameras on the road should be increased, 43% saying that they thought the number should stay the same, and 13% saying that they thought that the number should be decreased.
In 2005, the Virginia legislature declined to reauthorize its red light camera enforcement law after a study questioned their effectiveness, only to reverse itself in 2007 and allow cameras to return to any city with a population greater than 10,000. Citations are not enforceable due to no penalty being in place if they are ignored.
A 2007 literature review of the benefits and barriers to implementation of automated speed enforcement in the US. stated that "In general, the results of [public opinion] surveys indicate that a majority of respondents support automated enforcement. However, the margins of support vary widely, from a low of 51 percent in Washington, D.C. to a high of 77 percent in Scottsdale, Arizona."
In 2009, a petition was started in the town of College Station, Texas which requested that all red light cameras be dismantled and removed from all of the town's intersections. Enough signatures were captured to put the measure on the November 2009 general election ballot. After an extensive battle between the College Station city council and the opposing sides, both for and against red light cameras, the voters voted to eliminate the red light cameras throughout the entire city. By the end of November the red light cameras were taken down.
On May 4, 2010, an ordinance authorizing the use of speed cameras in the town of Sykesville, Maryland was put to a referendum, in which 321 out of 529 voters (60.4%) voted against the cameras. The turnout for this vote was greater than the number of voters in the previous local Sykesville election for mayor where 523 voted.
Arizona decided not to renew their contract with Redflex in 2011 following a study of their statewide 76 photo enforcement cameras. Reasons given included less than expected revenue due to improved compliance, mixed public acceptance and mixed accident data.
Avoidance/evasion
To avoid detection or prosecution, drivers may:
Brake just before a camera in order to travel past its sensor below the speed limit. This is, however, a cause of collisions. Or brake suddenly, which results in rear-end crashes.
Use GPS navigation devices, such as Waze, which contain databases of known camera locations to alert them in advance. These databases may, in some cases, be updated in near-realtime. The use of GPS devices to locate speed cameras is illegal in some jurisdictions, such as France. In Australia, the use of GPS devices within the category of intelligent speed adaptation are being encouraged.
Install active laser jammer or radar jammer devices which actively transmit signals that interfere with the measuring device. These devices are illegal in many jurisdictions.
Remove, falsify, obscure or modify vehicle license plate. Tampering with number plates or misrepresenting them is illegal in most jurisdictions.
Damage or destroy the cameras themselves.
In August, 2010, a fast driving Swiss driver reportedly avoided several older model speed cameras, but was detected by a new model, as traveling at 300 km/h (186 mph), resulting in the world's largest speeding fine to date.
In the past, it was possible to avoid detection by changing lanes when SPECS average speed cameras were in use as they measured a vehicle's speed over distance in one lane only. Since 2007, measures were taken to mitigate this limitation. Although the cameras do operate in pairs on single lanes (it is a limitation of the technology not a restriction in the type approval) the authorities now install the cameras such that the monitored length of road overlaps between multiple camera pairs. The driver cannot tell which cameras are 'entry' and which are 'exit' making it difficult to know when to change lane.
History
The idea of the speed cameras dates back to the late 19th century: the 1894 science fiction novel A Journey in Other Worlds, set in the year 2000, includes a description of "instantaneous kodaks" used by police to enforce speed limits. In 1905, Popular Mechanics reported on a patent for a "Time Recording Camera for Trapping Motorists" that enabled the operator to take time-stamped images of a vehicle moving across the start and endpoints of a measured section of road. The timestamps enabled the speed to be calculated, and the photo enabled identification of the driver.
The Dutch company Gatsometer BV, which was founded in 1958 by rally driver Maurice Gatsonides, produced the 'Gatsometer'. Gatsonides wished to better monitor his average speed on a race track and invented the device in order to improve his lap times. The company later started supplying these devices as police speed enforcement tools. The first systems introduced in the late 1960s used film cameras to take their pictures. Gatsometer introduced the first red light camera in 1965, the first radar for use with road traffic in 1971 and the first mobile speed traffic camera in 1982;
From the late 1990s, digital cameras began to be introduced. Digital cameras can be fitted with a network connection to transfer images to a central processing location automatically, so they have advantages over film cameras in speed of issuing fines, maintenance and operational monitoring. However, film-based systems may provide superior image quality in the variety of lighting conditions encountered on roads, and are required by courts in some jurisdictions. New film-based systems are still being sold, but digital pictures are providing greater versatility and lower maintenance and are now more popular with law enforcement agencies.
Gallery
See also
Road traffic safety
Road traffic control
Speed limit enforcement
Road speed limit enforcement in Australia
Safety Camera Partnership
Traffic light
Fourth and Sixth Amendment to the United States Constitution which have been used to limit use of speed cameras in the United States.
HOTA
Radar gun
TEDES (traffic enforcement system) in Turkey
References
External links
Traffic law
Cameras by type
Applications of computer vision
Road traffic management
Street furniture
Transportation engineering
Dutch inventions
Articles containing video clips
it:Autovelox
ms:Sistem Penguatkuasaan Automatik | wiki |
Anathallis pubipetala is a species of orchid.
References
External links
pubipetala | wiki |
United Nations Security Council Resolution 107 was a Security Council resolution adopted unanimously on March 30, 1955, calling upon the Egyptian and Israeli governments to cooperate with the proposals outlined in a report previously issued by the chief of staff of the United Nations Truce Supervision Organization in Palestine.
See also
List of United Nations Security Council Resolutions 101 to 200 (1953–1965)
United Nations Security Council Resolution 106
References
Text of the Resolution at undocs.org
External links
0107
0107
1955 in Egypt
0107
1955 in Israel
March 1955 events | wiki |
Open water may refer to:
Ocean or sea waters beyond the coastlines and shorelines of an island or continent
Open Water (film), a 2003 film about a couple that were accidentally left behind by their scuba diving group
Open Water 2: Adrift, 2006 film
Open Water (album), a 2006 album by the German singer Sascha Schmitz
Open-water diving, a place without boundaries where you can dive (sea or lake)
Open Water Diver, a scuba diving certification level provided by several training agencies
Open water swimming, an activity in which people swim in large, outdoor bodies of water such as oceans, bays, lakes and rivers
OpenWater, an application management software
Water (obstacle), open water jump: an obstacle found in the equestrian sport of show jumping
Open Water (novel), 2021 novel by Caleb Azumah Nelson | wiki |
This is a comparison of notable time-tracking software packages and web hosted services.
See also
Deployment management
Flextime plan
Project management software
Timesheet
Working time
References
Administrative software
Lists of software
Software comparisons | wiki |
A Lady Baltimore cake is an American white layer cake with fluffy frosting and a fruit and nut filling. The cake is believed to have been created in the Southern United States in the early 20th century, but its exact origins are disputed.
History
The most popular legend of the Lady Baltimore is that Alicia Rhett Mayberry, a Southern belle, baked and served the cake to novelist Owen Wister in Charleston, South Carolina. Wister was said to have been so enamored with the cake that he used it as the namesake of his novel, Lady Baltimore.
Wister included a description of the cake in Lady Baltimore:
"I should like a slice, if you please, of Lady Baltimore," I said, with extreme formality ... I returned to the table and I had my first felicitous meeting with Lady Baltimore. Oh, my goodness! Did you ever taste it? It's all soft, and it's in layers, and it has nuts—but I can't write any more about it; my mouth waters too much.
Delighted surprise caused me once more to speak aloud and with my mouth full. "But, dear me, this is delicious!"
According to food historians, the cake may have actually originated with Florence and Nina Ottolengui, the longtime managers of Charleston's Lady Baltimore Tea Room, who developed the cake based on a version of the common Queen cake from the late nineteenth century. The Ottolenguis are said to have annually baked and shipped a cake to Owen Wister as a "thanks" for making their creation famous, and were known to ship hundreds of cakes around the country at Christmastime. The cake is currently made by Charleston's Sugar Bakeshop.
The first recorded mentions of a cake with the name of "Lady Baltimore" began appearing in 1906, with several newspaper articles referring to it as the "famous" or "original" cake.
Recipe
The first printings of the recipe were copied in several newspapers, including Harrisburg, Pennsylvania's Daily Gazette and Bulletin, The Columbus Journal, and The Washington Times, in 1906:
Beat the whites of six eggs. Take a cup and a half of granulated sugar, a cup of milk, nearly a cup of butter, three cups of flour and two teaspoonfuls of good baking powder. Sift the flour and baking powder together into the other ingredients, adding the eggs last of all. Bake in two buttered pans for fifteen or twenty minutes.
For the frosting: Two cups of granulated sugar and a cup and a half of water, boil until stringy, about five minutes usually does it. Beat the whites of two eggs very light, and pour the boiling sugar slowly into it, mixing well. Take out of this enough for the top and sides of the cake, and stir into the remainder for the filling between the two layers, one cup of finely chopped raisins and a cup of chopped nuts. This is delicious when properly baked.
Modern versions of the recipe may call for a meringue, boiled, or seven-minute frosting, and may include rum or liqueurs in the filling. The cake itself may be white or yellow. There is also a version known as the "Lord Baltimore cake" made with the leftover egg yolks instead of whites.
In popular culture
Henry James refers to a "Lady Baltimore" cake in his 1905 book, The American Scene, as part of an essay about Charleston, South Carolina ("Collected Travel Writings", Library of America, 1993, 696).
In File for Record, a 1943 mystery by Phoebe Atwood Taylor, Constance "Pink" Lately makes a Lady Baltimore cake to bring to a Victory Swop. The detective, Leonidas Witherall, swaps the cake for a papier-mache lion's head. The cake makes several appearances throughout the book.
See also
List of cakes
References
Cuisine of the Southern United States
American cakes
Layer cakes | wiki |
Islands of Britain may refer to:
British Isles, the archipelago off north-western Europe
British Islands, a term referring collectively to the United Kingdom, along with a group of territories with constitutional links to the country
List of islands of the British Isles
List of islands of the United Kingdom
Islands of Britain (TV series)
See also
British Isles naming dispute
Terminology of the British Isles | wiki |
The reindeer or caribou (Rangifer tarandus) is a species of deer with circumpolar distribution, native to Arctic, subarctic, tundra, boreal, and mountainous regions of Northern Europe, Siberia, and North America. This includes both sedentary and migratory populations. It is the only representative of the genus Rangifer. Herd size varies greatly in different geographic regions. More recent studies suggest the splitting of reindeer and caribou into six distinct species over their range.
Reindeer occur in both migratory and sedentary populations, and their herd sizes vary greatly in different regions. The tundra subspecies are adapted for extreme cold, and some are adapted for long-distance migration.
Reindeer vary greatly in size and color from the smallest, the Svalbard reindeer (R. (t.) platyrhynchus), to the largest, Osborn's caribou (R. t. osborni). Although reindeer are quite numerous, some species and subspecies are in decline and considered Vulnerable. They are unique among deer (Cervidae) in that females may have antlers, although the prevalence of antlered females varies by species and subspecies.
Reindeer are the only successfully semi-domesticated deer on a large scale in the world, and both wild and domestic reindeer have been an important source of food, clothing, and shelter for Arctic people throughout history and are still herded and hunted today. Wild reindeer "may well be the species of single greatest importance in the entire anthropological literature on hunting." In some traditional Christmas legends, Santa Claus's reindeer pull a sleigh through the night sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to good children on Christmas Eve.
Description
Names follow international convention before the recent revision (see Taxonomy below). Reindeer/caribou (Rangifer) vary in size from the smallest, the Svalbard reindeer (R. (t.) platyrhynchus), to the largest, Osborn's caribou (R. t. osborni). They also vary in coat color and antler architecture.
The North American range of caribou extends from Alaska through the Yukon, the Northwest Territories and Nunavut throughout the tundra, taiga and boreal forest and south through the Canadian Rocky Mountains. Of the eight subspecies classified by Harding (2022) into the Arctic caribou (R. arcticus), the migratory mainland barren-ground caribou of Arctic Alaska and Canada (R. t. arcticus), summer in tundra and winter in taiga, a transitional forest zone between boreal forest and tundra; the nomadic Peary caribou (R. t. pearyi) lives in the polar desert of the High Arctic Archipelago and Grant's caribou (R. t. granti) lives in the western end of the Alaska Peninsula and the adjacent islands; the other four subspecies, Osborn's caribou (R. t. osborni), Stone's caribou (R. t. stonei), the Rocky Mountain caribou (R. t. fortidens) and the Selkirk Mountains caribou (R. t. montanus) are all montane. The extinct insular Queen Charlotte Islands caribou (R. t. dawsoni), lived on Graham Island in Haida Gwaii (formerly known as the Queen Charlotte Islands).
The boreal woodland caribou (R. t. caribou), lives in the boreal forest of northeastern Canada: the Labrador or Ungava caribou of northern Quebec and northern Labrador (R. t. caboti), and the Newfoundland caribou of Newfoundland (R. t. terranovae) have been found to be genetically in the woodland caribou lineage.
In Eurasia, both wild and domestic reindeer are distributed across the tundra and into the taiga. Eurasian mountain reindeer (R. tarandus tarandus) are close to North American caribou genetically and visually, but with sufficient differences to warrant division into two species. The unique, insular Svalbard reindeer inhabits the Svalbard Archipelago. The Finnish forest reindeer (R. t. fennicus) is spottily distributed in the coniferous forest zones from Finland to east of Lake Baikal: the Siberian forest reindeer (R. t. valentinae, formerly called the Busk Mountains reindeer (R. t. buskensis) by American taxonomists) occupies the Altai and Ural Mountains.
Male ("bull") and female ("cow") reindeer can grow antlers annually, although the proportion of females that grow antlers varies greatly between populations. Antlers are typically larger on males. Antler architecture varies by species and subspecies and, together with pelage differences, can often be used to distinguish between species and subspecies (see illustrations in Geist, 1991 and Geist, 1998).
Status
About 25,000 mountain reindeer (R. t. tarandus) still live in the mountains of Norway, notably in Hardangervidda, with smaller numbers in Sweden. Russia manages 19 herds of Siberian tundra reindeer (R. t. sibiricus) that total about 940,000. The Taimyr herd of Siberian tundra reindeer is the largest wild reindeer herd in the world, varying between 400,000 and 1,000,000; it is a metapopulation consisting of several subpopulations — some of which are phenotypically different — with different migration routes and calving areas. The Kamchatkan reindeer (R. t. phylarchus), a forest subspecies, formerly included reindeer west of the Sea of Okhotsk which, however, are indistinguishable genetically from the Jano-Indigirka, East Siberian taiga and Chukotka populations of R. t. sibiricus. Siberian tundra reindeer herds have been in decline but are stable or increasing since 2000.
Insular (island) reindeer, classified as the Novaya Zemlya reindeer (R. t. pearsoni) occupy several island groups: the Novaya Zemlya Archipelago (about 5,000 animals at last count, but most of these are either domestic reindeer or domestic-wild hybrids), the New Siberia Archipelago (about 10,000 to 15,000), and Wrangel Island (200 to 300 feral domestic reindeer).
What was once the second largest herd is the migratory Labrador caribou (R. t. caboti) George River herd in Canada, with former variations between 28,000 and 385,000. As of January 2018, there are fewer than 9,000 animals estimated to be left in the George River herd, as reported by the Canadian Broadcasting Corporation. The New York Times reported in April 2018 of the disappearance of the only herd of southern mountain woodland caribou in the contiguous United States, with an expert calling it "functionally extinct" after the herd's size dwindled to a mere three animals. After the last individual, a female, was translocated to a wildlife rehabilitation center in Canada, caribou were considered extirpated from the contiguous United States. The Committee on Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC) classified both the Southern Mountain population DU9 (R. t. montanus) and the Central Mountain population DU8 (R. t. fortidens) as Endangered and the Northern Mountain population DU7 (R. t. osborni) as Threatened.
Some species and subspecies are rare and three subspecies have already become extinct: the Queen Charlotte Islands caribou (R. t. dawsoni) from western Canada, the Sakhalin reindeer (R. t. setoni) from Sakhalin and the East Greenland caribou from eastern Greenland, although some authorities believe that the latter, R. t. eogroenlandicus Degerbøl, 1957, is a junior synonym of the Peary caribou. Historically, the range of the sedentary boreal woodland caribou covered more than half of Canada and into the northern states of the contiguous United States from Maine to Washington. Boreal woodland caribou have disappeared from most of their original southern range and were designated as Threatened in 2002 by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada (COSEWIC). Environment Canada reported in 2011 that there were approximately 34,000 boreal woodland caribou in 51 ranges remaining in Canada (Environment Canada, 2011b), although those numbers included montane populations classified by Harding (2022) into subspecies of the Arctic caribou. Siberian tundra reindeer herds are also in decline, and Rangifer as a whole is considered to be Vulnerable by the IUCN.
Naming
Charles Hamilton Smith is credited with the name Rangifer for the reindeer genus, which Albertus Magnus used in his De animalibus, fol. Liber 22, Cap. 268: "Dicitur Rangyfer quasi ramifer". This word may go back to the Sámi word raingo. Carl Linnaeus chose the word tarandus as the specific epithet, making reference to Ulisse Aldrovandi's Quadrupedum omnium bisulcorum historia fol. 859–863, Cap. 30: De Tarando (1621). However, Aldrovandi and Conrad Gessner thought that rangifer and tarandus were two separate animals. In any case, the tarandos name goes back to Aristotle and Theophrastus.
The use of the terms reindeer and caribou for essentially the same animal can cause confusion, but the International Union for Conservation of Nature clearly delineates the issue: "Reindeer is the European name for the species of Rangifer, while in North America, Rangifer species are known as Caribou." The word rein is of Norse origin. The word deer was originally broader in meaning but became more specific over time. In Middle English, der meant a wild animal of any kind, in contrast to cattle. The word caribou comes through French, from the Mi'kmaq qalipu, meaning "snow shoveler", and refers to its habit of pawing through the snow for food.
Because of its importance to many cultures, Rangifer and some of its species and subspecies have names in many languages. Inuvaluit of the western Canadian Arctic and Inuit of the eastern Canadian Arctic, who speak different dialects of Inuktitut, both call the barren-ground caribou tuktu. The Wekʼèezhìi people, a Dene (Athapascan) group, call the Arctic caribou Ɂekwǫ̀ and the boreal woodland caribou tǫdzı. The Gwichʼin (also a Dene group) have over 24 distinct caribou-related words.
Reindeer are also called tuttu by the Greenlandic Inuit and hreindýr sometimes rein by the Icelanders
Evolution
The "glacial-interglacial cycles of the upper Pleistocene had a major influence on the evolution" of Rangifer species and other Arctic and sub-Arctic species. Isolation of tundra-adapted species Rangifer in Last Glacial Maximum refugia during the last glacial – the Wisconsin glaciation in North America and the Weichselian glaciation in Eurasia – shaped "intraspecific genetic variability" particularly between the North American and Eurasian parts of the Arctic.
Reindeer/caribou (Rangifer) are in the subfamily Odocoileinae, along with roe deer (Capreolus), Eurasian elk/moose (Alces), and water deer (Hydropotes). These antlered cervids split from the horned ruminants Bos (cattle and yaks), Ovis (sheep) and Capra (goats) about 36 million years ago. The Eurasian clade of Odocoileinae (Capreolini, Hydropotini and Alcini) split from the New World tribes of Capreolinae (Odocoileini and Rangiferini) in the Late Miocene, 8.7–9.6 million years ago. Rangifer “evolved as a mountain deer, ...exploiting the subalpine and alpine meadows...”. Rangifer originated in the Late Pliocene and diversified in the Early Pleistocene, a 2+ million-year period of multiple glacier advances and retreats. Several named Rangifer fossils in Eurasia and North America predate the evolution of modern tundra reindeer.
Archaeologists distinguish “modern” tundra reindeer and barren-ground caribou from primitive forms — living and extinct — that did not have adaptations to extreme cold and to long distance migration. They include a broad, high muzzle to increase the volume of the nasal cavity to warm and moisten the air before it enters the throat and lungs, bez tines set close to the brow tines, distinctive coat patterns, short legs and other adaptations for running long distances, and multiple behaviors suited to tundra, but not to forest (such as synchronized calving and aggregation during rutting and post-calving). As well, many genes, including those for vitamin D metabolism, fat metabolism, retinal development, circadian rhythm, and tolerance to cold temperatures, are found in tundra caribou that are lacking or rudimentary in forest types. For this reason, forest-adapted reindeer and caribou could not survive in tundra or polar deserts. The oldest undoubted Rangifer fossil is from Omsk, Russia, dated to 2.1-1.8 Ma. The oldest North American Rangifer fossil is from the Yukon, 1.6 million years before present (BP). A fossil skull fragment from Süßenborn, Germany, R. arcticus stadelmanni, (which is probably misnamed) with “rather thin and cylinder-shaped” antlers, dates to the Middle Pleistocene (Günz) Period, 680,000-620,000 BP. Rangifer fossils become increasingly frequent in circumpolar deposits beginning with the Riss glaciations, the second youngest of the Pleistocene Epoch, roughly 300,000–130,000 BP. By the 4-Würm period (110,000–70,000 to 12,000–10,000 BP), its European range was extensive, supplying a major food source for prehistoric Europeans. North American fossils outside of Beringia that predate the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM) are of Rancholabrean age (240,000–11,000 years BP) and occur along the fringes of the Rocky Mountain and Laurentide ice sheets as far south as northern Alabama; and in Sangamonian deposits (~100,000 years BP) from western Canada.
A R. t. pearyi-sized caribou occupied Greenland before and after the LGM and persisted in a relict enclave in northeastern Greenland until it went extinct about 1900 (see discussion of R. t. eogroenlandicus below). Archaeological excavations showed that larger barren-ground-sized caribou appeared in western Greenland about 4,000 years ago.
The late Valerius Geist (1998) dates the Eurasian reindeer radiation dates to the large Riss glaciation (347,000 to 128,000 years ago), based on the Norwegian-Svalbard split 225,000 years ago. Finnish forest reindeer (R. t. fennicus) likely evolved from Cervus [Rangifer] geuttardi Desmarest, 1822, a reindeer that adapted to forest habitats in Eastern Europe as forests expanded during an interglacial period before the LGM (the Würmian or Weichsel glaciation);. The fossil species geuttardi was later replaced by R. constantini, which was adapted for grasslands, in a second immigration 19,000–20,000 years ago when the LGM turned its forest habitats into tundra, while fennicus survived in isolation in southwestern Europe. R. constantini was then replaced by modern tundra/barren-ground caribou adapted to extreme cold, probably in Beringia, before dispersing west (R. t. tarandus in the Scandinavian mountains and R. t. sibiricus across Siberia) and east (R. t. arcticus in the North American Barrenlands) when rising seas isolated them. Likewise in North America, DNA analysis shows that woodland caribou (R. caribou) diverged from primitive ancestors of tundra/barren-ground caribou not during the LGM, 26,000–19,000 years ago, as previously assumed, but in the Middle Pleistocene around 357,000 years ago. At that time, modern tundra caribou had not even evolved. Woodland caribou are likely more related to extinct North American forest caribou than to barren-ground caribou. For example, the extinct caribou Torontoceros [Rangifer] hypogaeus, had features (robust and short pedicles, smooth antler surface, and high position of second tine) that relate it to forest caribou.
Humans started hunting reindeer in both the Mesolithic and Neolithic Periods, and humans are today the main predator in many areas. Norway and Greenland have unbroken traditions of hunting wild reindeer from the Last Glacial Period until the present day. In the non-forested mountains of central Norway, such as Jotunheimen, it is still possible to find remains of stone-built trapping pits, guiding fences and bow rests, built especially for hunting reindeer. These can, with some certainty, be dated to the Migration Period, although it is not unlikely that they have been in use since the Stone Age.
Cave paintings by ancient Europeans include both tundra and forest types of reindeer.
A 2022 study of ancient environmental DNA from the Early Pleistocene (2 million years ago) Kap Kobenhavn Formation of northern Greenland identified preserved DNA fragments of Rangifer, identified as basal but potentially ancestral to modern reindeer. This suggests that reindeer have inhabited Greenland since at least the Early Pleistocene. Around this time, northern Greenland was 11–19 °C warmer than the Holocene, with a boreal forest hosting a species assemblage with no modern analogue. These are among the oldest DNA fragments ever sequenced.
Taxonomy
Carl Linnaeus in 1758 named the Eurasian tundra species Cervus tarandus, the genus Rangifer being credited to Smith, 1827.
Rangifer has had a convoluted history because of the similarity in antler architecture (brow tines asymmetrical and often palmate, bez tines, a back tine sometimes branched, and branched at the distal end, often palmate). Because of individual variability, early taxonomists were unable to discern consistent patterns among populations, nor could they, examining collections in Europe, appreciate the difference in habitats and the differing function they imposed on antler architecture. For example, woodland caribou males, rutting in boreal forest where only a few females can be found, collect harems and defend them against other males, for which they have short, straight, strong, much-branched antlers, beams flattened in cross-section, designed for combat — and not too large, so as not to impede them in forested winter ranges. By contrast, modern tundra caribou (see Evolution above) have synchronized calving as a predator-avoidance strategy, which requires large rutting aggregations. Males cannot defend a harem because, while he was busy fighting, they would disappear into the mass of the herd. Males therefore tend individual females; their fights are infrequent and brief. Their antlers are thin, beams round in cross-section, sweep back and then forward with a cluster of branches at the top; these are designed more for visual stimulation of the females. Their bez tines are set low, just above the brow tine, which is vertically flattened to protect the eyes while the buck "threshes" low brush, a courtship display. The low bez tines help the wide flat brow tines dig craters in the hard-packed tundra snow for forage, for which reason brow tines are often called "shovels" in North America and "ice tines" in Europe. The differences in antler architecture reflect fundamental differences in ecology and behavior, and in turn deep divisions in ancestry that were not apparent to the early taxonomists.
Similarly, working on museum collections where skins were often faded and in poor states of preservation, early taxonomists could not readily perceive differences in coat patterns that are consistent within a subspecies, but variable among them. Geist calls these "nuptial" characteristics: sexually selected characters that are highly conserved and diagnostic among subspecies.
Towards the end of the 19th century, national museums began sending out biological exploration expeditions and collections accumulated. Taxonomists, usually working for the museums began naming subspecies more rigorously, based on statistical differences in detailed cranial, dental and skeletal measurements than antlers and pelage, supplemented by better knowledge of differences in ecology and behavior. From 1898 to 1937, mammalogists named 12 new species (other than barren-ground and woodland, which had been named earlier) of caribou in Canada and Alaska, and three new species and nine new subspecies in Eurasia, each properly described according to the evolving rules of zoological nomenclature, with type localities designated and type specimens deposited in museums (see table in Species and subspecies below).
In the mid-20th century, as definitions of "species" evolved, mammalogists in Europe and North America made all Rangifer species conspecific with R. tarandus, and synonymized most of the subspecies. Banfield's often-cited A Revision of the Reindeer and Caribou, Genus Rangifer (1961), eliminated R. t. caboti (the Labrador caribou), R. t. osborni (Osborn's caribou — from British Columbia) and R. t. terranovae (the Newfoundland caribou) as invalid and included only barren-ground caribou, renamed as R. t. groenlandicus (formerly R. arcticus) and woodland caribou as R. t. caribou. However, Banfield made multiple errors, eliciting a scathing review by Ian McTaggart-Cowan in 1962. Most authorities continued to consider all or most subspecies valid; some were quite distinct. In his chapter in the authoritative 2005 reference work Mammal Species of the World, referenced by the American Society of Mammalogists, English zoologist Peter Grubb agreed with Valerius Geist, a specialist on large mammals, that these subspecies were valid (i.e., before the recent revision): In North America, R. t. caboti, R. t. caribou, R. t. dawsoni, R. t. groenlandicus, R. t. osborni, R. t. pearyi, and R. t. terranovae; and in Eurasia, R. t. tarandus, R. t. buskensis (called R. t. valentinae in Europe; see below), R. t. phylarchus, R. t. pearsoni, R. t. sibiricus and R. t. platyrhynchus. These subspecies were retained in the 2011 replacement work Handbook of Mammals of the World Vol. 2: Hoofed Mammals. Most Russian authors also recognized R. t. angustirostris, a forest reindeer from east of Lake Baikal.
However, since 1991, many genetic studies have revealed deep divergence between modern tundra reindeer and woodland caribou. Geist (2007) and others continued arguing that the woodland caribou was incorrectly classified, noting that "true woodland caribou, the uniformly dark, small-maned type with the frontally emphasized, flat-beamed antlers", is "scattered thinly along the southern rim of North American caribou distribution". He affirms that the "true woodland caribou is very rare, in very great difficulties and requires the most urgent of attention."
In 2011, noting that the former classifications of Rangifer tarandus, either with prevailing taxonomy on subspecies, designations based on ecotypes, or natural population groupings, failed to capture "the variability of caribou across their range in Canada" needed for effective subspecies conservation and management, COSEWIC developed Designatable Unit (DU) attribution, an adaptation of "evolutionary significant units". The 12 designatable units for caribou in Canada (that is, excluding Alaska and Greenland) based on ecology, behavior and, importantly, genetics (but excluding morphology and archaeology) essentially followed the previously-named subspecies distributions, without naming them as such, plus some ecotypes. Ecotypes are not phylogenetically based and cannot substitute for taxonomy.
Meanwhile, genetic data continued to accumulate, revealing sufficiently deep divisions to easily separate Rangifer back into six previously named species and to resurrect several previously named subspecies. Molecular data showed that the Greenland caribou (R. t. groenlandicus) and the Svalbard reindeer (R. t. platyrhynchus), although not closely related to each other, were the most genetically divergent among Rangifer clades; that modern (see Evolution above) Eurasian tundra reindeer (R. t. tarandus and R. t. sibiricus) and North American barren-ground caribou (R. t. arcticus), although sharing ancestry, were separable at the subspecies level; that Finnish forest reindeer (R. t. fennicus) clustered well apart from both wild and domestic tundra reindeer and that boreal woodland caribou (R. t. caribou) were separable from all others. Meanwhile, archaeological evidence was accumulating that Eurasian forest reindeer descended from an extinct forest-adapted reindeer and not from tundra reindeer (see Evolution above); since they do not share a direct common ancestor, they cannot be conspecific. Similarly, woodland caribou diverged from the ancestors of Arctic caribou before modern barren-ground caribou had evolved, and were more likely related to extinct North American forest reindeer (see Evolution above). Lacking a direct shared ancestor, barren-ground and woodland caribou cannot be conspecific.
Molecular data also revealed that the four western Canadian montane ecotypes are not woodland caribou: they share a common ancestor with modern barren-ground caribou/tundra reindeer, but distantly, having diverged > 60,000 years ago — before the modern ecotypes had evolved their cold- and darkness-adapted physiologies and mass-migration and aggregation behaviors (see Evolution above). Before Banfield (1961), taxonomists using cranial, dental and skeletal measurements had unequivocally allied these western montane ecotypes with barren-ground caribou, naming them (as in Osgood 1909 Murie, 1935 and Anderson 1946, among others) R. t. stonei, R. t. montanus, R. t. fortidens and R. t. osborni, respectively, and this phylogeny was confirmed by genetic analysis.
DNA also revealed three unnamed clades that, based on genetic distance, genetic divergence and shared vs. private haplotypes and alleles, together with ecological and behavioral differences, may justify separation at the subspecies level: the Atlantic-Gaspésie caribou (COSEWIC DU11), an eastern montane ecotype of the boreal woodland caribou, and the Baffin Island caribou. Neither one of these clades has yet been formally described or named.
Jenkins et al. (2012) said that "[Baffin Island] caribou are unique compared to other Barrenground herds, as they do not overwinter in forested habitat, nor do all caribou undertake long seasonal migrations to calving areas." It also shares a mtDNA haplotype with Labrador caribou, in the North American lineage (i.e., woodland caribou). Røed et al. (1991) had noted:Among Baffin Island caribou the TFL2 allele was the most common allele (p=0.521), while this allele was absent, or present in very low frequencies, in other caribou populations (Table 1), including the Canadian barren-ground caribou from the Beverly herd. A large genetic difference between Baffin Island caribou and the Beverly herd was also indicated by eight alleles found in the Beverly herd which were absent from the Baffin Island samples.Jenkins et al. (2018) also reported genetic distinctiveness of Baffin Island caribou from all other barren-ground caribou; its genetic signature was not found on the mainland or on other islands; nor were Beverly herd (the nearest mainly barren-ground caribou) alleles present in Baffin Island caribou, evidence of reproductive isolation.
These advances in Rangifer genetics were brought together with previous morphological-based descriptions, ecology, behavior and archaeology to propose a new revision of the genus.
Species and subspecies
The 6-species taxonomy is based on a revision by Harding (2022).
Abbreviations: AMNH the American Museum of Natural History; BCPM the British Columbia Provincial Museum (= RBCM the Royal British Columbia Museum), NHMUK the British Museum (Natural History) (originally the BMNH), DMNH the Denver Museum of Natural History, MCZ the Museum of Comparative Zoology, MSI the Museum of the Smithsonian Institution, NMC the National Museum of Canada (originally the CGS Canadian Geological Survey Museum, now the CMN Canadian Museum of Nature), NR the Naturhistoriska Riksmuseet, RSMNH the Royal Swedish Museum of Natural History, USNM, the U. S. National Museum, ZMASL the Zoological Museum of the Zoological Institute of the Russian Academy of Sciences (formerly the Zoological Museum of the Academy of Sciences), Leningrad
The table above includes, as per the recent revision, R. t. caboti (the Labrador caribou (the Eastern Migratory population DU4)), and R. t. terranovae (the Newfoundland caribou (the Newfoundland population DU5)), which molecular analyses have shown to be of North American (i.e., woodland caribou) lineage; and four mountain ecotypes now known to be of distant Beringia-Eurasia lineage (see Taxonomy above).
The scientific name Tarandus rangifer buskensis Millais, 1915 (the Busk Mountains reindeer) was selected as the senior synonym to R. t. valentinae Flerov, 1933, in Mammal Species of the World but Russian authors do not recognize Millais and Millais' articles in a hunting travelogue, The Gun at Home and Abroad, seem short of a taxonomic authority.
The scientific name groenlandicus is fraught with problems. Edwards (1743) illustrated and claimed to have seen a male specimen (“head of perfect horns...”) from Greenland and said that a Captain Craycott had brought a live pair from Greenland to England in 1738. He named it Capra groenlandicus, Greenland reindeer. Linnaeus, in the 12th edition of Systema naturae, gave grœnlandicus as a synonym for Cervus tarandus. Borowski disagreed (and again changed the spelling), saying Cervus grönlandicus was morphologically distinct from Eurasian tundra reindeer. Baird placed it under the genus Rangifer as R. grœnlandicus. It went back and forth as a full species or subspecies of the barren-ground caribou (R. arcticus) or a subspecies of the tundra reindeer (R. tarandus), but always as the Greenland reindeer/caribou. Taxonomists consistently documented morphological differences between Greenland and other caribou/reindeer in cranial measurements, dentition, antler architecture, etc. Then Banfield (1961) in his famously flawed revision, gave the name groenlandicus to all the barren-ground caribou in North America, Greenland included, because groenlandicus pre-dates Richardson’s R. arctus,. However, because genetic data shows the Greenland caribou to be the most distantly related of any caribou to all the others (genetic distance, FST = 44%, whereas most cervid (deer family) species have a genetic distance of 2% to 5%)--as well as behavoral and morphological differences—a recent revision returned it to species status as R. groenlandicus. Although it has been assumed that the larger caribou that appeared in Greenland 4,000 years ago originated from Baffin Island (itself unique; see Taxonomy above), a reconstruction of LGM glacial retreat and caribou advance (Yannic et al. 2013) shows colonization by NAL lineage caribou more likely. Their PCA and tree diagrams show Greenland caribou clustering outside of the Beringian-Eurasian lineage.
The scientific name R. t. granti has a very interesting history. Allen (1902) named it as a distinct species, R. granti, from the "western end of Alaska Peninsula, opposite Popoff Island" and noting that:Rangifer granti is a representative of the Barren Ground group of Caribou, which includes R. arcticus of the Arctic Coast and R. granlandicus of Greenland. It is not closely related to R. stonei of the Kenai Peninsula, from which it differs not only in its very much smaller size, but in important cranial characters and in coloration. ...The external and cranial differences between R. granti and the various forms of the Woodland Caribou are so great in almost every respect that no detailed comparison is necessary. ...According to Mr. Stone, Rangifer granti inhabits the " barren land of Alaska Peninsula, ranging well up into the mountains in summer, but descending to the lower levels in winter, generally feeding on the low flat lands near the coast and in the foothills...As regards cranial characters no comparison is necessary with R. montanus or with any of the woodland forms."Osgood and Murie (1935), agreeing with grantis close relationship with the barren-ground caribou, brought it under R. arcticus as a subspecies, R. t. granti. Anderson (1946) and Banfield (1961), based on statistical analysis of cranial, dental and other characters, agreed. But Banfield (1961) also synonymized Alaska's large R. stonei with other mountain caribou of British Columbia and the Yukon as invalid subspecies of woodland caribou, then R. t. caribou. This left the small, migratory barren-ground caribou of Alaska and the Yukon, including the Porcupine caribou herd, without a name, which Banfield rectified in his 1974 Mammals of Canada by extending to them the name "granti". The late Valerius Geist (1998), in the only error in his whole illustrious career, re-analyzed Banfield's data with additional specimens found in an unpublished report he cites as "Skal, 1982", but was "not able to find diagnostic features that could segregate this form from the western barren ground type." But Skal 1982 had included specimens from the eastern end of the Alaska Peninsula and the Kenai Peninsula, the range of the larger Stone's caribou. Later, geneticists comparing barren-ground caribou of Alaska with those of mainland Canada found little difference and they all became the former R. t. groenlandicus (now R. t. arcticus). R. t. granti was lost in the oblivion of invalid taxonomy until Alaskan researchers sampled some small, pale caribou from the western end of the Alaska Peninsula, their range enclosing the type locality designated by Allen (1902) and found them to be genetically distinct from all other caribou in Alaska. Thus, granti was rediscovered, its range restricted to that originally described.
Stone's caribou (R. t. stonei), a large montane type, was described from the Kenai Peninsula (where, apparently, it was never common except in years of great abundance), the eastern end of the Alaska Peninsula, and mountains throughout southern and eastern Alaska. It was placed under R. arcticus as a subspecies, R. t. stonei, and later synonymised as noted above. The same genetic analyses mentioned above for R. t. granti resulted in resurrecting R. t. stonei as well.
The Sakhalin reindeer (R. t. setoni), endemic to Sakhalin, was described as Rangifer tarandus setoni Flerov, 1933, but Banfield (1961) brought it under R. t. fennicus as a junior synonym. The wild reindeer on the island are apparently extinct, having been replaced by domestic reindeer.
Some of the Rangifer species and subspecies may be further divided by ecotype depending on several behavioral factors – predominant habitat use (northern, tundra, mountain, forest, boreal forest, forest-dwelling, woodland, woodland (boreal), woodland (migratory) or woodland (mountain), spacing (dispersed or aggregated) and migration patterns (sedentary or migratory). North American examples of this are the Torngat Mountain population DU10, an ecotype of R. t. caboti; a recently discovered and unnamed clade between the Mackenzie River and Great Bear Lake of Beringian-Eurasian lineage, an ecotype of R. t. osborni; the Atlantic-Gaspésie population DU11, an eastern montane ecotype of the boreal woodland caribou (R. t. caribou); the Baffin Island caribou, an ecotype of the barren-ground caribou (R. t. arcticus); and the Dolphin-Union “herd”, another ecotype of R. t. arcticus. The last three of these likely qualify as subspecies, but they have not yet been formally described or named.
Physical characteristics
Naming in this and following sections follows the taxonomy in the authoritative 2011 reference work Handbook of Mammals of the World Vol. 2: Hoofed Mammals.
Antlers
In most cervid species, only males grow antlers; the reindeer is the only cervid species in which females also grow them normally. Androgens play an essential role in the antler formation of cervids. The antlerogenic genes in reindeer have more sensitivity to androgens in comparison with other cervids.
There is considerable variation among species and subspecies in the size of the antlers (e.g., they are rather small and spindly in the northernmost species and subspecies), but on average the bull's antlers are the second largest of any extant deer, after those of the male moose. In the largest subspecies, the antlers of large bulls can range up to in width and in beam length. They have the largest antlers relative to body size among living deer species. Antler size measured in number of points reflects the nutritional status of the reindeer and climate variation of its environment. The number of points on male reindeer increases from birth to 5 years of age and remains relatively constant from then on. "In male caribou, antler mass (but not the number of tines) varies in concert with body mass." While antlers of male woodland caribou are typically smaller than those of male barren-ground caribou, they can be over across. They are flattened in cross-section, compact and relatively dense. Geist describes them as frontally emphasized, flat-beamed antlers. Woodland caribou antlers are thicker and broader than those of the barren-ground caribou and their legs and heads are longer. Quebec-Labrador male caribou antlers can be significantly larger and wider than other woodland caribou. Central barren-ground male caribou antlers are perhaps the most diverse in configuration and can grow to be very high and wide. Osborn's caribou antlers are typically the most massive, with the largest circumference measurements.
The antlers' main beams begin at the brow "extending posterior over the shoulders and bowing so that the tips point forward. The prominent, palmate brow tines extend forward, over the face." The antlers typically have two separate groups of points, lower and upper.
Antlers begin to grow on male reindeer in March or April and on female reindeer in May or June. This process is called antlerogenesis. Antlers grow very quickly every year on the bulls. As the antlers grow, they are covered in thick velvet, filled with blood vessels and spongy in texture. The antler velvet of the barren-ground caribou and the boreal woodland caribou is dark chocolate brown. The velvet that covers growing antlers is a highly vascularised skin. This velvet is dark brown on woodland or barren-ground caribou and slate-grey on Peary caribou and the Dolphin-Union caribou herd. Velvet lumps in March can develop into a rack measuring more than a meter in length by August.
When the antler growth is fully grown and hardened, the velvet is shed or rubbed off. To the Inuit, for whom the caribou is a "culturally important keystone species", the months are named after landmarks in the caribou life cycle. For example, amiraijaut in the Igloolik region is "when velvet falls off caribou antlers."
Male reindeer use their antlers to compete with other males during the mating season. Butler (1986) showed that the social requirements of caribou females during the rut determines the mating strategies of males and, consequently, the form of male antlers. In describing woodland caribou, which have a harem-defense mating system, SARA wrote, "During the rut, males engage in frequent and furious sparring battles with their antlers. Large males with large antlers do most of the mating." Reindeer continue to migrate until the bulls have spent their back fat. By contrast, barren-ground caribou males tend individual females and their fights are brief and much less intense; consequently, their antlers are long, and thin, round in cross-section and less branched and are designed more for show (or sexual attraction) than fighting.
In late autumn or early winter after the rut, male reindeer lose their antlers, growing a new pair the next summer with a larger rack than the previous year. Female reindeer keep their antlers until they calve. In the Scandinavian and Arctic Circle populations, old bulls' antlers fall off in late December, young bulls' antlers fall off in the early spring, and cows' antlers fall off in the summer.
When male reindeer shed their antlers in early to mid-winter, the antlered cows acquire the highest ranks in the feeding hierarchy, gaining access to the best forage areas. These cows are healthier than those without antlers. Calves whose mothers do not have antlers are more prone to disease and have a significantly higher mortality. Cows in good nutritional condition, for example, during a mild winter with good winter range quality, may grow new antlers earlier as antler growth requires high intake.
According to a respected Igloolik elder, Noah Piugaattuk, who was one of the last outpost camp leaders, caribou (tuktu) antlers
According to the Igloolik Oral History Project (IOHP), "Caribou antlers provided the Inuit with a myriad of implements, from snow knives and shovels to drying racks and seal-hunting tools. A complex set of terms describes each part of the antler and relates it to its various uses". Currently, the larger racks of antlers are used by Inuit as materials for carving. Iqaluit-based Jackoposie Oopakak's 1989 carving, entitled Nunali, which means "place where people live", and which is part of the permanent collection of the National Gallery of Canada, includes a massive set of caribou antlers on which he has intricately carved the miniaturized world of the Inuit where "Arctic birds, caribou, polar bears, seals, and whales are interspersed with human activities of fishing, hunting, cleaning skins, stretching boots, and travelling by dog sled and kayak...from the base of the antlers to the tip of each branch".
Pelt
The color of the fur varies considerably, both between individuals and depending on season and species. Northern populations, which usually are relatively small, are whiter, while southern populations, which typically are relatively large, are darker. This can be seen well in North America, where the northernmost subspecies, the Peary caribou, is the whitest and smallest subspecies of the continent, while the Selkirk Mountains caribou (Southern Mountain population DU9) is the darkest and nearly the largest, only exceeded in size by Osborn's caribou (Northern Mountain population DU7).
The coat has two layers of fur: a dense woolly undercoat and a longer-haired overcoat consisting of hollow, air-filled hairs. Fur is the primary insulation factor that allows reindeer to regulate their core body temperature in relation to their environment, the thermogradient, even if the temperature rises to . In 1913, Dugmore noted how the woodland caribou swim so high out of the water, unlike any other mammal, because their hollow, "air-filled, quill-like hair" acts as a supporting "life jacket".
A darker belly color may be caused by two mutations of MC1R. They appear to be more common in domestic reindeer herds.
Heat exchange
Blood moving into the legs is cooled by blood returning to the body in a countercurrent heat exchange (CCHE), a highly efficient means of minimizing heat loss through the skin's surface. In the CCHE mechanism, in cold weather, blood vessels are closely knotted and intertwined with arteries to the skin and appendages that carry warm blood with veins returning to the body that carry cold blood causing the warm arterial blood to exchange heat with the cold venous blood. In this way, their legs for example are kept cool, maintaining the core body temperature nearly higher with less heat lost to the environment. Heat is thus recycled instead of being dissipated. The "heart does not have to pump blood as rapidly in order to maintain a constant body core temperature and thus, metabolic rate." CCHE is present in animals like reindeer, fox and moose living in extreme conditions of cold or hot weather as a mechanism for retaining the heat in (or out of) the body. These are countercurrent exchange systems with the same fluid, usually blood, in a circuit, used for both directions of flow.
Reindeer have specialized counter-current vascular heat exchange in their nasal passages. Temperature gradient along the nasal mucosa is under physiological control. Incoming cold air is warmed by body heat before entering the lungs and water is condensed from the expired air and captured before the reindeer's breath is exhaled, then used to moisten dry incoming air and possibly be absorbed into the blood through the mucous membranes. Like moose, caribou have specialized noses featuring nasal turbinate bones that dramatically increase the surface area within the nostrils.
Hooves
The reindeer has large feet with crescent-shaped cloven hooves for walking in snow or swamps. According to the Species at Risk Public Registry (SARA), woodland
Reindeer hooves adapt to the season: in the summer, when the tundra is soft and wet, the footpads become sponge-like and provide extra traction. In the winter, the pads shrink and tighten, exposing the rim of the hoof, which cuts into the ice and crusted snow to keep it from slipping. This also enables them to dig down (an activity known as "cratering") through the snow to their favourite food, a lichen known as reindeer lichen (Cladonia rangiferina).
Size
The females (or "cows" as they are often called) usually measure in length and weigh . The males (or "bulls" as they are often called) are typically larger (to an extent which varies between the different species and subspecies), measuring in length and usually weighing . Exceptionally large bulls have weighed as much as . Weight varies drastically between the seasons, with bulls losing as much as 40% of their pre-rut weight.
The shoulder height is usually , and the tail is long.
The reindeer from Svalbard are the smallest of all. They are also relatively short-legged and may have a shoulder height of as little as , thereby following Allen's rule.
Clicking sound
The knees of many species and subspecies of reindeer are adapted to produce a clicking sound as they walk. The sounds originate in the tendons of the knees and may be audible from several hundred meters away. The frequency of the knee-clicks is one of a range of signals that establish relative positions on a dominance scale among reindeer. "Specifically, loud knee-clicking is discovered to be an honest signal of body size, providing an exceptional example of the potential for non-vocal acoustic communication in mammals." The clicking sound made by reindeer as they walk is caused by small tendons slipping over bone protuberances (sesamoid bones) in their feet. The sound is made when a reindeer is walking or running, occurring when the full weight of the foot is on the ground or just after it is relieved of the weight.
Eyes
A study by researchers from University College London in 2011 revealed that reindeer can see light with wavelengths as short as 320 nm (i.e. in the ultraviolet range), considerably below the human threshold of 400 nm. It is thought that this ability helps them to survive in the Arctic, because many objects that blend into the landscape in light visible to humans, such as urine and fur, produce sharp contrasts in ultraviolet. It has been proposed that UV flashes on power lines are responsible for reindeer avoiding power lines because "...in darkness these animals see power lines not as dim, passive structures but, rather, as lines of flickering light stretching across the terrain."
The tapetum lucidum of Arctic reindeer eyes changes in color from gold in summer to blue in winter to improve their vision during times of continuous darkness, and perhaps enable them to better spot predators.
Biology and behaviors
Seasonal body composition
Reindeer have developed adaptations for optimal metabolic efficiency during warm months as well as for during cold months. The body composition of reindeer varies highly with the seasons. Of particular interest is the body composition and diet of breeding and non-breeding females between the seasons. Breeding females have more body mass than non-breeding females between the months of March and September with a difference of around more than non-breeding females. From November to December, non-breeding females have more body mass than breeding females, as non-breeding females are able to focus their energies towards storage during colder months rather than lactation and reproduction. Body masses of both breeding and non-breeding females peaks in September. During the months of March through April, breeding females have more fat mass than the non-breeding females with a difference of almost . After this, however, non-breeding females on average have a higher body fat mass than do breeding females.
The environmental variations play a large part in reindeer nutrition, as winter nutrition is crucial to adult and neonatal survival rates. Lichens are a staple during the winter months as they are a readily available food source, which reduces the reliance on stored body reserves. Lichens are a crucial part of the reindeer diet; however, they are less prevalent in the diet of pregnant reindeer compared to non-pregnant individuals. The amount of lichen in a diet is found more in non-pregnant adult diets than pregnant individuals due to the lack of nutritional value. Although lichens are high in carbohydrates, they are lacking in essential proteins that vascular plants provide. The amount of lichen in a diet decreases in latitude, which results in nutritional stress being higher in areas with low lichen abundance.
Reproduction and life cycle
Reindeer mate in late September to early November, and the gestation period is about 228–234 days. During the mating season, bulls battle for access to cows. Two bulls will lock each other's antlers together and try to push each other away. The most dominant bulls can collect as many as 15–20 cows to mate with. A bull will stop eating during this time and lose much of his body fat reserves.
To calve, "females travel to isolated, relatively predator-free areas such as islands in lakes, peatlands, lake-shores, or tundra." As females select the habitat for the birth of their calves, they are warier than males. Dugmore noted that, in their seasonal migrations, the herd follows a female for that reason. Newborns weigh on average . In May or June, the calves are born. After 45 days, the calves are able to graze and forage, but continue suckling until the following autumn when they become independent from their mothers.
Bulls live four years less than the cows, whose maximum longevity is about 17 years. Cows with a normal body size and who have had sufficient summer nutrition can begin breeding anytime between the ages of 1 to 3 years. When a cow has undergone nutritional stress, it is possible for her to not reproduce for the year. Dominant bulls, those with larger body size and antler racks, inseminate more than one cow a season.
Social structure, migration and range
Some populations of North American caribou; for example, many herds in the barren-ground caribou subspecies and some woodland caribou in Ungava and northern Labrador, migrate the farthest of any terrestrial mammal, traveling up to a year, and covering . Other North American populations, the boreal woodland caribou for example, are largely sedentary. The European populations are known to have shorter migrations. Island populations, such as the Novaya Zemlya and Svalbard reindeer and the Peary caribou, make local movements both within and among islands. Migrating reindeer can be negatively affected by parasite loads. Severely infected individuals are weak and probably have shortened lifespans, but parasite levels vary between populations. Infections create an effect known as culling: infected migrating animals are less likely to complete the migration.
Normally travelling about a day while migrating, the caribou can run at speeds of . Young calves can already outrun an Olympic sprinter when only 1 day old. During the spring migration, smaller herds will group together to form larger herds of 50,000 to 500,000 animals, but during autumn migrations, the groups become smaller and the reindeer begin to mate. During winter, reindeer travel to forested areas to forage under the snow. By spring, groups leave their winter grounds to go to the calving grounds. A reindeer can swim easily and quickly, normally at about but, if necessary, at and migrating herds will not hesitate to swim across a large lake or broad river.
The barren-ground caribou form large herds and undertake lengthy seasonal migrations from winter feeding grounds in taiga to spring calving grounds and summer range in the tundra. The migrations of the Porcupine herd of barren-ground caribou are among the longest of any mammal. Greenland caribou, found in southwestern Greenland, are "mixed migrators" and many individuals do not migrate; those that do migrate less than 60 km. Unlike the individual-tending mating system, aggregated rutting, synchronized calving and aggregated post-calving of barren-ground caribou, Greenland caribou have a harem-defense mating system and dispersed calving and they do not aggregate.
Although most wild tundra reindeer migrate between their winter range in taiga and summer range in tundra, some ecotypes or herds are more or less sedentary. Novaya Zemlya reindeer (R. t. pearsoni) formerly wintered on the mainland and migrated across the ice to the islands for summer, but only a few now migrate. Finnish forest reindeer (R. t. fennicus) were formerly distributed in most of the coniferous forest zones south of the tree line, including some mountains, but are now spottily distributed within this zone.
As an adaptation to their Arctic environment, they have lost their circadian rhythm.
Ecology
Distribution and habitat
Originally, the reindeer was found in Scandinavia, Eastern Europe, Greenland, Russia, Mongolia and northern China north of the 50th latitude. In North America, it was found in Canada, Alaska, and the northern contiguous United States from Maine to Washington. In the 19th century, it was still present in southern Idaho. Even in historical times, it probably occurred naturally in Ireland, and it is believed to have lived in Scotland until the 12th century, when the last reindeer were hunted in Orkney. During the Late Pleistocene Epoch, reindeer occurred further south in North America, such as in Nevada, Tennessee, and Alabama, and as far south as Spain in Europe. Today, wild reindeer have disappeared from these areas, especially from the southern parts, where it vanished almost everywhere. Large populations of wild reindeer are still found in Norway, Finland, Siberia, Greenland, Alaska and Canada.
According to Grubb (2005), Rangifer is "circumboreal in the tundra and taiga" from "Svalbard, Norway, Finland, Russia, Alaska (USA) and Canada including most Arctic islands, and Greenland, south to northern Mongolia, China (Inner Mongolia), Sakhalin Island, and USA (northern Idaho and Great Lakes region)." Reindeer were introduced to, and are feral in, "Iceland, Kerguelen Islands, South Georgia Island, Pribilof Islands, St. Matthew Island"; a free-ranging semi-domesticated herd is also present in Scotland.
There is strong regional variation in Rangifer herd size. There are large population differences among individual herds and the size of individual herds has varied greatly since 1970. The largest of all herds (in Taimyr, Russia) has varied between 400,000 and 1,000,000; the second largest herd (at the George River in Canada) has varied between 28,000 and 385,000.
While Rangifer is a widespread and numerous genus in the northern Holarctic, being present in both tundra and taiga (boreal forest), by 2013, many herds had "unusually low numbers" and their winter ranges in particular were smaller than they used to be. Caribou and reindeer numbers have fluctuated historically, but many herds are in decline across their range. This global decline is linked to climate change for northern migratory herds and industrial disturbance of habitat for non-migratory herds. Barren-ground caribou are susceptible to the effects of climate change due to a mismatch in the phenological process between the availability of food during the calving period.
In November 2016, it was reported that more than 81,000 reindeer in Russia had died as a result of climate change. Longer autumns, leading to increased amounts of freezing rain, created a few inches of ice over lichen, causing many reindeer to starve to death.
Diet
Reindeer are ruminants, having a four-chambered stomach. They mainly eat lichens in winter, especially reindeer lichen (Cladonia rangiferina); they are the only large mammal able to metabolize lichen owing to specialised bacteria and protozoa in their gut. They are also the only animals (except for some gastropods) in which the enzyme lichenase, which breaks down lichenin to glucose, has been found. However, they also eat the leaves of willows and birches, as well as sedges and grasses.
Reindeer are osteophagous; they are known to gnaw and partly consume shed antlers as a dietary supplement and in some extreme cases will cannibalise each other's antlers before shedding. There is also some evidence to suggest that on occasion, especially in the spring when they are nutritionally stressed, they will feed on small rodents (such as lemmings), fish (such as the Arctic char (Salvelinus alpinus)), and bird eggs. Reindeer herded by the Chukchis have been known to devour mushrooms enthusiastically in late summer.
During the Arctic summer, when there is continuous daylight, reindeer change their sleeping pattern from one synchronised with the sun to an ultradian pattern, in which they sleep when they need to digest food.
Predators
A variety of predators prey heavily on reindeer, including overhunting by people in some areas, which contributes to the decline of populations.
Golden eagles prey on calves and are the most prolific hunter on the calving grounds. Wolverines will take newborn calves or birthing cows, as well as (less commonly) infirm adults.
Brown bears and polar bears prey on reindeer of all ages but, like wolverines, are most likely to attack weaker animals, such as calves and sick reindeer, since healthy adult reindeer can usually outpace a bear. The gray wolf is the most effective natural predator of adult reindeer and sometimes takes large numbers, especially during the winter. Some gray wolf packs, as well as individual grizzly bears in Canada, may follow and live off of a particular reindeer herd year-round.
In 2020, scientists on Svalbard witnessed, and were able to film for the first time, a polar bear attack reindeer, driving one into the ocean, where the polar bear caught up with and killed it. The same bear successfully repeated this hunting technique the next day. On Svalbard, reindeer remains account for 27.3% in polar bear scats, suggesting that they "may be a significant part of the polar bear's diet in that area".
Additionally, as carrion, reindeer may be scavenged opportunistically by red and Arctic foxes, various species of eagles, hawks and falcons, and common ravens.
Bloodsucking insects, such as mosquitoes, black flies, and especially the reindeer warble fly or reindeer botfly (Hypoderma tarandi) and the reindeer nose botfly (Cephenemyia trompe), are a plague to reindeer during the summer and can cause enough stress to inhibit feeding and calving behaviors. An adult reindeer will lose perhaps about of blood to biting insects for every week it spends in the tundra. The population numbers of some of these predators is influenced by the migration of reindeer. Tormenting insects keep caribou on the move, searching for windy areas like hilltops and mountain ridges, rock reefs, lakeshore and forest openings, or snow patches that offer respite from the buzzing horde. Gathering in large herds is another strategy that caribou use to block insects.
Reindeer are good swimmers and, in one case, the entire body of a reindeer was found in the stomach of a Greenland shark (Somniosus microcephalus), a species found in the far North Atlantic.
Other threats
White-tailed deer (Odocoileus virginianus) commonly carry meningeal worm or brainworm (Parelaphostrongylus tenuis), a nematode parasite that causes reindeer, moose (Alces alces), elk (Cervus canadensis), and mule deer (Odocoileus hemionus) to develop fatal neurological symptoms which include a loss of fear of humans. White-tailed deer that carry this worm are partially immune to it.
Changes in climate and habitat beginning in the 20th century have expanded range overlap between white-tailed deer and caribou, increasing the frequency of infection within the reindeer population. This increase in infection is a concern for wildlife managers. Human activities, such as "clear-cutting forestry practices, forest fires, and the clearing for agriculture, roadways, railways, and power lines," favor the conversion of habitats into the preferred habitat of the white-tailed deer – "open forest interspersed with meadows, clearings, grasslands, and riparian flatlands." Towards the end of the Soviet Union, there was increasingly open admission from the Soviet government that reindeer numbers were being negatively affected by human activity, and that this must be remediated especially by supporting reindeer breeding by native herders.
Conservation
Current status
While overall widespread and numerous, some reindeer species and subspecies are rare and three subspecies have already become extinct. As of 2015, the IUCN has classified the reindeer as Vulnerable due to an observed population decline of 40% over the last +25 years. According to IUCN, Rangifer tarandus as a species is not endangered because of its overall large population and its widespread range.
In North America, the Queen Charlotte Islands caribou and the East Greenland caribou both became extinct in the early 20th century, the Peary caribou is designated as Endangered, the boreal woodland caribou is designated as Threatened and some individual populations are endangered as well. While the barren-ground caribou is not designated as Threatened, many individual herds — including some of the largest — are declining and there is much concern at the local level. Grant's caribou, a small, pale subspecies endemic to the western end of the Alaska Peninsula and the adjacent islands, has not been assessed as to its conservation status.
The status of the Dolphin-Union "herd" was upgraded to Endangered in 2017. In NWT, Dolphin-Union caribou were listed as Special Concern under the NWT Species at Risk (NWT) Act (2013).
Both the Selkirk Mountains caribou (Southern Mountain population DU9) and the Rocky Mountain caribou (Central Mountain population DU8) are classified as Endangered in Canada in regions such as southeastern British Columbia at the Canada–United States border, along the Columbia and Kootenay Rivers and around Kootenay Lake. Rocky Mountain caribou are extirpated from Banff National Park, but a small population remains in Jasper National Park and in mountain ranges to the northwest into British Columbia. Montane caribou are now considered extirpated in the contiguous United States, including Washington and Idaho. Osborn's caribou (Northern Mountain population DU7) is classified as Threatened in Canada.
In Eurasia, the Sakhalin reindeer is extinct (and has been replaced by domestic reindeer) and reindeer on most of the Novaya Zemlya islands have also been replaced by domestic reindeer, although some wild reindeer still persist on the northern islands. Many Siberian tundra reindeer herds have declined, some dangerously, but the Taymir herd remains strong and in total about 940,000 wild Siberian tundra reindeer were estimated in 2010.
There is strong regional variation in Rangifer herd size. By 2013, many caribou herds in North America had "unusually low numbers" and their winter ranges in particular were smaller than they used to be. Caribou numbers have fluctuated historically, but many herds are in decline across their range. There are many factors contributing to the decline in numbers.
Boreal woodland caribou (COSEWIC designation as Threatened)
Ongoing human development of their habitat has caused populations of boreal woodland caribou to disappear from their original southern range. In particular, boreal woodland caribou were extirpated in many areas of eastern North America in the beginning of the 20th century. Professor Marco Musiani of the University of Calgary said in a statement that "The woodland caribou is already an endangered subspecies in southern Canada and the United States...[The] warming of the planet means the disappearance of their critical habitat in these regions. Caribou need undisturbed lichen-rich environments and these types of habitats are disappearing."
Boreal woodland caribou were designated as Threatened in 2002 by the Committee on the Status of Endangered Wildlife in Canada, (COSEWIC). Environment Canada reported in 2011 that there were approximately 34 000 boreal woodland caribou in 51 ranges remaining in Canada (Environment Canada, 2011b). "According to Geist, the "woodland caribou is highly endangered throughout its distribution right into Ontario."
In 2002, the Atlantic-Gaspésie population DU11 of the boreal woodland caribou was designated as Endangered by COSEWIC. The small isolated population of 200 animals was at risk from predation and habitat loss.
Peary caribou (COSEWIC designation as Threatened)
In 1991, COSEWIC assigned "endangered status" to the Banks Island and High Arctic populations of the Peary caribou. The Low Arctic population of the Peary caribou was designated as Threatened. In 2004, all three were designated as "endangered." In 2015, COSEWIC returned the status to Threatened.
Relationship with humans
Arctic peoples have depended on caribou for food, clothing, and shelter. European prehistoric cave paintings represent both tundra and forest forms, the latter either the Finnish forest reindeer or the narrow-nosed reindeer, an eastern Siberia forest form. Canadian examples include the Caribou Inuit, the inland-dwelling Inuit of the Kivalliq Region in northern Canada, the Caribou Clan in the Yukon, the Iñupiat, the Inuvialuit, the Hän, the Northern Tutchone, and the Gwichʼin (who followed the Porcupine caribou herd for millennia). Hunting wild reindeer and herding of semi-domesticated reindeer are important to several Arctic and sub-Arctic peoples such as the Duhalar for meat, , antlers, , and transportation.
Reindeer have been domesticated at least two and probably three times, in each case from wild Eurasian tundra reindeer after the Last Glacial Maximum (LGM). Recognizably different domestic reindeer breeds include those of the Evenk, Even, and Chukotka-Khargin people of Yakutia and the Nenets breed from the Nenets Autonomous district and Murmansk region; the Tuvans, Todzhans, Tofa (Tofalars in the Irkutsk Region), the Soyots (the Republic of Buryatia), and the Dukha (also known as Tsaatan, the Khubsugul) in the Province of Mongolia. The Sámi (Sápmi) have also depended on reindeer herding and fishing for centuries. In Sápmi, reindeer are used to pull a pulk, a Nordic sled.
In traditional United States Christmas legend, Santa Claus's reindeer pull a sleigh through the night sky to help Santa Claus deliver gifts to good children on Christmas Eve.
The reindeer has an important economic role for all circumpolar peoples, including the Sámi, the Swedes, the Norwegians, the Finns and the Northwestern Russians in Europe, the Nenets, the Khanty, the Evenks, the Yukaghirs, the Chukchi and the Koryaks in Asia and the Inuit in North America. It is believed that domestication started between the Bronze and Iron Ages. Siberian reindeer owners also use the reindeer to ride on (Siberian reindeer are larger than their Scandinavian relatives). For breeders, a single owner may own hundreds or even thousands of animals. The numbers of Russian and Scandinavian reindeer herders have been drastically reduced since 1990. The sale of fur and meat is an important source of income. Reindeer were introduced into Alaska near the end of the 19th century; they interbred with the native caribou subspecies there. Reindeer herders on the Seward Peninsula have experienced significant losses to their herds from animals (such as wolves) following the wild caribou during their migrations.
Reindeer meat is popular in the Scandinavian countries. Reindeer meatballs are sold canned. Sautéed reindeer is the best-known dish in Sápmi. In Alaska and Finland, reindeer sausage is sold in supermarkets and grocery stores. Reindeer meat is very tender and lean. It can be prepared fresh, but also dried, salted and hot- and cold-smoked. In addition to meat, almost all of the internal organs of reindeer can be eaten, some being traditional dishes. Furthermore, Lapin Poron liha, fresh reindeer meat completely produced and packed in Finnish Sápmi, is protected in Europe with PDO classification.
Reindeer antlers are powdered and sold as an aphrodisiac, or as a nutritional or medicinal supplement, to Asian markets.
The blood of the caribou was supposedly mixed with alcohol as drink by hunters and loggers in colonial Quebec to counter the cold. This drink is now enjoyed without the blood as a wine and whiskey drink known as Caribou.
Indigenous North Americans
Caribou are still hunted in Greenland and in North America. In the traditional lifestyles of some of Canada's Inuit peoples and northern First Nations peoples, Alaska Natives, and the Kalaallit of Greenland, caribou is an important source of food, clothing, shelter and tools.
The Caribou Inuit are inland-dwelling Inuit in present-day Nunavut's Kivalliq Region (formerly the Keewatin Region, Northwest Territories), Canada. They subsisted on caribou year-round, eating dried caribou meat in the winter. The Ahiarmiut are Caribou Inuit that followed the Qamanirjuaq barren-ground caribou herd.
There is an Inuit saying in the Kivalliq Region:
Elder Chief of Koyukuk and chair for the Western Arctic Caribou Herd Working Group Benedict Jones, or Kʼughtoʼoodenoolʼoʼ, represents the Middle Yukon River, Alaska. His grandmother was a member of the Caribou Clan, who travelled with the caribou as a means to survive. In 1939, they were living their traditional lifestyle at one of their hunting camps in Koyukuk near the location of what is now the Koyukuk National Wildlife Refuge. His grandmother made a pair of new mukluks in one day. Kʼughtoʼoodenoolʼoʼ recounted a story told by an elder, who "worked on the steamboats during the gold rush days out on the Yukon." In late August, the caribou migrated from the Alaska Range up north to Huslia, Koyukuk and the Tanana area. One year when the steamboat was unable to continue, they ran into a caribou herd estimated to number 1 million animals, migrating across the Yukon. "They tied up for seven days waiting for the caribou to cross. They ran out of wood for the steamboats, and had to go back down 40 miles to the wood pile to pick up some more wood. On the tenth day, they came back and they said there was still caribou going across the river night and day."
The Gwichʼin, an indigenous people of northwestern Canada and northeastern Alaska, have been dependent on the international migratory Porcupine caribou herd for millennia. To them, caribou — vadzaih — is the cultural symbol and a keystone subsistence species of the Gwich'in, just as the American buffalo is to the Plains Native Americans. Innovative language revitalisation projects are underway to document the language and to enhance the writing and translation skills of younger Gwich'in speakers. In one project, lead research associate and fluent speaker Gwich'in elder Kenneth Frank works with linguists who include young Gwich'in speakers affiliated with the Alaska Native Language Center at the University of Alaska in Fairbanks to document traditional knowledge of caribou anatomy. The main goal of the research was to "elicit not only what the Gwich'in know about caribou anatomy, but how they see caribou and what they say and believe about caribou that defines themselves, their dietary and nutritional needs, and their subsistence way of life." Elders have identified at least 150 descriptive Gwich'in names for all of the bones, organs and tissues. Associated with the caribou's anatomy are not just descriptive Gwich'in names for all of the body parts, including bones, organs, and tissues, but also "an encyclopedia of stories, songs, games, toys, ceremonies, traditional tools, skin clothing, personal names and surnames, and a highly developed ethnic cuisine." In the 1980s, Gwich'in Traditional Management Practices were established to protect the Porcupine caribou, upon which the Gwich'in depend. They "codified traditional principles of caribou management into tribal law" which include "limits on the harvest of caribou and procedures to be followed in processing and transporting caribou meat" and limits on the number of caribou to be taken per hunting trip.
Indigenous Eurasians
Reindeer herding has been vital for the subsistence of several Eurasian nomadic indigenous peoples living in the circumpolar Arctic zone such as the Sámi, Nenets, and Komi. Reindeer are used to provide renewable sources and reliable transportation. In Mongolia, the Dukha are known as the reindeer people. They are credited as one of the world's earliest domesticators. The Dukha diet consists mainly of reindeer dairy products.
Reindeer husbandry is common in northern Fennoscandia (northern Norway, Sweden and Finland) and the Russian North. In Norway and Sweden, reindeer ownership is restricted to the Sámi. In some human groups such as the Eveny, wild reindeer and domestic reindeer are treated as different kinds of beings.
Husbandry
The reindeer is the only successfully semi-domesticated deer on a large scale in the world. Reindeer in northern Fennoscandia (northern Norway, Sweden and Finland) as well in the Kola Peninsula and Yakutia in Russia, are mostly semi-domesticated reindeer, ear-marked by their owners. Some reindeer in the area are truly domesticated, mostly used as draught animals (nowadays commonly for tourist entertainment and races, traditionally important for the nomadic Sámi). Domestic reindeer have also been used for milk, e.g., in Norway.
There are only two genetically pure populations of wild reindeer in Northern Europe: wild mountain reindeer (R. t. tarandus) that live in central Norway, with a population in 2007 of between 6,000 and 8,400 animals; and wild Finnish forest reindeer (R. t. fennicus) that live in central and eastern Finland and in Russian Karelia, with a population of about 4,350, plus 1,500 in Arkhangelsk Oblast and 2,500 in Komi. East of Arkhangelsk, both wild Siberian tundra reindeer (R. t. sibiricus) (some herds are very large) and domestic reindeer (R. t. domesticus) occur with almost no interbreeding by wild reindeer into domestic clades and none the other way (Kharzinova et al. 2018; Rozhkov [Рожkов] et al. 2020).
DNA analysis indicates that reindeer were independently domesticated at least twice: in Fennoscandia and Western Russia (and possibly also Eastern Russia). Reindeer have been herded for centuries by several Arctic and sub-Arctic peoples, including the Sámi, the Nenets and the Yakuts. They are raised for their meat, hides and antlers and, to a lesser extent, for milk and transportation. Reindeer are not considered fully domesticated, as they generally roam free on pasture grounds. In traditional nomadic herding, reindeer herders migrate with their herds between coastal and inland areas according to an annual migration route and herds are keenly tended. However, reindeer were not bred in captivity, though they were tamed for milking as well as for use as draught animals or beasts of burden. Millais (1915), for example, shows a photograph (Plate LXXX) of an "Okhotsk Reindeer" saddled for riding (the rider standing behind it) beside an officer astride a steppe pony that is only slightly larger. Domestic reindeer are shorter-legged and heavier than their wild counterparts. In Scandinavia, management of reindeer herds is primarily conducted through siida, a traditional Sámi form of cooperative association.
The use of reindeer for transportation is common among the nomadic peoples of the Russian North (but not anymore in Scandinavia). Although a sled drawn by 20 reindeer will cover no more than a day (compared to on foot, by a dog sled loaded with cargo and by a dog sled without cargo), it has the advantage that the reindeer will discover their own food, while a pack of 5–7 sled dogs requires of fresh fish a day.
The use of reindeer as semi-domesticated livestock in Alaska was introduced in the late 19th century by the United States Revenue Cutter Service, with assistance from Sheldon Jackson, as a means of providing a livelihood for Alaska Natives. Reindeer were imported first from Siberia and later also from Norway. A regular mail run in Wales, Alaska, used a sleigh drawn by reindeer. In Alaska, reindeer herders use satellite telemetry to track their herds, using online maps and databases to chart the herd's progress.
Domestic reindeer are mostly found in northern Fennoscandia and the Russian North, with a herd of approximately 150–170 reindeer living around the Cairngorms region in Scotland. The last remaining wild tundra reindeer in Europe are found in portions of southern Norway. The International Centre for Reindeer Husbandry (ICR), a circumpolar organisation, was established in 2005 by the Norwegian government. ICR represents over 20 indigenous reindeer peoples and about 100,000 reindeer herders in nine different national states. In Finland, there are about 6,000 reindeer herders, most of whom keep small herds of less than 50 reindeer to raise additional income. With 185,000 reindeer (), the industry produces of reindeer meat and generates 35 million euros annually. 70% of the meat is sold to slaughterhouses. Reindeer herders are eligible for national and EU agricultural subsidies, which constituted 15% of their income. Reindeer herding is of central importance for the local economies of small communities in sparsely populated rural Sápmi.
Currently, many reindeer herders are heavily dependent on diesel fuel to provide for electric generators and snowmobile transportation, although solar photovoltaic systems can be used to reduce diesel dependency.
History
Reindeer hunting by humans has a very long history.
Both Aristotle and Theophrastus have short accounts – probably based on the same source – of an ox-sized deer species, named tarandos, living in the land of the Bodines in Scythia, which was able to change the colour of its fur to obtain camouflage. The latter is probably a misunderstanding of the seasonal change in reindeer fur colour. The descriptions have been interpreted as being of reindeer living in the southern Ural Mountains in c. 350 BC.
A deer-like animal described by Julius Caesar in his Commentarii de Bello Gallico (chapter 6.26) from the Hercynian Forest in the year 53 BC is most certainly to be interpreted as a reindeer:
According to Olaus Magnus's Historia de Gentibus Septentrionalibus – printed in Rome in the year 1555 – Gustav I of Sweden sent 10 reindeer to Albert, Duke of Prussia, in the year 1533. It may be these animals that Conrad Gessner had seen or heard of.
During World War II, the Soviet Army used reindeer as pack animals to transport food, ammunition and post from Murmansk to the Karelian front and bring wounded soldiers, pilots and equipment back to the base. About 6,000 reindeer and more than 1,000 reindeer herders were part of the operation. Most herders were Nenets, who were mobilised from the Nenets Autonomous Okrug, but reindeer herders from the Murmansk, Arkhangelsk and Komi regions also participated.
Santa Claus
Around the world, public interest in reindeer peaks during the Christmas season. According to folklore, Santa Claus's sleigh is pulled by flying reindeer. These reindeer were first named in the 1823 poem "A Visit from St. Nicholas".
Mythology and art
Among the Inuit, there is a story of the origin of the caribou:
Inuit artists from the Barrenlands incorporate depictions of caribou — and items made from caribou antlers and skin — in carvings, drawings, prints and sculpture.
Contemporary Canadian artist Brian Jungen, of Dane-zaa First Nations ancestry, commissioned an installation entitled "The ghosts on top of my head" (2010–11) in Banff, Alberta, which depicts the antlers of caribou, elk and moose.
Tomson Highway, CM is a Canadian and Cree playwright, novelist, and children's author, who was born in a remote area north of Brochet, Manitoba. His father, Joe Highway, was a caribou hunter. His 2001 children's book entitled Caribou Song/atíhko níkamon was selected as one of the "Top 10 Children's Books" by the Canadian newspaper The Globe and Mail. The young protagonists of Caribou Song, like Tomson himself, followed the caribou herd with their families.
Heraldry and symbols
Several Norwegian municipalities have one or more reindeer depicted in their coats-of-arms: Eidfjord, Porsanger, Rendalen, Tromsø, Vadsø and Vågå. The historic province of Västerbotten in Sweden has a reindeer in its coat of arms. The present Västerbotten County has very different borders and uses the reindeer combined with other symbols in its coat-of-arms. The city of Piteå also has a reindeer. The logo for Umeå University features three reindeer.
The Canadian 25-cent coin or "quarter" features a depiction of a caribou on one face. The caribou is the official provincial animal of Newfoundland and Labrador, Canada, and appears on the coat of arms of Nunavut. A caribou statue was erected at the centre of the Beaumont-Hamel Newfoundland Memorial, marking the spot in France where hundreds of soldiers from Newfoundland were killed and wounded in World War I. There is a replica in Bowring Park in St. John's, Newfoundland's capital city.
Two municipalities in Finland have reindeer motifs in their coats-of-arms: Kuusamo has a running reindeer and Inari has a fish with reindeer antlers.
See also
Alaska Reindeer Service
Caribou herds and populations in Canada
Rangifer (constellation)
Rangifer (journal)
Reindeer Police
Notes
References
Bibliography
External links
– the 2011 census results of the WACH, which is Alaska's largest caribou herd.
The Reindeer Portal, Source of Information About Reindeer Husbandry Worldwide
1935 Reindeer Herding in the Northwest Territories
General information on Caribou and Reindeer
Human Role in Reindeer/Caribou Systems
Reindeer hunting as World Heritage – a ten-thousand-year-long tradition
Reindeer Research Program – Alaska reindeer research and industry development
Adaptations To Life In The Arctic – Instructional slide-show, University of Alaska
Rangifer – world's only scientific journal dealing exclusively with husbandry, management and biology of Arctic and northern ungulates
Growth Studies in the Reindeer by Charles J. Krebs at Dartmouth College Library
The Sami and their Reindeer, University of Texas, Austin
Caribou-specific links (North America)
Frequently Asked Questions about Caribou from the Arctic National Wildlife Refuge
Caribou and You – Campaign by CPAWS to protect the boreal woodland caribou, a subspecies at risk in Canada
Newfoundland Five-Year Caribou Strategy Seeks to Address Declining Populations
Alaskan cuisine
Mammals described in 1758
Arctic land animals
Capreolinae
Mammals of the Arctic
Holarctic fauna
Livestock
Mammals of Asia
Mammals of Canada
Mammals of Greenland
Mammals of Europe
Mammals of Russia
Mammals of the United States
Pack animals
Taxa named by Carl Linnaeus | wiki |
iBoot is the stage 2 bootloader for all Apple products. It replaces the old bootloader, BootX. Compared with its predecessor, iBoot improves authentication performed in the boot chain.
For x86 macOS, the boot process starts by running code stored in secured UEFI Boot ROM (first stage). Boot ROM has two primary responsibilities: to initialize system hardware and to select an operating system to run (the POST and UEFI component). For ARM macOS, the Boot ROM is not UEFI component.
For iOS, the boot process starts by running the device's Boot ROM code. In systems with S1 processors or A9 or earlier A-series processors, the Boot ROM loads the Low-Level Bootloader (LLB), which loads iBoot. In systems with newer processors, the Boot ROM loads iBoot itself. If all goes well, iBoot will then proceed to load the iOS kernel as well as the rest of the operating system. If the LLB or iBoot fails to load iOS, or fails to verify iOS, the bootloader jumps to DFU (Device Firmware Update) mode; otherwise it loads the remaining kernel modules.
On x86 macOS, iBoot is located in /System/Library/CoreServices/boot.efi. Once the kernel and all drivers necessary for booting are loaded, the boot loader starts the kernel’s initialization procedure. At this point, enough drivers are loaded for the kernel to find the root device.
Memory safety
Apple has modified the C compiler toolchain that is used to build iBoot in order to advance memory safety since iOS 14. This advancement is designed to mitigate entire classes of common memory corruption vulnerabilities such as buffer overflows, heap exploitations, type confusion vulnerabilities, and use-after-free attacks. These modifications can potentially prevent attackers from successfully escalating their privileges to run malicious code, such as an attack involving arbitrary code execution.
References
External links
Mac OS X at osxbook.com
MacOS
Boot loaders | wiki |
Miodownik, or chonek łejkech (German: Honig), is a dessert cake which, together with the cuker łejkech, serves as a popular wedding cake in Jewish cuisine.
Chonek łejkech is prepared similarly to sponge cake, which is topped with honey that is melted and then cooled down along with other sugar ingredients. Once the mass of prepared dough is poured onto a baking sheet, it is baked at a temperature of 200°C for around 40 minutes.
The recipe for miodownik originates from Galicia and Central Poland.
See also
List of Polish dishes
Medivnyk
Medovik
References
Polish desserts
Polish cuisine
Ashkenazi Jewish cuisine
Honey cakes | wiki |
Angraecum caulescens is a species of orchid.
References
External links
caulescens | wiki |
PSI (Pounds per Square Inch) er en enhed der bruges til at måle tryk, for eksempel lufttryk i et bildæk. PSI angiver trykket i Avoirdupois pound-force (lbf) pr. engelske kvadrattommer.
1 PSI = ≈ ≈ 6894,757 N/m²
1 Bar tryk = 14,504 PSI
Trykenheder og konverteringsfaktorer
Trykenheder | wiki |
Jackass Volume 3 är den tredje säsongen av MTV:s jackass. Hela säsongen finns utgiven på DVD, och är då 1 timma och 17 minuter lång
Scener
Jackass | wiki |
These are the bridges in Dubai that are completed, under construction, proposed or approved.
Operation
Bridges in Dubai are operated by Dubai Roads and Transport Authority (RTA).
List of completed bridges
List of bridges under construction or Approved
Sheikh Rashid bin Saeed Crossing, upon completion will become worlds longest arch bridge, and will become sixth crossing across Dubai Creek.
Dubai Smile, is an approved bridge which will supersede the existing Floating Bridge, upon completion it will become seventh crossing across Dubai Creek.
Notes
A. Approved for construction.
All of tunnels in The United Arab Emirates
See also
List of buildings in Dubai
References
External links
Gulfnews.com
Dubaiasitusedtobe.com
Floating bridge over Dubai Creek opens Gulf News (16 July 2007)
Pontoon will ease Maktoum bridge traffic Gulf News (17 July 2007)
Gulfnews.com
More information on the Business Bay Crossing
straitstimes.com
Popularmechanics.com
Dubaichronicle.com
Gulfnews.com
01
Dubai
Lists of buildings and structures in the United Arab Emirates
Dubai
United Arab Emirates transport-related lists
Bridges | wiki |
Biga is a type of pre-fermentation used in Italian baking. Many popular Italian breads, including ciabatta, are made using a biga. Using a biga adds complexity to the bread's flavor and is often used in breads that need a light, open texture with holes. Apart from adding to flavor and texture, a biga also helps to preserve bread by making it less perishable.
Biga techniques were developed after the advent of baker's yeast as bakers in Italy moved away from the use of sourdough and needed to recover some of the flavor that was given up in this move. Bigas are usually dry and thick compared to a sourdough starter. This thickness is believed to give a Biga its characteristic slightly nutty taste. Biga is usually made fresh every day, using a small amount of baker's yeast in a thick dough, which varies from 45 to 90% hydration as a baker's percentage, and is allowed to ferment from 12 to 16 hours to fully develop its flavor.
For some home bakers, biga is used to refer to naturally leavened sourdough made with a stiff starter, without using baker's yeast.
See also
Pre-ferment
References
External links
The Artisan on indirect baking
Italian breads | wiki |
The Carneau is a breed of pigeon developed over many years of selective breeding primarily as a utility pigeon. Carneau, along with other varieties of domesticated pigeons, are all descendants from the rock pigeon (Columba livia).
The breed is known for large size and suitability for squab production. White Carneau pigeons are extensively used in experiments on operant conditioning; most of the pigeons used in B. F. Skinner's original work on schedules of reinforcement were White Carneaux.
Origin
The Carneau originated in northern France and southern Belgium. Once a free flying breed, living by fielding.
See also
List of pigeon breeds
References
Pigeon breeds
Pigeon breeds originating in France
Pigeon breeds originating in Belgium | wiki |
In film production, a creative executive (often called CE for short) is a studio executive tasked with reading scripts and finding source material which can be turned into motion picture content (feature films, television series, television films).
In advertising agencies, the term can also refer to the creative concept writer or copywriter.
References
External links
wordpress.com, Production Team & Crew Glossary
Entertainment occupations
Filmmaking occupations
Film production | wiki |
Bubblegum Dreams may refer to:
Bubblegum Dreams, 1997 EP by The Queers
"Bubblegum Dreams", 2017 song by Ariel Pink from the album Dedicated to Bobby Jameson | wiki |
Roxana Díaz (actrice) (née 1972), actrice et mannequin vénézuélienne
Roxana Díaz (athlétisme) (née 1981), athlète cubaine | wiki |
Deer Park or Deerpark may refer to:
Deer park (England), parkland originally used by the nobility for hunting deer.
Places
Australia
Deer Park, Victoria, a suburb of Melbourne, located within the City of Brimbank
Deer Park railway station
Canada
Deer Park, Toronto, Ontario, a neighborhood
France
Parc-aux-Cerfs (English: Deer Park), a house at Versailles
India
Sarnath, Uttar Pradesh, a deer park which was legendary site of the Buddha's first sermon
Deer Park (Delhi), in the South Delhi locality of Hauz Khas
Ireland
Deerpark, County Cavan, a townland in County Cavan
United Kingdom
Deer Park, County Antrim, a townland in County Antrim, Northern Ireland
Deer Park, County Fermanagh, a townland in County Fermanagh, Northern Ireland
Deer Park, County Londonderry, a townland in County Londonderry, Northern Ireland
Deer Park, County Tyrone, a townland in County Tyrone, Northern Ireland
United States
Deer Park, Alabama
Deer Park, California, in Napa County
Deer Park, El Dorado County, California
Deer Park, former name of Cedar Grove, Fresno County, California
Deer Park, Florida
Deer Park, Illinois
Deer Park, Indiana
Deer Park, Louisville, Kentucky, a neighborhood
Deer Park, Maryland
The Deer Park Hotel, built following the American Civil War
Deer Park, Michigan, an unincorporated community
Deer Park Township, Pennington County, Minnesota
Deer Park, Missouri
Deer Park (Omaha, Nebraska), a neighborhood of Omaha
Deer Park, New York, Long Island
Deer Park (LIRR station)
Deerpark, New York, Orange County
Deer Park, Ohio
Deer Park, Texas
Deer Park, Washington
Deer Park, Wisconsin
Other uses
Cirencester Deer Park School, a secondary school in Cirencester, Gloucestershire, England
Deer Park, the development name for Mozilla Firefox 1.5
The Deer Park, a novel by Norman Mailer
Deer Park Metropolitan Women's Correctional Centre, former name of the Dame Phyllis Frost Centre, a prison in Deer Park, Victoria, Australia
Deerpark Mines, disused mine in County Kilkenny, Ireland
Deer Park Monastery, a Buddhist monastery in Escondido, California
Deer Park Refinery, Deer Park, Texas
Deer Park Spring Water, a division of Nestlé Waters North America
Deer Park Tavern, a historical bar and restaurant in Newark, Delaware
Michigan's Adventure, an amusement park formerly named Deer Park, in Muskegon, Michigan
See also
Old Deer Park, an area of open space in Richmond, London | wiki |
Another Weekend may refer to:
"Another Weekend" (Five Star song), 1988
"Another Weekend", 2017 song by Ariel Pink from the album Dedicated to Bobby Jameson | wiki |
Bartholomew Kemp (fl. 1584–1589), of London, was an English politician.
He was a Member (MP) of the Parliament of England for Shaftesbury in 1584, for Eye in 1586 and for Castle Rising in 1589.
References
Year of birth missing
Year of death missing
Politicians from London
English MPs 1584–1585
English MPs 1586–1587
English MPs 1589 | wiki |
Reiteration is making an iteration again and again. It may refer to:
Tremolo, a trembling effect in music
Reiteration, a virtual rule of inference in mathematical logic
See also
Reiterate, a GRITS album
Iteration (disambiguation)
Repetition (disambiguation) | wiki |
Follow Me Home may refer to:
Follow Me Home (album), a 2011 album by Jay Rock
Follow Me Home (film), a 1996 film by Peter Bratt
"Follow Me Home" (song), a 2006 song by Sugababes
"Follow Me Home", a 1978 song by Dire Straits from Communiqué | wiki |
Taking or takings may refer to:
Theft, illicit taking
The acquisition of land under eminent domain
Take (hunting) or taking, an action that adversely affects a species
Kidnapping of persons
See also
Take (disambiguation)
Taken (disambiguation)
Took (disambiguation)
Acquisition (disambiguation)
Expropriation
Resumption (disambiguation) | wiki |
Меринья () - муніципалітет у Франції, у регіоні Овернь-Рона-Альпи, департамент Ен
Меринья () - муніципалітет у Франції, у регіоні Нова Аквітанія, департамент Жиронда | wiki |
Rogue security software is a form of malicious software and internet fraud that misleads users into believing there is a virus on their computer and aims to convince them to pay for a fake malware removal tool that actually installs malware on their computer. It is a form of scareware that manipulates users through fear, and a form of ransomware. Rogue security software has been a serious security threat in desktop computing since 2008. An early example that gained infamy was SpySheriff and its clones, such as Nava Shield.
Propagation
Rogue security software mainly relies on social engineering (fraud) to defeat the security built into modern operating system and browser software and install itself onto victims' computers. A website may, for example, display a fictitious warning dialog stating that someone's machine is infected with a computer virus, and encourage them through manipulation to install or purchase scareware in the belief that they are purchasing genuine antivirus software.
Most have a Trojan horse component, which users are misled into installing. The Trojan may be disguised as:
A browser plug-in or extension (typically toolbar)
An image, screensaver or archive file attached to an e-mail message
Multimedia codec required to play a certain video clip
Software shared on peer-to-peer networks
A free online malware-scanning service
Some rogue security software, however, propagate onto users' computers as drive-by downloads which exploit security vulnerabilities in web browsers, PDF viewers, or email clients to install themselves without any manual interaction.
More recently, malware distributors have been utilizing SEO poisoning techniques by pushing infected URLs to the top of search engine results about recent news events. People looking for articles on such events on a search engine may encounter results that, upon being clicked, are instead redirected through a series of sites before arriving at a landing page that says that their machine is infected and pushes a download to a "trial" of the rogue program. A 2010 study by Google found 11,000 domains hosting fake anti-virus software, accounting for 50% of all malware delivered via internet advertising.
Cold-calling has also become a vector for distribution of this type of malware, with callers often claiming to be from "Microsoft Support" or another legitimate organization.
Common infection vectors
Black Hat SEO
Black Hat search engine optimization (SEO) is a technique used to trick search engines into displaying malicious URLs in search results. The malicious webpages are filled with popular keywords in order to achieve a higher ranking in the search results. When the end user searches the web, one of these infected webpages is returned. Usually the most popular keywords from services such as Google Trends are used to generate webpages via PHP scripts placed on the compromised website. These PHP scripts will then monitor for search engine crawlers and feed them with specially crafted webpages that are then listed in the search results. Then, when the user searches for their keyword or images and clicks on the malicious link, they will be redirected to the Rogue security software payload.
Malvertising
Most websites usually employ third-party services for advertising on their webpages. If one of these advertising services is compromised, they may end up inadvertently infecting all of the websites using their service by advertising rogue security software.
Spam campaigns
Spam messages that include malicious attachments, links to binaries and drive-by download sites are another common mechanism for distributing rogue security software. Spam emails are often sent with content associated with typical day-to-day activities such as parcel deliveries, or taxation documents, designed to entice users to click on links or run attachments. When users succumb to these kinds of social engineering tricks they are quickly infected either directly via the attachment, or indirectly via a malicious website. This is known as a drive-by download. Usually in drive-by download attacks the malware is installed on the victim's machine without any interaction or awareness and occurs simply by visiting the website.
Operation
Once installed, the rogue security software may then attempt to entice the user into purchasing a service or additional software by:
Alerting the user with the fake or simulated detection of malware or pornography.
Displaying an animation simulating a system crash and reboot.
Selectively disabling parts of the system to prevent the user from uninstalling the malware. Some may also prevent anti-malware programs from running, disable automatic system software updates and block access to websites of anti-malware vendors.
Installing actual malware onto the computer, then alerting the user after "detecting" them. This method is less common as the malware is likely to be detected by legitimate anti-malware programs.
Altering system registries and security settings, then "alerting" the user.
Developers of rogue security software may also entice people into purchasing their product by claiming to give a portion of their sales to a charitable cause. The rogue Green antivirus, for example, claims to donate $2 to an environmental care program for each sale made.
Some rogue security software overlaps in function with scareware by also:
Presenting offers to fix urgent performance problems or perform essential housekeeping on the computer.
Scaring the user by presenting authentic-looking pop-up warnings and security alerts, which may mimic actual system notices. These are intended to use the trust that the user has in vendors of legitimate security software.
Sanction by the FTC and the increasing effectiveness of anti-malware tools since 2006 have made it difficult for spyware and adware distribution networks—already complex to begin with—to operate profitably. Malware vendors have turned instead to the simpler, more profitable business model of rogue security software, which is targeted directly at users of desktop computers.
Rogue security software is often distributed through highly lucrative affiliate networks, in which affiliates supplied with Trojan kits for the software are paid a fee for every successful installation, and a commission from any resulting purchases. The affiliates then become responsible for setting up infection vectors and distribution infrastructure for the software. An investigation by security researchers into the Antivirus XP 2008 rogue security software found just such an affiliate network, in which members were grossing commissions upwards of $USD150,000 over 10 days, from tens of thousands of successful installations.
Countermeasures
Private efforts
Law enforcement and legislation in all countries are slow to react to the appearance of rogue security software. In contrast, several private initiatives providing discussion forums and lists of dangerous products were founded soon after the appearance of the first rogue security software. Some reputable vendors, such as Kaspersky, also began to provide lists of rogue security software. In 2005, the Anti-Spyware Coalition was founded, a coalition of anti-spyware software companies, academics, and consumer groups.
Many of the private initiatives were initially informal discussions on general Internet forums, but some were started or even entirely carried out by individual people. The perhaps most famous and extensive one is the Spyware Warrior list of rogue/suspect antispyware products and websites by Eric Howes, which has however not been updated since May 2007. The website recommends checking the following websites for new rogue anti-spyware programs, most of which are not really new and are "simply re-branded clones and knockoffs of the same rogue applications that have been around for years."
Government efforts
In December 2008, the US District Court for Maryland—at the request of the FTC—issued a restraining order against Innovative Marketing Inc, a Kyiv-based firm producing and marketing the rogue security software products WinFixer, WinAntivirus, DriveCleaner, ErrorSafe, and XP Antivirus. The company and its US-based web host, ByteHosting Internet Hosting Services LLC, had their assets frozen, were barred from using domain names associated with those products and any further advertisement or false representation.
Law enforcement has also exerted pressure on banks to shut down merchant gateways involved in processing rogue security software purchases. In some cases, the high volume of credit card chargebacks generated by such purchases has also prompted processors to take action against rogue security software vendors.
See also
Anti-virus
List of rogue security software
Scareware
Technical support scam
Winwebsec
Notes
References
External links
Scareware
Types of malware
Security breaches
Social engineering (computer security)
zh:流氓软件 | wiki |
Solemn may refer to:
"Solemn", a song by Tribal Tech from the album Dr. Hee 1987
"Solemn", a song by Arcane Roots from the album Melancholia Hymns 2017
See also
Solemnity, a feast day of the highest rank in the Roman Rite | wiki |
Aptana, Inc. is a company that makes web application development tools for use with a variety of programming languages (such as JavaScript, Ruby, PHP and Python). Aptana's main products include Aptana Studio, Aptana Cloud and Aptana Jaxer.
Aptana Studio
Aptana Studio is an open-source integrated development environment (IDE) for building web applications. Based on Eclipse, it supports JavaScript, HTML, DOM and CSS with code-completion, outlining, JavaScript debugging, error and warning notifications and integrated documentation. Additional plugins allow Aptana Studio to support Ruby on Rails, PHP, Python, Perl, Adobe AIR, Apple iPhone and Nokia WRT (Web Runtime). Aptana Studio is available as a standalone on Windows, Mac OS X and Linux, or as a plugin for Eclipse.
Language & platform support
PHP
Aptana Studio 3 provides the following support for PHP application development:
Syntax Coloring according to the selected theme in the preferences;
Code Assist;
Syntax error annotations;
Auto indentation and Code Formatting;
Hyper-linking to classes, functions and variables by hovering over elements and pressing the Ctrl key;
PHPDoc popups when hovering over items that have attached documentation;
Read and write Occurrences Markers when clicking on specific PHP elements.
In the 2.0 version, Aptana did not provide its own PHP plugin, but transferred development efforts to the PDT project.
Aptana version 1.5 provided support for developing PHP applications via the add-on PHP plugin. This included:
Built-in PHP server for previewing within Aptana Studio,
Full code assist, code outlining and code formatting,
Integrated PHP debugger,
Built in Smarty,
Type hierarchy view,
Go to declaration,
Integrated PHP manual (online or local).
Ruby on Rails
Aptana Studio supports Ruby on Rails development using RadRails, an open source plugin for the Ruby on Rails framework. This includes:
Integrated Ruby on Rails shell console,
Default-install and configuration of the Ruby interpreter, database and debugger,
code completion with type inferencing,
Code Assist for Ruby, CSS, JavaScript and HTML inside RHTML files,
Type hierarchy view,
Go to declaration,
Call hierarchy,
Full implementation of RDT (Eclipse's Ruby Development Tools project).
Python
Aptana Studio provides support for Python in the form of the PyDev plugin. This provides the following advantages:
Color syntax highlighting;
Code completion;
Code outlining;
Debugging
Refactoring tools
Interactive console
Unittest integration
Integrated support for the CPython, Jython and IronPython interpreters.
Aptana announced that their previously commercial Pydev Extensions are now open sourced.
Adobe AIR
Aptana IDE provides considerable support for Adobe AIR.
Nokia Web Runtime
The Nokia Web Runtime provides support for developing rich mobile apps for Nokia S60 series phones. This includes over 30 models and tens of millions of units in use around the world. The Nokia WRT Plug-in for Aptana Studio provides features that enable the creation, editing, testing and deployment of WRT widgets from within Aptana Studio.
WRT widgets are small, task-focused web applications that are installed and run in the same way as other S60 applications. WRT widgets allow websites or web services to be optimised for use on S60 devices. Because they are easy to develop and use, WRT widgets are ideal for driving traffic to a website from S60 devices.
Features
JavaScript Library Support
Aptana Studio comes with the following JavaScript libraries, but more can be added or updated if desired.
Adobe Spry
Ext JS
Aflax
Rico
Prototype
Mochikit
YUI Library
Mootools
Dojo toolkit
jQuery
Script.aculo.us
Code Assist
Code Assist is similar to completing code statements, by presenting a pop-up with either:
the supported arguments for the function call being coded;
the supported properties and methods on the desired object.
This applies both to built-in functions/methods and to those already coded — but the latter use requires documenting such functions/methods with ScriptDoc, a documentation dialect similar to that used by Javadoc.
Browser support
The Code Assist feature includes information on browser support for JavaScript methods/properties, HTML elements and CSS properties.
FTP/SFTP
Support for uploading, downloading and synchronization using FTP and SFTP.
Debugger
Both Pro and Community editions support integrated JavaScript debugging for Firefox. Internet Explorer is supported only in the Pro Edition.
System requirements
Windows – 512 MB RAM, Pentium 4-level processor
Mac OS X – 512 MB RAM, PowerPC G4/G5, Intel or Mac OS X 10.4+
Linux – 512 MB RAM, Pentium 4-level processor
Editions
Aptana Studio is available as an open source Community Edition. The previously available features in the paid-for Pro Edition were merged into the Community Edition. All of the features in Pro are now part of the standard Community Edition of Studio, thus Aptana ceased to exist as a multiple edition IDE.
License
Aptana uses a "dual licensing" model. Under this model, users may choose to use the Aptana IDE under the free software/open source GNU General Public License (commonly known as the "GPL") or under the Aptana Public License (known as the "APL").
With the GPL license, the Aptana IDE is available free of charge, as long as the redistribution (if any) of the Aptana IDE adheres to the terms of the GPL license. Users may download the software for free and modify, integrate and distribute it.
Aptana also offers the simplified APL license for organizations that don't need to redistribute Aptana Studio or its derivatives outside of the company.
License history
When launched in 2006, Aptana was released under the Eclipse Public License 1.0. They were using the EPL until milestone 8. The first few builds of milestone 9 were licensed under the Eclipse Public License 1.0 until nightly build 16120.
One nightly build of milestone 9 was licensed under the GNU General Public License 3.0 (build 16204)
Builds after 16204 have been licensed as Freeware with redistribution restrictions licensed under the Aptana Public License, v1.0.
On September 21, 2007, Aptana announced they would be using a dual license: GPL V3 and the freeware APL.
Company
Aptana is currently led by Paul Colton, Founder and CEO, Uri Sarid, CTO/VP, Engineering and Kevin Hakman, Director of Evangelism. The staff headcount surpassed 25 after September 1, 2008. Aptana is an active participant in the OpenAjax Alliance, with Hakman serving as director of the IDE Working Group.
Aptana was acquired by Appcelerator, Inc. on January 7, 2011. Employees of Aptana were absorbed to the Mountain View campus of Appcelerator and work is scheduled to continue on the release of Aptana 3.0. Appcelerator in their webcast made users aware of their intention to integrate their mobile application framework with Aptana Studio, with a planned beta within Q1 2011. Emphasis on visual workflow was indicated for both of the products and continued support will continue for existing Aptana products. Appcelerator put Jaxer on GitHub.
Other products
Aptana Jaxer
Aptana Jaxer, made obsolete by Node.js, is an open-source Ajax web server for building rich web pages and applications using a unified Ajax model wherein both client-side and server-side code can be written in JavaScript. Jaxer's server-side engine is based on Mozilla Gecko, the same browser engine that is used in Firefox. The Mozilla engine allows Jaxer to provide a server-side DOM in which a page may be manipulated during server-side processing using the techniques familiar to client-side programmers. Jaxer's server-side JavaScript APIs enable database access, file system access, network communications, user sessions and other functions typical of web application servers. Jaxer also provides for access to Java objects via the open source Direct Web Remoting project. Jaxer is now on GitHub.
Aptana Jaxer provides a page-processing environment based on the Mozilla engine. This provides a Gecko-based DOM and SpiderMonkey JavaScript engine to allow pages to be rendered and manipulated on the server before being sent to the browser. Jaxer also provides an Ajax model for performing asynchronous requests to the server. Its client and server APIs allow such requests to be made by simply calling server-side JavaScript functions from the client. Behind the scenes, Jaxer provides the logic required to manage the request and retrieve the response from the server.
It is useful for Web scraping.
Jaxer is not a standalone web server, but works with another server such as Apache, Jetty or Tomcat. Jaxer provides server-side DOM and API processing for pages served by the web server before delivering the results to the browser.
Jaxer may be integrated into Aptana Studio via an optional plugin. It is open source (GPL) and available for Windows, Mac OS X and Linux/Solaris.
As of November 2009 Aptana has significantly scaled back development and support of Jaxer. An Aptana representative noted that "there hasn't been sufficient adoption to make it a money earning proposition."
Aptana Cloud Connect
Aptana Cloud Connect is Aptana's web hosting and application management service. Cloud Connect provides the infrastructure required to host applications developed using technologies supported by Aptana Studio and is primarily based on Apache, with support for general web/Ajax, PHP, Ruby on Rails and Jaxer. Cloud Connect also supports Java-based web applications, which may be deployed and managed using the Cloud service. All applications hosted on Cloud Connect may be developed offline, deployed and managed directly using the Cloud management features included in Aptana Studio. The Cloud Connect service also provides team management, hosted source control (using Subversion), remote editing/preview and application synchronization between local, staging and production environments.
See also
List of Eclipse-based software
Eclipse
NetBeans
References
External links
Aptana – official website
Cloud computing providers
Free HTML editors
Free integrated development environments
Linux integrated development environments
Software using the GPL license | wiki |
Flammekueche (Alsatian; Standard German: Flammkuchen), or tarte flambée (French), is a speciality of the region of Alsace, German-speaking Moselle, Baden and the Palatinate. It is composed of bread dough rolled out very thinly in the shape of a rectangle or oval, which is covered with fromage blanc or crème fraîche, thinly sliced onions and lardons.
The name of the dish varies in local dialects; it is called Flàmmeküeche, or Flàmmaküacha in Alsatian, or Flammkuche in Lorraine Franconian - compare (Standard) German Flammkuchen. All these names translate as "pie baked in the flames". Contrary to what the direct translation would suggest, tarte flambée is not flambéed but is cooked in a wood-fired oven.
Varieties
There are many variations of the original recipe in terms of the garniture. The standard variations are:
Gratinée: with added Gruyère cheese;
Forestière: with added mushrooms;
Munster: with added Munster cheese;
Sweet: dessert version with apples and cinnamon, or blueberries, and flambéed with Calvados or another sweet liqueur.
History
The dish was created by Germanic farmers from Alsace, Baden and the Palatinate who used to bake bread once a week. The Flammekueche was originally a homemade dish which did not make its urban restaurant debut until the "pizza craze" of the 1960s. A Flammekueche would be used to test the heat of their wood-fired ovens. At the peak of its temperature, the oven would also have the ideal conditions in which to bake a Flammekueche. The embers would be pushed aside to make room for the cake in the middle of the oven, and the intense heat would be able to bake it in 1 or 2 minutes. The crust that forms the border of the Flammekueche would be nearly burned by the flames. The result resembles a thin pizza.
After the annexation of Alsace by France, the Flammekueche made its way as tarte flambée into French cuisine.
See also
List of bread dishes
Zwiebelkuchen
References
Flatbread dishes
Alsatian cuisine
German cuisine
Bread dishes | wiki |
A hippo or hippopotamus is either of two species of large African mammal which live mainly in and near water:
Hippopotamus
Pygmy hippopotamus
Hippo or Hippos may also refer to:
Toponymy
The ancient city of Hippo Regius (modern Annaba, Algeria)
The ancient city of Hippo Diarrhytus (modern Bizerte, Tunisia)
Hippo, Kentucky
Hippos (Golan Heights), an archaeological site in the Israel–Syria DMZ
Given names
Hippo (Greek woman), a Greek woman mentioned by Valerius Maximus as an example of chastity
Hippo (philosopher), a Presocratic Greek philosopher
Hippo Galloway (1882–1943), American-Canadian professional baseball player
Hippo, one of the mythical Oceanids
Hippo, one of the daughters of the mythical Thespius
Hippo, one of the mythical Amazons
Hippo, one of the Leuctrides
Hippo, a powerful gangster character in the 2015 Neill Blomkamp film Chappie
Brand and product names
Hippo CMS, an open-source content management system
Hippo (Company), an American property insurance company based in Palo Alto, California
Other
Hippo APC, a South African armoured personnel carrier
Hippo (Hpo), a protein kinase involved in the Hippo signaling pathway
Hippo Family Club, a multilingual club originated from Japan
"Hippo" (The Brak Show), a 2001 episode
The Hippos, an American band
The Hippos (Australian band)
HIPPO, highest paid person's opinion. It is often a deciding factor in what decisions and next steps a team takes
See also
Augustine of Hippo
Hipo (disambiguation)
Hippopotamus (disambiguation)
Hungry Hungry Hippos, a children's game marketed by Milton Bradley
King Hippo, a fictional boxer from Nintendo's Punch-Out!! series
Tree warbler, genus Hippolais | wiki |
La condition physique est une combinaison des facteurs physique, technique, tactique, stratégique et mental de la performance sportive.
C'est un niveau de qualités physiques qui permet de réaliser une activité physique ou un sport dans les meilleures conditions possibles.
Articles connexes
Préparation physique
Notes et références
Entraînement sportif
Éducation physique et sportive | wiki |
The Trans-Arabian Pipeline (Tapline), was an oil pipeline from Qaisumah in Saudi Arabia to Sidon in Lebanon, active between 1950–1976. In its heyday, it was an important factor in the global trade of petroleum, as well as in American–Middle Eastern political relations, while locally helping with the economic development of Lebanon.
History
Construction of the Trans-Arabian Pipeline began in 1947 and was mainly managed by the American company Bechtel. Consolidated Steel of Los Angeles was contracted to provide 980 miles of pipe in March 1947 (date of press notice) and the National Tube Company of Pittsburgh (a U.S. Steel subsidiary) for another 70 miles. Originally the Tapline was intended to terminate in Haifa, which was then in the British Mandate of Palestine, but due to the establishment of the state of Israel, an alternative route through Syria (Golan Heights) and Lebanon was selected with an export terminal in Sidon.
The Syrian government initially opposed the plan. Four days after a military coup that overthrew democratic rule the deal was ratified. The coup's leader Husni al-Za'im was overthrown and murdered 136 days later, but the project was unstoppable.
Since the 1967 Six-Day War, the section of the pipeline which runs through the Golan Heights came under Israeli control, though the Israelis permitted the pipeline's operation to continue. After years of constant arguing between Saudi Arabia and Syria and Lebanon over transit fees, the emergence of oil supertankers, and pipeline breakdowns, the section of the line beyond Jordan ceased operation in 1976. The remainder of the line between Saudi Arabia and Jordan continued to transport modest amounts of petroleum until 1990 when the Saudis cut off the pipeline in response to Jordan's support of Iraq during the first Gulf War. Today, the entire line is unfit for oil transport.
Technical features
The Trans-Arabian Pipeline was long with a diameter of . When constructed, it was the world's largest oil pipeline system. The initial capacity of the pipeline was (bpd), eventually rising to a maximum capacity of about with the addition of several more pumping stations. While the pipeline was considered groundbreaking and innovative at the time it was built, were it still operational to this day it would be considered somewhat outdated — nowadays, most modern long-distance pipelines constructed beginning in the second half of the twentieth century have been built to a diameter of or and thus able to transport considerably more crude oil per day than Tapline did in its heyday. The pipeline was supplied from the oil fields near Abqaiq.
The Tapline corridor has remained a potential export route for Persian Gulf oil exports to Europe and the United States. At least one analysis has indicated that the transportation cost of exporting oil via the Tapline through Haifa to Europe would cost as much as 40 percent less than shipping by tanker through the Suez Canal. In early 2005, rehabilitation of the Tapline at an estimated cost of US$100 to US$300 million was one of the strategic options being considered by the Jordanian government to meet oil needs.
Pipeline company
The pipeline was built and operated by the Trans-Arabian Pipeline Company. It was founded as a joint venture between Standard Oil of New Jersey (now ExxonMobil), Standard Oil of California (Chevron), the Texas Company (better known as Texaco, now a part of Chevron), and Socony-Vacuum Oil Company (now part of ExxonMobil), however, it eventually became a fully owned subsidiary of Aramco. The company continued operating with no oil being transported until the end of 2002, when Aramco fully closed the Tapline subsidiary.
Tapline Road
For the Israeli Road see: Petroleum Road
Tapline Road is the major east-west two lane highway running the length of Saudi Arabia from Turaif, on Saudi Arabia's border with Jordan, in the west, to Qaisumah, on the Persian Gulf, in the east. It was so named because it parallels the Trans-Arabian Pipeline. The Tapline Road was, on average, only 50 kilometers from Saudi Arabia's northern border for a distance of 514 miles or 827.2 kilometers. Initially only a dirt and gravel road used by ARAMCO and the Saudi Government it was widened and paved by 1965 due to use by civilian and commercial traffic. It was incorporated into the Saudi Highway system in 1965 when it was extended into Dammam. Since Tapline Road is a semi-private road mostly maintained by Aramco, and has been assigned the number 6335 until it meets Highway 85 (King Fahd Road) where-after it is maintained by the Saudi Arabian Ministry of Transport, it remains Highway 85 until near the Jordanian border where it meets Highway 65, in Qurayyat and crosses the Jordanian Border at Umari and becomes Jordanian Highway 30. Tapline Road/Highway 85 is deemed one of the most dangerous roads in the world due to its straightness.
See also
East–West Crude Oil Pipeline
Arab Gas Pipeline
Kirkuk–Haifa oil pipeline, active 1935–1948
Petroleum Road
March 1949 Syrian coup d'état
References
External links
Tapline overview and history
Tapline's magazine, the "Pipeline Periscope" from 1953-1974.
“Oil Across Arabia”, a 1950 Bechtel company documentary.
Oil pipelines in Lebanon
Oil pipelines in Jordan
Oil pipelines in Syria
Oil pipelines in Saudi Arabia
Roads in Saudi Arabia
Saudi Aramco
Jordan–Saudi Arabia relations
Jordan–Syria relations
Saudi Arabia–Syria relations | wiki |
High lead logging is a method of cable logging using a spar, yarder and loader. It was developed by Oscar Wirkkala. It is accomplished with two lines (cables) and two winches (or cable drums). The mainline or yarding line extends out from one winch, while a second usually lighter line called the haulback line extends out from the other winch to a 'tail block' or pulley at the tail (back) end of the logging site, and passes through the tail block and connects to the main line. Butt rigging is installed where the two lines join and the logs are hooked to the butt rigging with chokers. The procedure is to wind up the main line and the logs are pulled in, wind up the haulback and the butt rigging is pulled out for more logs or another 'turn'.
The "high lead" feature is added by elevating both lines near the winch or 'head' end. This is accomplished by running the lines through a block (pulley) called the "head block" because it is on the head end of the project. Early on, it was customary to trim and top a tree making it into a 'spar pole' or 'spar tree' for the purpose of supporting the head blocks but gradually the use of wooden spars gave way over the 20th century to the use of steel spars stood up for the purpose. In any event the spars are supported by a number of guy wires.
The reason for elevating the lines (cables) at the head end is to assist in pulling the logs free of obstructions on the ground. Also if the trees are being partially lifted as they are transported it is less disruptive to the ground which can be an environmental issue.
High lead is a popular method of logging on the West Coast of America.
First used in 1904, with Lidgerwood winches, and a spar tree.
References
External links
High-lead Logging on the Olympic Peninsula in the 1920s-30s
Log transport | wiki |
A number of politicians, public figures, media outlets, businesses and other organisations endorsed voting either in favour or against same-sex marriage during the Australian Marriage Law Postal Survey.
"Yes" campaign
Lead lobby groups
Australian Marriage Equality – The leading lobby group for same-sex marriage in Australia, running under the banner of the Equality Campaign, announced at a press conference on 11 August that, if the legal challenge to the survey is unsuccessful, "we have a duty to every Aussie who supports fairness and equality to try to win it. We are in this to win this".
GetUp! – The left-leaning activist group announced it would "engage in a campaign to win a Yes result...to deliver...the fairer and more equal country we believe in".
Notable individuals
Notable bands
Politicians
Federal
State and territory
Local
International
Organisations and agencies
Sports groups and organisations
Newspapers and websites
State and local governments
Religious groups
Religious groups who advocate a "yes" vote include:
Australian Council of Hindu Clergy
Buddhism Australia
Pitt Street Uniting Church
Quakers Australia
Rabbinic Council of the Union for Progressive Judaism
St Michael's Uniting Church, Melbourne
Denomination leaders who advocate a "yes" vote include:
Frank Brennan, Catholic priest
Kay Goldsworthy, the Anglican Archbishop of Perth
Prior to the postal survey, over 500 Australian faith leaders signed a joint letter asking the Australian Government to enact same-sex marriage. Leaders signing were Anglican, Catholic, Uniting Church, Hindu, Buddhist, Jewish and Muslim.
Political parties
Others
Fitzy and Wippa, radio show
Kath and Kim, television comedy
Kinky Boots Australia, musical
RuPaul's Drag Race, US reality competition series
Wicked Australia & NZ, musical
Will & Grace, US sitcom
Rallies
Some of the "largest LGBTI demonstrations in Australian history" occurred in the lead-up to the postal survey in various cities. On 27 August, approximately 20,000 people attended a rally in Melbourne calling on the government to legalise same-sex marriage, whilst on 10 September more than 30,000 people gathered in Sydney's CBD supporting a "Yes" vote in the survey.
"No" campaign
Lead lobby groups
Australian Catholic Bishops' Conference (ACBC) has said, "Vote No, to keep marriage as a unique relationship between a woman and a man . . . the consequences of changing marriage are very real".
Coalition for Marriage, a body formed by several groups opposed to same-sex marriage to co-ordinate a "No" campaign.
Australian Christian Lobby (ACL) advocates a "No" vote, in-part, because of the perceived implications for children.
Marriage Alliance states that it wants to respect same-sex attracted people but does not want to change the current definition of marriage.
FamilyVoice Australia which advocates Voting No for freedom and for children.
Notable individuals
John Anderson, former Deputy Prime Minister and leader of the National Party of Australia (1999–2005)
Bronwyn Bishop, former MP for Mackellar
Joe Bullock, former Labor Senator for Western Australia
Roger Corbett, former CEO of Woolworths Limited and former chairman of Fairfax Media
Miranda Devine, Conservative columnist
David Flint, legal academic
Israel Folau, rugby union player
John Howard, former Prime Minister of Australia (1996–2007)
Barnaby Joyce, former Deputy Prime Minister of Australia and Leader of the National Party
Mark Latham, former Leader of the Labor Party
Bill O'Chee, former Senator National for Queensland
Lyle Shelton, managing director of the Australian Christian Lobby
Warren Truss, former Deputy Prime Minister and leader of the National Party of Australia (2013–2016)
Karina Okotel, federal vice president of the Liberal Party.
Politicians
Organisations and agencies
Antipodean Resistance, Neo-Nazi and fascist group
United Patriots Front, far-right nationalist anti-Islam organisation
Religious groups
Political parties
Neutral
Organisations and agencies
Australia and New Zealand Banking Group (ANZ)
Australian Broadcasting Corporation (ABC)
Australia Post
Deloitte Access Economics
Holden
Optus
REA Group
The Salvation Army
Sports groups and organisations
Australian Olympic Committee
Carlton Football Club
Fremantle Football Club
Hawthorn Football Club
Swimming Australia
West Coast Eagles
State and local governments
City of Brisbane
Political parties
Jacqui Lambie Network
Liberal Party of Australia
Pauline Hanson's One Nation
References
2017 in Australia
2017 in LGBT history
Same-sex marriage in Australia | wiki |
Ilyocryptus is een geslacht van kreeftachtigen uit de klasse van de Branchiopoda (blad- of kieuwpootkreeftjes).
Soorten
Ilyocryptus acutifrons G.O. Sars, 1862
Ilyocryptus agilis Kurz, 1878
Ilyocryptus sordidus (Liévin, 1848)
Ilyocryptidae | wiki |
This is an index to notable programming languages, in current or historical use. Dialects of BASIC, esoteric programming languages, and markup languages are not included. A programming language does not need to be imperative or Turing-complete, but must be executable and so does not include markups such as HTML or XML, but does include domain-specific languages such as SQL and its dialects.
A
B
C
D
E
F
G
H
I
J
K
L
M
N
O
P
Q
R
S
T
U
V
W
X
Y
Z
See also
Lists of programming languages
List of programming languages by type
Comparison of programming languages
List of BASIC dialects
List of markup languages
List of stylesheet languages
History of programming languages
:Category:Programming languages | wiki |
Miscarriage, also known in medical terms as a spontaneous abortion and pregnancy loss, is the death of an embryo or fetus before it is able to survive independently. Miscarriage before 6 weeks of gestation is defined by ESHRE as biochemical loss. Once ultrasound or histological evidence shows that a pregnancy has existed, the used term is clinical miscarriage, which can be early before 12 weeks and late between 12-21 weeks. Fetal death after 20 weeks of gestation is also known as a stillbirth. The most common symptom of a miscarriage is vaginal bleeding with or without pain. Sadness, anxiety, and guilt may occur afterwards. Tissue and clot-like material may leave the uterus and pass through and out of the vagina. Recurrent miscarriage (also referred to medically as Recurrent Spontaneous Abortion or RSA) may also be considered a form of infertility.
Risk factors for miscarriage include being an older parent, previous miscarriage, exposure to tobacco smoke, obesity, diabetes, thyroid problems, and drug or alcohol use. About 80% of miscarriages occur in the first 12 weeks of pregnancy (the first trimester). The underlying cause in about half of cases involves chromosomal abnormalities. Diagnosis of a miscarriage may involve checking to see if the cervix is open or sealed, testing blood levels of human chorionic gonadotropin (hCG), and an ultrasound. Other conditions that can produce similar symptoms include an ectopic pregnancy and implantation bleeding.
Prevention is occasionally possible with good prenatal care. Avoiding drugs, alcohol, infectious diseases, and radiation may decrease the risk of miscarriage. No specific treatment is usually needed during the first 7 to 14 days. Most miscarriages will complete without additional interventions. Occasionally the medication misoprostol or a procedure such as vacuum aspiration is used to remove the remaining tissue. Women who have a blood type of rhesus negative (Rh negative) may require Rho(D) immune globulin. Pain medication may be beneficial. Emotional support may help with processing the loss.
Miscarriage is the most common complication of early pregnancy. Among women who know they are pregnant, the miscarriage rate is roughly 10% to 20%, while rates among all fertilisation is around 30% to 50%. In those under the age of 35 the risk is about 10% while it is about 45% in those over the age of 40. Risk begins to increase around the age of 30. About 5% of women have two miscarriages in a row. Some recommend not using the term "abortion" in discussions with those experiencing a miscarriage in an effort to decrease distress. In Britain, the term "miscarriage" has replaced any use of the term "spontaneous abortion" in relation to pregnancy loss and in response to complaints of insensitivity towards women who had suffered such loss. An additional benefit of this change is reducing confusion among medical laymen, who may not realize that the term "spontaneous abortion" refers to a naturally-occurring medical phenomenon, and not the intentional termination of pregnancy.
Signs and symptoms
Signs of a miscarriage include vaginal spotting, abdominal pain, cramping, and fluid, blood clots, and tissue passing from the vagina. Bleeding can be a symptom of miscarriage, but many women also have bleeding in early pregnancy and do not miscarry. Bleeding during the first half of pregnancy may be referred to as a threatened miscarriage. Of those who seek treatment for bleeding during pregnancy, about half will miscarry. Miscarriage may be detected during an ultrasound exam, or through serial human chorionic gonadotropin (HCG) testing.
Risk factors
Miscarriage may occur for many reasons, not all of which can be identified. Risk factors are those things that increase the likelihood of having a miscarriage but do not necessarily cause a miscarriage. Up to 70 conditions, infections, medical procedures, lifestyle factors, occupational exposures, chemical exposure, and shift work are associated with increased risk for miscarriage. Some of these risks include endocrine, genetic, uterine, or hormonal abnormalities, reproductive tract infections, and tissue rejection caused by an autoimmune disorder.
Trimesters
First trimester
Most clinically apparent miscarriages (two-thirds to three-quarters in various studies) occur during the first trimester. About 30% to 40% of all fertilized eggs miscarry, often before the pregnancy is known. The embryo typically dies before the pregnancy is expelled; bleeding into the decidua basalis and tissue necrosis causes uterine contractions to expel the pregnancy. Early miscarriages can be due to a developmental abnormality of the placenta or other embryonic tissues. In some instances an embryo does not form but other tissues do. This has been called a "blighted ovum".
Successful implantation of the zygote into the uterus is most likely eight to ten days after fertilization. If the zygote has not implanted by day ten, implantation becomes increasingly unlikely in subsequent days.
A chemical pregnancy is a pregnancy that was detected by testing but ends in miscarriage before or around the time of the next expected period.
Chromosomal abnormalities are found in more than half of embryos miscarried in the first 13 weeks. Half of embryonic miscarriages (25% of all miscarriages) have an aneuploidy (abnormal number of chromosomes). Common chromosome abnormalities found in miscarriages include an autosomal trisomy (22–32%), monosomy X (5–20%), triploidy (6–8%), tetraploidy (2–4%), or other structural chromosomal abnormalities (2%). Genetic problems are more likely to occur with older parents; this may account for the higher rates observed in older women.
Luteal phase progesterone deficiency may or may not be a contributing factor to miscarriage.
Second and third trimesters
Second trimester losses may be due to maternal factors such as uterine malformation, growths in the uterus (fibroids), or cervical problems. These conditions also may contribute to premature birth. Unlike first-trimester miscarriages, second-trimester miscarriages are less likely to be caused by a genetic abnormality; chromosomal aberrations are found in a third of cases. Infection during the third trimester can cause a miscarriage.
Age
The age of the pregnant woman is a significant risk factor. Miscarriage rates increase steadily with age, with more substantial increases after age 35. In those under the age of 35 the risk is about 10% while it is about 45% in those over the age of 40. Risk begins to increase around the age of 30. Paternal age is associated with increased risk.
Obesity, eating disorders and caffeine
Not only is obesity associated with miscarriage; it can result in sub-fertility and other adverse pregnancy outcomes. Recurrent miscarriage is also related to obesity. Women with bulimia nervosa and anorexia nervosa may have a greater risk for miscarriage. Nutrient deficiencies have not been found to impact miscarriage rates but hyperemesis gravidarum sometimes precedes a miscarriage.
Caffeine consumption also has been correlated to miscarriage rates, at least at higher levels of intake. However, such higher rates are statistically significant only in certain circumstances.
Vitamin supplementation has generally not shown to be effective in preventing miscarriage. Chinese traditional medicine has not been found to prevent miscarriage.
Endocrine disorders
Disorders of the thyroid may affect pregnancy outcomes. Related to this, iodine deficiency is strongly associated with an increased risk of miscarriage. The risk of miscarriage is increased in those with poorly controlled insulin-dependent diabetes mellitus. Women with well-controlled diabetes have the same risk of miscarriage as those without diabetes.
Food poisoning
Ingesting food that has been contaminated with listeriosis, toxoplasmosis, and salmonella is associated with an increased risk of miscarriage.
Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling
Amniocentesis and chorionic villus sampling (CVS) are procedures conducted to assess the fetus. A sample of amniotic fluid is obtained by the insertion of a needle through the abdomen and into the uterus. Chorionic villus sampling is a similar procedure with a sample of tissue removed rather than fluid. These procedures are not associated with pregnancy loss during the second trimester but they are associated with miscarriages and birth defects in the first trimester. Miscarriage caused by invasive prenatal diagnosis (chorionic villus sampling (CVS) and amniocentesis) is rare (about 1%).
Surgery
The effects of surgery on pregnancy are not well-known including the effects of bariatric surgery. Abdominal and pelvic surgery are not risk factors for miscarriage. Ovarian tumours and cysts that are removed have not been found to increase the risk of miscarriage. The exception to this is the removal of the corpus luteum from the ovary. This can cause fluctuations in the hormones necessary to maintain the pregnancy.
Medications
There is no significant association between antidepressant medication exposure and miscarriage. The risk of miscarriage is not likely decreased by discontinuing SSRIs prior to pregnancy. Some available data suggest that there is a small increased risk of miscarriage for women taking any antidepressant, though this risk becomes less statistically significant when excluding studies of poor quality.
Medicines that increase the risk of miscarriage include:
retinoids
nonsteroidal anti-inflammatory drugs (NSAIDs), such as ibuprofen
misoprostol
methotrexate
statins
Immunizations
Immunizations have not been found to cause miscarriage. Live vaccinations, like the MMR vaccine, can theoretically cause damage to the fetus as the live virus can cross the placenta and potentially increase the risk for miscarriage. Therefore, the Center for Disease Control (CDC) recommends against pregnant women receiving live vaccinations. However, there is no clear evidence that has shown live vaccinations to increase the risk for miscarriage or fetal abnormalities.
Some live vaccinations include: MMR, varicella, certain types of the influenza vaccine, and rotavirus.
Treatments for cancer
Ionizing radiation levels given to a woman during cancer treatment cause miscarriage. Exposure can also impact fertility. The use of chemotherapeutic drugs used to treat childhood cancer increases the risk of future miscarriage.
Pre-existing diseases
Several pre-existing diseases in pregnancy can potentially increase the risk of miscarriage, including diabetes, polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS), hypothyroidism, certain infectious diseases, and autoimmune diseases. PCOS may increase the risk of miscarriage. Two studies suggested treatment with the drug metformin significantly lowers the rate of miscarriage in women with PCOS, but the quality of these studies has been questioned. Metformin treatment in pregnancy has not been shown to be safe. In 2007 the Royal College of Obstetricians and Gynaecologists also recommended against use of the drug to prevent miscarriage. Thrombophilias or defects in coagulation and bleeding were once thought to be a risk in miscarriage but have been subsequently questioned. Severe cases of hypothyroidism increase the risk of miscarriage. The effect of milder cases of hypothyroidism on miscarriage rates has not been established. A condition called luteal phase defect (LPD) is a failure of the uterine lining to be fully prepared for pregnancy. This can keep a fertilized egg from implanting or result in miscarriage.
Mycoplasma genitalium infection is associated with increased risk of preterm birth and miscarriage.
Infections can increase the risk of a miscarriage: rubella (German measles), cytomegalovirus, bacterial vaginosis, HIV, chlamydia, gonorrhoea, syphilis, and malaria.
Immune status
Autoimmunity is a possible cause of recurrent or late-term miscarriages. In the case of an autoimmune-induced miscarriage, the woman's body attacks the growing fetus or prevents normal pregnancy progression. Autoimmune disease may cause abnormalities in embryos, which in turn may lead to miscarriage. As an example, Celiac disease increases the risk of miscarriage by an odds ratio of approximately 1.4. A disruption in normal immune function can lead to the formation of antiphospholipid antibody syndrome. This will affect the ability to continue the pregnancy, and if a woman has repeated miscarriages, she can be tested for it. Approximately 15% of recurrent miscarriages are related to immunologic factors. The presence of anti-thyroid autoantibodies is associated with an increased risk with an odds ratio of 3.73 and 95% confidence interval 1.8–7.6. Having lupus also increases the risk for miscarriage. Immunohistochemical studies on decidual basalis and chorionic villi found that the imbalance of the immunological environment could be associated with recurrent pregnancy loss.
Anatomical defects and trauma
Fifteen per cent of women who have experienced three or more recurring miscarriages have some anatomical defect that prevents the pregnancy from being carried for the entire term. The structure of the uterus affects the ability to carry a child to term. Anatomical differences are common and can be congenital.
In some women, cervical incompetence or cervical insufficiency occurs with the inability of the cervix to stay closed during the entire pregnancy. It does not cause first trimester miscarriages. In the second trimester, it is associated with an increased risk of miscarriage. It is identified after a premature birth has occurred at about 16–18 weeks into the pregnancy. During the second trimester, major trauma can result in a miscarriage.
Smoking
Tobacco (cigarette) smokers have an increased risk of miscarriage. There is an increased risk regardless of which parent smokes, though the risk is higher when the gestational mother smokes.
Morning sickness
Nausea and vomiting of pregnancy (NVP, or morning sickness) is associated with a decreased risk. Several possible causes have been suggested for morning sickness but there is still no agreement. NVP may represent a defense mechanism which discourages the mother's ingestion of foods that are harmful to the fetus; according to this model, a lower frequency of miscarriage would be an expected consequence of the different food choices made by women experiencing NVP.
Chemicals and occupational exposure
Chemical and occupational exposures may have some effect in pregnancy outcomes. A cause and effect relationship almost can never be established. Those chemicals that are implicated in increasing the risk for miscarriage are DDT, lead, formaldehyde, arsenic, benzene and ethylene oxide. Video display terminals and ultrasound have not been found to have an effect on the rates of miscarriage. In dental offices where nitrous oxide is used with the absence of anesthetic gas scavenging equipment, there is a greater risk of miscarriage. For women who work with cytotoxic antineoplastic chemotherapeutic agents there is a small increased risk of miscarriage. No increased risk for cosmetologists has been found.
Other
Alcohol increases the risk of miscarriage. Cocaine use increases the rate of miscarriage. Some infections have been associated with miscarriage. These include Ureaplasma urealyticum, Mycoplasma hominis, group B streptococci, HIV-1, and syphilis. Infections of Chlamydia trachomatis, Camphylobacter fetus, and Toxoplasma gondii have not been found to be linked to miscarriage. Subclinical infections of the lining of the womb, commonly known as chronic endometritis are also associated with poor pregnancy outcomes, compared to women with treated chronic endometritis or no chronic endometritis.
Diagnosis
In the case of blood loss, pain, or both, transvaginal ultrasound is performed. If a viable intrauterine pregnancy is not found with ultrasound, blood tests (serial βHCG tests) can be performed to rule out ectopic pregnancy, which is a life-threatening situation.
If hypotension, tachycardia, and anemia are discovered, exclusion of an ectopic pregnancy is important.
A miscarriage may be confirmed by an obstetric ultrasound and by the examination of the passed tissue. When looking for microscopic pathologic symptoms, one looks for the products of conception. Microscopically, these include villi, trophoblast, fetal parts, and background gestational changes in the endometrium. When chromosomal abnormalities are found in more than one miscarriage, genetic testing of both parents may be done.
Ultrasound criteria
A review article in The New England Journal of Medicine based on a consensus meeting of the Society of Radiologists in Ultrasound in America (SRU) has suggested that miscarriage should be diagnosed only if any of the following criteria are met upon ultrasonography visualization:
Classification
A threatened miscarriage is any bleeding during the first half of pregnancy. At investigation it may be found that the fetus remains viable and the pregnancy continues without further problems.
An anembryonic pregnancy (also called an "empty sac" or "blighted ovum") is a condition where the gestational sac develops normally, while the embryonic part of the pregnancy is either absent or stops growing very early. This accounts for approximately half of miscarriages. All other miscarriages are classified as embryonic miscarriages, meaning that there is an embryo present in the gestational sac. Half of embryonic miscarriages have aneuploidy (an abnormal number of chromosomes).
An inevitable miscarriage occurs when the cervix has already dilated, but the fetus has yet to be expelled. This usually will progress to a complete miscarriage. The fetus may or may not have cardiac activity.
A complete miscarriage is when all products of conception have been expelled; these may include the trophoblast, chorionic villi, gestational sac, yolk sac, and fetal pole (embryo); or later in pregnancy the fetus, umbilical cord, placenta, amniotic fluid, and amniotic membrane. The presence of a pregnancy test that is still positive, as well as an empty uterus upon transvaginal ultrasonography, does, however, fulfil the definition of pregnancy of unknown location. Therefore, there may be a need for follow-up pregnancy tests to ensure that there is no remaining pregnancy, including ectopic pregnancy.
An incomplete miscarriage occurs when some products of conception have been passed, but some remains inside the uterus. However, an increased distance between the uterine walls on transvaginal ultrasonography may also simply be an increased endometrial thickness and/or a polyp. The use of a Doppler ultrasound may be better in confirming the presence of significant retained products of conception in the uterine cavity. In cases of uncertainty, ectopic pregnancy must be excluded using techniques like serial beta-hCG measurements.
A missed miscarriage is when the embryo or fetus has died, but a miscarriage has not yet occurred. It is also referred to as delayed miscarriage, silent miscarriage, or missed abortion.
A septic miscarriage occurs when the tissue from a missed or incomplete miscarriage becomes infected, which carries the risk of spreading infection (septicaemia) and can be fatal.
Recurrent miscarriage ("recurrent pregnancy loss" (RPL), "recurrent spontaneous abortion (RSA), or "habitual abortion") is the occurrence of multiple consecutive miscarriages; the exact number used to diagnose recurrent miscarriage varies; however two is the minimum threshold to meet the criteria. If the proportion of pregnancies ending in miscarriage is 15% and assuming that miscarriages are independent events, then the probability of two consecutive miscarriages is 2.25% and the probability of three consecutive miscarriages is 0.34%. The occurrence of recurrent pregnancy loss is 1%. A large majority (85%) of those who have had two miscarriages will conceive and carry normally afterward.
The physical symptoms of a miscarriage vary according to the length of pregnancy, though most miscarriages cause pain or cramping. The size of blood clots and pregnancy tissue that are passed become larger with longer gestations. After 13 weeks' gestation, there is a higher risk of placenta retention.
Prevention
Prevention of a miscarriage can sometimes be accomplished by decreasing risk factors. This may include good prenatal care, avoiding drugs and alcohol, preventing infectious diseases, and avoiding x-rays. Identifying the cause of the miscarriage may help prevent future pregnancy loss, especially in cases of recurrent miscarriage. Often there is little a person can do to prevent a miscarriage. Vitamin supplementation before or during pregnancy has not been found to affect the risk of miscarriage. Progesterone has been shown to prevent miscarriage in women with 1) vaginal bleeding early in their current pregnancy and 2) a previous history of miscarriage.
Non-modifiable risk factors
Preventing a miscarriage in subsequent pregnancies may be enhanced with assessments of:
Immune status
Chemical and occupational exposures
Anatomical defects
Pre-existing or acquired disease in pregnancy
Polycystic ovary syndrome
Previous exposure to chemotherapy and radiation
Medications
Surgical history
Endocrine disorders
Genetic abnormalities
Modifiable risk factors
Maintaining a healthy weight and good prenatal care can reduce the risk of miscarriage. Some risk factors can be minimized by avoiding the following:
Smoking
Cocaine use
Alcohol
Poor nutrition
Occupational exposure to agents that can cause miscarriage
Medications associated with miscarriage
Drug abuse
Management
Women who miscarry early in their pregnancy usually do not require any subsequent medical treatment but they can benefit from support and counseling. Most early miscarriages will complete on their own; in other cases, medication treatment or aspiration of the products of conception can be used to remove remaining tissue. While bed rest has been advocated to prevent miscarriage, this has not been found to be of benefit. Those who are experiencing or who have experienced a miscarriage benefit from the use of careful medical language. Significant distress can often be managed by the ability of the clinician to clearly explain terms without suggesting that the woman or couple are somehow to blame.
Evidence to support Rho(D) immune globulin after a spontaneous miscarriage is unclear. In the UK, Rho(D) immune globulin is recommended in Rh-negative women after 12 weeks gestational age and before 12 weeks gestational age in those who need surgery or medication to complete the miscarriage.
Methods
No treatment is necessary for a diagnosis of complete miscarriage (so long as ectopic pregnancy is ruled out). In cases of an incomplete miscarriage, empty sac, or missed abortion there are three treatment options: watchful waiting, medical management, and surgical treatment. With no treatment (watchful waiting), most miscarriages (65–80%) will pass naturally within two to six weeks. This treatment avoids the possible side effects and complications of medications and surgery, but increases the risk of mild bleeding, need for unplanned surgical treatment, and incomplete miscarriage. Medical treatment usually consists of using misoprostol (a prostaglandin) alone or in combination with mifepristone pre-treatment. These medications help the uterus to contract and expel the remaining tissue out of the body. This works within a few days in 95% of cases. Vacuum aspiration or sharp curettage can be used, with vacuum aspiration being lower-risk and more common.
Delayed and incomplete miscarriage
In delayed or incomplete miscarriage, treatment depends on the amount of tissue remaining in the uterus. Treatment can include surgical removal of the tissue with vacuum aspiration or misoprostol. Studies looking at the methods of anaesthesia for surgical management of incomplete miscarriage have not shown that any adaptation from normal practice is beneficial.
Induced miscarriage
An induced abortion may be performed by a qualified healthcare provider for women who cannot continue the pregnancy. Self-induced abortion performed by a woman or non-medical personnel can be dangerous and is still a cause of maternal mortality in some countries. In some locales it is illegal or carries heavy social stigma.
Sex
Some organizations recommend delaying sex after a miscarriage until the bleeding has stopped to decrease the risk of infection. However, there is not sufficient evidence for the routine use of antibiotic to try to avoid infection in incomplete abortion. Others recommend delaying attempts at pregnancy until one period has occurred to make it easier to determine the dates of a subsequent pregnancy. There is no evidence that getting pregnant in that first cycle affects outcomes and an early subsequent pregnancy may actually improve outcomes.
Support
Organizations exist that provide information and counselling to help those who have had a miscarriage. Family and friends often conduct a memorial or burial service. Hospitals also can provide support and help memorialize the event. Depending on locale others desire to have a private ceremony. Providing appropriate support with frequent discussions and sympathetic counselling are part of evaluation and treatment. Those who experience unexplained miscarriage can be treated with emotional support.
Miscarriage leave
Miscarriage leave is leave of absence in relation to miscarriage. The following countries offer paid or unpaid leave to women who have had a miscarriage.
The Philippines – 60 days' fully paid leave for miscarriages (before 20 weeks of gestation) or emergency termination of the pregnancy (on the 20th week or after) The husband of the mother gets seven days' fully paid leave up to the 4th pregnancy.
India – six weeks' leave
New Zealand – three days' bereavement leave for both parents
Mauritius – two weeks' leave
Indonesia – six weeks' leave
Taiwan – five days, one week or four weeks, depending on how advanced the pregnancy was
Outcomes
Psychological and emotional effects
Every woman's personal experience of miscarriage is different, and women who have more than one miscarriage may react differently to each event.
In Western cultures since the 1980s, medical providers assume that experiencing a miscarriage "is a major loss for all pregnant women". A miscarriage can result in anxiety, depression or stress for those involved. It can have an effect on the whole family. Many of those experiencing a miscarriage go through a grieving process. "Prenatal attachment" often exists that can be seen as parental sensitivity, love and preoccupation directed toward the unborn child. Serious emotional impact is usually experienced immediately after the miscarriage. Some may go through the same loss when an ectopic pregnancy is terminated. In some, the realization of the loss can take weeks. Providing family support to those experiencing the loss can be challenging because some find comfort in talking about the miscarriage while others may find the event painful to discuss. The father can have the same sense of loss. Expressing feelings of grief and loss can sometimes be harder for men. Some women are able to begin planning their next pregnancy after a few weeks of having the miscarriage. For others, planning another pregnancy can be difficult. Some facilities acknowledge the loss. Parents can name and hold their infant. They may be given mementos such as photos and footprints. Some conduct a funeral or memorial service. They may express the loss by planting a tree.
Some health organizations recommend that sexual activity be delayed after the miscarriage. The menstrual cycle should resume after about three to four months. Women report that they were dissatisfied with the care they received from physicians and nurses.
Subsequent pregnancies
Some parents want to try to have a baby very soon after the miscarriage. The decision of trying to become pregnant again can be difficult. Reasons exist that may prompt parents to consider another pregnancy. For older mothers, there may be some sense of urgency. Other parents are optimistic that future pregnancies are likely to be successful. Many are hesitant and want to know about the risk of having another or more miscarriages. Some clinicians recommend that the women have one menstrual cycle before attempting another pregnancy. This is because the date of conception may be hard to determine. Also, the first menstrual cycle after a miscarriage can be much longer or shorter than expected. Parents may be advised to wait even longer if they have experienced late miscarriage or molar pregnancy, or are undergoing tests. Some parents wait for six months based upon recommendations from their health care provider.
The risks of having another miscarriage vary according to the cause. The risk of having another miscarriage after a molar pregnancy is very low. The risk of another miscarriage is highest after the third miscarriage. Pre-conception care is available in some locales.
Later cardiovascular disease
There is a significant association between miscarriage and later development of coronary artery disease, but not of cerebrovascular disease.
Epidemiology
Among women who know they are pregnant, the miscarriage rate is roughly 10% to 20%, while rates among all fertilized zygotes are around 30% to 50%. A 2012 review found the risk of miscarriage between 5 and 20 weeks from 11% to 22%. Up to the 13th week of pregnancy, the risk of miscarriage each week was around 2%, dropping to 1% in week 14 and reducing slowly between 14 and 20 weeks.
The precise rate is not known because a large number of miscarriages occur before pregnancies become established and before the woman is aware she is pregnant. Additionally, those with bleeding in early pregnancy may seek medical care more often than those not experiencing bleeding. Although some studies attempt to account for this by recruiting women who are planning pregnancies and testing for very early pregnancy, they still are not representative of the wider population.
The prevalence of miscarriage increases with the age of both parents. In a Danish register-based study where the prevalence of miscarriage was 11%, the prevalence rose from 9% at 22 years of age to 84% by 48 years of age. Another, later study in 2013 found that when either parent was over the age of 40, the rate of known miscarriages doubled.
In 2010, 50,000 inpatient admissions for miscarriage occurred in the UK.
Terminology
Most affected women and family members refer to miscarriage as the loss of a baby, rather than an embryo or fetus, and healthcare providers are expected to respect and use the language that the person chooses. Clinical terms can suggest blame, increase distress, and even cause anger. Terms that are known to cause distress in those experiencing miscarriage include:
abortion (including spontaneous abortion) rather than miscarriage,
habitual aborter rather than a woman experiencing recurrent pregnancy loss,
products of conception rather than baby,
blighted ovum rather than early pregnancy loss or delayed miscarriage,
cervical incompetence rather than cervical weakness, and
evacuation of retained products of conception (ERPC) rather than surgical management of miscarriage.
Pregnancy loss is a broad term that is used for miscarriage, ectopic and molar pregnancies. The term fetal death applies variably in different countries and contexts, sometimes incorporating weight, and gestational age from 16 weeks in Norway, 20 weeks in the US and Australia, 24 weeks in the UK to 26 weeks in Italy and Spain. A fetus that died before birth after this gestational age may be referred to as a stillbirth. Under UK law, all stillbirths should be registered, although this does not apply to miscarriages.
History
The medical terminology applied to experiences during early pregnancy has changed over time. Before the 1980s, health professionals used the phrase spontaneous abortion for a miscarriage and induced abortion for a termination of the pregnancy. In the late 1980s and 1990s, doctors became more conscious of their language in relation to early pregnancy loss. Some medical authors advocated change to use of miscarriage instead of spontaneous abortion because they argued this would be more respectful and help ease a distressing experience. The change was being recommended by some in the profession in Britain in the late 1990s. In 2005 the European Society for Human Reproduction and Embryology (ESHRE) published a paper aiming to facilitate a revision of nomenclature used to describe early pregnancy events.
Society and culture
Society's reactions to miscarriage have changed over time. In the early 20th century, the focus was on the mother's physical health and the difficulties and disabilities that miscarriage could produce. Other reactions, such as the expense of medical treatments and relief at ending an unwanted pregnancy, were also heard. In the 1940s and 1950s, people were more likely to express relief, not because the miscarriage ended an unwanted or mistimed pregnancy, but because people believed that miscarriages were primarily caused by birth defects, and miscarrying meant that the family would not raise a child with disabilities. The dominant attitude in the mid-century was that a miscarriage, although temporarily distressing, was a blessing in disguise for the family, and that another pregnancy and a healthier baby would soon follow, especially if women trusted physicians and reduced their anxieties. Media articles were illustrated with pictures of babies, and magazine articles about miscarriage ended by introducing the healthy baby—usually a boy—that had shortly followed it.
Beginning in the 1980s, miscarriage in the US was primarily framed in terms of the individual woman's personal emotional reaction, and especially her grief over a tragic outcome. The subject was portrayed in the media with images of an empty crib or an isolated, grieving woman, and stories about miscarriage were published in general-interest media outlets, not just women's magazines or health magazines. Family members were encouraged to grieve, to memorialize their losses through funerals and other rituals, and to think of themselves as being parents. This shift to recognizing these emotional responses was partly due to medical and political successes, which created an expectation that pregnancies are typically planned and safe, and to women's demands that their emotional reactions no longer be dismissed by the medical establishments. It also reinforces the anti-abortion movement’s belief that human life begins at conception or early in pregnancy, and that motherhood is a desirable life goal. The modern one-size-fits-all model of grief does not fit every woman's experience, and an expectation to perform grief creates unnecessary burdens for some women. The reframing of miscarriage as a private emotional experience brought less awareness of miscarriage and a sense of silence around the subject, especially compared to the public discussion of miscarriage during campaigns for access to birth control during the early 20th century, or the public campaigns to prevent miscarriages, stillbirths, and infant deaths by reducing industrial pollution during the 1970s.
In places where induced abortion is illegal or carries social stigma, suspicion may surround miscarriage, complicating an already sensitive issue.
In the 1960s, the use of the word miscarriage in Britain (instead of spontaneous abortion) occurred after changes in legislation.
Developments in ultrasound technology (in the early 1980s) allowed them to identify earlier miscarriages.
According to French statutes, an infant born before the age of viability, determined to be 28 weeks, is not registered as a 'child'. If birth occurs after this, the infant is granted a certificate that allows women who have given birth to a stillborn child, to have a symbolic record of that child. This certificate can include a registered and given name to allow a funeral and acknowledgement of the event.
Other animals
Miscarriage occurs in all animals that experience pregnancy, though in such contexts it is more commonly referred to as a spontaneous abortion (the two terms are synonymous). There are a variety of known risk factors in non-human animals. For example, in sheep, miscarriage may be caused by crowding through doors, or being chased by dogs. In cows, spontaneous abortion may be caused by contagious disease, such as brucellosis or Campylobacter, but often can be controlled by vaccination. In many species of sharks and rays, stress induced miscarriage occurs frequently on capture.
Other diseases are also known to make animals susceptible to miscarriage. Spontaneous abortion occurs in pregnant prairie voles when their mate is removed and they are exposed to a new male, an example of the Bruce effect, although this effect is seen less in wild populations than in the laboratory. Female mice who had spontaneous abortions showed a sharp rise in the amount of time spent with unfamiliar males preceding the abortion than those who did not.
See also
Pregnancy and Infant Loss Remembrance Day
Citations
General and cited references
External links
Pathology of pregnancy, childbirth and the puerperium
Theriogenology
Wikipedia medicine articles ready to translate | wiki |
A resignation speech is a speech made by a public figure upon resigning from office.
Resigning speeches can have considerable political effect for a number of reasons:
The resignation of a senior politician is normally an important, sometimes historic, event. As such, resignation speeches often command unusually high public interest and media attention;
The exiting politician can take this opportunity to enumerate his or her reasons for their resignation and perhaps to defend his or her reputation (see Richard M Nixon's 1974 speech below);
Resigning public figures, particularly politicians, are freed from the constraints of cabinet collective responsibility and constitutional protocol and can voice their opinions with greater independence, for these or other reasons (see the opening paragraph of King Edward VIII's 1936 abdication speech below);
The circumstances of a resignation often cast light on the activities or policies of an incumbent government. A resigning minister can cause significant political damage to an administration or to an individual colleague (see Geoffrey Howe's 1990 speech below).
Notable resignation speeches
1846 - UK Prime Minister Sir Robert Peel resigns following the repeal of the Corn Laws. Extracts from this speech.
1936 - King Edward VIII abdicates the throne of the United Kingdom amidst controversy over his choice of partner. Text of the speech (in PDF).
1974 - US President Richard Nixon's televised speech from the Oval Office in which he announced his resignation after the Watergate scandal. Text of the speech.
1990 - UK Deputy Prime Minister Geoffrey Howe's speech to the British House of Commons which in part led to the Conservative Party leadership election which removed Prime Minister Margaret Thatcher from office. Text of the speech.
1995 - British Prime Minister John Major resigns as Leader of the Conservative Party in order to contest a leadership election with the aim of silencing his internal critics and reasserting his authority. In his speech he famously told his opponents within to 'put up or shut up'. The gambit paid off, and Major was re-elected. Text of this speech.
1999 - President of Russia Boris Yeltsin announces his unexpected resignation on 31 December 1999, to the world's surprise. Text of this speech.
2003 - Former UK Foreign Secretary Robin Cook's speech to the British House of Commons resigning as Leader of the House, and attacking the Blair government's decision to go to war in Iraq. Text of this speech.
2003 - British Secretary of State for International Development Clare Short, resigning over Government policy on Iraq. Text of this speech.
2003 - Chairman of the British Broadcasting Corporation Gavyn Davies, resigning after the findings of the Hutton Inquiry into the BBC's reporting of the death of Dr David Kelly. Text of this statement.
2010 - UK Prime Minister Gordon Brown resigns from office after he led his Labour Party to its worst electoral defeat in 27 years, despite no party winning an overall majority in the 2010 General Election. Constitutionally, this gave him the option to remain as Prime Minister until a new government could be formed, however, it soon became clear that the Liberal Democrats were instead going to form a coalition government with the Conservative Party. This resignation proved significant as it brought to an end 13 years of 'New Labour' government Text of speech.
External links
Speeches by type | wiki |
Skykomish State Airport is a public/civil-use airport located east of Skykomish, Washington, United States.
Although most U.S. airports use the same three-letter location identifier for the FAA, ICAO and IATA, Skykomish State Airport is assigned S88 by the FAA but has no designation from the ICAO nor the IATA.
Facilities
Skykomish State Airport covers an area of which contains one asphalt paved runway (06/24) measuring .
References
External links
Airports in King County, Washington
Airports established in 1949
1949 establishments in Washington (state) | wiki |
Applejack or apple jack may refer to:
Entertainment
Apple Jack, a 2003 American short film directed by Mark Whiting
Captain Applejack, a 1931 American comedy film
Apple Jack (video game), a game on Xbox Live Indie Games
Food
Applejack (drink), an American strong alcoholic drink produced from apples
Apple Jacks, a brand of American breakfast cereal made by Kellogg's
Music
The Applejacks (disambiguation), several musical groups
Applejack, an early name of the Canadian rock band Trooper (band)
"Applejack" (song), a 1963 song by Jet Harris and Tony Meehan
"Applejack", song by Dolly Parton from her 1977 album New Harvest...First Gathering
Other uses
Applejack, a character in the My Little Pony franchise
AppleJack, troubleshooting software for Mac OS X
Wellesley Applejacks, a Canadian Junior ice hockey team in Wellesley, Ontario, Canada | wiki |
Julie Todaro is an American librarian. She served as president of the American Library Association from 2016–2017.
Career
Todaro currently serves as the Dean of Library Services at Austin Community College in Austin, Texas. She has been a member of the American Library Association since 1972.
She previously served as president of the Association of College and Research Libraries from 2007–2008, and of the Texas Library Association from 2000–2001.
Selected publications
Library Management for the Digital Age: A New Paradigm, Rowman and Littlefield, 2014
Emergency Preparedness for Libraries, Government Institutes, 2009
Training Library Staff and Volunteers to Provide Extraordinary Customer Service, Neal-Schuman, 2006 (co-author)
References
Year of birth missing (living people)
Living people
American librarians
American women librarians
Presidents of the American Library Association
21st-century American women | wiki |
Castle () est le sixième album de la chanteuse Jolin Tsai, sortie le sous le label Sony Music.
Liste des titres
Album de Jolin Tsai
Album publié par Sony Music Entertainment
Album musical sorti en 2004 | wiki |
In the United States, the war on gangs is a national movement to reduce gang-related activity, gang violence, and gang drug involvement on the local, state, and federal level. The war on gangs is a multi-lateral approach, as federal agencies seek to disrupt the cycle of violence through intervention with state police and social workers.
History
Historically, gangs surfaced in the United States as early as the 1820s, mainly in New York. Gang activity was still considered criminal, however, when drugs were made illegal in 1912 with the International Opium Convention, gang activity and drug trafficking increased. The United States saw a major increase in gangs during the 1970s and 1980s, due to population growth and the demand for drugs. In 1991, it was estimated that there were 774,000 active gang members in the United States.
Federal level
Although many gang enforcement and policing tactics are carried out on a state-by-state basis, there are federal programs that aim to address the war on gangs. National agencies, like the FBI, Immigration and Customs Enforcement (ICE), United States Marshals Service and the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives, have enacted programs that target gangs and gang related activities at the federal level.
At the federal level, the Gangbusters Bill of 2005, authorized increased federal spending to support federal, state and local law enforcement efforts against gang violence and shared intelligence and joint investigation
State level
The criminalization of those associated with such terminology falls solely upon the state magistrate, while the policing involves a cohesive effort by local, state, and federal authorities. The policing tactics implemented and aimed to disrupt, deter, and eliminate criminal street gang activity naturally varies from city to city and state to state depending on the size of the problem as well as legislation. However, the advancement of counterinsurgency technologies and strategies proven effective in militarized zones such as Iraq and Afghanistan has provided authorities with new ways to fight the "war on gangs" in America. Statistical analysis in conjunction with advanced military software can now provide lawmaking authorities with the type of information that maps connections between gang activities, individual suspects, their social circles, family ties, and neighborhood connections. Authorities now have the tools to deconstruct the culture of ‘criminal street gangs’ by not only identifying their territorial boundaries but criminal industries, politics affiliates both in and out of the penitentiary, gang code and ethics, as well as illegal activities.
Beyond the push for a national model providing a tactical framework outlining the methodologies behind the policing strategies of: prevention, intervention, intelligence, and suppression of criminal street gang activity, there is yet another arena where the “War on Gangs” continues to be fought, the political arena. Organized criminal street gangs such as 18th Street are boasting over 65,000 members and are believed to be operating in over 120 U.S. cities, 37 states, in addition to being considered an international crime organization linked to corrupt political insurgency. The Gangster Disciples is an organization with over 30,000 members in 35 states, employing themselves not only in drug trade but sponsoring political candidates, infiltrating police and private security agencies, and sponsoring protest marches.
Local and community level
Researchers have attempted to understand the theoretical implications for participation in gang activity. Many of them looked into the reasons why people join gangs. The most common reasons examined among gang researchers include factors such as socioeconomic status, peer-to-peer and parent-to-child relationships, and discrimination. For example, in 2007, California State University-Northridge professor Kay Kei-Ho Pih and three other university professors conducted a study examining the purpose of capital (drug trafficking) among Latino and Taiwanese gangs. Their findings showed that the Latino gang members were raised in poor neighborhoods, wanted to make quick and easy money from selling drugs, and did not receive support from their parents about their academic endeavors which led them to drop out of school or complete a GED. The Taiwanese triad members, on the other hand, came from higher socioeconomic statuses, prioritized their education getting undergrad and graduate degrees, and sold drugs for recreation purposes. However, Hua-Lun Huang argues that gangs such as the Chinese Triads and the Mexican Mafia could also form because of extremist ideology and political connections to government outside of the United States. In 2002, the Routine activity theory was used by California State University, Long Beach criminal justice professor, John Z. Wang in his case study about eight bank robberies in Houston, Texas, which states that crimes committed by gangs are influenced by three factors:
Motivated offenders
The availability of suitable targets
The absence of capable guardians
Alternative approaches
Several scholars suggest that alternative methods should be implemented in order to fight against the war on gangs including the development of community-based outreach programs instead of continuing to arrest potential gang members. For example, in 1998, Westminster Police Department director Douglas Kent and Claremont University professor, George Felkenes conducted a cross-sectional study on the cultural reasons why Vietnamese youth in Southern California join and participate in gang activity by interviewing over 250 Vietnamese youth and parents. Felkenes and Kent concluded their study with recommendations on how to initiate gang prevention programs:
They are necessary and should be carefully planned.
They must focus on minority youth rather than the general public.
They should make the youth population view gangs in a negative light.
They should teach them how to cope with gangs in residential areas by avoiding their influence.
In addition, University of Illinois-Urbana Champaign criminologist, Jun Sung Hong in his 2010 study about the Bronfenbrenner ecological approach to understanding Vietnamese gangs in America states that “after-school programs and activities for youths, such as sports or job training opportunities might enhance pro-social behavior and reduce motivation to join a gang.” He also argues that professional organizations and practitioners should also educate government officials about the correlation between social conditions and the negative outcomes
See also
Gang injunction
Gang intelligence unit
Gangbuster Bill
Gangs in the United States
List of gangs in the United States
National Gang Intelligence Center
References
Gangs in the United States
Law enforcement techniques
Metaphors referring to war and violence
Politics of the United States
Crime prevention | wiki |
A statue of Charles Sumner by Anne Whitney is installed in Cambridge, Massachusetts' General MacArthur Square, United States.
See also
Statue of Charles Sumner (Boston)
References
External links
Monuments and memorials in Massachusetts
Outdoor sculptures in Cambridge, Massachusetts
Sculptures of men in Massachusetts
Statues in Massachusetts | wiki |
In botany, a whorl or verticil is a whorled arrangement of leaves, sepals, petals, stamens, or carpels that radiate from a single point and surround or wrap around the stem or stalk. A leaf whorl consists of at least three elements; a pair of opposite leaves is not called a whorl.
For leaves to grow in whorls is fairly rare except in plant species with very short internodes and some other genera (Galium, Nerium, Elodea etc.). Leaf whorls occur in some trees such as Brabejum stellatifolium and other species in the family Proteaceae (e.g., in the genus Banksia). In plants such as these, crowded internodes within the leaf whorls alternate with long internodes between the whorls.
The morphology of most flowers (called cyclic flowers) is based on four types of whorls:
The calyx: zero or more whorls of sepals at the base
The corolla: zero or more whorls of petals above the calyx
The androecium: zero or more whorls of stamens, each comprising a filament and an anther
The gynoecium: zero or more whorls of carpels, each consisting of an ovary, a style, and a stigma
A flower lacking any of these floral structures is said to be incomplete or imperfect. Not all flowers consist of whorls since the parts may instead be spirally arranged, as in the family Magnoliaceae.
See also
Cyclic flower
Merosity
Phyllotaxis
References
Plant morphology | wiki |
Turn Out the Lights may refer to:
Turn Out the Lights (TV series), a British television sitcom
Turn out the lights, the party's over-- lines of a song sung often by Don Meredith, a color commentator covering National Football League
Turn Out the Lights (album), an album by American singer-songwriter Julien Baker. | wiki |
Herald Building may refer to:
the 1894 New York Herald Building on Herald Square, New York City
Herald Building (Salt Lake City) | wiki |
Lune Rouge may refer to:
La lune rouge, 2013 Moroccan drama film directed by Hassan Benjelloun
Lune Rouge (album) by Tokimonsta, 2017
Lune Rouge for piano, Op. 13, by Alissa Firsova
La lune Rouge, novel by Jean Lemieux that is set on Entry Island, 2009 | wiki |
Longitudinal muscle of tongue may refer to:
Inferior longitudinal muscle of tongue
Superior longitudinal muscle of tongue | wiki |
Hammersmith station may refer to:
The following stations in Hammersmith, west London:
Hammersmith tube station (District and Piccadilly lines), a London Underground station served by the District and Piccadilly lines
Hammersmith tube station (Circle and Hammersmith & City lines), a London Underground station served by the Circle and Hammersmith & City lines
Hammersmith (Grove Road) railway station, a former station that closed in 1916
Hammersmith railway station in Hammersmith, Derbyshire
Hammersmith and Chiswick railway station, a former station located in Chiswick that closed to passengers in 1917 and to goods in 1965. | wiki |
A spark plug (sometimes, in British English, a sparking plug, and, colloquially, a plug) is a device for delivering electric current from an ignition system to the combustion chamber of a spark-ignition engine to ignite the compressed fuel/air mixture by an electric spark, while containing combustion pressure within the engine. A spark plug has a metal threaded shell, electrically isolated from a central electrode by a ceramic insulator. The central electrode, which may contain a resistor, is connected by a heavily insulated wire to the output terminal of an ignition coil or magneto. The spark plug's metal shell is screwed into the engine's cylinder head and thus electrically grounded. The central electrode protrudes through the porcelain insulator into the combustion chamber, forming one or more spark gaps between the inner end of the central electrode and usually one or more protuberances or structures attached to the inner end of the threaded shell and designated the side, earth, or ground electrode(s).
Spark plugs may also be used for other purposes; in Saab Direct Ignition when they are not firing, spark plugs are used to measure ionization in the cylinders – this ionic current measurement is used to replace the ordinary cam phase sensor, knock sensor and misfire measurement function. Spark plugs may also be used in other applications such as furnaces wherein a combustible fuel/air mixture must be ignited. In this case, they are sometimes referred to as flame igniters.
Purpose
The purpose of a spark plug is to convert the high-voltage electricity (generated by an ignition coil in modern engines) into a spark. The spark occurs inside the combustion chamber and ignites the air/fuel mixture shortly before the combustion stroke.
Design
A spark plug is composed of a shell, insulator and the central conductor. It passes through the wall of the combustion chamber and therefore must also seal the combustion chamber against high pressures and temperatures without deteriorating over long periods of time and extended use.
Terminal
The top of the spark plug contains a terminal to connect to the ignition system. Over of the years variations in the terminal configuration have been introduced by manufacturers. The exact terminal construction varies depending on the use of the spark plug. Most passenger car spark plug wires snap onto the terminal of the plug, but some wires have eyelet connectors which are fastened onto the plug under a nut. The standard solid non-removable nut SAE configuration is common for many cars and trucks. Plugs which are used for these applications often have the end of the terminal serve a double purpose as the nut on a thin threaded shaft so that they can be used for either type of connection. This type of spark plug has a removable nut or knurl, which enables its users to attach them to two different kinds of spark plug boots. Some spark plugs have a bare thread, which is a common type for motorcycles and ATVs. Finally, in very recent years, a cup-style terminal has been introduced, which allows for a longer ceramic insulator in the same confined space.
Gap size
Spark plugs are typically designed to have a spark gap which can be adjusted by the technician installing the spark plug, by bending the ground electrode slightly. The same plug may be specified for several different engines, requiring a different gap for each. Spark plugs in automobiles generally have a gap between . The gap may require adjustment from the out-of-the-box gap.
A spark plug gap gauge is a disc with a sloping edge, or with round wires of precise diameters, and is used to measure the gap. Use of a feeler gauge with flat blades instead of round wires, as is used on distributor points or valve lash, will give erroneous results, due to the shape of spark plug electrodes. The simplest gauges are a collection of keys of various thicknesses which match the desired gaps and the gap is adjusted until the key fits snugly. With current engine technology, universally incorporating solid state ignition systems and computerized fuel injection, the gaps used are larger on average than in the era of carburetors and breaker point distributors, to the extent that spark plug gauges from that era cannot always measure the required gaps of current cars. Vehicles using compressed natural gas generally require narrower gaps than vehicles using gasoline.
The gap adjustment (also called "spark plug gapping") can be crucial to proper engine operation. A narrow gap may give too small and weak a spark to effectively ignite the fuel-air mixture, but the plug will almost always fire on each cycle. A gap that is too wide might prevent a spark from firing at all or may misfire at high speeds, but will usually have a spark that is strong for a clean burn. A spark which intermittently fails to ignite the fuel-air mixture may not be noticeable directly, but will show up as a reduction in the engine's power and fuel efficiency. Gap adjustment is not recommended for iridium and platinum spark plugs, because there is a risk of damaging a metal disk welded to the electrode.
Insulator
The main part of the insulator is typically made from sintered alumina (Al2O3), a very hard ceramic material with high dielectric strength, printed with the manufacturer's name and identifying marks, then glazed to improve resistance to surface spark tracking. Its major functions are to provide mechanical support and electrical insulation for the central electrode, while also providing an extended spark path for flashover protection. This extended portion, particularly in engines with deeply recessed plugs, helps extend the terminal above the cylinder head so as to make it more readily accessible.
A further feature of sintered alumina is its good heat conduction – reducing the tendency for the insulator to glow with heat and so light the mixture prematurely.
Ribs
By lengthening the surface between the high voltage terminal and the grounded metal case of the spark plug, the physical shape of the ribs functions to improve the electrical insulation and prevent electrical energy from leaking along the insulator surface from the terminal to the metal case. The disrupted and longer path makes the electricity encounter more resistance along the surface of the spark plug even in the presence of dirt and moisture. Some spark plugs are manufactured without ribs; improvements in the dielectric strength of the insulator make them less important.
Insulator tip
On modern (post 1930s) spark plugs, the tip of the insulator protruding into the combustion chamber is the same sintered aluminium oxide (alumina) ceramic as the upper portion, merely unglazed. It is designed to withstand and 60 kV.
Older spark plugs, particularly in aircraft, used an insulator made of stacked layers of mica, compressed by tension in the centre electrode.
With the development of leaded petrol in the 1930s, lead deposits on the mica became a problem and reduced the interval between needing to clean the spark plug. Sintered alumina was developed by Siemens in Germany to counteract this. Sintered alumina is a superior material to mica or porcelain because it is a relatively good thermal conductor for a ceramic, it maintains good mechanical strength and (thermal) shock resistance at higher temperatures, and this ability to run hot allows it to be run at "self cleaning" temperatures without rapid degradation. It also allows a simple single piece construction at low cost but high mechanical reliability. The dimensions of the insulator and the metal conductor core determine the heat range of the plug. Short insulators are usually "cooler" plugs, while "hotter" plugs are made with a lengthened path to the metal body, though this also depends on the thermally conductive metal core.
Seals
Because the spark plug also seals the combustion chamber of the engine when installed, seals are required to ensure there is no leakage from the combustion chamber. The internal seals of modern plugs are made of compressed glass/metal powder, but old style seals were typically made by the use of a multi-layer braze. The external seal is usually a crush washer, but some manufacturers use the cheaper method of a taper interface and simple compression to attempt sealing.
Metal case/shell
The metal case/shell (or the jacket, as many people call it) of the spark plug withstands the torque of tightening the plug, serves to remove heat from the insulator and pass it on to the cylinder head, and acts as the ground for the sparks passing through the central electrode to the side electrode. Spark plug threads are cold rolled to prevent thermal cycle fatigue. It's important to install spark plugs with the correct "reach," or thread length. Spark plugs can vary in reach from , such for automotive and small engine applications. Also, a marine spark plug's shell is double-dipped, zinc-chromate coated metal.
Central electrode
The central electrode is connected to the terminal through an internal wire and commonly a ceramic series resistance to reduce emission of RF noise from the sparking. Non-resistor spark plugs, commonly sold without an "R" in the plug type part number, lack this element to reduce electro-magnetic interference with radios and other sensitive equipment. The tip can be made of a combination of copper, nickel-iron, chromium, or noble metals.
In the late 1970s, the development of engines reached a stage where the heat range of conventional spark plugs with solid nickel alloy centre electrodes was unable to cope with their demands. A plug that was cold enough to cope with the demands of high speed driving would not be able to burn off the carbon deposits caused by stop–start urban conditions, and would foul in these conditions, making the engine misfire. Similarly, a plug that was hot enough to run smoothly in town could melt when called upon to cope with extended high speed running on motorways. The answer to this problem, devised by the spark plug manufacturers, was to use a different material and design for the centre electrode that would be able to carry the heat of combustion away from the tip more effectively than a solid nickel alloy could. Copper was the material chosen for the task and a method for manufacturing the copper-cored centre electrode was created by Floform.
The central electrode is usually the one designed to eject the electrons (the cathode, i.e. negative polarity relative to the engine block) because it is normally the hottest part of the plug; it is easier to emit electrons from a hot surface, because of the same physical laws that increase emissions of vapor from hot surfaces (see thermionic emission). In addition, electrons are emitted where the electrical field strength is greatest; this is from wherever the radius of curvature of the surface is smallest, from a sharp point or edge rather than a flat surface (see corona discharge). Using the colder, blunter side electrode as negative requires up to 45 percent higher voltage, so few ignition systems aside from wasted spark are designed this way. Waste spark systems place a greater strain upon spark plugs since they alternately fire electrons in both directions (from the ground electrode to the central electrode, not just from the central electrode to the ground electrode). As a result, vehicles with such a system should have precious metals on both electrodes, not just on the central electrode, in order to increase service replacement intervals since they wear down the metal more quickly in both directions, not just one.
It would be easiest to pull electrons from a pointed electrode but a pointed electrode would erode after only a few seconds. Instead, the electrons emit from the sharp edges of the end of the electrode; as these edges erode, the spark becomes weaker and less reliable.
At one time it was common to remove the spark plugs, clean deposits off the ends either manually or with specialized sandblasting equipment and file the end of the electrode to restore the sharp edges, but this practice has become less frequent for three reasons:
cleaning with tools such as a wire brush leaves traces of metal on the insulator which can provide a weak conduction path and thus weaken the spark (increasing emissions).
plugs are so cheap relative to labor cost, economics dictate replacement, particularly with modern long-life plugs.
iridium and platinum plugs that have longer lifetimes than copper have become more common.
The development of noble metal high temperature electrodes (using metals such as yttrium, iridium, tungsten, palladium, or ruthenium, as well as the relatively high value platinum, silver or gold) allows the use of a smaller center wire, which has sharper edges but will not melt or corrode away. These materials are used because of their high melting points and durability, not because of their electrical conductivity (which is irrelevant in series with the plug resistor or wires). The smaller electrode also absorbs less heat from the spark and initial flame energy.
Polonium spark plugs were marketed by Firestone from 1940 to 1953. While the amount of radiation from the plugs was minuscule and not a threat to the consumer, the benefits of such plugs quickly diminished after approximately a month because of polonium's short half-life, and because buildup on the conductors would block the radiation that improved engine performance. The premise behind the polonium spark plug, as well as Alfred Matthew Hubbard's prototype radium plug that preceded it, was that the radiation would improve ionization of the fuel in the cylinder and thus allow the plug to fire more quickly and efficiently.
Side (ground, earth) electrode
The side electrode (also known as the "ground strap") is made from high nickel steel and is welded or hot forged to the side of the metal shell. The side electrode also runs very hot, especially on projected nose plugs. Some designs have provided a copper core to this electrode, so as to increase heat conduction. Multiple side electrodes may also be used, so that they don't overlap the central electrode. The ground electrode can also have small pads of platinum or even iridium added to them in order to increase service life.
Sealing to the cylinder head
Most spark plugs seal to the cylinder head with a single-use hollow or folded metal washer which is crushed slightly between the flat surface of the head and that of the plug, just above the threads. Some spark plugs have a tapered seat that uses no washer. The torque for installing these plugs is supposed to be lower than a washer-sealed plug. Spark plugs with tapered seats should never be installed in vehicles with heads requiring washers, and vice versa. Otherwise, a poor seal or incorrect reach would result because of the threads not properly seating in the heads.
Thread sizes
Spark plugs are specified by size, either thread or nut (often referred to as Euro), sealing type (taper or crush washer), and spark gap. Common thread (nut) sizes in Europe are 10 mm (16 mm), 14 mm (21 mm; sometimes, 16 mm), and 18 mm (24 mm, sometimes, 21 mm). In the United States, common thread (nut) sizes are 10mm (16mm), 12mm (14mm, 16mm or 17.5mm), 14mm (16mm, 20.63mm) and 18mm (20.63mm).
Tip location
Protrusion
The length of the threaded portion of the plug should be closely matched to the thickness of the head. If a plug extends too far into the combustion chamber, it may be struck by the piston, damaging the engine internally. Less dramatically, if the threads of the plug extend into the combustion chamber, the sharp edges of the threads act as point sources of heat which may cause pre-ignition; in addition, deposits which form between the exposed threads may make it difficult to remove the plugs, even damaging the threads on aluminium heads in the process of removal.
The protrusion of the tip into the chamber also affects plug performance, however; the more centrally located the spark gap is, generally the better the ignition of the air-fuel mixture will be, although experts believe the process is more complex and dependent on combustion chamber shape. On the other hand, if an engine is "burning oil", the excess oil leaking into the combustion chamber tends to foul the plug tip and inhibit the spark; in such cases, a plug with less protrusion than the engine would normally call for often collects less fouling and performs better, for a longer period. Special "anti-fouling" adapters are sold which fit between the plug and the head to reduce the protrusion of the plug for just this reason, on older engines with severe oil burning problems; this will cause the ignition of the fuel-air mixture to be less effective, but in such cases, this is of lesser significance.
Indexing
"Indexing" of plugs upon installation involves installing the spark plug so that the open area of its gap, not shrouded by the ground electrode, faces the center of the combustion chamber rather than one of its walls. The theory holds that this will maximize the exposure of the fuel-air mixture to the spark, also ensuring that every combustion chamber is even in layout and therefore resulting in better ignition. Indexing is accomplished by marking the location of the gap on the outside of the plug, installing it, and noting the direction in which the mark faces. Then the plug is removed and washers are added to change the orientation of the tightened plug. This must be done individually for each plug, as the orientation of the gap with respect to the threads of the shell is random. Some plugs are made with a non-random orientation of the gap and are usually marked as such by a suffix to the model number; typically these are specified by manufacturers of very small engines where the spark plug tip and electrodes form a significantly large part of the shape of the combustion chamber. The Honda Insight has indexed spark plugs from factory, with four different part numbers available corresponding to the different degrees of indexing to achieve most efficient combustion and maximal fuel efficiency.
Variations on the basic design
Over the years variations on the basic spark plug design have attempted to provide either better ignition, longer life, or both. Such variations include the use of two, three, or four equally spaced ground electrodes surrounding the central electrode. Other variations include using a recessed central electrode surrounded by the spark plug thread, which effectively becomes the ground electrode (see "surface-discharge spark plug", below). Also there is the use of a V-shaped notch in the tip of the ground electrode. Multiple ground electrodes generally provide longer life, as when the spark gap widens due to electric discharge wear, the spark moves to another closer ground electrode. The disadvantage of multiple ground electrodes is that a shielding effect can occur in the engine combustion chamber inhibiting the flame face as the fuel air mixture burns. This can result in a less efficient burn and increased fuel consumption. They also are difficult or nearly impossible to adjust to another uniform gap size.
Surface-discharge spark plug
A piston engine has a part of the combustion chamber that is always out of reach of the piston; and this zone is where the conventional spark plug is located. A Wankel engine has a permanently varying combustion area; and the spark plug is inevitably swept by the rotor's apex seals. If a spark plug were to protrude into the Wankel's combustion chamber it would be hit by the passing apex seal, but if the plug were recessed to avoid this, mixture access to the spark would be reduced, leading to misfire or incomplete combustion. So a new type of "surface discharge" plug was developed, presenting an almost flat face to the combustion chamber. A stubby centre electrode projects only very slightly, and the entire earthed body of the plug acts as the side electrode. The electrodes thus sit just beyond the reach of the passing apex seal, while the spark is accessible to the fuel/air mixture. The arc gap remains constant throughout the entire service life of a surface-gap spark plug, A further advantage of the surface-gap design is that the side electrode cannot break off and potentially cause engine damage, though this also doesn't often happen with conventional spark plugs.
Heat range
An important factor for a spark plug is the temperature that the tip is designed to withstand, called the heat range. Typical heat ranges for passenger car engines are usually between . A hotter spark plug has more insulation between itself and the cylinder head, causing less heat to be dissipated from the spark plug and therefore the spark plug remaining hotter. Temperatures higher than are needed to prevent carbon build-up on the spark plug, while temperatures over can cause overheating of the plug.
Switching to a higher heat range is sometimes used to compensate for fuel delivery or oil consumption problems, however this increases the risk of pre-ignition.
This is important because it determines the efficiency of plug self-cleaning and is determined by a number of factors, but primarily the actual temperature within the combustion chamber. There is no direct relationship between the actual operating temperature of the spark plug and spark voltage. However, the level of torque currently being produced by the engine will strongly influence spark plug operating temperature because the maximal temperature and pressure occur when the engine is operating near peak torque output (torque and rotational speed directly determine the power output). The temperature of the insulator responds to the thermal conditions it is exposed to in the combustion chamber, but not vice versa. If the tip of the spark plug is too hot, it can cause pre-ignition or sometimes detonation/knocking, and damage may occur. If it is too cold, electrically conductive deposits may form on the insulator, causing a loss of spark energy or the actual shorting-out of the spark current.
A spark plug is said to be "hot" if it is a better heat insulator, keeping more heat in the tip of the spark plug. A spark plug is said to be "cold" if it can conduct more heat out of the spark plug tip and lower the tip's temperature. Whether a spark plug is "hot" or "cold" is known as the heat range of the spark plug. The heat range of a spark plug is typically specified as a number, with some manufacturers using ascending numbers for hotter plugs, and others doing the opposite – using ascending numbers for colder plugs.
The heat range of a spark plug is affected by the construction of the spark plug: the types of materials used, the length of insulator and the surface area of the plug exposed within the combustion chamber. For normal use, the selection of a spark plug heat range is a balance between keeping the tip hot enough at idle to prevent fouling and cold enough at maximal power to prevent pre-ignition or engine knocking. By examining "hotter" and "cooler" spark plugs of the same manufacturer side by side, the principle involved can be very clearly seen; the cooler plugs have a more substantial ceramic insulator filling the gap between the center electrode and the shell, effectively allowing more heat to be carried off by the shell, while the hotter plugs have less ceramic material, so that the tip is more isolated from the body of the plug and retains heat better.
Heat from the combustion chamber escapes through the exhaust gases, the side walls of the cylinder and the spark plug itself. The heat range of a spark plug has only a minute effect on combustion chamber and overall engine temperature. A cold plug will not materially cool down an engine's running temperature. (A too hot plug may, however, indirectly lead to a runaway pre-ignition condition that can increase engine temperature.) Rather, the main effect of a "hot" or "cold" plug is to affect the temperature of the tip of the spark plug.
It was common before the modern era of computerized fuel injection to specify at least a couple of different heat ranges for plugs for an automobile engine; a hotter plug for cars that were mostly driven slowly around the city, and a colder plug for sustained high-speed highway use. This practice has, however, largely become obsolete now that cars' fuel/air mixtures and cylinder temperatures are maintained within a narrow range, for purposes of limiting emissions. Racing engines, however, still benefit from picking a proper plug heat range. Very old racing engines will sometimes have two sets of plugs, one just for starting and another to be installed for driving once the engine is warmed up.
Spark plug manufacturers use different numbers to denote heat range of their spark plugs. Some manufacturers, such as Denso and NGK, have numbers that become higher as they get colder. By contrast, Champion, Bosch, BRISK, Beru, and ACDelco use a heat range system in which the numbers become bigger as the plugs get hotter. As a result, heat range numbers need to be translated between the different manufacturers. The same numbers have very different meanings between different manufacturers. In this case, plugs with the same heat range numbers can't be interchanged casually as being equal. To give an extreme case, NGK's BR2LM is equivalent to Champion's RJ19LM, which is a common spark plug for many lawnmowers.
Reading spark plugs
The spark plug's firing end will be affected by the internal environment of the combustion chamber. As the spark plug can be removed for inspection, the effects of combustion on the plug can be examined. An examination, or "reading" of the characteristic markings on the firing end of the spark plug can indicate conditions within the running engine. The spark plug tip will bear the marks as evidence of what is happening inside the engine. Usually there is no other way to know what is going on inside an engine running at peak power. Engine and spark plug manufacturers will publish information about the characteristic markings in spark plug reading charts.
Such charts are useful for general use but are of almost no use in reading racing engine spark plugs, which is an entirely different matter.
A light brownish discoloration of the tip of the block indicates proper operation; other conditions may indicate malfunction. For example, a sandblasted look to the tip of the spark plug means persistent, light detonation is occurring, often unheard. The damage that is occurring to the tip of the spark plug is also occurring on the inside of the cylinder. Heavy detonation can cause outright breakage of the spark plug insulator and internal engine parts before appearing as sandblasted erosion but is easily heard. As another example, if the plug is too cold, there will be deposits on the nose of the plug. Conversely if the plug is too hot, the porcelain will be porous looking, almost like sugar. The material which seals the central electrode to the insulator will boil out. Sometimes the end of the plug will appear glazed, as the deposits have melted.
An idling engine will have a different impact on the spark plugs than one running at full throttle. Spark plug readings are only valid for the most recent engine operating conditions and running the engine under different conditions may erase or obscure characteristic marks previously left on the spark plugs. Thus, the most valuable information is gathered by running the engine at high speed and full load, immediately cutting the ignition off and stopping without idling or low speed operation and removing the plugs for reading.
Spark plug reading viewers, which are simply combined flashlight/magnifiers, are available to improve the reading of the spark plugs.
History
Belgian-French engineer Étienne Lenoir is generally credited with the invention of the spark plug in 1860, due to its use in the early Lenoir gas engine. However, some historians claim that the spark plug was invented in 1839 by Edmond Berger, an immigrant from Togo.
Several patents for spark plugs were filed in 1898, including from Serbian engineer Nikola Tesla, British engineer Frederick Richard Simms (British patent number 24859/1898) and German engineer Robert Bosch (British patent number 26907/1898). However, the use of high-voltage spark plugs in commercial viable engines was only made possible after the 1908 invention of magneto-based ignition systems by Bosch engineer Gottlob Honold in 1902. Early manufacturers of spark plugs included American company Champion, British company Lodge brothers and London-based KLG (who pioneed the use of mica as an insulator).
During the 1930s, American geologist Helen Blair Bartlett developed an alumina ceramic-based insulator for the spark plug.
See also
François Isaac de Rivaz – invented (around 1807) a hydrogen–oxygen internal combustion engine with electric ignition.
Étienne Lenoir – patented (1886), among internal combustion engine improvements, the first modernly recognizable spark plug.
Ignition system
Wasted spark
Ignitor
Glowplug
Glow plug (model engine)
Ninja rocks
Coso artifact
References
Ignition systems
Electric arcs
Engine components | wiki |
Mutilated currency is a term used by the United States Bureau of Engraving and Printing (BEP) to describe currency which is damaged to the point where it is difficult to determine the value of the currency, or where it is not clear that at least half of the note is present. Common causes of damage are fire, water damage, chemicals, explosives, damage caused by animals (including consumption of the currency) or damage from extended burying of the currency.
Replacement of mutilated currency is a free public service provided by the Bureau of Engraving and Printing. In general, mutilated U.S. paper currency can be submitted for evaluation. If it is determined that at least half of a bill is present, the BEP will redeem its face value. When there is less than 50% of a bill present, then if it can be identified as authentic U.S. currency, and that evidence demonstrates to the satisfaction of the Treasury Department that the missing portions have been destroyed, the face value of the bill will be redeemed in full.
Annually, the BEP handles approximately 30,000 claims, with currency redemptions valued at over $30 million.
The term is also used by the Bank of England in the United Kingdom, which will replace mutilated banknotes under a similar list of requirements and conditions to those used by the BEP.
Classification
Banknotes which are merely very dirty, or very worn out, but where the value is clear, are not considered mutilated and can be either spent as normal or traded in at any bank, from where they will eventually be processed out of circulation.
See also
Contaminated currency
References
Redeem Mutilated Currency Bureau of Engraving and Printing
How to Submit a Mutilated Currency Claim Bureau of Engraving and Printing
Banknotes of the United States | wiki |
Unnatural Acts can refer to
Unnatural act, a form of sexual behavior that is considered a punishable offense by law
Unnatural Acts (radio series), a BBC radio comedy series
Unnatural Acts (TV series), a 1998 television sketch comedy series
Unnatural Acts of Intercourse, a working title of the Stephen King book Just After Sunset | wiki |
An egg wash is beaten eggs, sometimes mixed with another liquid such as water or milk, which is sometimes brushed onto the surface of a pastry before baking. Egg washes are also used as a step in the process of breading foods, providing a substrate for the breading to stick to. Egg washes can also be used on calzones or on fish.
Use in pastries
An egg wash is often used to make pastries shiny and golden or brown in color, and it also is used to help toppings or coatings stick to the surface of the pastry, or to bind pastry parts together, such as empanadas or other en croute recipes. Egg wash can usually be made with 30 ml or two tablespoons of liquid, such as milk or water, for every egg. Less liquid makes for a darker wash. The part of the egg used and liquid added determines the finished look of the crust.
Vegan varieties
Vegan substitutes for egg wash include vegetable oil, non-dairy milk and butter substitutes, and light corn syrup thinned with water.
References
Food ingredients | wiki |
The United States Military Academy (USMA) is an undergraduate college in West Point, New York that educates and commissions officers for the United States Army. This article lists those alumni of the Military Academy who graduated top, or first, in their class.
All USMA cadets are rated each year; and get a final rating when they graduate. The cadet with the highest class rank is the one that has the best combination of score, academical standing, additional merits and demerits. The United States Military Academy opened in 1802; the initial class having just two cadets. The academy started the practice of ranking its graduates in 1818.
Top-ranking graduates
Notes
References
Academy alumni, famous list
top-ranking
West Point
West Point
United States Army officers | wiki |
First Demo Tape is an archival release of recordings by the American hardcore punk band Minor Threat. It was released on CD and 7-inch vinyl in 2003 through Dischord Records. The album comprises previously unreleased demo versions of material which appears on the band's subsequent recordings.
Track listing
Personnel
Ian MacKaye – lead vocals
Lyle Preslar – guitar
Brian Baker – bass guitar
Jeff Nelson – drums
Henry Garfield - backing vocals
References
External links
Dischord Records page
Dischord Records EPs | wiki |
In chemistry, the molar mass () of a chemical compound is defined as the ratio between the mass and the amount of substance (measured in moles) of any sample of said compound. The molar mass is a bulk, not molecular, property of a substance. The molar mass is an average of many instances of the compound, which often vary in mass due to the presence of isotopes. Most commonly, the molar mass is computed from the standard atomic weights and is thus a terrestrial average and a function of the relative abundance of the isotopes of the constituent atoms on Earth. The molar mass is appropriate for converting between the mass of a substance and the amount of a substance for bulk quantities.
The molecular mass and formula mass are commonly used as a synonym of molar mass, particularly for molecular compounds; however, the most authoritative sources define it differently. The difference is that molecular mass is the mass of one specific particle or molecule, while the molar mass is an average over many particles or molecules.
The formula weight is a synonym of molar mass that is frequently used for non-molecular compounds, such as ionic salts.
The molar mass is an intensive property of the substance, that does not depend on the size of the sample. In the International System of Units (SI), the coherent unit of molar mass is kg/mol. However, for historical reasons, molar masses are almost always expressed in g/mol.
The mole was defined in such a way that the molar mass of a compound, in g/mol, is numerically equal to the average mass of one molecule, in daltons. It was exactly equal before the redefinition of the mole in 2019, and is now only approximately equal, but the difference is negligible for all practical purposes. Thus, for example, the average mass of a molecule of water is about 18.0153 daltons, and the molar mass of water is about 18.0153 g/mol.
For chemical elements without isolated molecules, such as carbon and metals, the molar mass is computed dividing by the number of moles of atoms instead. Thus, for example, the molar mass of iron is about 55.845 g/mol.
Since 1971, SI defined the "amount of substance" as a separate dimension of measurement. Until 2019, the mole was defined as the amount of substance that has as many constituent particles as there are atoms in 12 grams of carbon-12. During that period, the molar mass of carbon-12 was thus exactly 12 g/mol, by definition. Since 2019, a mole of any substance has been redefined in the SI as the amount of that substance containing an exactly defined number of particles, . The molar mass of a compound in g/mol thus is equal to the mass of this number of molecules of the compound in grams.
Molar masses of elements
The molar mass of atoms of an element is given by the relative atomic mass of the element multiplied by the molar mass constant, For normal samples from earth with typical isotope composition, the atomic weight can be approximated by the standard atomic weight or the conventional atomic weight.
Multiplying by the molar mass constant ensures that the calculation is dimensionally correct: standard relative atomic masses are dimensionless quantities (i.e., pure numbers) whereas molar masses have units (in this case, grams per mole).
Some elements are usually encountered as molecules, e.g. hydrogen (), sulfur (), chlorine (). The molar mass of molecules of these elements is the molar mass of the atoms multiplied by the number of atoms in each molecule:
Molar masses of compounds
The molar mass of a compound is given by the sum of the relative atomic mass of the atoms which form the compound multiplied by the molar mass constant :
Here, is the relative molar mass, also called formula weight. For normal samples from earth with typical isotope composition, the standard atomic weight or the conventional atomic weight can be used as an approximation of the relative atomic mass of the sample. Examples are:
An average molar mass may be defined for mixtures of compounds. This is particularly important in polymer science, where different polymer molecules may contain different numbers of monomer units (non-uniform polymers).
Average molar mass of mixtures
The average molar mass of mixtures can be calculated from the mole fractions of the components and their molar masses :
It can also be calculated from the mass fractions of the components:
As an example, the average molar mass of dry air is 28.97 g/mol.
Related quantities
Molar mass is closely related to the relative molar mass () of a compound, to the older term formula weight (F.W.), and to the standard atomic masses of its constituent elements. However, it should be distinguished from the molecular mass (which is confusingly also sometimes known as molecular weight), which is the mass of one molecule (of any single isotopic composition) and is not directly related to the atomic mass, the mass of one atom (of any single isotope). The dalton, symbol Da, is also sometimes used as a unit of molar mass, especially in biochemistry, with the definition 1 Da = 1 g/mol, despite the fact that it is strictly a unit of mass (1 Da = 1 u = , as of 2018 CODATA recommended values).
Gram atomic mass is another term for the mass, in grams, of one mole of atoms of that element. "Gram atom" is a former term for a mole.
Molecular weight (M.W.) is an older term for what is now more correctly called the relative molar mass (). This is a dimensionless quantity (i.e., a pure number, without units) equal to the molar mass divided by the molar mass constant.
Molecular mass
The molecular mass () is the mass of a given molecule: it is usually measured in daltons (Da or u). Different molecules of the same compound may have different molecular masses because they contain different isotopes of an element. This is distinct but related to the molar mass, which is a measure of the average molecular mass of all the molecules in a sample and is usually the more appropriate measure when dealing with macroscopic (weigh-able) quantities of a substance.
Molecular masses are calculated from the atomic masses of each nuclide, while molar masses are calculated from the standard atomic weights of each element. The standard atomic weight takes into account the isotopic distribution of the element in a given sample (usually assumed to be "normal"). For example, water has a molar mass of , but individual water molecules have molecular masses which range between () and ().
The distinction between molar mass and molecular mass is important because relative molecular masses can be measured directly by mass spectrometry, often to a precision of a few parts per million. This is accurate enough to directly determine the chemical formula of a molecule.
DNA synthesis usage
The term formula weight has a specific meaning when used in the context of DNA synthesis: whereas an individual phosphoramidite nucleobase to be added to a DNA polymer has protecting groups and has its molecular weight quoted including these groups, the amount of molecular weight that is ultimately added by this nucleobase to a DNA polymer is referred to as the nucleobase's formula weight (i.e., the molecular weight of this nucleobase within the DNA polymer, minus protecting groups).
Precision and uncertainties
The precision to which a molar mass is known depends on the precision of the atomic masses from which it was calculated, and value of the molar mass constant. Most atomic masses are known to a precision of at least one part in ten-thousand, often much better (the atomic mass of lithium is a notable, and serious, exception). This is adequate for almost all normal uses in chemistry: it is more precise than most chemical analyses, and exceeds the purity of most laboratory reagents.
The precision of atomic masses, and hence of molar masses, is limited by the knowledge of the isotopic distribution of the element. If a more accurate value of the molar mass is required, it is necessary to determine the isotopic distribution of the sample in question, which may be different from the standard distribution used to calculate the standard atomic mass. The isotopic distributions of the different elements in a sample are not necessarily independent of one another: for example, a sample which has been distilled will be enriched in the lighter isotopes of all the elements present. This complicates the calculation of the standard uncertainty in the molar mass.
A useful convention for normal laboratory work is to quote molar masses to two decimal places for all calculations. This is more accurate than is usually required, but avoids rounding errors during calculations. When the molar mass is greater than 1000 g/mol, it is rarely appropriate to use more than one decimal place. These conventions are followed in most tabulated values of molar masses.
Measurement
Molar masses are almost never measured directly. They may be calculated from standard atomic masses, and are often listed in chemical catalogues and on safety data sheets (SDS). Molar masses typically vary between:
1–238 g/mol for atoms of naturally occurring elements;
for simple chemical compounds;
for polymers, proteins, DNA fragments, etc.
While molar masses are almost always, in practice, calculated from atomic weights, they can also be measured in certain cases. Such measurements are much less precise than modern mass spectrometric measurements of atomic weights and molecular masses, and are of mostly historical interest. All of the procedures rely on colligative properties, and any dissociation of the compound must be taken into account.
Vapour density
The measurement of molar mass by vapour density relies on the principle, first enunciated by Amedeo Avogadro, that equal volumes of gases under identical conditions contain equal numbers of particles. This principle is included in the ideal gas equation:
where is the amount of substance. The vapour density () is given by
Combining these two equations gives an expression for the molar mass in terms of the vapour density for conditions of known pressure and temperature:
Freezing-point depression
The freezing point of a solution is lower than that of the pure solvent, and the freezing-point depression () is directly proportional to the amount concentration for dilute solutions. When the composition is expressed as a molality, the proportionality constant is known as the cryoscopic constant () and is characteristic for each solvent. If represents the mass fraction of the solute in solution, and assuming no dissociation of the solute, the molar mass is given by
Boiling-point elevation
The boiling point of a solution of an involatile solute is higher than that of the pure solvent, and the boiling-point elevation () is directly proportional to the amount concentration for dilute solutions. When the composition is expressed as a molality, the proportionality constant is known as the ebullioscopic constant () and is characteristic for each solvent. If represents the mass fraction of the solute in solution, and assuming no dissociation of the solute, the molar mass is given by
See also
Mole map (chemistry)
References
External links
HTML5 Molar Mass Calculator web and mobile application.
Online Molar Mass Calculator with the uncertainty of M and all the calculations shown
Molar Mass Calculator Online Molar Mass and Elemental Composition Calculator
Stoichiometry Add-In for Microsoft Excel for calculation of molecular weights, reaction coefficients and stoichiometry. It includes both average atomic weights and isotopic weights.
Molar mass: chemistry second-level course.
Mass | wiki |
Tyrone Savage is a Canadian theatre, film and television actor and theater director. He is the son of actor Booth Savage and Janet-Laine Green. He is currently living in Toronto, Ontario, Canada. He provided the voices of Matthias in Redwall and Lightning in Total Drama.
Filmography
Film
Television
Video games
References
External links
Living people
Canadian male film actors
Canadian male voice actors
Canadian male television actors
Year of birth missing (living people)
Place of birth missing (living people) | wiki |
This is a timeline of Malaysian history, comprising important legal and territorial changes and political events in Malaysia and its predecessor states. To read about the background to these events, see History of Malaysia.
2nd century
3rd century
4th century
5th century
6th century
7th century
8th century
9th century
10th century
11th century
12th century
13th century
14th century
15th century
16th century
17th century
18th century
19th century
20th century
21st century
See also
Timeline of the 1Malaysia Development Berhad scandal
References
History of Malaysia
Malaysia
Malaysia history-related lists | wiki |
Candlelight Records
Candlelight – piosenka Csézy
Carols by Candlelight | wiki |
Cherry B can refer to:
Cherry B, a British cherry wine.
HMS Charybdis (F75), a Leander-class frigate of the Royal Navy nicknamed the "Cherry B". | wiki |
The 1902–03 Washington Huskies men's basketball team represents the University of Washington during the 1902–03 college men's basketball season.
Schedule
|-
References
Washington Huskies men's basketball seasons
Washington
Washington Husk
Washington Husk | wiki |
Ghunaim may refer to:
Zuhair Ghunaim
Zakaria Goneim | wiki |
The 1874 Melbourne Cup was a two-mile handicap horse race which took place on Thursday, 5 November 1874.
This year was the fourteenth running of the Melbourne Cup.
This is the list of placegetters for the 1874 Melbourne Cup.
See also
Melbourne Cup
List of Melbourne Cup winners
Victoria Racing Club
References
External links
1874 Melbourne Cup footyjumpers.com
1874
Melbourne Cup
Melbourne Cup
19th century in Melbourne
1870s in Melbourne | wiki |
Karminadle, gehaktyz, karbinadle, kardinadle - a Silesian dish, meatballs traditionally prepared from pork. When served with potato pureé, kasza or rice, they constitute a traditional Upper Silesian karminadle.
Generally, karminadle are small, round and often flattened cutlets made from pork or a combination of pork and beef, although more commonly historically from rabbit meat, due to the ongoing rabbit breeding tradition in Upper Silesia. Karminadle used to be a holiday-only dish, but it is now an everyday, all-year food item.
Karminadle, sliced in half, may be served cold on bread or bread rolls.
See also
Polish cuisine
Silesian cuisine
References
Polish cuisine
Silesian cuisine
Rabbit dishes | wiki |
In human anatomy, the hepatic veins are the veins that drain venous blood from the liver into the inferior vena cava (as opposed to the hepatic portal vein which conveys blood from the gastrointestinal organs to the liver). There are usually three large upper hepatic veins draining from the left, middle, and right parts of the liver, as well as a number (6-20) of lower hepatic veins. All hepatic veins are valveless.
Structure
All the hepatic veins drain into the inferior vena cava. The hepatic veins are divided into an upper and a lower group.
Upper group
The upper group consists of three hepatic veins - the right, middle, and left hepatic veins - draining the central veins from the right, middle, and left regions of the liver and are larger than the lower group of veins. The veins of the upper group drain into the suprahepatic part of the inferior vena cava (i.e. part superior to the liver).
Right hepatic vein
The right hepatic vein is the longest and largest of all the hepatic veins. It drains the liver segments VI and VII in their entirety, and variably participates in the drainage of segments V and VIII; the extent of drainage of the latter two segments by the right hepatic veins as opposed to the middle hepatic vein and possible variant accessory veins determines the calibre of the right hepatic vein. It arises anteriorly near the inferior border of the liver, coursing along the right portal fissure to drain into the inferior vena cava near the superior margin of the caudate lobe. It usually reaches the inferior vena cava as a single vessel, but sometimes drains into it as two separate trunks.
Middle hepatic vein
The middle hepatic vein drains the central portion of the liver, draining segments IV, V, and VIII. The middle hepatic vein most often joins the left hepatic vein to form a short common trunk to drain jointly into the inferior vena cava; the middle hepatic vein drains into the inferior vena cava as a separate vessels in less than 10% of individuals.
Left hepatic vein
The left hepatic vein usually drains liver segments II and III, and occasionally also segment IV. The umbilical fissue vein is a major tributary of the left hepatic vein. The left hepatic vein most often forms a short common trunk with the middle hepatic vein before these jointly drain into the inferior vena cava.
Lower group
The lower group consists of 6-20 smaller hepatic veins which drain the right lobe and the caudate lobe, are in contact with the hepatic tissue, and are valveless. All veins of the lower group drain into the retrohepatic part of the inferior vena cava (i.e. part posterior to the liver).
The lower group consists of 1-5 veins draining the liver segment I, and may consist of (inconsistently present) accessory inferior hepatic vein, accessory middle right hepatic vein, and several smaller retrohepatic veins draining the right lobe of the liver.
Clinical significance
The hepatic veins (and their variant anatomy) are relevant in liver resection and transplantation, and in Budd–Chiari syndrome.
Budd–Chiari syndrome is a condition caused by blockage of the hepatic veins, such as by a blood clot. It presents with a "classical triad" of abdominal pain, ascites, and liver enlargement. It occurs in 1 out of a million individuals. The syndrome can be fulminant, acute, chronic, or asymptomatic. The independent lower veins draining the liver segment I directly into the inferior vena cava are unaffected by obstruction of the large hepatic veins, leading to compensatory hypertrophy.
The hepatic veins may be connected with the portal veins in a TIPS procedure.
Additional images
References
External links
Hepatic veins - Ultrasound - University of the Health Sciences in Bethesda, Maryland
Veins of the torso | wiki |
Corpus Christi Catholic Church is a parish of the Diocese of Sioux City. The church is located in Fort Dodge, Iowa, United States and is listed on the National Register of Historic Places.
History
Corpus Christi parish can trace its beginnings to a Mass that was held in the home of Michael Collins in 1855. At the time the Fort Dodge area was a part of the Diocese of Dubuque, which covered the state of Iowa. The parish was founded the following year and the Rev. John Vahey was sent as its first pastor. It was the first parish founded in what would become the Diocese of Sioux City. Priests from here would visit mission stations as far away as Emmetsburg, Spirit Lake and Sioux City well into the 1860s. The first piece of property purchased for the parish was in 1857 at a cost of $200. The first church and rectory were built on the property the same year.
The stone for the current church was quarried starting 1879 with construction starting the following year. It was designed by Dubuque architect Fridolin Heer, Sr., and local architect A.V. Lambert supervised construction. The church was completed in 1882, and dedicated on January 1, 1883. The Romanesque Revival structure cost $37,892.59 to construct. The convent, rectory and central heating plant were built between the years 1909 and 1932.
In July 2000, Corpus Christi became part of a "team ministry" that brought together the five parishes in Webster County. In addition to Corpus Christi the parishes include: Sacred Heart and Holy Rosary in Fort Dodge, St. Matthew's in Clare, and St. Joseph's in Barnum.
Architecture
The main body of the church is a rectangular block that is six bays long and three bays wide. It measures , and its central bell tower rises to a height of . The locally quarried limestone is rusticated on the foundation, and smooth on the window caps and hoods. The locally produced brick forms the exterior of the structure. The gabled ends are stepped, and there is a corbel table at the eaves. The interior features three naves separated by columns, a rear gallery, and a skylight over the apse.
Parochial School
The parish school opened in 1859 during the pastorate of Father Marsh, although classes were being held prior to this time in the church. The first school building was a two-story structure with a cupola. The Sisters of Charity of the Blessed Virgin Mary taught in the school from 1862 to 1865. Lay teacher taught in the school from 1865 to 1873. The Sisters of Mercy were next to teach in Fort Dodge from 1873 to 1902. In 1900 Mother Mary Catherine discovered a fire that completely destroyed the school. "The Academy" of Corpus Christi Parish was opened in 1902. The new school was built for $20,000. The year it opened the Sisters of Charity BVM returned to the school and taught in Fort Dodge for the next 100 years. High school classes ended at Corpus Christi in 1956 when St. Edmond High School opened. The Academy building was torn down in 1975.
References
Religious organizations established in 1856
Roman Catholic churches completed in 1882
19th-century Roman Catholic church buildings in the United States
Romanesque Revival church buildings in Iowa
Churches in the Roman Catholic Diocese of Sioux City
Buildings and structures in Webster County, Iowa
Churches on the National Register of Historic Places in Iowa
National Register of Historic Places in Webster County, Iowa
Fort Dodge, Iowa
1856 establishments in Iowa | wiki |
A cage bed is a bed with either metal bars or netting designed to restrain a person of any given age, including children, within the boundaries of the bed. They were once commonplace in Central and Eastern Europe and used to restrain disabled people, including autistic people and those with learning difficulties, epilepsy, hyperactivity and mental health problems in psychiatric institutions. , the Mental Disability Advocacy Center says cage beds are used in Greece, the Czech Republic and Romania.
Psychiatrists in the Czech Republic previously defended the use of the beds in social care but their use in children's care homes was later banned in the country due to international pressure and an appeal by J. K. Rowling, who later went on to found Lumos, which promotes an end to the institutionalisation of children worldwide.
See also
Medical restraint
Sedation
References
Beds
Psychiatric restraint
Physical restraint | wiki |
Anii 500 ÷ 1000
Anii 1001 ÷ 1200
Anii 1201 ÷ 1300
Anii 1301 ÷ 1400
Anii 1401 ÷ 1450
Anii 1451 ÷ 1500
Medievale
Listă
Pagini peste 100K | wiki |
5 stages may refer to:
5 stages of second language acquisition
Five stages of grief
See also
Stage 5 (disambiguation) | wiki |
The 1998 Peach Bowl may refer to:
1998 Peach Bowl (January), January 2, 1998, game between the Clemson Tigers and the Auburn Tigers
1998 Peach Bowl (December), December 31, 1998, game between the Georgia Bulldogs and the Virginia Cavaliers | wiki |
Lake Valley – jednostka osadnicza w Stanach Zjednoczonych, w stanie Nowy Meksyk, w hrabstwie San Juan.
CDP w stanie Nowy Meksyk | wiki |
The 2004 Peach Bowl may refer to:
2004 Peach Bowl (January), January 2, 2004 game between the Clemson Tigers and the Tennessee Volunteers
2004 Peach Bowl (December), December 31, 2004 game between the Florida Gators and the Miami Hurricanes | wiki |
Woodtick or wood tick is the common name for several ticks, including:
Dermacentor variabilis, also known as the American dog tick
Dermacentor andersoni, also known as the Rocky Mountain wood tick
Animal common name disambiguation pages | wiki |
A dry bag is a type of flexible container which seals in a watertight manner. Dry bags are often used in kayaking, canoeing, rafting, canyoning, and other outdoor activities in which sensitive items would otherwise get wet, as well as extreme sports such as skiing and snowboarding. Dry bags are used to protect electronics from water. They are also used to prevent sleeping bags and spare clothing from getting wet, as in a camping context.
Construction
They are often a construction of plastic film, plastic-coated fabric, or waterproof fabric which is formed to create an impermeable, waterproof bag. Construction techniques include welding, sewing (a seam-tape is used to seal over any needle holes) and gluing.
Sizes
A large range of sizes are available, ranging from small bags large enough for a camera or smartphone to mid-size bags large enough for a sleeping bag, to large bags big enough for several sleeping bags and a folded tent.
References
Bags | wiki |
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